with government officials during the American colonialperiod. officials duringthe with government how FilipinoHansen’s diseasepatients dealt of afullerunderstanding facilitates practices theirdiverse andmultifaceted Consideration of theirengagement. of thestory complicating a colonialcontext. Insomeinstances, was agency enabled by patients’ authorities, thereby withinarestrictiveagency settingandin andexercise patients’ resistance of of forms varying Hansen’s diseaseandcolonialadministrators.between Filipinopatients of Itdemonstrates rations. incommittees to improve of participated thedistribution needs andtoprovide financialassistancetothefamiliesthey leftbehind.Others actively them totheislandofCulion.Manypracticedself-sufficiencyaddressbasicfood rations, alsoatAmerican colonialstate’sbut the exiled that policy quantityof insufficient ways Patients’ andforms. reactions were at notonly poorqualityand directed in amyriad of in responsetothefoodsituation. rightsas citizens.and petitionsfor A considered agitationsfew andotheractionsby patients andcohabitation, thebanonmarriage theisland, from protests flight against the patients’ in evident resistance practices, conditions. andgeneral Recent work highlightedthethemeof colony.Culion leper policy, scholarship Earlier onthesegregation onCulionfocused medical the thetwentieth century. Food of are themesinthehistory rations understudied decades of authoritiesover withgovernment food-relatedcolony issuesduringthefirst three engaged studyexplores how FilipinoHansen’sThis The study of food supply insightsintotheengagement inCulionoffers food andrations of study The In thisstudy, Iarguethat foodwas at theCulionlepercolony, 1900s–1930s Food rations,resistance, andagency Culion, Hansen’s disease, resistance Febe D. Pamonag D. Febe a platform uponwhich colonialauthoritywas contested a platform KEYWORDS ABSTRACT AR AR AR AR AR diseasepatientsconfinedtotheCulionleper TICLE TICLE TICLE TICLE TICLE , agency, food rations

ISSN 1655-1524 Print 59 – 84 SOCIAL SCIENCE DILIMAN PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 59 ISSN 2012-0796 Online 14:1 January–June 2018 SSD 14:1 2018 60 [patient representative] and300othersignatories1917) Ignacio andthiswillhavebreakfast, onourhealth”(Santiago adetrimentaleffect we, ration, theundersigned,” from eating toabstain they going wrote, “are rice “Duetothereductionof addressed toSenatePresidentManuel Quezon. L. colonysignedapetition In 1917,300menandwomen attheCulionleper directed not only at the poor quality and insufficient quantity of rations, but quantityof thepoorqualityandinsufficient directed notonlyat ways Patients’ andforms. reactionswere authority was contestedinamyriad of uponwhich colonial 1936, 234).Inthispaper, foodwas Iargue that aplatform Interior of toCulion(Department patients was transported of order, resistancecontinued group afterthefirst resistance tothesegregation (Philippine Commission1907). personsinthePhilippineIslands” orconfinedallleprous isolated, segregated, anddetained, “tocausetobeapprehended, healthandhisauthorizedagents of Health Service (Philippine saidfrozen fish” boxesthrow[n] intogarbage afterdistribution of theirfish “[i]twas rationatall”(1920).get notunusual Infact, tofindfish “didnotcareto thepatients thatmanyof reported Philippine HealthService of Manila,was mandatedwithAdministrative of colonial period. colonyduringtheAmerican theCulionleper of themes inresearch onthehistory thetwentieth century. Food andrations understudied supply are decades of three food-relatedissuesduringthefirst authoritiesregarding with government individuals dealt explores study how thosesegregated 190).This Culion (1990, James C. “bothquietandnotsoones”in Scott, thewordsborrowing of agitations, rationswere atthecenterof 1923. Food andpoorqualityof shortage in freshfish of ricein1917andshortage of ration colony reactedtothereduced demonstrate how FilipinoHansen’s diseasepatientsconfinedtotheCulionleper etme 97 ihtepsaeo Act no. 1711. of 1907,withthepassage September positive on12 caseswas formalized of segregation in May 1906;themandatory withHansen’safflicted disease. collectingtrips”totheprovinces began “Leper toisolatethose Americancolonialauthoritiesdeemeditnecessary public health, America’smeans tojustify imperialistventure” Invoking (158). theneedtoprotect the country,” arguedJulius G. BautistaandMa.Mercedes a Planta,“presented publichealthconditionsin States (Ileto1988)(BautistaandPlanta2009).“The anti-imperialistdebateintheUnited campaigns inthePhilippinesandinstigated healthconditionswere closelycholera, andthegeneral linked topacification Scholars have how demonstrated publichealthcampaigns, such asthoseagainst inthePhilippines(1936,227). wasamajorpublichealthproblem suggested American colonialgovernment’sVictor Heiser solution towhatHealthDirector Although American colonial officials emphasizedthattherewas initial Although Americancolonialofficials only On 22 August 1904, the establishment of the Culion leper colony, theCulionleper southwest On 22August 1904,theestablishmentof

1924, 155, hereafter PHS). These are justafew examplesthat are 1924, 155,hereafterPHS).These Orderno. wasThis the 35. 2 Itempowered thedirector 1 . Seven later, years the

1908, 31–32; Heiser 1908, 31–32; Rodriguez, that itwas ahaven Inthebookedited by Ma.Cristina V. fortheafflicted. claims official colonychallenged theleper conditions,the grim earlystudiesof remained asymptoticprojections, notvalidated attainments” (9).Byhighlighting andleastsocialized.”unclean Yet, andself-government “cure that heasserts thoseconsideredmost of and asiteforthebiologicalcivic transformation camp, army laboratory, andsmallAmericantown combinationof “an exemplary Culionwas 177–78).AccordingtoAnderson, citizenship” isdiscussed(2006, in thePhilippines Warwick Anderson’s on Culionthatfocusedpolicies, medicalpractices, conditions. andgeneral Adopting apatient-centeredapproach, thisprojectbuildsonearlierscholarship prisonerbehaviour” pp. (2017, 644–63)(1990). of determinants structural resistance of arts works andagency, onresistance James particularly C. Scott’s people’s bodies, beliefsandsocialpractices”(1988,131). but of sovereignty, territorial continued over of thecontrol,nolonger that thestruggle elucidates, “thewar was simplytransposedfromthebattlefieldstotowns, period after1902isacompellingtostudybecause, asReynaldo C. Ileto The publichealth”. individuals tothe“enlightenedAmericansystemof reacted and government authorities, thisprojectilluminateshow thosesegregated betweentheCulionpatients (4–5).Exploringengagement colonial counterparts” European Americans fromtheirbrutal and publichealth,thusdistinguishing infrastructure, education, on Filipinos“theenlightenedAmericansystemsof the notionthatAmericansbestowed myths perpetuate persisted (2005).These U.S. mythsChoy exceptionalism of notesthatinterrelated andbenevolence have theirengagement. by authorities, of thereby complicating thestory setting andinacolonialcontext.Insomeinstances, was enabled agency patients’ withinarestrictive agency resistance by patients andexercise of of forms varying healthofficials andothercolonialofficials.Culion, andnational Itdemonstrates authorities,disease patientsandgovernment thosewhomanaged particularly between andamongFilipinoHansen’sdynamic andmultifaceted engagement rations. in committeestoimprove thedistributionof financial assistancetofamiliestheyhadleftbehind.Othersactively participated needsandprovide thempracticed inordertoaddressbasicfood self-sufficiency of Many Culion. also atthecolonialstate’s themtotheislandof policythatexiled been subjects of investigation of Filipino bodies as objects of byregulation the Filipinobodiesasobjectsof investigation of been subjectsof individuals have segregated Those also Despair”(2003). Culion asan“Islandof In understandingCulionpatients’practices, thisstudydraws onscholarly Filipinonurse totheUnitedStates, migrants CatherineCeniza In herstudy of food supply inCulionoffers insightsintothe andrations of study The Culion island: A leper colony’sCulion island:Aleper toward healing 100-yearjourney icue hpe nClo,weetecneto “biomedical of theconcept includesachapter where onCulion, and Ashley T. andAshley Rubin’s the “Resistance incorporating asagency Colonial pathologies: medicine, race, Americantropical andhygiene Domination andthe , she refers to , sherefers

