Impact of Weeding Methods on the Floristic Diversity and Valorization of Weeds in Citrus Orchards in the Region of Tlemcen (Northwest of Algeria)
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PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ALGERIA وزارة التعـــلــيــــم العـــالـــــــي والبـــحــــــث الـعـلــمـــــــي MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH جامعة عبد الحميد بن باديس _ مستغــانــــم___ Abdelhamid Ibn Badis University of Mostaganem كليـة عـلوم الطبيعة و الحياة Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences قسم العلوم الزراعــية Department of Agronomic Sciences THESIS For the graduation of Doctorate in Agronomic Sciences Option « Agricultural Production and Sustainable Agricultural Development » Presented by Chemouri Soumia Theme Impact of weeding methods on the floristic diversity and valorization of weeds in citrus orchards in the region of Tlemcen (Northwest of Algeria) The 07th of March 2021, In front of the dissertation committee: Quality Last and first names Grade Attachment structure Chairman Riazi Ali Prof. University of Mostaganem, Algeria Examiner Benkhelifa Mohammed Prof. University of Mostaganem, Algeria Examiner Taibi Ahmed Prof. University of Tipaza, Algeria Supervisor Larid Mohamed Prof. University of Mostaganem, Algeria Co-supervisor Tefiani Choukri MCA University of Tlemcen, Algeria Guest of honor Garcia Berrios Julián Prof. University of Santiago De Compostela, Spain Academic year: 2020/2021 THESIS For the graduation of Doctorate in Agronomic Sciences Option «Agricultural Production and Sustainable Agricultural Development» Presented by Chemouri Soumia Theme Impact of weeding methods on the floristic diversity and valorization of weeds in citrus orchards in the region of Tlemcen (Northwest of Algeria) The 07th of March 2021, In front of the dissertation committee: Quality Last and first names Grade Attachment structure Chairman Riazi Ali Prof. University of Mostaganem, Algeria Examiner Benkhelifa Mohammed Prof. University of Mostaganem, Algeria Examiner Taibi Ahmed Prof. University of Tipaza, Algeria Supervisor Larid Mohamed Prof. University of Mostaganem, Algeria Co-supervisor Tefiani Choukri MCA University of Tlemcen, Algeria Guest of honor Garcia Berrios Julián Prof. University of Santiago De Compostela, Spain ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, praises and thanks to ALLAH, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful for the strengths and His blessings to complete this doctoral thesis successfully. In the beginning, I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Larid Mohamed, Professor and Head of the Laboratory of Biodiversity and Conservation of Water and Soil, Mostaganem University, for giving me a continuous support and guidance throughout my PhD study and related research. His patience, dynamism, vision, sincerity, motivation, and enthusiasm have deeply inspired me. It was a great privilege and honor to realize my PhD thesis under his guidance and supervision. I am enormously grateful for what he has offered me. I would also like to thank him for his friendship, empathy, and for supporting me in the personnel and the professional side. Besides my supervisor, I would like to thank my co-supervisor, Dr. Tefiani Choukri (University of Tlemcen, Algeria) who made me explore a field of research that without him, I would never have been able to invest, and for his support and guidance during the realization of my PhD thesis. I would like also to thank with my sincere gratitude the members of my dissertation committee: Prof. Riazi Ali (University of Mostaganem, Algeria), Prof. Benkhelifa Mohamed (University of Mostaganem, Algeria), Prof. Taibi Ahmed (University of Tipaza, Algeria) and Prof. Garcia Berrios Julián (University of Santiago De Compostela, Spain) for generously offering their time, support, guidance and good will throughout the review of this PhD thesis. In addition, I will not forget to express my gratitude to all my supervisors abroad: Prof. Maria G. Miguel (University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal) and Dr. Ana Isabel Roca Fernandez (University of Santiago De Compostela, Spain) to give me the opportunity to work under their supervision and to learn from their tremendous experiences. I am especially grateful to Dr. Ainad Tabet Mustapha (University of Tlemcen, Algeria) for always considering me as his daughter, for his well wishes for me, for being always present to help me without any hesitation, to encourage and to support me morally. I would like to express my special thanks to my friends: Dr. Lahoual Habiba, Dr. Dzajiri Fatema, Dr. Bouali Wafaa, Belmir Meriem, Dib Asma, and Berrahal Rachida for their help, prayers, and constant encouragement and to always stay by my side in all circumstances. I am extending my thanks to my friends that I met during all mobilities that I have done abroad: Vivian Moldes, Dimitrios