Mekelle University

Evaluation of estrous respose and fertility in ewes with and with out

flushing and mated to Begait rams under tradional management in

Eastern Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

Shambel Gdey

A Thesis Research Paper

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Science Degree in Livestock Production and Pastoral Development

Department of Animal, Rangeland and Wildlife Science College of Dry land Agriculture and Natural Resources, Mekelle University, Ethiopia

Major advisor: Kahsa Tadele Gebre (Ph.D) Co–advisor: Yaynshet Tesfay (Ph.D)

June, 2017

Mekelle, Ethiopia

MEKELLE UNIVERSITY

Evaluation of estrus response and fertility in ewes with and with out flushing and mated to Begait rams under traditional management in Eastern Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

Shambel Gdey

A Thesis Research Paper

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Science Degree in Livestock Production and Pastoral Development

Department of Animal, Rangeland and Wildlife Science College of Dry land Agriculture and Natural Resources, MekelleUniversity, Ethiopia

Main Advisor: kahsa Tadele Gebre (Ph.D) Co-advisor: Yayneshet Tesfay (Ph.D)

June, 2017

Declaration

I, Shambel Gdey Bru here by present for consideration by the Animal Rangelands and Wildlife Sciences Department within the College of Dryland Agriculture and Natural Resources at Mekelle University, my dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Masters in Evaluation of estrus response and fertility in ewes with and with out flushing and mated to Begait rams under traditional management I sincerely declare that this thesis is the product of my own efforts. No other person has published a similar study which I might have copied, and at no stage will this be published without my consent and that of the = Animal Rangelands and Wildlife Sciences = Department.

Name of the student Shambel Gdey Signature & date ______

Thesis Approval

Name of main advisor: Kahsa Tadel (PhD ) Signature & date______

Name of co-advisor: Yaynshet Tesfay (PhD) Signature & date ______

Name of internal examiner: Tikabo G/mariam (A.Prof) Signature & date______

Name of external examiner: zelaalem Tesfay (PhD) Signature & date______

Name of PG coordinator: Gebremedhin Beyene (MSc) Signature & date ______

Name of Department head:Mebrahtom Nigusse (MSc) Signature & date ______

Name of College CRCS:Mehammed Tilahun (MSc) Signature & date ______

Acknowledgments .

First and foremost, I would like to extend my heart-felt thanks to the Almighty God for providing me with the opportunity of joining this program and for enabling me to conduct this Study. I convey my deepest thanks to my main advisor Kahsa Tadele Gebre (PhD, Assistance Professor) for giving me constructive pieces of advice and guidance starting from the proposal and write-up of the thesis. My heartfelt gratitude goes to Dr.Yayneshet Tesfay for his constructive and genuine comments and advices and guidance starting from the proposal writing to the completion of the research work.

My heartfelt thank goes to the International Livestock Research Institution- LIVES project of Ethiopia for jointly sponsoring to my Msc. Study. I am gratefully to the staff of Mekelle University and department of Animal Rangelands and Wildlife Sciences for administrativeand logistic support during my study. My thanks also go to the OoARD and all livestock experts, development agents. My several friends, colleagues and family, too many to list here, were behind my effort and God bless you all!

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Dedication

This work is dedicated to my late father, Ato Gdey Bru and to my beloved family.

BIOGRAPHY

The author was born on May 17,1975 E.C in Gulomekada woreda, Eastern Tigray,Ethiopia. He completed high school education at zalembesa secondary school in 1991E.C.in 1996,joined Jimma Universsity college of agriculture and veterinary medicen and completed BSc in Animal Production and Health in 1998 E.C. he was employed in 1999 by Beauro of agirultural and rural developments and works as woreda livestock expert for three years in Degua Temben , expert of early warning for two year in Ganta Afeshum worada, expert of livestock production for five year in Gant Afeshum woreda.in 2006E.C,he joined Mekelle University College of Dry land Agriculture and Natural Resources,Department of Animal, Rangeland and Wildlife Science post graduate studies for his Msc.degree of summer program in livestockproduction and pastoral development.