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 61 SSD 14:1 2018 62 studies are valuable because they studies arevaluablebecausethey colonial state(Robertson 2011;BautistaandPlanta2009;Anderson1995). Such contribution to silentformuch buthasremained toolong” thecountry (ix).Intheir of history Hansen’s diseaseis“intrinsicallytiedintothelarger of thehistory that asserts Hidden lives, concealednarratives menandwomen isolatedinCuliontake in centerstage perspectivesThe 4). of butalsochanged intheirfavor” theimposedcolonialorder (2017, undermined lifenotonly Wataru Kusaka thatpatients’“unsanctionedways argues of Hansen’swork diseasepatientsinCulion, thatexamineseveryday politicsof forautonomy.and highlightstheirresistance, agency, andstruggle Inhisfine Hansen’s diseaseinthePhilippines, patientsof aselsewhere, perspectives of thispaper. andagency,resistance themesof thecentral patients’ flight from the island, protests against the ban on marriage and thebanonmarriage theisland, protestsagainst from flight patients’ rations. the distributionof outcomes, such asaugmentingfoodsupplies, income, andimprovinggenerating thosechoices,transformed assistance, intodesired at timeswithgovernment bywere such aspirations influenced factorsaspersonal andcapabilities.They whichvegetable theyrespondedwithchoices gardens, andreactionsingeneral to cultivate fish andconfrontedwith officialexhortations frozen of issued rations statepoliciesand regulations. When confined inCulionwere notmereobjectsof by showing thisundertaking how individuals of studyseekstobe part This Hansen’s diseaseinthePhilippinesandothercountries. patientsof the voices of asylum in1934andastrike inanotherasylum1946(63,73,76). aviolentuprisinginan ReductionIndia. infoodrationswas at thecenterof protestby in thepatients disease, paving theway foramoremilitantdisplay of Hansen’s of themedicalperception the1920stransformed medical discoveries of (1996)arguesthatthe writing aboutthefoodsituation(Inglis2013,119).Kakar andKalawao. Kalaupapa SomeHawaiian patientscomplainedin settlements of rations was inconsistentinthe were poor,quality andsupply of anddelivery on Hansen’s diseaseinHawai’i andIndia,respectively notesfood (2013).Inglis Resistance Inglis’s isalsoamajorthemeinKerri andSanjiv Kakar’s (1996)work to objectifythemascommoditiesfitformedicalinvestigation” (2011,137–38). attempts “theirbattle forautonomy of andtheirrefusal providing evidenceof some individuals inNorway totake “managed theirprotesttothelaw courts” in several countries, includingthePhilippines,Josephine Robertson shows how theirfate (2016,163–89). of violent resistance, accommodation, andacceptance patientsout that hadvaried reactionstoforcedconfinement,includingflight, This study wishes to add to the existing literature thatfocusesonthe literature totheexisting studywishestoadd This Other works on Culion highlight the theme of resistance evidentinthe Other works onCulionhighlightthethemeof In documentingthesestories, historiansandotherscholars seektouncover In herwork thatexaminesmedicalexperimentsonHansen’s diseasepatients Hidden lives , Francis A. Gealogo andAntonioC. Gealogo , Francis A. GalangJr. point , editedbyDiokno(2016). MariaSerenaI. Diokno emphasize theneedtoexaminepatients’ Food staplesattheCulionlepercolony condition, were onaspecialdiet(Basa1923,173). condensed milkwas suppliedonlytothosewho, duetoanunnamedphysical weekly From 1940–1941). 1920to1922, ration of (Basa 1923,173;summary coffeewas distributed onceamonth(firstweek) 1940to1941.Raw/green from weekly ration fortheyears1914,1922,and1936,distributedtwiceamonth and chocolate. Mungbeans,was consideredasubstituteforfreshfish, onthe bread, cannedtomatoes, lard, vinegar, onions, nativegarlic, brown salt, sugar, weekly ration1940–1941). of Basa 1923,173;Wade andBasa1923,100; and 1940–1941);and,spices(Denison1914,174; available); meat(beef, twiceaweek in1914,onceaweek from1920–1922,1936, vegetables1940–1941); (freshsuchasradishes, squash,andstringbeans, dailyif dailyexcept1922, brown (fresh/frozen/salted, Saturday ricein1936);fish from unpolishedricedistributedfrom1920– which isequivalent tothreeliters, of thestandardration:rice(one 1941, indicatethefive majorcomponentsof 1956, 64). (Patacsil tocookforthemselvesraw began rationstothosewhopreferred food of kitchen, andthedistribution orGeneralKitchen,was constructed permanent by thereorbrought meals were thepatientstotheir quarters. served By1912,a cooked forthemselves. kitchen and inatemporary foodwas At first, prepared raw patientswho for food and spices, thesecomprisedtheweekly of ration inCulionduringtheperiodunderconsideration.Withwere meat particularly themainstaplefoodsinPhilippines,Rice,fish, andvegetables are asthey overadministrators foodrationing. the diverse andcomplexways patients, individually andcollectively, dealtwith the conversation between patientsandauthoritiesby onengagement showing such studycontributesto treatment This (13). beneficialeffectsof and lack of treatment,which heattributestothesideeffects refusaltoundergo patients’ economy intoanautonomouspeople’s economy” (2017).Healsodiscusses thefood-rations-based “patients’ initiative tobecomeself-sufficienttransformed forautonomy,2003, 65).Highlightingthepatients’ struggle Kusaka arguesthat food andbadcooking(Anderson2006, 173;Rodriguez about poorqualityof related tothefoodsituation.Somestudiesindicatethatpatientscomplained AndersonandRodriguez, agitations andotheractions considered particularly 2006;LejanoandRodriguezArcilla 2009; Anderson Afew,Galang 2013; 2003). andGalang2016; andpetitionsfor rights ascitizens(Gealogo cohabitation, (first and third week) (summary of weekly ration1940–1941). of week) (first andthird (summary condensed milkwas includedintheregular rationanddistributedtwiceamonth Weekly rations of raw and 1940– foodfortheyears 1914,1920–1922,1936, Weekly rationsof

Other itemsinthestandardweekly were ration Philippines Free Press Manila Times 3 For the period1940to1941, 1936, 40;summary February 3, 1914; 3, February

Fresh fruits, such ganta ,

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 63 SSD 14:1 2018 64 Ironically, however, it was the frustrated Culion chief ’s assessment of patients’ Ironically, ’s however, assessment of Culionchief itwas thefrustrated andincreasedto50by 1908(2016,179–80). escapedin1906, 615 patients Lives intheCulionColony,Segregated nineoutof 1906–1935”,indicatesthat etc.” (BOH1906,34). muscular power, debility, involvementsgeneral nervous which resultinlossof andtoes, fingers tissues, lossesof of thelimbs, destruction “contractions of (BOH 1906,34).Nevertheless, healsonotedthatHansen’s diseasecaused operations which would resultinsupplyingfoodforthemselves”the agricultural manual laborwhich would berequiredby that amountof performing capable of themare of (BOH 1908,102).Heiserclarifiedthat“onlyasmallproportion theyear, aroundone-thirddiedduetocomplications order. theendof Before thesegregation individuals were inCulion1906, yearof confined thefirst that Healthindicated 800 anestimated the above of Bureau andmore.The confinement?Wasto forced itduetophysical incapability?Itcouldbeanyof them?Wasmeant for ittodefyadministratorsanddemonstratetheirresistance interestinfarming howpatients duringthisperiod, canwe tellwhattheirlack of records from of Health 1908,103,hereafter BOH).Consideringthedearth inclined andhave (Bureauof accomplishedpracticallynothinginthisregard” James F. few areagriculturally statedthat“very colonyChief Biggar Culion leper (Wadeand farms andBasa1923,100).InhisJuly 1907toJune 1908report, (Patacsil Eventually, 64). 1956, tocultivate were encouraged patients gardens orcontractors,local producers fromManila allfoodstapleswere transported suppliesandappropriations. availability of the years1921and1922(Basa1923,173).Food mainlyonthe rations depended during distributedtwiceaweek, thesameat500grams and squash), remained sweet potatoleaves,swamp cabbage,banana,cowpeas, pineapple, radish, corn, (e.g., vegetables andfruits assorted amountof in1922. The grams was weekly rationed in1920and1921,150 beef of in 1922.Ninetygrams freshfish(orequivalent) in1921;and1,500 in1920;1,509grams of 720 grams eachfish distributed week: items. was aslightvariation There intheamountof ganta thanone alittlemore 1922. Duringthisperiod,apatienthadweekly rationof available datawas fortheyears1920to setof earliest toCulion.The transported receivedpatients aftertheywere years each week fourteen duringthefirst December 1912; leper-collecting trip,Palawan 6 toCulioninDecember1912(Cuyo, Logof from Cuyo, 4,000oranges of thepurchase andtransport example, arranged andpapayas,as oranges were addedtotherationwhenavailable. Heiser, for Furthermore, Gealogo andGalang’s Gealogo study,Furthermore, “From CollectiontoRelease: andbeef, pork, which fish, werefresh purchased from theexception of With ti ifcl odtriefo vial ore h xc muto food fromavailable sourcestheexactamountof todetermine It isdifficult

