Bright Sheng's Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba

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Bright Sheng’s Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba:

A Performer’s Guide to Interpretation

D.M.A. DOCUMENT

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Hexue Shen

Graduate Program in Music

The Ohio State University

2016

D.M.A. Document Committee:

Dr. Kia-Hui Tan, Advisor

Professor Alan Green

Dr. Juliet White-Smith

Hexue Shen

2016

Abstract

Bright Sheng is one of the most accomplished Chinese-American composers in

North America, Europe, and Asia. His compositions cover various performance genres from opera to ballet, symphonic works to chamber music, solo works to innovative ensemble pieces. Bright Sheng’s works often combine the strong influence of Chinese folk music with traditional Western compositional techniques. His music has melodious musical lines, impulsive rhythmic drives, and dramatic mood changes.

Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba (2010) is one of Bright Sheng’s recent

chamber works featuring the violin. Although he has acknowledged Chinese folk music

influence in his early works, the composer has only provided vague information about the

Chinese folk elements in Hot Pepper. This document describes different types of Chinese

folk music in order to help performers who may not be familiar with Chinese music

interpret the work properly. Chapter one offers background information about the

composer. Chapter two represents an evolutionary outline of Bright Sheng’s compositional

style by briefly examining H’un (1988), The Stream Flows for Solo Violin (1990), and

Three Fantasies for Violin and Piano (2005). Chapter three provides an analysis of the

form and tonality in Hot Pepper and concludes with a discussion about how to understand

the relevant Chinese folk music that relates to Hot Pepper and make interpretive decisions

based on the study.

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, I would like to take this opportunity to sincerely thank my

advisor, Dr. Kia-Hui Tan, for her tremendous help, support, and guidance during my three

years of study at OSU and throughout the process of writing this document. Thanks to Dr.

Tan, I have become a better violinist, a better teacher, a stronger critical thinker, and a

more adventurous explorer of new music. Looking back at the progress I have made under her insightful instruction, I feel grateful and fortunate to have encountered such an

inspiring teacher as I conclude my formal education in the United States. Dr. Tan sets a

standard for my future career as a violin teacher.

I would also like to express my appreciation to the rest of my committee, Professor

Alan Green and Dr. Juliet White-Smith, for contributing their expertise and giving

feedback on my document. In addition, I want to thank Professor Mark Rudoff for having given me such positive and incisive comment on my solo and chamber music performances during my time at OSU.

Lastly, I thank my dear mother for her priceless encouragement, which allowed me to study music thousand of miles from home for so many years. Without her support, I would not have become the violinist I am today.

iii

Vita

July 2004 ...... B.A., Violin Performance, Guizhou

University

July 2007 ...... M.A. Violin Performance and Pedagogy,

Guizhou University

May 2010 ...... M.M., Violin Performance, West Chester

University of Pennsylvania

2013 to present ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of

Music, The Ohio State University

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii

Acknowledgments...... iii

Vita ...... iv

List of Figures ...... vii

Introduction: The Motivation for and Purpose of the Study ...... 1

Chapter 1: A Biography of the Composer ...... 3

The Life and Education of Bright Sheng ...... 3

A Summary of Bright Sheng’s Professional Career ...... 5

A Synopsis of Bright Sheng’s Major Works ...... 7

Chapter 2: An Outline of Bright Sheng’s Compositional Style Evolution…………………9

Bright Sheng’s Early Style ...... 9

The Path to Finding a Fusion Style ...... 12

The Profound Fusion Style ...... 16

Chapter 3: Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba Analysis and Interpretation ...... 19

Formal Structure, Movement I ...... 20

Formal Structure, Movement II ...... 22

Chinese Pentatonic Scales: An Explanation ...... 23

Movement I Tonality ...... 26

Movement II Tonality ...... 28

Chinese Folk Music and Hot Pepper: An Interpretation ...... 29

Movement I, First Theme...... 30

Movement I, Second Theme ...... 37

Movement II: Folk Dance Music and the Lusheng ...... 43

Bibliography ...... 48

List of Figures

Figure 1. Chinese Folk Song, Xiaohe Tangshui (The Stream Flows), mm. 1-9 ...... 14

Figure 2. Bright Sheng, The Stream Flows for Solo Violin, mm. 1-9 ...... 14

Figure 3. The Stream Flows for Solo Violin, mm. 30 ...... 16

Figure 4. Bright Sheng, “Kazakhastan Love Song”, mm. 1-4 ...... 17

Figure 5. Bright Sheng, Hot Pepper Movement I Formal Structure ...... 20

Figure 6. Hot Pepper Movement II Formal Structure ...... 22

Figure 7. The Basic Chinese Pentatonic Scale ...... 23

Figure 8. Four Inverted Chinese Pentatonic Scales ...... 24

Figure 9. Six-Note Chinese Scale ...... 25

Figure 10. Seven-Note Chinese Scale ...... 25

Figure 11. Hot Pepper Chinese Scale...... 26

Figure 12. Hot Pepper First Theme in Movement I, mm. 9-10...... 30

Figure 13. Shangtan Haozi, mm. 1-2...... 32

Figure 14. Hot Pepper Second Theme in Movement I, mm. 22-24 ...... 38

Figure 15. Hot Pepper Movement I, mm. 59-63...... 41

Figure 16. Hot Pepper Movement II, mm. 1-11...... 45

vii

Introduction: The Motivation for and Purpose of the Study

Bright Sheng’s Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba was commissioned for Bob

Peirce for his wife Sharon Harroun Peirce’s birthday. The premiere performance took place on September 10, 2010, at Camerata Pacifica with Catherine Leonard on violin and

Ji Hye Jung on marimba. In the piece, Sheng demonstrates his profound understanding of

Chinese folk music and Western musical traditions. It stands as one of the finest recent works that reflects the fusion style of the composer.

The dramatic musical setting and strong Chinese folk music flavor presented by the two Western instruments in Hot Pepper intrigued me, which led me to this study of the work and its composer. In general, Sheng’s music that features or includes violin has melodious lyrical lines that move smoothly among four strings, fresh and colorful sounds created by open strings and dissonant chords, dazzling techniques including harmonics, left- and right-hand pizzicato combinations, and an impulsive rhythmic drive that immediately attract both performers and audiences. As a violinist, I was interested in exploring Sheng’s violin works because they not only contain new sound effects that I wanted to explore in my own playing, but also display familiarity with the Chinese musical language with which I am most familiar. As a performer, during the process of learning his fusion style, I was inspired by Sheng’s three-level use of folk melodies: 1) using a folk melody unchanged or slightly modifying it, 2) using a folk melody as a motif

1 and freely developing it, and 3) writing a folk melody with an imagination reliant on insightful knowledge of the folk music. Accordingly, for performers, these three levels would be: 1) performing a piece with what is exactly written on the score, 2) considering what is given by the composer first and contributing certain personal understanding to the piece, and 3) absorbing the deep meaning of the work completely and then transforming it into one’s own voice to expressively perform it. What eventually connects the composer, performer, and audience is the way that music moves people, whether it is

Western, Chinese, or a combination of both.

In my opinion, it is worthwhile for performers, especially violinists, to study Hot

Pepper because exploring contemporary violin music is as necessary as learning the standard Western repertoire. More importantly, the special Chinese folk music elements in Sheng’s works offer great musical contrast to the standard repertoire in a solo or chamber recital, which also demonstrates a violinist’s ability to interpret diverse styles.

However, for those violinists who may not have the basic knowledge of Chinese music, it might feel difficult to approach Hot Pepper as its folk melodies are written from the composer’s imagination without a direct link to the original Chinese folk songs. This document intends to help violinists become familiar with Sheng’s music by presenting a study of his accomplishments as a composer, the changes in his compositional style from early to recent years, and a specific analysis of and interpretative suggestions for Hot

Pepper.