Kyriakopoulos, Fabiola Monasterio Rios, Urszula Agata Surawska, Tamara I. Franco Grandas, Nitesh Seethala…, who have made this last year very pleasant and joyful. I am extremely and deeply grateful to my parents for their love, prayers, understanding, continuing support to complete this doctoral thesis and for caring and sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my future. Also, I express my thanks to my grandmother, my sisters, brothers, sister in laws, brother in laws, nephews and nieces for their support and valuable prayers. Special thanks to my sister Souhila who embellished my life by her presence and for always supporting and helping me. Finally, my gratitude goes to all people who have supported me to complete this PhD thesis directly or indirectly. If you want to go quickly, go alone. If you want to go far, go together. “African Proverb” A special remember for people died due to the pandemic caused by Coronavirus (COVID-19) and to all victims of this virus who keep increasing. This thesis is a fruit of a multidisciplinary contributions, it was carried out in different institutions: In the Laboratory of Biodiversity and Conservation of Water and Soil, Faculty of Nature and Life Sciences, Abdelhamid Ibn Badis University, Mostaganem, Algeria. In the Faculty of Sciences of Nature and Life, Earth and Universe Sciences, Abu Bekr Belkaid University, Tlemcen, Algeria. In the Laboratory of Chemical of Natural Products, Campus Gambelas, Algarve University, Faro, Portugal during an internship granted by the University Abdelhamid Ibn Badis, Mostaganem, Algeria under the host supervision of Prof. Maria G. Miguel. In the Laboratory of “Fitotecnia” at Department of Crop Production and Projects of Engineering, Campus Terra, Lugo, Galicia-Spain during an Erasmus KA107+ Scholarship founded by the University of Santiago de Compostela, Galicia- Spain, under the host supervision of Dr. Ana Isabel Roca Fernández. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS THESIS ABSTRACT RÉSUMÉ DE LA THÈSE ملخص اﻷطروحة General introduction 1-3 Section 1: Literature Review Chapter I: Description of the study area 4-19 -Contents 4 1. Introduction 5 2. Geographical delimitation of the study area 5 3. Geomorphological and geological characteristics 5 4. Pedological characteristics 6 5. Hydrography 8 6. Flora and vegetation 9 7. Agricultural potential 10 7.1. Vegetal production 10 7.2. Citrus production 12 7.3. Livestock and poultry 13 7.4. Animal production 13 8. Bioclimatic synthesis 15 8.1. Weather and climatic conditions 15 8.2. Average monthly precipitation P (mm) 15 8.3. Seasonal distribution of precipitation P (mm) 16 8.4. Average monthly temperatures T (⁰C) 17 8.5. Ombrothermic diagram of Bagnouls and Gaussen (1953) 17 8.6. Quotient pluviothermique (Q2) and climagram of Emberger 18 9. Conclusion 19 Chapter II: Weed flora and weed management 20-40 -Contents 20 1. Introduction 21 2. The concept of weeds 21 3. A review on crops weed flora of North Africa 23 3.1. Crops weed flora of Western Saharan 24 3.2. Crops weed flora of Morocco 24 3.3. Crops weed flora in Tunisia 26 3.4. Crops weed flora in Libya 27 3.5. Crops weed flora in Egypt 27 3.6. Crops weed flora in Sudan 30 4. A review on crops weed flora in Algeria 31 5. A literature review on citrus weed flora 34 6. Weed management in Citrus orchards 37 7. Conclusion 39 Chapter III: Secondary metabolites and antioxidant activity 41-61 -Contents 40 1. Introduction 42 2. Biosynthesis of secondary metabolites 43 3. Plant secondary metabolites classification 45 3.2. Terpenes 45 3.3. Sterols 46 3.4. Steroids 46 3.5. Saponins 46 3.6. Phenolic compounds 46 3.6.1. The non-flavonoids 46 3.6.1.1. Phenolic acids 46 3.6.1.3. Lignans and lignin 47 3.6.1.4. Coumarins 47 3.6.2. The flavonoids 48 3.6.3. Anthocyanins 48 3.6.4. Tannins 48 4. Free radicals, oxidative stress, and antioxidants 49 5. Role and interest of secondary metabolites in the human organism 49 6. The methods used to assess the antioxidant activity 52 6.1. DPPH assay 52 6.2. ABTS assay 53 6.3. Chelating metal ion assay 54 7. A literature review on the nineteen investigated weed species 54 8. Conclusion 61 Chapter IV: Minerals and nutritive value 62-83 -Contents 62 1. Introduction 63 2. Forages nutritive value 64 3. Nutrient requirements for ruminants 65 3.1. Energy 65 3.2. Proteins 65 3.3. Fats 66 3.4. Carbohydrates 67 3.4.1. Sugars 68 3.4.2. Fiber 69 3.4.2.1. Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF) 69 3.4.2.2. Acid Detergent Fiber (ADF) 69 3.4.3. NDF-Digestibility (NDFD) 70 3.5. Minerals: Function’s deficiencies and excess 71 3.5.1. Major minerals 71 3.5.1.1. Functions 71 3.5.1.1.1. Calcium 72 3.5.1.1.2. Phosphorus 72 3.5.1.1.3. Potassium 73 3.5.1.1.4. Magnesium 73 3.5.1.2. Deficiencies symptoms 73 3.5.1.3. Excess disorders 75 3.5.2. Trace minerals 75 3.5.2.1. Functions 75 3.5.2.1.1. Iron 75 3.5.2.1.2. Manganese 75 3.5.1.1.3. Zinc 76 3.5.2.2. Deficiencies symptoms 76 3.5.2.3.