of unpolished rice, one loaf of bread, one head of garlic, amongother garlic, bread,oneheadof of unpolishedrice, oneloaf of Manila Times February 3,February 1914). mongo sprouts, Food problem food problemdevelopedfood ontheisland(Basa1923,156). onions, andsweetgarlic, to beshippedfromManila(100).Eventually, potatoes a highcosts,1931), however, colonycouldonlyafford meantthattheCulionleper Jose Avellana Wade physicianHerbert Basa(1919–1925)andresident Chief (1922– toCulion Manila(Basa1923,157).According vegetable supplieshadtocomefrom the mostof sothat place andonlyafew placescouldbeutilizedforgardening; androcky thatCulionwas adry reported Agriculture theBureauof adviser from vegetablesA farm intheisland. issue becomessalientgiven thelimitedsupplyof forthe colonialofficials. andbalanceddietwithinthebudget a sufficient This was fortheCulionadministrators theprovision themajorchallenges of One of andcaredfor oneanother”(Inglissurvive 2013,80). intheMakanaluapeninsulaHawai’ipatients couldto “didwhat they who theirfellow motivations, thoseof tolabor responses reflected Filipinopatients’ (428).were Notwithstandingtheir linked topatients’ to farming receptivity CommissionshowedPhilippine Leprosy that toremaininCulion expectations the of stay andfriends. inCulion,wheretheywere farfromfamily A 1935report alongandindefinite theideaof theirrefusal toaccept asasign of interpreted couldalsobe enthusiasmforfarming harvesting. Inaddition, lack patients’ of labor, towork compared inthericefields over several months, from plantingto sustained didnotrequire aroof andreplacing acookingfurnace constructing was results. aconstantnecessitywithimmediate unlike Moreover, farming, couldhave insuch cooking, undertaking beenduetothefactthat participation themselves”Patients’practically alldoneby 102). thelepers (BOH1908, announced, proudly “was work,” “This patients was prepared. the Culionchief built anewcookingfacilitywherefoodforbothincapacitatedandable-bodied to work inthefieldsdespiteordersfromcolonial authorities, theformer with galvanized irontoremove notmanyWhile patientswere hazard. afire willing thatcovered the“fireboxes” was alsoreplaced palmroof The was constructed. concrete reinforced inadequate even, asanaddedfour-hole of cookingfurnace 1,000 duringtheyears1906to1908.Asaresult,cookingfacilitiesbecame Culiontoalmost trips” each year. Newadmissionsincreasedthepopulationof 116). settlementinHawai’i aself-supporting (2013, obstacles tothedevelopment of had beenphysically well enoughtocultivate afoodsupply,” therewere other thepatients Inglisarguesthat“even if the landandbecomeself-supporting”. authorities criticizedHansen’s diseasepatientsfor their“unwillingnesstocultivate and madepublic. Similarly, actionthatwas reported inHawai’i, health lack of Health officials in the Philippines undertook atleasttwo collecting inthePhilippinesundertook “leper Health officials

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 65 SSD 14:1 2018 66 the fresh beef, onions, coffee, chocolate, Manila Times weekly provided rations tothe health”.Alistof ample tokeep peopleingood acaloricvalue He insistedtheywere given “idealphysiological food,andof response tosuch [were] criticism,stating the“lepers that given rations”. good issued topatients. 1914,the InFebruary food thepoorqualityof colony, whovisitedtheleper Health complainedof ad ihihe htteicuino morevegetables totheexistingdiet hand, highlightedthatthe inclusion of “too monotonous”(Heiser9April1924,83).Culion Chief Basa,ontheother Embrey’s diet. AccordingtoHeiser, complainedthatthedietwas patients of treatment, research,April 1924,86). repairs, and maintenance(Heiser10 twenty-four centavos, amountwas electricity, andtheremaining forclothing, subsistencecostalonewasday was neededtomaintainapatientinCulion.The centavoswhen thestudywas conductedin1922.Heiser estimatedthatthirty per thedietcost proposed scheme was estimatedtobemorethanfive centavos of the mainreasonwhy Embrey’s proposed dietwas the notfullyimplemented; toimprove efforts was rations inCulion(Anderson2006,175).This stifled food constraints thelatterafter1922,budgetary orone-thirdof health budget, ration”(Basa1923,156). thedailyleper capita costof toall,wouldmenu, which whilebeingbalancedandagreeable notexceed theper experiment was intendedtoimprove diets, “theleper aswell astointroducea colony. theleper The of ElenoLogrono,and EmiliaBarros, andthestaff thePHS’s seniormedicalinspector, Griffin, Estoista MiriamA. nurses Bartola of Foundation, Embrey, Hartley conductedafoodexperimentwiththeassistance theRockefeller take actiononthematter.food chemist In1922, anddietician of to 1920shealthauthoritiesdeemeditnecessary problem inCulion,theearly funds. ( lard bealsoprovided toHansen’s disease patientssubjecttotheavailability of tosatisfytheappetite,”sufficient thatcoffee, recommending sugar, and further but not asnutriment tobesufficientasfar isconcerned, the ration “[a]ppears thelepers.” Heemphasizedthat but have madeafew changes tomeetdesiresof T. theInteriorWinfred Denisonsaid:“Ihave heardnocomplaints, of Secretary Respondingquantity”. denunciation” tothe“scathing madeby Filipinolegislators, that patientsreceived thatwere rations bothinqualityand “entirely insufficient theCommitteeonHealth,however, theystressed disagreed; of (1914). Members institutions” hospitalsandothergovernment theinmatesof allowancefood of Manila Times ains swl smmeso thePhilippineAssembly’s Committeeon Patients, aswell of asmembers Another reasonmay implementation beseenasanexplanation tothepartial Hansen’s national theentire diseasetookthelion’s controlof While share of acknowledging thefood Although Denison’s of statement cameshort Manila DailyBulletin hwdadiymn frice, mung beans, tomatoes, freshfish, , showed adailymenu of , were, “allinabundantquantities, comparingfavorably withthe March 1914; 31, Denison1914,174) lard, andstringbeans.lard, rations, The concluded Manila Times publishedHeiser’s spirited Home gardens andvegetableHome gardens production and other agricultural productspurchased frompatients duringtheyear1924 and otheragricultural vegetables totalamount of 327.95 pesos(PHS1924,156)(Basa1923,165).The valued at11,361.80pesos;vegetables purchasedfruits in1923amountedto20, purchased1923, 156;Heiser1915,17).In1922,thegovernment vegetables and distributionfood foruseinhospitalsor government asraw ration(Basa ortothe store atthecolony income. soldtheirproduce extra They to earn to thePHS, theseprovided thepeoplewithavaried diet(PHS, 1926,84). sizewere alsocultivated every inthetown according and, proper of Home gardens (PHS1926,84). Palumpong,were farming andGuitna, forvegetable utilized landoutsidethetown proper, such asBaldad, Pilapil, Sixty-five hectares of 1924,thenumberincreasedto1,069. at thecloseof in1923; and gardening werein 1924(Heiser10April1924, infarming 87).There 920individuals engaged contest (Basa1923,156). colonychief, advisedtheCulionleper fundedthehomevegetable that body Board,theten-member electivePatientsAdvisory whocomprisedtheCulion mustard, kale,Chinese cabbage, lettuce, radishes, tomatoes, andsweet potatoes. cultivated plantedwithvegetables, area such aseggplants, 10squaremetersof of Each contestanthadanaverage patientsisundetermined. able-bodied number of anestimated 5,000patients, even asthe from71outof enthusiastic support homevegetable contestin1922alsogarnered 211).The exhibited (PHS1921, theproduce Sweet potatoes, beans, papayas, andbananaswere someof corn, produce. products, andthe smallestboothhad14differentkindsof agricultural of implementsworth 70pesos. agricultural Oneboothdisplayed 29kinds of form were setuparoundWorcester Plaza.Five patientswere awarded prizesinthe products,Day in1921.Seventy andhorticultural booths, featuringagricultural by the1920s. first Garden Dayfarming The celebration was heldonThanksgiving invegetable themnow willinglycultivated andengaged homegardens many of 1921, 211;Basa1923,156). respectively, contestwithprizes in1921and1922, garden (PHS was organized vegetableA Gardenday, gardens. withanexhibitcontestandahomevegetable patientswhowere toolsandseedstocultivate providedencourage withgardening the vegetable by supply andusing“personal to persuasion” holdinglectures toboost thematterpromptedcolonialadministrators perceivedThe of gravity vegetables. supplyof asufficient however, ontheavailability contingent of immediately improved thepatients’dailyrations(1923,156).Such inclusionwas, Patients, however, didnotwant only toincreasetheirfoodsupplybutalso have lepers vegetables”were begun togrow noted that “anumberReports of interestinfarming, Unlike theprevious patientsshowed yearswhen alack of