Chapter 1: A Biography of the Composer

The Life and Education of Bright Sheng

Bright Sheng was born in Shanghai in 1955, six years after The People’s Republic

of China was officially established. The new society was expected to bring hope to the people who suffered years of wars. As was typical of well-educated parents, Sheng’s physician father and engineer mother provided him with every possible opportunity to receive an education, including learning Western music and literature.1 In the 1950s, it

was common for intellectual families in China to play or study music in private homes.

Sheng began his piano studies with his mother when he was six years old. Although he

did not like to practice piano, he obeyed his mother’s requests that he do so. Eventually,

music became an important part of his life—until the start of Cultural Revolution in

1967. Many schools did not hold regular classes; professors were humiliated in public;

youths were sent to the countryside to be kept away from receiving a normal education. It

was difficult for families like the Shengs to survive during the chaos. Sheng had to go to

a nearby middle school to practice when nobody was around because the piano at his

home was removed by the Red Guards. Several years later, Sheng decided that he would

1 Mark Swed, “A Long Musical March From China,” The New York Times, December 2, 1990. 3

not follow the “youth re-education” policy of the Chinese Communist Party because they

would send him to the farmland to work and live with the peasants. Therefore, he

auditioned for a few arts troupes and was accepted by one of them in Qinghai Province.

In 1971, Sheng left his hometown and family to work in Qinghai, one of the least

populated areas in China.2

Sheng was hoping to keep studying the piano as a member of the arts troupe, but

he soon realized that he was the best pianist in the poor and under developed region of

Qinghai. As the most well educated musician in the group, Sheng taught himself to arrange music for different events, which gave him the opportunity to explore his interest in composition. He spent six years collecting many local folk songs in Qinghai and its adjacent areas. From studying these melodies, Sheng gained insight into and knowledge

of the structures and spirit of these songs. The experience in Qinahai fosters his desire to pursue a career as a professional composer. When the damaging Cultural Revolution finally ended in 1977, the educational system was restored. Thousands of young people who were sent to the mountains and countryside were allowed to come back to their hometowns and continue their educations. Sheng came back to Shanghai and took the entrance exam for the Shanghai Conservatory in 1978 and was accepted as a student in the composition department. He was dissatisfied at the conservatory because self- expression was discouraged. Sheng recalled that “there was a feeling there that only

Western music was real music. Frankly, the Chinese division was for students who

2 Shzr Ee Tan, “Bright Star in the West; Songs that Shine,” The Straits Times, May 1, 2001. 4

couldn’t get into the Western one. But I sat in on Chinese music courses. Everyone

thought I was crazy.”3 Sheng’s aspiration as a composer was in conflict with the educational philosophy of the conservatory. Even though he was not fully satisfied with the education he received, he graduated at the top of his class in 1982.4

In the same year, Sheng came to America and continued his education in

composition at Queen’s College in New York. There he studied twentieth century

compositional trends and techniques with two American composers, George Perle and

Hugo Weisgall. After graduating with a master’s degree in 1984, he entered the doctoral

program in composition at Columbia University, studying with composers Chou Wen-

Chung, Jack Beeson, and Mario Davidovsky. He received the Doctor of Musical Arts in

1993.

A Summary of Bright Sheng’s Professional Career

Sheng began his professional career as the Composer-in-Residence at the Lyric

Opera of Chicago (1989-1992). Following his first appointment, he served as the

Composer-in-Residence at numerous performing arts institutes, including the Seattle

Symphony Orchestra (1992-1995, 2000-2001), the Washington Performing Arts Society

(2001-2002), the Mannes College of Music (2002-2003), the Atlantic Center for the Arts

(2002) and the New York City Ballet (2006-2008). He was also a resident composer at

3 Lindsley Cameron, “Classical Music: At Home in Two Worlds,” The New York Times, February 16, 1997. 4 Peter Chang, “The Music of Bright Sheng: Expression of Cross-Cultural Experience,” 24, http://brightsheng.com/articles/essayfilesaboutbs/Peter%20Chang-Music%20of%20BS.pdf. 5

many leading summer music festivals including the Santa Fe Chamber Music Festival

(1992, 1993 and 1997), the La Jolla Chamber Music Summerfest (1993-2004), the

Bowdoin International Summer Festival (1994-1996, and 2005), Tanglewood Music

Center (2001-2006) and the Brevard Music Center (2003-2004). Sheng began teaching at the University of Michigan in 1995 as the Leonard Bernstein Distinguished University

Professor of Composition, and remains in the position to date.

Sheng has also appeared frequently in concert halls as a conductor and pianist. He has conducted major orchestras around the world, including the San Francisco

Symphony, the Detroit Symphony, and the Hong Kong Philharmonic. As a pianist, Sheng has performed at the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center, the Kennedy Center,

Tanglewood Music Center, and other prestigious concert venues. He has also shared the stage with violinist Cho-Liang Lin and cellist Eric Kim performing his work, Four

Movements for Piano Trio at the La Jolla Music Society’s Summerfest.5 In 2007, Sheng’s

Tibetan Dance was recorded on the Naxos label with the composer on piano, Cho-Liang

Lin on violin, and Erin Svoboda on clarinet.

5 “Compositions by Bright Sheng - La Jolla Music Society's SummerFest 2004,” YouTube video, posted by University of California Television (UCTV), September 15, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFNaIPtMbYI. 6

A Synopsis of Bright Sheng’s Major Works

Sheng’s compositions cover many different musical genres. His first opera, The

Song of Majnun, was premiered by the Houston Grand Opera in 1992.6 The Silver River

(1997) and Madam Mao (2003) received positive reviews by music critics after their premiere performances.7 In 2016, Sheng collaborated with three outstanding Asian artists

to create a tragic opera, Dream of The Red Chamber.8 The San Francisco Opera is scheduled to perform this opera in September 2016.9

Sheng’s orchestral works have been premiered and performed by world-renowned

conductors and orchestras around the world. One of his earliest works, H’un (1988), was

performed by New York Chamber Symphony (premiere performance, 1988), the New

York Philharmonic (conducted by Kurt Musar), the Chicago Symphony, and the

Cleveland Orchestra. Nanking, Nanking - a Threnody for Pipa and Orchestra (2000) was

commissioned by Christoph Eschenbach and the Northern German Radio Symphony in

Hamburg in the first week of 2000.10 During the same week, Red Silk Dance (1999) was

premiered by pianist Emanuel Ax and the Boston Symphony, conducted by Robert

Spano. Sheng’s other major orchestral works include China Dreams (1995), Postcards

6 Bernard Holland, “Review/Opera; Justifying Eastern Ends with Western Means,” The New York Times, April 11, 1992. 7 Mark Swed, “‘The Silver River’ Flows with Exquisite Lyrical Beauty,” Los Angeles Times, July 29, 1997. Anthony Tommasini, “Critic’s Notebook; Madame Mao's Life As The Stuff Of Opera,” The New York Times, July 28, 2003. 8 The composer and the winner of a Broadway Tony Award, David Henry Hwang, wrote the English libretto; the stage director was Stan Lai, an accomplished Taiwanese playwright, theater and movie director; the Oscar winner in art direction, Tim Yip, was the production designer for the opera. 9 “San Francisco Opera Presents World Premiere of ‘Dream of the Red Chamber’,” http://sfopera.com/about-us/press- room/press-releases/dream-of-the-red-chamber. 10 Bright Sheng, “Biography,” http://brightsheng.com/bio.html. 7

(1997), Spring Dreams (1998), Flute Moon (1999) and Tibetan Swing (2002), all of which have been performed by major symphony orchestras worldwide.

Sheng’s chamber works have been programmed by prominent chamber groups:

his String Quartet No.3 was commissioned by the Takács Quartet in 1993 and recorded

by the Shanghai Quartet in 2002; the String Quartet No.4 was also premiered and

recorded by the Shanghai Quartet in 2000. In 2007, the famous Emerson Quartet gave the

first performance of Sheng’s String Quartet No. 5, “The Miraculous”, in New York.

Aside from working with already-assembled chamber groups, Sheng also demonstrated

his talent in writing for creative chamber settings with works including Hot Pepper for

Violin and Marimba (2010), The Singing Gobi Desert for Saxophone Quartet, Sheng,

Erhu/Zhonghu, Pipa, Yangqin and Percussion (2011), Melody of a Flute for Flute/Alto

Flute, Violin, Violincello and Marimba (2011) and Deep Red for Marimba and Chamber

Players (11 players) (2011). In additional to the aforementioned chamber works, Sheng

composed various solo works for specific musicians. The Seven Tunes Heard in China

was composed in 1995. Cellist Yo-Yo Ma gave the world-premiere performance and

recorded the piece for the Sony Classical label in 1999. The Stream Flows for Solo Violin

(1990) was commissioned by the Foundation of Chinese Performing Arts; the Taiwanese violinist Nai-Yuan Hu gave the first performance in October 1990.

Chapter 2: An Outline of Bright Sheng’s Compositional Style Evolution

Bright Sheng spent years looking for a style that would truly express his “feelings and concrete thoughts” after he started his professional career in the late 1980s.11 It is

essential for performers to understand the process through which Sheng went as he searched for his personal style from writing works using serialism to directly quoting

Chinese folk songs in different compositions, until he was able to freely compose in a

profound “fusion” style by combining both Chinese and Western musical traditions.

Bright Sheng’s Early Style

Sheng began to study composition at Shanghai Conservatory in 1977 and acquired solid traditional techniques in composition after four years of training. When he moved to the United States in 1982, he was looking forward to studying contemporary techniques to enrich his knowledge as a modern composer. Under the guidance of George

Perle and Hugo Weisgall at Queen’s College, Sheng learned about the influential compositional techniques of the twentieth century. He continued his studies with Chou

11 Ann McCutchan, “Bright Sheng,” in The Muse That Sings: Composers Speak about the Creative Process (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 204. 9

Wen-Chung, Jack Beeson, and Mario Davidovsky while pursuing the Doctor of Musical

Arts degree in composition at Columbia University.12 Sheng successfully applied some of

his newly learned techniques while at these two American institutions in one of his early

works, H’un (Lacerations): In Memoriam 1966-1976 (1988). The work was inspired by

“the most tragic time in recent Chinese history; a time of violence, madness, and chaos,

and a time that ultimately awoke the consciousness of the Chinese people under the

Communist regime. Thousands of people died and millions of survivors are still paying

the price to this day. I was one of the millions of Chinese who were the witnesses,

victims, and survivors of the Cultural Revolution.”13

Sheng specifically explained how he used serialism to compose H’un in his article

“H’un (Lacerations): In Memoriam 1966-1976 for Orchestra.” In the article, he describes two tetrachords, the sets (0167) and (0156), and how their development creates the structure of the work. Although the composer claimed that the rhythms are more

spontaneous than the intervals, he offered two basic patterns that maintain their rhythmic

structure throughout the piece:

and

12 Elliott Antokoletz, “Synthesis of East and West in Eastern Asia,” A History of Twentieth-Century Music in a Theoretic-Analytical Context (New York: Routledge, 2014), 473. 13 Bright Sheng, “H’un (Lacerations): In Memoriam 1966-1976 for Orchestra,” Perspectives of New Music 33, no. 2 (1995): 560. 10

Sheng purposefully avoided writing a main melody for the work because it would

not fit the chaotic scene described by the piece. Instead, he uses three different counterpoint techniques to develop musical materials in H’un. The first one, “simple counterpoint,” divides a tetrachord into two parts by placing them separately in high and

low strings and moving them against each other. The second one, “compound

counterpoint,” has multiple motives occurring simultaneously throughout the orchestra.

The last one, “metric counterpoint,” involves duplets against triplets to further create the

thick texture and exciting mood.

Although some music critics believe that the work resembles Penderecki’s

Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima, Sheng pointed out in an interview that H’un was

written under the great influence of J.S. Bach because “despite its advanced dissonance,

there is an abiding concern for counterpoint, for voice leading and the combination of

voices.”14 The programmatic nature of the work is creative and musically expressive, but

it was only written within the boundaries of Western compositional traditions, both past

and present. Sheng did not stop searching for his unique compositional style, and he

realized that perhaps including the folk music from his native country would convey what

he wanted to express to his audience without the boundaries imposed by Western

compositional traditions.

14 Timothy Mangan, “A Perfect East-West Fusion; Pacific Symphony Opens its Festival Devoted to the Music of Chinese-Americans with a Lesson in Vitality,” The Orange County Register, March 3, 2004. 11

The Path to Finding a Fusion Style

It was unfortunate that Sheng had to leave school to work in an isolated area in

China during his youth. In spite of that, it was those years of his life that he spent with

local Chinese and ethnic groups that gave him unique access to Chinese folk music. As a

Western-trained Chinese composer, it was natural for Sheng to want to express his own

voice by including authentic Chinese folk music after he received academic training at

institutions in both China and the United States. However, the path to finding his personal

style was not easy. When he discussed his thoughts and ideas with colleagues and

teachers, he was discouraged to include both styles in his works.15

Sheng was confused and struggled until he met his mentor Leonard Bernstein. He

studied composition and conducting with Bernstein at Tanglewood Music Center in 1985

until Bernstein’s death in 1990. Bernstein encouraged Sheng to explore his ideas by

saying: “Everything is fusion; Stravinsky is fusion. Shostakovich is fusion. Debussy is

fusion. Brahms is fusion with folk music. I am fusion. Of course it is possible.”16 With

guidance and motivation from Bernstein, Sheng started to write confidently,

incorporating his passion for music and life in his desired style: a fusion of Chinese folk

music and Western compositional traditions.

In 1988 and 1990, Sheng wrote two compositions, Three Chinese Love Songs for

Voice, Viola and Piano (1988) and The Stream Flows for Solo Violin (1990), in which he

15 Peter Chang, “The Music of Bright Sheng: Expression of Cross-Cultural Experience,” 25, http://brightsheng.com/articles/essayfilesaboutbs/Peter%20Chang-Music%20of%20BS.pdf. 16 Ibid. 12

directly cites well-known Chinese folk songs. The common trait of these two works is

that the composer offers clear information about the exact Chinese folk music that

inspired him to compose the work. Sheng provides an explanation for his method of

using folk melodies in his compositions in the article “Bartok, The Chinese Composer.”

He states that the first level is “to write an accompaniment to a folk melody unchanged or

slightly modified, though the accompaniment should be of secondary importance and

should only serve as an ornamental setting for the precious stone: the peasant melody.”17

In Three Chinese Love Songs for Voice, Viola and Piano, Sheng keeps the exact original

Chinese folk songs “Blue Flower,” “At the Hillside Where Horses Are Running,” and

“The Stream Flows” as the main melodies for voice, and writes the new parts for viola and piano to accompany the vocalist.

The second level of composing using a folk melody is that “ the folk melody only serves as a ‘motto’ on which the work is built. As a result, the character of the finished product takes on real importance. A simple melody brings freedom to treatment; the simpler the melody the more complex and dissonant the harmonization may go well with it.”18

Sheng demonstrates the second level in The Stream Flows for Solo Violin. The

work has two movements in a slow-fast form. In the first movement, Sheng directly

applies the first two lines of a well-known Chinese folk song Xiaohe Tangshui (The

Stream Flows) from Yunnan province as the main “motto” of the work:

17 Bright Sheng, “Bartok, The Chinese Composer,” http://brightsheng.com/articles/essayfilesbybs/BARTOK.pdf. 18 Ibid. 13

Figure 1. Chinese Folk Song, Xiaohe Tangshui (The Stream Flows), mm. 1-919

The first two lines of the original song can be identified clearly in Sheng’s The

Stream Flows:

Figure 2. Bright Sheng, The Stream Flows for Solo Violin, mm. 1-9

As shown in the above example, the first and the second lines of the original folk song are directly applied from the beginning to the downbeat of measure 4, and from measures 5 to 7 in Sheng’s The Stream Flows for Solo Violin. The composer synthesizes the motives as transitional fragments, such as the second and third beats of measure 4, to connect the two major lines. In addition to serving as a bridge to the major lines, these

19 Bing He and Xuanmai Wang, eds.,中国民歌 2 [Chinese Folk Music 2] (Wuhan: Wuhan Publishing House, 1998), 77; transcribed using Finale from Chinese notation (Jianpu) to Western notation by Hexue Shen with lyrics omitted. 14

fragments placed in various places in the movement have two more functions. First, they keep the listeners’ attention as they bring in new colors with different dynamics and register on the violin. For instance, the dynamics change dramatically from pianissimo at measure 18 to forte at measure 19, and the melody moves from the middle register of the

A string to the high register of the E string to match the rising dynamics. Taken together, the change in dynamics and register produces varied colors and nuances from the violin.