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 67 SSD 14:1 2018 68 efsfiinyadpoet vrspl ffish andprotestsover of Self-sufficiency supply generate income (Lumain 1956, 82). Such was the case of theCulionfishing income(Lumain 1956,82).Such wasgenerate thecaseof fresh aswell fish, asto sufficiency, theneedtoaugmentsuppliesof particularly self- ventures. fishingwasdriven Similar to vegetable growing, by theideaof collecting trip, Manila,3July 1912). leper- same were unloadedfromtheCoastGuardcutter“Basilan”(Log of leper-collecting trip, 3May 1912).Two the (Log of monthslater, 150boxes of fromManilaon3May forexample, 1912 were salmon, transported Boxes of canned sardines, driedanchovies, andmung beans(Wade andBasa1923,100). thefreshfishration was substitutedwithcannedsalmon, colony.leper Part of inthe fish fresh the Philippines. was,There however, supplyof aninsufficient in thedietinCulionand, ingeneral, Fish was componentof anotherimportant January 1929(1929,4). toFebruary of 508kiloswere over thetopthreevegetableskilos, grown theperiod andgourd November 10,994kilos, 1928. Chinesecabbage mustard 1927toFebruary 5,940 taroleaves,cabbage, andgourd, vegetables, mustard, includingsweet potatoleaves, Chinese eggplant, kilosof of productioninCulion,T.G. Commenting ontheagricultural hundreds notedthat contracted thediseasetovolunteer confinementinCulion(1929, 21). for thosewho disease. Hewasactive andencouraged leprosy” inthe“war against thePhilippineswhenhewas diagnosedwithHansen’sstudent attheUniversity of T.G. 2). (1929, economically” which hasnaturally helpedthelepers was alaw andindustrialactivities agricultural population, andaneffective direction of rationing thelarge there that was systemof an“efficient “paradise”, asserting Culionas“hell”(“G.” 4).Patient 1929, T.G. of portrayal toCulionasa referred production,amongotherachievements,agricultural thecritics’ andchallenged 15). Bythelate1920s, however, somepatients tookprideintheirrobust (1915, fomenting civic prideamong the“lepers” of thedifficulty complained of the settlementortootherpatients(58). thesepatientssoldtheirexcess inCulion, usewithin producefor counterparts hogsorchickensand raised tosupplementtheirrations”(2007). Similar totheir gardens, underorderfromadministrators, cultivatedthe fields manygrew taro, Michelle how Moranelucidates “[w]hileresidentsproved unwillingtowork in Hansen’s diseaseinHawai’i,and friends(Heiser5May 1928).Inherstudyof Wade, to According 165). patientssent100,000pesoseach monthtotheirrelatives limiteditsmonthly purchasethat thegovernment to4,000pesos(PHS1930, andotherproducts, vegetables porkandchicken, including so of abundance” was therewas valued at26,947.98 pesos(PHS1926,85).In1928, a“great The shortage of fresh fish encouraged some patients toestablishfishing fish somepatients fresh encouraged of shortage The In aconferencepaperhepresentedintheUnitedStates1915,Heiser

were delivered totheGeneralkitchen from en swl sohrknso beansand beans aswell asotherkindsof freshfish;andmung todistributingcannedsalmoninlieuof authorities resorted fresh fishration; in1922,there averaged only400kilosdaily. In1921,therewere 122days whenpatientshadno forallpatientswaswhile thetotalamountneededdaily 1,300kilos. Fishcaught fish thedailyfresh allowance1915). In1922, foreach patientwas 250grams, leper-collecting trip, Culion,18January island were (Logof becomingscarce the fishwithin10milesfrom suppliesof requirement forpatients. Furthermore, thedaily of fishcaughtwas short with thepopulationincrease, theamount of 1920s, trouble was already over brewing thecolony’s fishsupply, especiallysince was thenrenamedCulionIceandFishCompany(Lumain1956,83). company’s company output,asmallice-makingplantwas installedin1916.The thatthelatterwouldgovernment assurancesfromthecolonial getting buy the expandtheirbusiness. tofurther welcomed After asstillanotheropportunity condition,sothat the colonyinnot-so-fresh stations aroundtheisland;butunfortunately,fish caughtindistantplacesreached autonomouslife anddignity”(Kusaka 2017,19–20). patients “toregain Wataruwhat practicesbasedonmutuality” enabled that Kusaka calls“informal isanexample of This theFilipinodiet. its willingnesstoprovide amainstay of adjustedregulationstodemonstratethemselves,colonial government whilethe incomefor individuals andgenerated suppliedCulionwithfreshfish segregated that was Those andthecolonialgovernment. mutually beneficialtobothpatients theirwhereabouts(Sayson 1956,71). trackauthorities tokeep of were thenissuedpassesinorderfor fishermen” outs) (Lumain1956,82).“Leper not allowed toown watercraft, such as individuals were “absconding”,thesegregated prevent problemof therampant were they tobuyasmallfishing To given when boat. was started permission was establishedin1915byandseveral anAmericanpatient patients. Cebuano It fishinthecolony. CulionFishing thefour of mainsuppliers Company, oneof (1918, 203, cited in Anderson 2006, 282n48). Plain ethyl ester of chaulmoogra Plainethyl citedinAnderson2006,282n48). (1918, 203, esterof According toHeiser, were amongoccasionalsideeffects fever distress andcardiac (160). Historicalsourcesenableustogleantheside effects ofthistreatment. treatment having beenextensively usedinCulionsince1921,hadonindividuals treatment,which sideeffectsthechaulmoogra waswithout clarifyingwhat the toneglecttheirtrade”, thefishermen “[t]he medicaltreatmentcausedsomeof that Heclaimed fishermen”. some“leper of due totyphoonsandthe“neglect” bean starch) were alsousedassubstitutes(164). As hasbeenshown earlier, vegetable while productionincreasedduringthe illustratesthis. CulionFishingfurther Itestablished fishing expansion of The vegetables, was anarrangement as withFishing, thecultivation andsellingof aaatiue h hraeo fehfs otedsrcino fishtraps of tothedestruction fresh fish of Basa attributedtheshortage were 229days (Basa1923,164).Colonial pangcos ice becameanecessity,which patients sotangjon (build-up boats)and (noodles madefrom mung barotos barotos (dug-

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 69 SSD 14:1 2018 70 Filipinos (PHS1926,85). distributed saltedfishandsmallerfish,buttheseelicited complaintsfromthe delivering the wholeamountatonetime(155). Authorities also instead of fish totheGeneralKitchen onlyinsmallquantitiesandasneeded, their quotaof CulionIceandothercontractors; CulionIcehadtodeliver purchased from fish amountof reduced thedaily They (155). fish” avoid waste of the“unnecessary fish purchased to fromcontractorsinorder the delivery andtheamountof tomakesuch actions somechanges in patients’ forcedthecolonialgovernment 156).Eventually, (PHS1924, were theirfreshfishfromnative getting fishermen andreceivecolonial subjectswere toaccept because they reluctant fish frozen 1923, Although improvements were inrefrigeration madetowards theendof PHSreported: The fish. frozen of rations over resistance inanopendisplay of engaged fish,patients of supply meager 155). by (PHS1924, fish, which soughtandaccepted thepeople” were “eagerly of Patients whoprovided tonative85). themwithavariety thenturned fishermen the companya result, hadtofreezetheunclaimedfish(PHS1924,155;1926, fishsuppliedbyCulion Ice;as toaccept thesame”andrefused of “became tired Patients black 1924,88). caughtonly fish(Heiser10April since Japanese fishermen emerged anewproblem fish, thequantityof tokeep beingable of the problem wasfish reducedtoaminimumAlthough CulionIcehadsolved (PHS1924,156). andothersubstitutesforfresh cannedsardines Consequently, thepurchase of 88). fish thantheycouldaffordtobuy(PHS1924,155;Heiser10April abundant catch. InMarch 1923,thecompanyprovided thecolonywithmore methodbroughtinan This (Heiser1924,88). fish nets aroundschools of dove equippedwithfishingapparatusandwho that employed with fishermen an “acutecrisisoffish”thatlastedforafewyears(1926,85). PHS identifiedthe thetwo thefish typhoonsashaving trapsandcausing damaged theirduty, of patientshadbeennegligent that fishermen Basa whosuggested even Cunanan,andRodriguez fewer 2003,165).Unlike reactions”(DelaCruz, locallyandcaused to 0.5percentin1923,sincethelatterwas “lessirritating two treatment, Atfirst percentiodinewasused instead. usedbutwas reduced later esterswere sothat iodized oil was itcausedlocal irritation initiallyused,but unclaimed (1924,155). onthekitchen fishlying table Itwasalsoacommonsighttoseethiskindof fish. saidfrozen boxesunusual tofind thrown afterthedistributionof fish intogarbage atall. theirfishration Itwas not themdidnotcaretoget Culion Ice. Manyof . . . [T]he colonistsshowed amarked fishsuppliedby the tendencytorefusethefrozen In June 1923, three months after Culion Ice addressed the problem of the In June of monthsafterCulionIceaddressedtheproblem 1923,three To thecatch, increase CulionIceemployed aJapanese companyinManila Petitions over andprotests ricerations ( rations was thatfrozen theweekly food variedfor fishwas unmet(G. In1936,onecriticism of 1929,5). patient-ownedregistered fishtraps, demand evidenced inthehighernumberof variety rations. inthefish as infishing, Althoughmorepatientswere engaged thelack of of problem wastedsaltedfishilluminates therecurring kilosof of 1920s. fishduringtheearly ashadtheirreactionbeentofrozen fish, thousands The shortage ( shortage thecolony was heldresponsiblefor thefood finance andsupplyofficer of andthe this“irregularity” PHSorderedaninvestigation of The consumption”. were found“decomposedandunfitfor saltedfish ten thousandkilosof In addition, according tothe In addition,according promisedtheywouldcolonial officials “lookcarefullyinto[these]complaints”. demonstrationwas averted thecolony”.The onlyafterthe the administrationof holdingaparadeprotesting against Culionwere atthepointof that “thelepersof intoaprotestdemonstration.Itwasnoted almosterupted that afoodshortage leper colony was reported tothePHS.April 1930,the colonywas On3 reported leper afa half each ricefor was 17and person reducedfrom weeklyand coffee. rationof The rice askinghimtorestoretheirprevious of ration ManuelPresident L.Quezon, early 1920s. would duringthelate1910sand theFilipinodiet, onlyemerge of main staple thefreshfishrations. ricesupply, regarding Problems the withthatof trajectory thericerations inCulionhasasimilar In somerespects, thenarrative surrounding the exact amount that thepatients’representatives hadindicatedwasthe exactamountthat sufficient thatpatients previously received, was the17andahalf rice, clean insteadof of funds. Heclarified how the14chupas of ricewas duetotheshortage ration of HealthJ.D.the patientsinCulion,Directorof thereduced Longexplainedthat Health(PhilippineSenate1917). Inhisletterto forwarded of ittotheDirector to leave (S.I. and300othersignatories1917). themwould beforced many of itpersisted discontentamongthemandif general essential tonutrition either. emphasized thatthesituationhadproduced They which would insistedcoffee wasnoless bedetrimentaltotheirhealth.They wouldration forpatientsmeantthatthey have fromeatingbreakfast, torefrain Philippines Free Press ttehato thisissue, however, salted wasrefusal toaccept thepatients’ of At theheart Seven years later, “another serious irregularity” in the administration of the Seven intheadministration yearslater, of “anotherseriousirregularity” In May patientssignedapetition toSenate 1917, 300maleandfemale Quezon referred the petition to the Secretary of Public Instruction who PublicInstruction of thepetitionto the Secretary referred Quezon chupas The Tribune to 14, andthecoffeeration wasto 14, suspended.A reductioninrice 23May 1936). 3

bilason April 1930). Tribune (fish) was“doledoutunchangingly dayafterday” , although there almost was food shortage, Tribune indicated

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 71 SSD 14:1 2018 72 July had2,500sacks only 1913they “thepresent when consumptionis left, Paul Clements, aregular inventory, whokept thaton4 Culion Chief reported related issues, food.For toriceasastaple especially thosethatpertained example, food- natureof andperhaps incendiary theimportance recognized colony chief 104). thericedidnotarrive ontheday inwhich 1924, itdid”(14April have resultedif year, was notinghow the ricesupply “almostexhausted”, “seriousriots might that March of In onesuch hefoundoutthat, toward visit in1924, theendof visit. onevery hisobservations Foundation, visitedCulion,keeping arecordof Healthin1915 towork withtheRockefeller hand, whileresigningasDirectorof the colonistsreactedtoLong’s responseandhisexhortations. knowing how records, we have noway theircountry. of Duetothelack of of Culion patients, Longasked needsforthesake themtosacrificetheirbasicfood public.families andthegeneral Inhisletterto thepatients’ for theprotectionof insistedthosemeasureswere toCulion,colonialofficials necessary transported to S.I. were removed thepatients When andothers1917). fromtheirhomesand theworld (Long of the “criticalfinancialsituation” inthePhilippinesandrest He thenappealedtotheirsenseofpatriotismandcalledforself-sacrificeamid coffeerationsby nomeansmeantdeprivation fortheFilipinos. and suspensionof “patience andself-control”;heemphasizedthatthereductionofricerations themtoexercise Heurged allocation. food despitethelimitedbudget quality of toimprove initseffort the Culion tocooperatewiththecolonialgovernment not contributeintheslightesttomaintenanceofbodilystrength”(1917). theration”. Itwas astimulant, “merely notafood,anddoes nutritive value of coffee, Longinsisteditssuspension“noway the affects (1917). Inthecaseof extraneous materialsinricerations which meantbetterqualityandlessamountof complaints ledcontractorstoadhere“aclosercompliancewithrequirements”, theyemphasizedneednore-cleaning.clean ricethat Longnotedhowpatients’ patients with14chupas acleaningmillandfurnished toestablish necessary inappropriations. increase thusdeemedit government corresponding The 22,000 pesosannually (LongtoS.I. andothers1917). chupas. adjustmentcostthegovernment This weekly rationbecame17andahalf achupa their loss, half authoritiesadded achupa. To for compensate half ration anditsre-cleaning resultedtoalossof however, complainedthatunhulledrice, sticks, were foundintherice anddirt noted thattwo chupas for theirneeds. Logs of “leper-collecting trip[s]” during the 1910s suggest the Culion leper “leper-collecting duringthe1910ssuggest trip[s]” Logs of Long’s Heiser, problem. responsedidnotendthericesupply ontheother Long appealedtothepetitionersandallothersinvolved intheprotests commoditieswas implementedwithouta In 1917,anincrease inpricesof 4 In a meeting with Long in 1915, the patients’ representatives In ameetingwithLongin1915,thepatients’

of clean riceperheadday clean was Patients, sufficient. of

to the daily ration of rice so that the ricesothat to thedailyrationof

of (“non-leper” concessionaires) were allowed to reside and farm withintheCulion concessionaires) were(“non-leper” allowed toresideandfarm governing the governing insuch places. andfarmed (Regulations(concessionaire patients)resided Inthesameyear, andCarigamalan. 270 Ambulong, anestimated Ipil,Baldat,Palumpong, Dinaydayan, Balanga, propertonearbycolony areasof pesos (PHS1926,84).In1933,patientsmadeuseofthe roadthatconnectedthe September 13 September approximately 35sacksperday, which would make supplylaston thepresent money topurchase eighteen and,in1924,usedtheir own from thepotential benefits farming; did recognize Somepatients 4). (PHS1921, andotherproducts concerned” are asfruits in sofar inthefuture alsohelptheColony orlessself-supporting they tobecomemore whiletheymake raise pursuits;for moneyontheproductsthatthey agricultural Harrison’sBurton in thelepers administration (1913–1921)to“encourage Governor-General Franciscolony. PHSindeeddeclareditwas thepolicy The of their healthandwell-being, aswell astomaintainpeaceandorderintheleper activity insuchanimportant inordertoensure participation voluntary patients’ acknowledged statement tacitly theneedtogain The appeal forpatientstofarm. Denison’s statementasonethat was of an interpretation also leadtoadifferent ontheoutsideforvitalfoodresources,and itsreliance ontheotherhand,may Denison’s patientmanpower meager in Culion 17).The statement(Heiser1915, might affectpatients’abilitytobeself-sufficientillustratesthesignificanceof Hansen’s diseaseandhow it thedebilitatingimpactof Heiser’s explanation of theysodesire” ( if infarming toengage opportunity landnearby.agricultural thatthiswill“give Denisonexplained thecolonistsan thatwould aroad connectthecolony propertorich ordered theopeningof theInterior Winfred Denison of thefoodsituationinCulion,Secretary regarding In1914,responding tocriticismfromFilipinolegislators patients tofarm. Manila, 6January 1915). May Manila, 1912; 3July Manila,24January Manila,28June 1912; 1913; 1913; leper-collecting trip, 3 rice(Log of 1915 alsoincludedanunspecifiedamountof fromManilaon6Januarywere toCulionsixmonthslater. transported cargo The five hundredsacks were unloadedon24January andanother1,500sacks 1913, Onethousand ricetoCulion. 602sacksmonths later, of theBasilantransported Manila;two from ricewas transported May 1912, anunspecifiedamountof butalsovitalsupplies. On3 not onlyindividuals qualified segregation, who for April 1914). leper-collecting trip23 days (Logof 1914, Clementsindicatedthattheyhadsufficientricesupplyforthenext40 Authorities alsofoundotherways ricesupply. toincrease In1933, To encouraged Americancolonialofficials boostthericesupplyinCulion, ricecameregularly fromManila.CoastGuardcutterstransported Sacks of th sano destino Lgo leper-collecting trip, Culion,4July 1913).April On23 ” (Logof 1933). carabaos (water buffalo) and a calf valued at780 (water andacalf buffalo) Manila Times 30March 1914). destino sano destinos patients