Second, the fragments function as a transition to shift the tonality in a new direction. For example, the first line is supposed to end with A at measure 5, if following the original song was the composer’s intention (see Figure 1). However, Sheng prolongs the ending of the phrase, and uses B flat to replace A, which seems to “force” the second phrase to start in a new key (see Figure 2). Key modulations also occur in measures 8, 11, 17, and

22, as well. Sheng applies the frequent key changes to imitate the spontaneous Chinese folk singing style. The folk singers normally do not have the concept of tonality, so they sing to express what they feel at that moment, which explains why there is no stable tonal center in Sheng’s The Stream Flows.20

After introducing the original folk song a few times in measures 1-28, Sheng

starts to develop this simple melody with complex compositional techniques. For

instance, at measure 30, he compresses the original slow-paced rhythms to create

compact rhythmic combinations, and adds dissonant chords to build up the tension of the

movement:

20 Lin Shumin, “A Performance Guide to Bright Sheng’s Solo Violin Work, The Stream Flows” (D.M.A. diss., Arizona State University, 2006), 28. 15

Figure 3. The Stream Flows for Solo Violin, mm. 30

Sheng effectively combines Chinese and Western musical components by freely developing the simple folk melodies based on his individual aesthetic views and perception of the folk song in The Stream Flows for Solo Violin.

The Profound Fusion Style

Sheng knew that the profound fusion would happen when he completely absorbed the traditions of both Chinese and Western musical cultures. He took his great mentor

Leonard Bernstein’s advice to keep researching both cultures at their roots after he had already found his personal style. And he ably demonstrates his accomplishments in Three

Fantasies for Violin and Piano, composed fifteen years after The Stream Flow for Solo

Violin. In this work, Sheng extracts the distinct characteristics of folk music from the northwestern part of China to compose the work, instead of directly quoting a well- known melody from the region.

For instance, “Kazakhstan Love Song”, the last movement of the work, is one of the love songs that Sheng heard while he was researching ethnic groups’ music on the

Silk Road Project trip in 2000.21 Since Sheng does not provide the specific folk song that

inspired him to compose the movement, it is possible that he transcribed the love song he

heard with some of the basic musical characters of Kazakhstan folk songs into this

movement:

Figure 4. Bright Sheng, “Kazakhastan Love Song”, mm. 1-4

According to Tianjian Cheng, “Kazakhstan songs usually have “short-long” phrases with mixed rhythms.”22 The opening melody in Sheng’s “ Kazakhstan Love

Song” also has a short-long phrase (m. 1 is short, whereas m. 2 to the first two notes of

m. 4 are long) with various rhythmic combinations. Cheng explains, “The tonic and its

fourth or fifth consist of the main tonal center, and the song often develops around

them.”23 In Sheng’s work, the melody line starts with the tonic and moves up to the

fourth (D) and fifth (Eb), then it starts to develop with various intervallic combinations

21 Bright Sheng, “Program Notes,” Three Fantasies for Violin and Piano (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 2008). 22 Tianjian Cheng, 中国民族音乐概论文字部分 [Outline of Chinese Folk Music-Text] (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2004), 29. 23 Ibid. 17 around these notes. Besides the specific theoretical similarities, the most significant characteristic of the movement is that Sheng portrays a lonely atmosphere from a distant land by drawing a melody on the lower strings of the violin, which immediately depicts a vivid picture of Kazakhstan herdsmen living in northwestern China without using an original folk melody from the area.

After years of studying authentic Chinese folk music and the traditions of Western compositional techniques, Sheng has refined his desired fusion style, first applying the whole folk songs as the main materials of the work in Three Chinese Love Songs for

Voice, Viola and Piano, later quoting a few lines of a well-known song to create the major motives in The Stream Flows for Solo Violin, and finally composing a work based on the distinct musical features in northwestern China in Three Fantasies for Violin and Piano.

Five years later, Sheng improved his fusion style a step further in Hot Pepper for

Violin and Marimba. The work represents the last step of using a folk song in a composition: “see no true difference if the composer creates his own imitation of folk music, or even works with no trace of real or imitated folk materials but pervaded by the spirit and atmosphere of folk music.”24 In this work, Sheng imbues the entire work with his imagination of the spirit of folk music from Sichuan province in China.25

24 Bright Sheng, “Bartok, the Chinese Composer,” http://brightsheng.com/articles/essayfilesbybs/BARTOK.pdf. 25 Sheng said that “The basic music materials of Hot Pepper were drawn from Sichuan folk music but never a direct quote, the reason you could not find any original songs. But I believe the spirit and flair of the work has the Sichuan flavor, thus the title hot pepper,” in his email reply to me on June 13, 2016. 18

Chapter 3: Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba Analysis and Interpretation

Bright Sheng indicates in his program notes that Hot Pepper is based on a folk song from Sichuan province, a place famous for its spicy cuisine in China.26 Sichuan province is located in southwest China and is well known for its beautiful natural landscapes. In Sichuan reside a majority of Han Chinese, along with more than 15 other ethnic groups, including Yi, Miao, Tibetan, and Hui people. Each of these groups has its own culture, music, and folk customs.

Sheng does not name his work using the name of a type of folk song from the

Han Chinese or any of the other ethnic groups. Instead, he chooses the phrase “Hot

Pepper,” evoking the image of Sichuan province by referring to its famously spicy dishes in his title. His choice of title not only suggests the passionate character of the work, but also embraces the concept of using a Chinese folk tune in a Western composition at its highest level by writing a folk melody that reveals the spirit of the tune without tracing a direct line to its origins.

Sheng’s ambiguous description of his piece could be a challenge for performers who need to make interpretive decisions because there are many folk music styles from

Sichuan province, and they all could relate to Hot Pepper. On the other hand, the vague

26 Bright Sheng, “Program Notes,” Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 2010). 19

information also provides the opportunity for performers to interpret the work based on

their individual views of Chinese folk music. The goal of this chapter is to present my

research on the discovery of an appropriate interpretation of Hot Pepper, which I hope

will serve as a stepping stone for performers who may not understand Chinese folk music

but who are interested in learning the work in the future. The chapter is divided into two

parts: the first part examines Sheng’s fusion style of combining Western forms with the

tonality related to Chinese pentatonic scales, whereas the second part focuses on discussing the different types of folk music that could help performers interpret the work with a certain authenticity.

Formal Structure, Movement I

The first movement is written in a free style with two contrasting themes. The diagram below summarizes the general form of the first movement:27

Intro A A1 Coda mm. 1-8 mm. 9-41 mm. 42-66 mm. 67-80 a (9-19) a1 (42-58) transition (20-22) b1 (59-66) b (23-41)

Figure 5. Bright Sheng, Hot Pepper Movement I Formal Structure

27 All measure references are to the score for Bright Sheng’s Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba (New York: G. Schirmer, 2010). 20

The overall pace of the movement is steady. It is marked at the quarter note equals ca. 46-50, eighth note equals ca. 92-100. A wide range of dynamics leads the dramatic mood changes throughout the movement. The violin and left-hand of the marimba provide the stable pulse (ff) to support the melody line (p) displayed on the right-hand of the marimba in the introduction (mm. 1-8). Then, the violin takes over the leadership of the group to call out the primitive first theme of the movement in fortissimo at measure 9.

The marimba plays the basic pulse in the left hand to accompany the violin while keeping the opening melody in the right hand. The dynamic contrasts, one of the features in

Sheng’s music, are revealed in the very beginning of the piece.

The dramatic mood change, another typical feature of Sheng’s compositions, is also presented in the movement when the violin sings a sweet melody with the accompanying triplets on marimba at measure 23. The composer only gives three measures of transition (measures 20 to 22) to switch from the wild first theme to the tender second theme. When the first theme comes back at measure 42, the two instruments vigorously interact with each other for 16 measures and build toward the climax of the movement. Then, Sheng suddenly brings back the tuneful second theme with its variations right after the most vigorous section of the movement. Such unexpected but powerful mood changes can attract the audiences in a live performance and effectively engage them in the music. Sheng summarizes the materials used in the movement in the coda and ends the movement with harmonics on the violin.

Formal Structure, Movement II

Compared to the free-spirited first movement, Sheng skillfully transforms a fast

Chinese country dance into a baroque form, a canon, in the second movement. This movement also has two motives: the main vibrant motive that tirelessly drives both instruments forward through the movement, and a lyrical line that comes twice from the violin to create impressive contrasts with the main motive. Generally, the second movement is in A – B – A1 form; the diagram below shows the details:

A mm.1-10 mm.11-22 mm.23-39 mm.40-53 mm.54-70 Violin Violin Violin Violin Violin a a1 a2 a3 motivic fragments Marimba Marimba Marimba Marimba Marimba — a a1 motivic fragments

B mm.71-81 mm.82-87 mm.88-111 Violin Violin Violin b a2 variation motivic fragments Marimba Marimba Marimba accompaniment motivic fragments

A1 mm. 112-121 mm. 122-133 mm. 134-148 mm. 149-159 mm. 160-166 Violin Violin Violin Violin Violin a a1 a2 b motivic fragments Marimba Marimba Marimba Marimba Marimba a a a1 accompaniments motivic fragments

Coda mm. 167-184 Violin Marimba

Figure 6. Hot Pepper Movement II Formal Structure

Chinese Pentatonic Scales: An Explanation

In some of Sheng’s early compositions, he clearly stated by which Chinese folk song he was inspired or from which he was directly quoting. The information provides

performers an opportunity to study and learn the original Chinese music. Hot Pepper is

based on an unspecified folk song, which could be difficult for performers who are not

familiar with Chinese music. In order to emphasize the influence of Chinese music, the

piece is written based on the basic Chinese pentatonic scales and some of their variations.

In general, each note is given a specific name in Chinese pentatonic scale. There is one basic form and four inverted scales:

Figure 7. The Basic Chinese Pentatonic Scale

The above is the Gong scale, basic form in the Chinese pentatonic scale

system. The intervals between the notes are M2+M2+m3+M2. Based on the Gong

scale, there are four inverted scales:

Inversion 1, Shang Scale (Intervals: M2+m3+M2+m3):

Inversion 2, Jue Scale (Intervals: m3+ M2 + m3+ M2):

Inversion 3, Zhi Scale (Intervals: M2 + m3 + M2+ M2):

Inversion 4, Yu Scale (Intervals: m3 +M2 + M2 + m3):

Figure 8. Four Inverted Chinese Pentatonic Scales

Besides these five pentatonic scales, there are many variations, such as “six-note scale” and “seven-note scale” in the Chinese pentatonic scale system. For example, if adding a B natural to the Gong scale, it is called BianGong in the system. In other words, the original Gong mode becomes BianGong scale:

Figure 9. Six-Note Chinese Scale

When adding F natural and B natural to the basic Gong scale, a seven-note

QingYue Gong scale would be formed. F natural is called QingJue and B natural is called

BianGong in the Chinese pentatonic scale system. The QingYue Gong scale is exactly the same as the Western major scale:

Figure 10. Seven-Note Chinese Scale

These scales are usually easily identifiable in an original Chinese folk song as the melody lines are clear and simple. As a successful fusion composer who has thorough knowledge and understanding of Chinese folk music, Sheng normally would not use the basic Chinese pentatonic scales in his works. He says, “if you play the pentatonic scale on the piano, it will sound very boring, because there are only five notes. Therefore, we need to add something on to it.”28 Thus, the chromatic notes, which are found more

frequently in Western composers’ works than original Chinese folk music, are often

integrated with the Chinese pentatonic scales in Sheng’s compositions. When selecting the specific terminology to analyze the tonality of Hot Pepper, this document uses a term

28 Lin Shumin, “A Performance Guide to Bright Sheng’s Solo Violin Work, The Stream Flows” (D.M.A. diss., Arizona State University, 2006), 30. 25

such as “C (major) Gong scale” to describe a Chinese pentatonic scale because this is

how the composer explains the usage of Chinese scales in his own words.29

Movement I Tonality

The first task in understanding the Chinese scales in the first movement of Hot

Pepper is to exclude the grace notes because their function is to create color more than to

support the tonality. For example, after excluding all grace notes from measures 1 to 8,

the melody in the right-hand of the marimba can be interpreted as being in D (Major)

QingJue Gong scale:

Figure 11. Hot Pepper Chinese Scale

Sheng breaks down this scale into two parts. The first half of the phrase (measure

1-4) is comprised of only four notes, F#-A-E-D, and therefore is incomplete, but the

second phrase (measure 5-8) shows the complete scale. It is considered to be in D

because the phrase ends on D, regardless of the two different beginning notes (F# and B)

for each phrase.

29 “The note order for the Yu mode in A is A-C-D-E-G. Because the interval in the beginning makes this melody sounds like it is in a minor key, I used the word “minor”. This way it is easier to explain what happens to people who do not know the Chinese scale system.” “You can write, ‘A-minor pentatonic’, and put “minor” into parenthesis.” This is how Sheng explained Chinese pentatonic mode in Lin Shumin’s DMA dissertation “Performance Guide to Bright Sheng’s Solo Violin Work, The Stream Flows.” 26

It is more challenging to figure out the scale in the violin and in the left-hand of

the marimba (measure 1-8) because there are many chromatic notes. According to

Sheng’s method of giving the basic Chinese pentatonic scales or their variations an

interesting color, the method used here is to discount the sharp notes and only place the

natural notes in order. Then, C (major) BianGong scale (C-D-E-G-A-B-C) occurs. When the first theme on violin comes in, the scale changes to B (minor) Yu scale (B-D-E-F#-A-

B) from measures 9 to 19.

It can be seen from the above explanation that “multiple” tonality based on the

Chinese pentatonic scales are the overall tonality in the first movement. Since extreme chromaticism is applied to create a vibrant sound, Sheng purposefully designed the perfect fifth, an obvious feature of Chinese music, to move vertically and horizontally in the movement. For instance, the accompanying line in the violin and left-hand of the marimba are a fifth apart from measures 2 to 8; when the violin goes on to play the first theme, the left-hand of the marimba maintains the perfect fifths from measure 11 to the downbeat of measure 20. The two instruments meet again to present the perfect fifths until the second theme comes in. Besides emphasizing the perfect fifths harmonically,

Sheng also arranges the melody line to modulate around the circle of fifths within a

Chinese pentatonic scale. For example, the right-hand of the marimba starts the

movement from F sharp to B at measure 5. F sharp and B are a pair of interchangeable, perfect fourths and fifths. Similarly, the first half of the first theme on the violin starts on

B at measure 9 and moves to E at measure 15; B and E is another pair of interchangeable perfect fourths and fifths.

The multi-tonality of the Chinese pentatonic scales and their variations applies

throughout the movement and ends in Db (major) Gong scale (Db-Eb-F-Ab-Bb). A great

number of chromatic notes are added to create diverse, colorful sounds, presented by both

instruments. Meanwhile, Sheng skillfully provides guidance for performers to follow the

flavor of Chinese music by emphasizing the interval of perfect fifths—either in the

melody line or in the bass line—throughout the movement.