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 73 SSD 14:1 2018 74 Other ways withtherationsystemin1920s patientsengaged treatment for thosewho for couldafford topaytreatment from treatment private for physicians, 1930s (Heiser21May 1928; riceandvegetables, inthelate1920sandmid- remained aproblem amounts of abalanceddietduetosuch asinsufficient factors manypatients.for Lack of foodrations, however, remained1920s. amajorissue quantityandqualityof The increasedfromthemid-tolate productssoldtothegovernment agricultural unavoidable (1923, 95). which ”, both haddeemed hadmuch“the inmatesundoubtedly tocomplainof when period”, were betterduringtheearly 1920sthanduringthe“organization Meanwhile,civil Wade service. andBasainsistedthatconditionsinCulioncolony the but alsoatGovernor-General Harrison’s Francis Burton Filipinizationof (104).Such critiqueswerethe 1924riceshortage notsolelydirectedatCulion colonyasillustratedby theCulionleper to Heiser,was of thepoormanagement was removed”A caseinpoint,accordingsupervision (Heiser14April1924,104). inalmost theimmediateretrogression of Wood,with AmericanGovernor Leonard General “spoke thelatter particularly colony. theleper DuringHeiser’s of conversationinefficient Filipinomanagement previously, surfaced inHeiser’s hecommentedonthe onlywhen personalpapers 93). theirraw foodration (PHS of pesos anddistributedtopatientsaspart sweetpotatoes),which thegovernment purchased for2,088.61.00 jicama, yam, (e.g., producedfruits Hanagdugan bananas, pineapples, andtubers(e.g., mangoes) Bulalacaoand settlementsontheislandsof farming specifically in1920, (Regulations the governing thesefruits of (native andlimetohelpmake surethatCulionhadaconstantsupply oranges), cultivate trees, coconut, fruit particularly mango, ( but which1925, was passedbyAssembly onlyinOctober1927 thePhilippine freedombill”thatRepresentativethe “leper Benigno S. Aquino introduced in inthemid-1920s. tookcenterstage Acatalystforthisdebatewaswas necessary toCulion segregation ornotmandatory Adebateonwhether situation inCulion. through the1930sillustraterationalethatpatients tookinresistingthe ways. patients dealtwiththesysteminamyriad of complaintinthe1920sand1930s, and Food rations were acommonsubjectof each Inaddition, the administration. sanodestino to theirriceharvest over onconditionthattheyturn of reservation, one-fourth Manila DailyBulletin Indeed, the number of patients who grew vegetables andtheamountof vegetables patientswhogrew Indeed, thenumber of It isnoteworthy that in1924, tensionsover asmentioned riceshortage Developments andconditions withinandoutsideCulionfromthe1920s November 1, 1927). The Aquino billproposedhome November The 1,1927). Philippines Free Press sano destino everywhere assoonforeigneverywhere May 1936). 23, santol

was toplantand required 1933). Priortothisperiod, , jackfruit, , jackfruit, cajel or naranjita

1921, Selling rationsforcash authority. waysunderstand thevarying thatpatients individually andcollectively dealtwith K.F. n.d.).Altogether, withinwhich theseconditionsprovide usefulcontexts to theirrelativesrequested financialassistancefrom confinedinCulion(K.G. n.d.; made bothplaceslessidealforsomepatients. members Meanwhile, somefamily supporting. Thus, colonythat therewere conditionsinsideandoutsidetheleper to accommodatethosewhochoselive inCulionandwanted tobeself- in findingajob(P. was 1935). establishedintheearly1930s A “Negative Barrio” totheislandbecausethey were rejectedby andhaddifficulty theirfamilies return patients, either. colonyrequestedtheir Some“negatives”released fromtheleper favorable colonywas notaltogether situationoutsidetheleper forsome The andmany“avoid[ed]Culion isheart-rending” beingsenttoCulion” (PHS, 178). exile in publishedin1924,that“thestigmaof PHS acknowledged inareport the canned goods, olive oil,andmilkto of theirration of Some patientssoldpart health( public endangered individuals becausetheafflicted was necessary insistedsegregation Others and inhumane, Hansen’s arguingthat andnon-contagious. diseasewas hereditary were thosewhocriticizedthecolonialstate’sThere policyasunjust segregation 1930)(Orillos-Juan(Zamboanga, 147–54). 2016, 1929); Visayas Barbara, Iloilo (Sta. Albay, stations were locatedplacesin:Luzon(Legazpi, instrategically established individuals totheirfamiliesandfriends, closer to bringtheafflicted treatment not afford private doctors( forthosewhocould regional treatmentstations as well as theestablishment of patients and“disposingof these suppliesotherwiseisanopenviolationofthe werereminded thatrations forthe“soleandpersonaluseorconsumption”of were patients cash1928). Furthermore, ration for thesellingof (notice regarding hisdisease” giving nourishingfoodasadjuvant himsufficient of tothetreatment theGovernment in of was thepurpose rations “defeating that thesellingof morality,To anothernoticeemphasized appealtopatients’ emotionsandsenseof 1922). specialrations theunauthorizeddisposalof privilege” (noticeregarding such hisrationinanunauthorizedway was tobe“deprived of of disposing part Disbursing OfficerAlfredoAmorsolodeclaredthatany personfoundguiltyof such undertakings. Inapublicnotice dated16May 1922,Steward andSpecial in engaged thosewho against warning authorities, promptlyissuedastern who than favorable forpatients( Taliba tiendas mediaandmedicalprofessionalswere varied. opinionsonthematterof The 1936;Orillos-Juan 2016,146).Yet, living conditionsinCulionwere less (variety store)forcash,apracticewhich caughttheattentionof Manila DailyBulletin Manila Times Philippines Free Press , 1927; Cebu, 1930); and,Mindanao , 1927;Cebu, 1930); September 7, 1925, November 7,1925, September 6,1927; September 7, 1925). Bythe1930s, 7,1925). September May 23,1936).Inaddition,the

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 75 SSD 14:1 2018 76 J., example, for asked herfamilytosend her a cash1928).Itwasfor patients notthecasethat hadmorethanenoughclothes. theselling theseitems(Noticeregarding thesupplyof the “properreduction”of theauthoritiessolattercouldmakecould make useof, theyshouldinform foodrationsandtheclothingsupply were morethanthepatients if this system, was,approach but foradministrators athreatening patients. infact, onefor In employed several counter-measures, mightappearasalogical includingwhat undershirts, khakitrousers, andcottondrawers (Basa1923,169).Culionofficials showed were thatpatients suppliedwithshirts,A 1922report issued tothem. theclothes practice was tofood, aspatients notlimitedsolely alsosoldsomeof clothes1928).This rationandsupplyof patients’ of part selling forcashof the hisration”(Noticeregarding was of inmate cashpart sellingfor “certain continued. rations Apublicnoticedated10August 1928mentionedthata of 1922). specialrations theunauthorized disposalof sale(Noticeregarding of purpose rations, storeowners itemsforthe food were nottoaccept warned selling of confinement toCulion,withsuchbasicnecessities. To the discourage further theAmericancolonialstate’s orderfor mandatory who were undertheauthorityof remind patientsthatthe(benevolent) state was toprovide notobliged individuals, the wordwas “privilege” perhapsintendedto useof repeated The 1922). rations special theunauthorizeddisposalof saidprivilege” (noticeregarding of purposes such as fuel, spices, laundry bills (if he is not equal to the task of performing his performing heisnotequaltothetaskof such bills(if asfuel,spices, laundry digsintohispocket “the[Culion] patient Asaresult, 1936). allothernecessities for Louisiana(May 23, dollarspercapitaforeachspent four patient inCarville, 15centavos patientinCulion;whereas, forevery it amountof spent ameager atthecolony.incurred Accordingtothe expenses patientsstillneededcashfor thesellingforcash1928), (Notice regarding clothingfortheircomfort” of nourishingfood”andanadequatesupply “sufficient from thegovernment’s perspective,were intendedtoprovide with patients possibleanswers.but somesourcesusedinthisstudyoffered Althoughrations, thesellingfor cash1928). (Notice regarding action disciplinary theirrations wouldagain”, bewithdrawn, andthethreatof caught clothing continued, despitestrongly worded totheeffectthat“if warnings food suppliesand Thus,1934). therewere compellingreasonswhy thesellingof andotherneeds( to addresstheirclothing,food, Governor-General Frank Murphy Culioninorder appropriations for for increased individuals alsorequested segregated The Colony1935). at CulionLeper General Joseph Hayden for“moreclothings[sic],shoes, andeat”(Publichearing and acamisole(R.1926).Anotherpatient,D.P., appealed toViceGovernor- ept tr annsadtraso “severe selling punishment”, theillegal andthreats of warnings Despite stern It is difficult to determine exactly what prompted patients toselltheirrations, promptedpatients what exactly It isdifficult todetermine Philippines Free Press tapis Manila DailyBulletin (wrap-around skirt), adress, (wrap-around skirt), , thegovernment March 12, Working withauthorities May 23,1936). selected few, manyhadahardtimemakingbothendsmeet( income, rangingfromaslow asthreepesosamonthto25or40for ( policeman, barber, carpenter, orstorekeeper, mostpatientswere unemployed employment. gainful Althoughonemightwork asa of from otherforms enoughincomefromfishingandvegetable cultivationto ordidnotgenerate or theirrations, especiallyonindividuals whowere unable of pressure tosellpart somepatients inCulion(K.G. n.d.;K.F.of n.d.).Such requests, however, exerted them forhisneedsthattheGovernment cannotgive” (1932,72). onhisconfinementbutheeven tohisdependents becomesaburdento support becausethepatient“doesnotonlygive burdenontheirfamilies a double uphis theirfamilies, imposed individuals were thesoleproviders who of of especially necessities” (1932,72). thattheconfinement, Tolentino suggested further were “spendingfortheir laundry, dresses, dietandother supplementary Dr.According toCebuStation inCebu. healthofficial Jose G. Tolentino, patients Press Ice, anecessityduringthesummermonths, was ( anotherexpense topay whocouldnotafford Those themonthlybillusedwicker lampsorcandles. A sixteen-watt bulbcostonepesoandfiftycentavos amonthinelectricalbills. ( spicesgiven tothepatientswas insufficient was hintedthattheamountof upon receiptandfilesit”(F. 1936,1). theticket forrice, andgives ittothechecker whomarksit‘ISSUED’ of that part apatientwhen went “hedetaches totheGeneralkitchen hisriceration, toget revealing withtheexisting system.UnderS.F.’s someproblems proposedscheme, food supply, thereby would recordingandmonitoringof efficient facilitate one forspices, andvegetables. andthelaststubformeat, fish, Heinsistedthis month ticket withaweekly ticket onestubforrice, another inathree-fold form: outlining hisown recommendations. thethree- S.F. of forthereplacement urged InJune report, four-page typewritten 1936,hesubmittedaseparate bodega. rationsattheGeneralkitchen and on how toimprove thedistributionof tostudy appointed andgive suggestions thecolonychief threemalepatients of activelyothers worked toimprove withCulionofficials thesystem.S.F. was one rations, that thesellingof somepatientsdefied regulations prohibited While Free Press own washing)”, aswell asotherincidentalssuch necessities( aspersonal Philippines Free Press Philippines Free Press In addition,electricityalsocostmoney( There were forfinancialassistancefromThere alsorequests childrenandmothers May 23,1936). A similarsituationexistedattheEversleyTreatment Childs May 1936 23, May 23, 1936). Among able-bodied patients who earned an whoAmong able-bodied May 1936). patients earned 23, May23,1936). ). Although spiceswere includedintheweekly rations, it Manila DailyBulletin Philippines Free Press October1937). Philippines Free Philippines Libis