Movement II Tonality

The violin opens the main motive of the second movement on F (major)

BianGong scale (F-G-A-C-D-E-F) and goes to C (major) BianGong scale (C-D-E-G-A-

B-C) from measure 11 to 22. The marimba joins the violin on F (major) BianGong scale at measure 11. When the violin moves to G (major) BianGong scale (G-A-B-G-E-F#-G) from measure 23 to 39, the marimba follows on C (major) BianGong scale. It is worthwhile to point out that this opening motive presents two circles of perfect fifths displayed on two instruments: the first one creates the relationships among the three

Chinese scales: F-C-G, and the second circle of fifths creates the first note of each phrase:

A-E-B. Sheng strengthens the Chinese musical flavor in a canon form, which demonstrate again his abilities to fuse Western and Chinese musical elements.

After firmly establishing the strong Chinese music flavor in the beginning of the movement, the composer starts to use seven-note Chinese scales, which also can be viewed as Western major and minor scales, to develop the rest of the movement. For example, from measure 41 to 45, the violin line is in B flat major scale, and the marimba

28 accompanies mainly in C (major) Gong scale. Sheng demonstrates his ability to combine two different musical segments by mixing Chinese and Western scales together. In summary, the quick shifts of the key centricity and the colorful sound effects created by the combination of Chinese and Western tonalities help the composer to depict a free and fierce farmer’s dance scene in the second movement.

It is important to point out again that the composer purposefully arranges the perfect fifths, which highlights the feature of Chinese music tonality in a Western form, consistently played by the left-hand of the marimba. Just like the first movement, the multiple-tonality based on Chinese pentatonic scales is on display through the second movement. The piece ends in the same way that it began: in D (major) Gong scale.30

From the above explanation we can see that Hot Pepper combines multiple

Chinese folk music scales into a Western musical form. It truly presents the fusion style of the composer. After studying the unique characteristics of the overall structure and tonality of Hot Pepper, the last part of the document will explain the interpretive choices made for different Chinese tunes included in the work.

Chinese Folk Music and Hot Pepper: An Interpretation

It is always a challenge for performers to approach a new work like Hot Pepper that contains strong Chinese musical elements, even for performers who share a similar cultural background with the composer. This section focuses on my personal experience

30 The movement begins with D (major) Bain Gong scale. Since BianGong scale is derived from the basic Gong scale, it is reasonable to consider that the movement starts and ends in the same Chinese scale. 29 of searching for the proper interpretation for Hot Pepper after understanding the basic structure and tonality of the work, and incorporating my understanding of Chinese folk music.

Proper interpretation refers to the related Chinese folk music types that may assist performers in determining specific techniques, including tempo, fingering, vibrato, bowing, phrasing, and ensemble issue, to use when interpreting the piece in performance.

These techniques will be selectively discussed according to the specific character of each theme. The intention of this section is to offer my ideas on how to learn to perform Hot

Pepper to violinists who are interested in learning the work in the future; it is not an attempt to dictate my personal understanding of the piece to other musicians.

Movement I, First Theme

The first theme (measures 9-19) and its variation (measures 42-57) presented on the violin are rather wild, primitive, and animated. The accented notes on the lowest string of the violin reveal the heavy, even aggressive character of the theme:

Figure 12. Hot Pepper First Theme in Movement I, mm. 9-10

The tune does not have the singing quality that often appears in Sheng’s other

violin works. Instead, it is a powerful roaring from a low voice, which is akin to a type of

Chinese folk song called Haozi, or Work Song. Haozi was first created and sung by Han

Chinese hundreds of years ago. Its original function was to direct and coordinate workers’

steps, breath, and concentration during heavy manual labor. Through years of

development, Haozi was transformed into an important type of folk song with different

names, such as “Shouting Haozi” or “Beating Haozi,” in various regions in China. These names indicate that the main character of Haozi is more verbalized than vocalized

because it is derived from heavy work environment rather than leisure singing

scenarios.31

In general, Chinese ethnomusicologists distinguish Haozi into four categories:

Transportation Haozi, Construction Haozi, Farming Haozi, and Boatmen Haozi. Among

them, Boatmen Haozi from Sichuan province can be considered to be the related Chinese

folk tune for the first theme in Hot Pepper. Sichuan is located near the upper stream of

the Yangtze River, one of the major rivers in China. The Yangtze River and its branches naturally run through the province around the great mountains. These rivers are one of the

most important ways for transporting and trading goods between Sichuan and adjacent

provinces. The local residents who live near the rivers would be hired to pull the boats

that carried heavy items against the current streams. Since pulling a boat is heavy manual

labor that requires synchronized teamwork, shouting a simple but energetic tune help the

31 Tianjian Cheng, 中国民族音乐概论文字部分 [Outline of Chinese Folk Music-Text] (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2004), 12-13. 31

workers to conquer the difficult movements and motivate them to keep pace during such hard work. Over hundreds of years of growth and transformation, thanks to the great contribution of those local boatmen in Sichuan province, Boatmen Haozi became one of the most identifiable folk music forms in China.

The example below is a type of Haozi from Sichuan province. It shows the unique verbalized traits of Haozi because the lyrics are an imitation of oral commands given to motivate workers, although they are words without actual meaning. This type of Haozi serves as a reference for a Chinese folk music type when performers need an image to interpret the tune:

Figure 13. Shangtan Haozi, mm. 1-232

Besides having a similar singing style to the Haozi, the first theme of the first movement of Hot Pepper also presents the following characteristics that resemble the

Boatmen Haozi:

32 Tianjian Cheng, 中国民族音乐概论谱例部分 [Outline of Chinese Folk Music-Musical Examples] (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2004), 18; transcribed from Chinese notation (Jianpu) to Western notation by Hexue Shen. 32

1) Simplicity and repetition: one of the most functional features of the Boatmen

Haozi is to motivate the workers. Therefore, the tune has to be simple enough to sing or chant so that the group can follow the leader’s order. Normally, the tune is short and energetic, the rhythms are freely adjusted to accommodate different situations, and the song can be repeated as many times as needed until the work is finished.33 In Sheng’s Hot

Pepper, the first theme’s raw and roaring character (measures 9-13), short phrases with heavily accented notes, various rhythmic combinations, and numerous repetitions throughout the movement, presents many features similar to the Haozi, especially in terms of its simplicity and repetition.

2) Alternation between the leader and chorus: one of the basic singing styles of

the Boatmen Haozi is that the leader sings or chants, and the rest of the group responds to

the leader. Based on different circumstances, the leader and the chorus can sing or chant

together, or interchange their roles.34 In Sheng’s Hot Pepper, the violin is the leader,

introducing the theme from measures 9 to 19. When the theme returns, the marimba starts

to actively interact with the violin and then they take turn leading the group from

measures 42 to 50. Finally, the two instruments play the synchronized rhythms with

different pitches from measures 54 to 58, which evoke the lively scenery of a group of

Boatmen wildly singing as a chorus.

33 Tianjian Cheng, 中国民族音乐概论文字部分 [Outline of Chinese Folk Music-Text] (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2004), 13. 34 Ibid, 15. 33

3) Incompletion of the tune: Boatmen Haozi usually does not have a formal and completed form. The workers can stop singing or chanting when the work is finished.35

In Hot Pepper, the first theme on violin is “interrupted” three times at measures 14, 20,

and 58. At measure 14, a one-measure rest suddenly interrupts the theme after its five-

measure exhibition (measures 9-13). This one-measure rest seems like a short break for

the leader to make some adjustments during the work. The theme on the violin comes

back under the steady support from the left-hand of the marimba at measure 15.

Similarly, the first theme or its variations are again “interrupted” at measure 20 and 58,

and the composer uses different techniques to smoothen the transition. He writes a three-

measure pizzicato at measure 20 and prolongs the high E on the violin at measure 58 to

connect the unexpected ending of the first tune with the following new lyrical theme.

4) Types of variations: typically, boatmen would need to choose a type of Haozi

on a daily basis to match the intensity of the work with the current weather conditions,

the direction of the current, and the size of the boats. This unique work requirement is a

significant factor that helps form different types of Boatmen Haozi in Sichuan province,

These types include Shangtan Haozi, meaning pulling the boat against the current, and

Xiatan Haozi, meaning moving down the boat with the current. Between them, the

Shangtan Haozi shows some similarities with the first theme in Hot Pepper. In general,

Shangtan Haozi has more compressed rhythms than other types because pulling a boat

against the current stream requires the leader to give faster orders; the intervals between

35 Ibid, 16. 34

the notes are usually small as chanting a long melody during hard work could be

exhausting, and only short and vigorous motif would help boatmen work actively.

After showing the fundamental musical character of the Boatmen Haozi from

Sichuan province and the way Hot Pepper resembles this form, the focus in the following

discussion is to present the techniques that can help a performer interpret the first theme

properly:

1) Tempo: Sheng gives performers a certain freedom to choose a tempo for the

first theme (ca. quarter note equals 46-50 or eighth note 92-100). In my opinion, the slower tempo would be a better choice because it provides a broader pulse for allowing

performers to present the heaviness of the theme. Moreover, the slower tempo offers

violinists more time to deliver the intensively accented thirty-second notes with clarity.

These thirty-second notes should be clearly executed as they are one of the significant features of the Boatmen Haozi.

2) Bow contribution: in general, shorter bow strokes would be more effective than longer ones when presenting the first theme. For example, in the beginning of the theme

(see Figure 13), some violinists would choose to use longer bow strokes to sustain the sound on E instead of applying the combination of slower bow speed and heavier arm weight after they produce a heavy accent on B. The longer bow strokes would reduce the vigorous nature of the theme and delay the action of retaking the bow. The exceptions could be made on playing long bows for those unaccented quarter notes and tied-over notes, such as the E naturals that cross measures 9 and 10, and the dotted quarter E natural at measure 10. In summary, violinists should manage the bow by staying near the

35 frog when making the heavy accents and avoiding using longer than two thirds of the bow when presenting the energetic first theme.

3) Phrasing: a wild tune related to the Haozi singing style appears in the first theme if performers follow the articulations indicated by the composer. Since the first theme is a condensed motive with accents on almost every note, it is possible that violinists would pay attention to making good accents but neglecting the phases. The sound acoustic could be interrupted of the ensemble if violinists play the theme too short.

For example, two down bows are marked on the same phrase at measure 9. Most violinists would instinctually retake the bow soon enough to produce a clear articulation for the next bow stroke. However, as the only sound that maintains in the measure, violinists need to sustain the double dotted E as long as it is marked with slow bow speed and enough arm weight, and then quickly retake the bow to prepare for the next phrase.

In this way, the powerful roaring character of Haozi can be clearly delivered. In comparison to the colorful sound that the marimba naturally brings to the ensemble, the violin is the instrument that takes the responsibility of conveying different phrases and keeping the overall sound of the group, especially in the first movement. Therefore, violinists should aim to produce longer phrases in this compressed and energetic motive.

4) Vibrato: only limited vibrato should be applied to the first theme for two reasons: First, Haozi is a type of Chinese folk music that blends a speech-like feature into a straightforward singing style. The vibrato on violin often imitates the beautiful singing of human voice, and therefore, it should have restricted usage when interpreting the first theme. Basically, the vibrato can only be used to polish the end of a long note, such as D

natural at measure 12, E flat at measure 40, and E natural at measure 41. When using

vibrato for these notes, it should be the fast and narrow combination to match the

primitive character of Haozi. Second, the composer uses open strings in double stops to

strengthen the power of the sound on the violin when the theme retunes in measures 54 to

58, which depicts the vibrant character of the theme and helps build up the climax of the movement. Therefore, selectively applying the combination of non-vibrato with the narrow and fast vibrato would match the openness created by the open strings and the straightforward singing style of boatmen. For instance, I personally prefer non-vibrato at measure 54 and the first two beats of measure 55, then adding the fast and narrow vibrato on the G naturals on the third beat of measure 55. The vibrato is needed here because it can assistant violinists to produce different colors within two measures of animated wild theme, and help push the movement to its most exciting moment at measure 56.

Movement I, Second Theme

The second theme is completely different from the first theme. Unlike the first theme’s wild feeling, the second them is a delicate and undulating line that is presented on the high register of the violin:

Figure 14. Hot Pepper Second Theme in Movement I, mm. 22-24

The flowing melodic line that moves up and down within small intervals suggests a similarity between the second theme and another type of Chinese folk music: Xiaodiao,

or Ballad.

Xiaodiao is a common musical form found in the countryside, small towns, and

cities in China. The major role of Xiaodiao is to casually express personal feelings about

life or nature. It could be a song written for a wedding, a simple tune for a children’s

game, or a love duet between men and women. Xiaodiao is a favored folk song type

among the Chinese people for its expressive melodic lines and relaxed atmosphere.

Besides the main function in entertaining the local residents, Xiaodiao also serves as an

educational tool, civilizing citizens through the telling of stories in music.36

The performance of Xiaodiao usually takes place in private homes and small

indoor venues, which provides the opportunity for instrumentalists to participate in the

performance. The singer or singers’ accompaniment by Chinese instruments is one of the most typical performing styles in Xiaodiao. As a result, these well-trained Chinese

36 Tianjian Cheng, 中国民族音乐概论文字部分 [Outline of Chinese Folk Music-Text] (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2004), 21-22. 38

instrumentalists contributed their artistic views to the development of Xiaodiao.37 Similar

to Haozi, Xiaodiao is not only a distinct type of Chinese folk music, but also, is expressed

in diverse ways in different provinces. Despite of the diversity in various regions, the

Xiaodiao form generally has symmetrical structures, unified rhythmic combinations, and

tuneful melody lines that move within small intervals. In Hot Pepper, the second theme

can be evenly divided into a 2 + 2 phrase when it first shows up: phrase one is from

measure 23 to 24 and phrase 2 is from measure 25 to 26; the rhythmic combinations are

simply based on eighth notes and sixteen notes, and the melody barely exceeds the

perfect fourth in terms of interval relations. These all resemble the basic musical features

of Xiaodiao. It is essential to point out that the phrases are unbalanced when the variation

of the second theme appears in measures 28 to 41 and measures 59 to 66. The reason is

that the composer needs to develop the lyrical line to prepare for the return of the first

theme at measure 41, and then slightly prolong the phrase to end the main section of the

movement before the coda at measure 61. Even though these two phrases are not as

perfectly balanced as its original theme, the simple rhythms and small intervallic relations

remain.

When Chinese Xiaodiao is considered as the interpretive model for the melodic

theme in Hot Pepper, the marimba can be seen as the accompanying instrument and the

violin as the folk singer. The following techniques should apply to assist interpreting the

second theme:

37 Tianjian Cheng, 中国民族音乐概论文字部分 [Outline of Chinese Folk Music-Text] (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2004), 21-22. 39

1) Fingerings: Sheng’s compositions usually provide clear clues for violinists to discover suitable fingerings. There are only two places that require violinists’ special attention to figure out the best fingerings to properly present the music. The first place is the beginning of the second theme at measure 22. The theme can start either on the first position of the E string or the fourth position of the A string; both strings are qualified for producing the melody with “p dolce a legato” indicated by the composer. As a personal reference, I would choose to begin the theme on the A string and move to the E string for the second half of the melody (measure 24). This fingering choice can create two different colors and nuances within one phrase. More importantly, the A string is capable of making greater contrasts with the wild first theme. Lastly, the tender, mellow sound on the A string is more naturally qualified to bring out the delicate features of the line than the bright E string.

Another place that requires violinists to be considerate of fingerings is from measures 59 to 61, the variation of the second theme. The composer specifically indicates a few slides that represent the flavor of Chinese music. These slides increase the difficulty of the theme because playing in tune on the higher positions and smoothly sliding between the notes is very demanding, especially when the intervals contain larger leaps. The recommended fingerings I recommend are:

Figure 15. Hot Pepper Movement I, mm. 59-63

2) Slide: it is acceptable to spontaneously add some slides to interpret the free

spirit of Chinese folk music. As shown above, the composer gives specific directions

about where he wants the slides. According to this information, violinists should be

allowed to add some slides in the second theme when it first appears. For example, slides

could be added: between F natural and E flat on the second beat of measure 23, between

F natural and B flat on the first beat of measure 24, and between C sharp and G sharp on

the last beat of measure 26. The examples discussed here are to explain how to add slides

according to my own understanding of the emotional qualities of Chinese folk music.