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 77 SSD 14:1 2018 78 and administrators andthepublic(F. 4). 1936, to be“like Caesar’s but freefromsuspicion”of wife, virtuous notonly that hewanted tomake theemployees responsiblefordistributingtherations, (F. S.F. 1936,3). Inclosing, thathisactionwas moralistic, emphasizing suggested pieces ofpaperneededinthissystemwillmorethancompensatethesaidloss” rations, thefew extra theissuanceof sometimes resultintheduplicationof therecordwhich will ration andtheinaccuracyof time inthedisposalof thesamesizeforthatperiod.Yet, “takingintoconsideration thelossof one of small pieceofpapertoapatientwithinthree-monthperiod,insteadjust wasOne disadvantage would thatthegovernment have toissue39piecesof study ways and means by which the delivery of rice ration and riceration waysstudy andmeans by which thedelivery of committeecreatedto bring ticket meansfailuretoreceive of ration”(Report ontimeandfailureto tothestation,failurego items:“[F]ailurefood togo with theadministrators, emphasized orderanddisciplineinthedistributionof canvas committee, as The toprotectrationsfromrain. waste; and,apieceof abigbox Thursday; 8:00to11:30a.m.every andavoid tofacilitatedelivery from todeliver atwo-ton truck rations government recommendations were: theuseof August on25 Among their 1937. malepatients submittedtheirreport three colony proper. colonychief,Appointed by theleper acommitteecomposedof 90 7) rtc fthecolonialstate’s offered another policy segregation 1930, Criticsof 174). headache” notedresultingfr werefrequently accompaniedbyintense tissuereaction chills orchill sensations,fever and sensation during,orimmediatelyafter, theinjection”. Inaddition,“moreorless submit themselves complained“marked totreatment.They localpainorburning April 1924,85) wandered aroundtheislandandlacked theinterest well and desiretoget (10 they in1924.Instead, treatment approximately 45percentdidnotundergo werep.157 ignored(PHS1923, pass unchecked” Persuasion (1923,157). by aswell thepolice assummonsfrom mid-1923, andthePHSdeclareditwas andcouldnotbeallowed “unjustified to inthe1920s.the government “[U]nexcused reached absences” 20percentby treatmentwasthat patients’ from amajorproblemfor absenteeism anti-leprosy committeecreatedtostudyways andmeans1937).Itisnoteworthy of (Report rations compliance tomedicalcheck-ups of andtreatment tothedistribution patients maybeeffected1937). te ainsas aercmedtost mrv h eieyo rice Other patientsalsomaderecommendationstoimprove thedelivery of S.F. ticket. thethree-fold alsodiscussedtheadvantages anddisadvantages of u otesd fet fiodizedethyl esters, patientswere unwillingto Due tothesideeffectsof thatlinked thispatients’committee upheldthepolicy Furthermore, recado recado (spices) tothreehundreddestino ) . Heiser estimated that of 5,500patients, . Heiserestimatedthatof om the “irritating preparations” (PHS preparations” om the“irritating

patients whoresidedoutsidethe recado to destino Conclusion 1923, 157). to treatmentandaway theclinics” absencesfrom (PHS to“detectunwarranted thepatient’s attendance weekly rations. of ticket asarecord ration The served of health authoritiesmadecompliancetotreatmentapreconditiontheissuance state’s infantilizedthem. rhetoricandpracticethat the righttochoose whetherornottoreceive treatment, thereby rejectingthe patientshad weekly that rations, bysuggesting precondition totheissuanceof rations, whileopposingthepolicythatmadecompliancetomedicaltreatmenta food workedpublicly withCulionadministratorstoimprove thedistributionof between andauthorities. patients engagement He illuminates thecomplexityof theseration tickets” (1936,1).S.F.’s shouldreceiveinjection ornot, oneof case “A forinjection,whetherhereceives tohisclinic such patientuponreporting andnotsolelyontreatment.Ashestatedinhis report: attendance intheclinic ways committeecreatedtostudy andmeans1937). of (Report fromthesestations” theirration getting be “entitledtotheprivilege of byclinics for andrecommended thephysician treatment ornurse should in-charge took thegovernment’s tothe onlythosewhoreported position,declaringthat theabove committeealso of by members The thecolonists”(PHS1923,157). adopted. Healthofficialsadmittedthismeasurewas “metwithseriousopposition afew weeks aftertheschemeweekly was clinicattendance“approached normal” his/her foodrations. PHSclaimedtherewas animmediatepositive The resultas iiioptet fHansen’s foodsituationinCulionwas disease. influx The Filipino patientsof patriotismandself-sacrifice. senseof tothepatients’ officials alsoappealed rations. SomeAmericanhealth inorder toimprovegroups thedistributionof punishmenttoholdingcontestswithprizes, toworking withindividuals and of employedadministrators numerous strategies, andthreats rangingfromwarnings colony twentiethboost foodproductionattheCulionleper intheearly century, andto foodsupplywithinalimitedbudget themeager tomanage In aneffort beloved ones”( theirdays, never tolive again withtheirdearly such “theremainderof aplacefor to beingconfined theideaof patients inCulionrevealed abhorred thatthey hopeless” ( necessary, istodestroy intheir ultimatecureandtomake theirfaith theirhealing stated: “To forceoftenbeing theirwill, toCulionagainst togo thelepers force well. toget They interestanddesire lackpossible explanationforpatients’ of o“orc”teptet’“paetlc finterestintheirtreatment”, To lack thepatients’ “apparent of “correct” In contrast, S.F.,In contrast, tickets ration basedon theissuanceof recommended In this regard, this study illuminates thediverse thisstudyilluminates In thisregard, voices of andexperiences

The Tribune The physician signedtheticket,The makingthepatienteligibletoclaim Philippines Free Press , February 3,1926).Moreover, withsome February , aninterview , November 5,1921).