Violinists should create slides in different places based on their individual instinct and

perception of the music. Overall, a free spirit is a distinct feature of Chinese folk music, and it cannot be strictly standardized based on only one performer’s opinion.

3) Vibrato: a sweet and warm tone that comes from the moderate wide and relatively fast vibrato on violin would be an ideal choice to present the lyrical second

theme. It should not be difficult for violinists to produce the warm and sweet vibrato from

measures 22 to 28, but it is challenging to keep the same vibrato when the composer

brings in the condensed rhythms from measures 59 to 66. My solution for this passage is

to emphasize the highest notes with a sweet and warm tone that comes wide and fast vibrato, and then try to use vibrato on other notes when time allows. For example, the vibrato should apply to A natural, D naturals, and B naturals of the E string at measures

59 and 60 to keep the warmth of the lyrical line. In addition, the eighth notes and the notes with tide-over slurs are also the places that give violinists enough time to produce a sweet and warm tone. For instance, in Figure 17, the D natural on the downbeat of measure 59, the G natural eighth note on the second beat of measure 61, and the G sharp between beats 1 and 2 with a tied-over slur at measure 62 are the places to give the wide and fast vibrato to maintain the sweet sound of the theme.

4) Phrasing and ensemble issue: according to my experience, re-phrasing some of the passages could help solve related ensemble problems in the second theme. For example, from the last beat of measure 22 to the downbeat of measure 23, the violin leads the group to come into the new section. The melodies based on the duplets on the violin against the accompanying triplets on the marimba are very challenging for two players to stay together. In my experience of rehearsing and performing the piece, I would recommend that the violinists hold the B flat longer than it is noted between measures 22 and 23, and wait for the marimba to join in on the downbeat of measure 23. Then, the two players may give each other a clear cue and move forward together. The same strategy

applies to measures 25 and 28. The phrasing options discussed here can not only help two

42 musicians play together in the rhythmically complicated passages, but also help the musicians present a unique personal expression of the theme.

Finding the appropriate techniques to present the introduction and coda are the last interpretative steps in the first movement. Although both sections start with pizzicato on violin, a different type of pizzicato should be selected for each section. The firm and heavy pizzicato is appropriate for the introduction because it can prepare listeners for the heavy and wild first theme to come in. The specific technique to produce a strong and firm pizzicato is to pull the strings vertically without bending the finger. The coda takes over the tuneful second theme, and the delicate features of this second theme should be continued on the pizzicato. In order to properly display the distant atmosphere at the end of the movement, violinists should firmly pluck the strings using the flesh of the finger with a horizontal motion to effectively produce a mellow sound.

Movement II: Folk Dance Music and the Lusheng

The second movement is a vigorous farmer’s dance based on one major motive that consistently moves between both instruments throughout the movement. There are many types of dance music that vary significantly from one region to another in China, but these dance pieces represent some common traits despite the regional differences. In general, Chinese folk dance music could be divided into three categories: 1) dance with song: the song and the dance usually accompany each other depending on different circumstances; 2) dance with instrumental music: the dance is accompanied by the

instrumental music. The instruments include Chinese percussions, woodwinds, or

plucked string instruments. The instrumentalists usually participate the dance while

playing the instruments. This type of dance is frequently seen in specific Chinese ethnic

groups; 3) dance with drama: in some regions of China, drama would be included in a

large dance scene to increase entertainment for the audience.38

The second movement of Hot Pepper could be considered to be the combination

of the first and second types of Chinese folk dance. The violin and marimba tirelessly

collaborate with each other to keep the whole movement running on a vigorous motive,

which depicts a lively scene of “dance with instrumental music,” as both parties are

actively involved with the dance. Occasionally, the violin sings out a beautiful melody with the accompanying triplets from the marimba (measure 71-81 and 148-159), which portrays a picture of “dance with song.”

Besides finding the fundamental dance types that relate to Hot Pepper, I also discovered that lusheng, a type of Chinese folk instrument, would help violinists interpret the characteristics of the opening motive.

Lusheng is a free reed woodwind instrument with many vertical pipes. The whole lusheng family includes: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. The lusheng is a major instrument that accompanies dance in traditional festivals or celebrating scenes in some ethnic groups including Miao, Dai, Yao, and Dong in southwest China. Lusheng players usually dance along with the crowd while playing the instrument.

38 Tianjian Cheng, 中国民族音乐概论文字部分 [Outline of Chinese Folk Music-Text] (Shanghai: Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2004), 43-45. 44

The lusheng is one of the special Chinese wind instruments that is capable of playing harmonies. The common harmonies are fourths, fifths, and octaves. Since the lusheng can hold a long bass note while adding other notes above it, dissonant harmonies such as sevenths or seconds are also heard frequently. In Hot Pepper, the open fifths, dissonant sevenths and seconds, and octaves consistently displayed on the violin resemble the sound effects of the lusheng:

Figure 16. Hot Pepper Movement II, mm. 1-11

Moreover, the lusheng offers the players the ability to play either slow lyrical lines or vivid fast rhythms depending on the celebrating scene of the day, and the lusheng players often provide a stable pulse to accompany the dance when they dance with the crowd.39

In summary, the allusions in the second movement to the basic types of Chinese

folk dance music, as well as the instrument used for this folk dance music, give

performers of Hot Pepper an image of Chinese farmers dancing to the lusheng. Based on

39 “苗族芦笙舞” [Miao People’s Lusheng Dance], YouTube video, 2:20, posted by “Maiv Vaaj,” July 6, 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tHpVctGr4AM. This video provides a reference for performers to help them understand the style of the Lusheng and how Chinese folk dance music is performed. 45

these facts, the following discussion could assist performers in solving the technical

issues and interpreting Hot Pepper so as to help the composition live up to its name,

offering listeners a passionate and fierce sound.

1) Phrasing: the second movement is written in a concise form. The main motive

moves between both instruments from the beginning to the end. Typically, performers

have limited freedom to demonstrate their understanding of the music when a piece is

well written like the second movement of Hot Pepper, but there are still a few places that

allow both players to phrase the original lines and present their individual musical ideas.

For example, violinists should consider taking a brief breath before the marimba joins in the dance from measures 10 to 11. The breath informs listeners that the opening theme has already been represented, and it is also a signal for the marimba player to join the dance in the same tempo given by the violinist. The same principle can apply in measures

22 to 23, 70 to 71, 81 to 82, 111 to 112, 121 to 122, 133 to 134, and 148 to 149.

2) Ensemble issues: the two sections (measure 46-65 and 87-111) that are written in compound meters could be the most challenging parts in which the two players must stay together. The frequent meter changes require absolute concentration and precise counting from both players. Besides that, studying the score carefully should assist the players in understanding how the two instruments relate to each other. However, accidents can happen in a performance, even when the players count and listen to each other carefully. In my experience of rehearsing the movement, the meters always changed between 2/4 or 3/4 and 7/8 or 5/8. According to this regular rule, the two players can feel

46 more secure about staying together when both players inform each other before the meter changes from simple meters (2/4 or 3/4) to compound meters (7/8 or 5/8), and vice versa.

Hot Pepper for Violin and Marimba is one of the recent chamber works that represents Sheng’s desired fusion style: to write a folk melody with or without the trace of the original song. The four main motives and melodies with a strong Chinese flavor are well organized into two contrasting movements. Sheng successfully implies the features of these Chinese tunes with specific indications including accents, slurs, rhythms, and intervals to help performers acquire the characteristics of each tune. The discussion in this chapter serves as a guide to help performers explore the Chinese folk music that can influence the interpretive decisions they must make in performing Sheng’s

Hot Pepper. Based on these fundamental concepts of Chinese folk music, performers may freely express their own feeling through the works.

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