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 79 SSD 14:1 2018 80 to thefamiliestheyleftbehind. tosendmoney onsomepatients andchildren pressure from parents oftenexerting factoraswell,to Culionwas withrequestsforfinancialassistance animportant food rations. Forced exile amountof solely topoorqualityandtheinsufficient Yet, fishisastaplefood. fresh rations were patients’reactionstofood notdue fishoverfresh where saltedorfrozen fish,thePhilippinesbeinganarchipelago asquantity. foodwere asimportant Acaseinpoint,patientspreferred variety of studyshowsfor manypatients,This ones (1990,190). that anda palatability colonial state’s themfromtheirloved policy forciblyseparated that segregation forfood rationsand, many patients, at the American at thequalityandquantityof values, understandings, directed and popularoutrage” of “backstage transcript resistance were that mountedinarenas Scottcalls colonial context.Such actsof withinarestrictive agency environment and ina of resistanceasexpressions of studyonHansen’s This 644). several diseasepatientsinCulionoffers examples withinrestrictive agency settings”(2017, resistance asanexerciseprisoners’ of T. hasdescribed Rubin pointsouthow research inprison sociology “recent held tostrictstandards. the poorqualityofricedistributedtopatientsalsoresultedincontractorsbeing andhow thecontractors from itwas delivered 190).Complaintsregarding (1990, tochange,for instance,forcing Culionofficials how muchfish was purchased power relations”, of constituted what renegotiation Scottcalls“unobtrusive theiractions, intentionally orunintentionally, 190).Someof their policies(1990, multidimensional, such asworking of notinfullsupport withauthoritieswhile and notsoquietones”,actedinpublicor“clandestine ways”, and practices:“bothquiet patients’ inthisprojectwas of Considered awidearray (1990,190). practice” from beinferred transcript [frompatients]must largely officials, andthepress. Insuch cases, asJames C. Scottasserts, “thathidden filtered through Culionadministrators, healthofficialsandothercolonial national patientswere food-relatedagitationsandother actionsof Other accountsof and provided leftbehind. financialassistancetothe familiesthey foundways forthemselvesThey toaugmentvitalfoodresources andothers, orfishing. farming, gardening, theybevegetable in,whether willing toengage andexhortations, patientschose regulations government theactivities they were demonstration. Given theirmedicalconditionsandaspirations, andamid intoaprotest erupted nearly andtensionsover fish, fresh riceshortages of vegetablespatients were inthe1920s, growing troublewas over brewing rations individuals. more practicesfromthesegregated varying While and engendered In her work that examines resistance and agency inprisonerbehavior,In herwork andagency thatexaminesresistance Ashley patientsinCulion. project utilizedmaterialsthat“recover”This the voices of Endnotes Acknowledgement and theirfamilies. order hadonFilipinoHansen’sdebilitating impactthesegregation diseasepatients the resistanceandagency,demonstrates patients’ whileproviding aglimpseof theAmericancolonialstate’s policy. segregation study This impact of otherrationeditems.for theircookedfood andexamine rations study. Futureresearch may considerpatientswhoreliedonthe Generalkitchen this theFilipinodiet,were of themainfocus vegetables which were staplesof rations. food supply, distributionof orhavingamoreefficient those choices outcomes, intodesired theybeextra whether income,augmenting andbythe island), providing amarket fortheirproduce. Patients thentransformed (e.g., sotheycouldleave someregulations issuingpassestopatientfishermen of rations, butwas throughincentives, by alsoenabled thegovernment relaxation food amountof qualityandasufficient to provide themwithanacceptable was notonlyareactiontothe colonialstate’s agency failure exercisepatients’ of vitalfoodsuppliesinCulion.Inthese instances, toincrease purposes, particularly inandwhy,activities theywanted toengage dovetailed withthegovernment’s astheymadechoices onthekindsof acts thatdemonstratedpatients’agency projectillustrateshow some andshapedby (2017,644).This it” constructed, and resistanceare reactionstotheprisonregime, butare notonly alsoenabled, 2 for theirvaluable assistance. thePhilippines, SamanthaRubin, AivanAmit, andUteChamberlin of Library and Archives, theAmericanPhilosophicalSocietyLibrary, and the National CulionMuseum of Dr. Cunananandthestaff comments andsuggestions, Arturo also like tothanktheanonymousreviewers and SummerStipendAward. SponsoredProjects Iwould Foundation andOffice of Illinois University throughaWIU (WIU)alsoprovided fundingsupport generous theNEH.Western thoseof reflect donotnecessarily expressed inthispublication Any views,NEH SummerStipend. findings, conclusions, or recommendations fundingthroughtheNEHFellowshipHumanities (NEH)forthegenerous and myI wishtoexpress thanks totheNationalEndowmentfor sincerest 1 sources thatwereutilizedinthisstudy. patients. Inthispaper, theaforementioned termsareusedonlywhentheyappearin “Leprosy” and“leper”haveembeddedmeaningsthatarehurtfulto Hansen’s disease Patients’ namesareabbreviatedtoprotecttheirfamilies’privacy. ial,afcso eitneadaec usters fdownplaying the Finally, theriskof runs onresistanceandagency afocus raw especiallyrice, food, fish,and Patients of whocollectedtheirrations prisonerbehaviorRubin’s demonstratesthat“prisoners’friction studyof SSD editorsfortheirhelpful

PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 81 SSD 14:1 2018 82 References Department oftheInterior. 1908. Dela Cruz,PennieAzarcon,ArturoC.Cunanan,andMa.CristinaV. Rodriguez.2003.The Cunanan, ArturoC.,Jr. 2003.“Thequestforacure.In Culion staff andpatientbody. 1956. Committee onPublicHealthandNationalQuarantineUnitedStatesSenate.1916. Arcilla, JoseS.,S.J.2009.“The ———. 2006. Anderson, Warwick. 1995.“Excrementalcolonialism:Publichealthandthepoeticsof Choy, CatherineCeniza.2003. ———. 1908. Bureau ofHealth.1906. Bautista, Julius,andMa.MercedesG.Planta.2009.“Thesacredthesanitary:The Basa, JoseAvellana. 1923.“CulionLeperColony.” In 4 3 of Printing. to thePhilippineCommissionforfiscalyearendedJune30,1908 miracle. In Makati City:CulionFoundation,Inc. year journeytowardhealing of leprosyattheCulionSanitarium Printing Office. Health andNationalQuarantineUnitedStatesSenate and treatmentofpersonsafflicted withleprosy:ReportoftheCommitteeonPublic history. Durham,NorthCarolina:DukeUniversityPress. Philippines pollution.” if therepresentativesat1915meetingwerefromCulionAdvisoryBoard. established in1914tohearoutpatients’grievances(2016,175).Itisunclear, however, the CulionAdvisoryBoard,madeupoftenelectedregionalrepresentatives,was colonial officials werenotmentionedinthedocument.AsGealogoandGalangnoted, The namesofindividualswhorepresentedthepatientsduring1915meetingwith “physical condition”ofthosepatients. Jose Avellana Basadidnotspecifythedietandprovideanexplanationof July 1,1905—June30,1906 Turner andZhengYangwen, 147–64.NewYork: BerghahnBooks. colonial medicalizationoftheFilipinobody.” In Bureau ofPrinting. service forthefiscalyearfromJanuary1toDecember31,1922 no. 2:307–26. Fiscal Year Colonial Pathologies:Americantropicalmedicine,race,andhygieneinthe Annual ReportoftheBureauhealthforPhilippineIslands

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PAMONAG – Food rations, resistance, and agency at the Culion leper colony 83 SSD 14:1 2018 84 ABOUT THEAUTHOR colony. She canbereached at:[email protected] She isworking onabook-lengthprojectpatientactivism attheCulion leper Febe atWestern History D. IllinoisUniversity. Pamonag isAssociate Professorof Wade, Herbert,andJoseAvellana Basa.1923. Victor G.HeiserPapers(Mss.B.H357.p).AmericanPhilosophicalSocietyLibrary, Untitled [Regulations].Culionmuseumandarchives,Culion. Tolentino, Dr. JoseG.1932.“Whythepresentsystemofsegregationfailsto Rubin, AshleyT. 2017.“Resistanceasagency?Incorporatingthestructuraldeterminants Robertson, Josephine.2011.“Theleprosy-affected bodyasacommodity:Autonomyand Philippine LeprosyCommission.1935.“ReportoftheCommission ———. 1930. ———. 1929. ———. 1926. service Philadelphia. of prisonerbehaviour.” Vermont: AshgatePublishingCompany. medical history compensation.” In Leprosy presented totheGovernor-General September, 1935.” Advisory Board eradicate leprosy.” In January 1toDecember31,1928 January 1toDecember31,1927 January 1toDecember31,1924 III, no.3(March):93-103. 3, no.4(October–December):389-442. Report ofthePhilippinehealthserviceforFiscalyearfrom Report ofthePhilippinehealthserviceforfiscalyearfrom Report ofthePhilippinehealthserviceforfiscalyearfrom , editedbySarahFerberandSallyWilde,131–64.Burlington, , 71-84.Manila:BureauofPrinting. The bodydivided:Humanbeingsandhuman‘material’inmodern Transactions oftheopenmeetingLeprosy The BritishJournalofCriminology . Manila:BureauofPrinting. . Manila:BureauofPrinting. . Manila:BureauofPrinting. Monthly BulletinofthePhilippinehealth International Journalof 57, no.3(1May):644-63.