Table of Contents Declaration...... ii Acknowledgments ...... iii Dedication ...... iv Abbreviation and Symbols ...... ix Tables ...... x List of Figures ...... xi Abstract ...... xii Chapter one: Introduction ...... 2 1.1. Back grounds and justifications ...... 2 1.2. Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.3. Objectives of the study ...... 5 1.3.1. General objective ...... 5 1.3.2. Specific objectives ...... 5 1.4. Research questions ...... 6 1.5.Hypothesis of the study ...... 6 1.6. Significance of the study ...... 6 1.7. Structure of the thesis ...... 7 Chapter two: Literature reviews ...... 8 2.1. Sheep production in Ethiopia ...... 8 2.1. 1.Sheep production system in Ethiopia ...... 8 2.1. 2. Sheep breed in Ethiopia ...... 9 2.2. Socio - economic importance of sheep ...... 10 2.3. Production and reproduction performance of sheep ...... 11 2.3.1.Puberty ...... 11 2.3.2. Performance of local sheep ...... 12 2.4. Opportunities and challenges of sheep production ...... 14 2.4.1. Opportunities to enhance sheep production ...... 14 2.4.2. Challenges to enhance sheep production ...... 16 2.5. Reproductive technologies to enhance reproductive performance ...... 19

2.5.1. Estrus cycle in sheep ...... 19 2.5.2. Methods of estrus synchronization on sheep ...... 20 2.5.3. Effectiveness of estrous synchronization on sheep reproduction ...... 24 Chapter three: Materials and methods ...... 26 3.1. Study area description ...... 26 3.1.1. Ganta-Afeshum Woreda ...... 27 3.1.2.Location ...... 27 3.1.3. Climate ...... 27 3.1.4. Demographic characterstics ...... 27 3.1.5, Farming systems ...... 27 3.1.6. Saesie Tsaeda Emba Woreda ...... 28 3.1.7. Location ...... 28 3.1,8. Climate ...... 28 3.1,9. Demographic condition ...... 28 3.1.10. Farming system ...... 28 3.2 Sample size and sampling Techniques ...... 29 3.2.1. Survey data ...... 29 3.3. Data collection method ...... 30 3.3.1. Survey data collection method ...... 30 3.3.2. Field /Experimental / data collection method ...... 30 3.4. Stastical analysis procedures ...... 32 Chapter four results ...... 33 4.1. Socio-economic characteristics of the households ...... 33 4.1.1. Household characteristics ...... 33 4.1.2. Land holding of the sample households ...... 35 4.1.3. Labor allocation in sheep management ...... 35 4.1.4.. Household ownership of different livestock species ...... 36 4.2. sheep production system ...... 37 4.2. 1.Flock structure of sheep on the households ...... 37 4.2.2 Incame source of the households ...... 38 4.2.3. Purpose of sheep keeping by the households ...... 39 4.3. sheep breeding and reproductive management ...... 39

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4.3.1 Sources of breeding ram and farmers perception for selection criterias ...... 39 4.3.2. Seasonality in lambing ...... 40 4.4. Feeding management of sheep ...... 40 4.4.1. Major feeds available ...... 40 4.4.2. Type and season of offering supplementary feed in sheep ...... 41 4.4.3, Reasons for tethering sheep ...... 42 4.4.4. Season of feed shortage and reasons ...... 43 4.5. Constraints in sheep production ...... 44 4.6. Smallholder farmers perception on estrus synchronization ...... 45 4.7.Time to onset of estrus and estrus response rate ...... 46 4.8. Fertility of ewes subjected to PGF2α with and without flushing and mating to Begait rams ...... 47 Chapter 5: Discussions ...... 49 Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations ...... 54 6.1.Conclusions ...... 54 6.2.Recommendations ...... 56 7.References ...... 57

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Abbreviation and Symbols

AFL Age at first lambing

AGP Agricultural growth project ANOVA Analysis of Variances

CIDR Controlled internal drug release CL Corpus lueteum CSA Central statistical agency FGA Fluorogestone acetate eCG equine chorionic gonadotrophin GDP Gross domestic product GNRH Gonadotrophin releasing hormone HHs Households ILRI International Livestock Research Institution Kg Kilogram LH Luteinizing hormone LI Lambing interval LIVES Livestock and Irrigation Value Chains for Ethiopian Smallholders ΜG micro gram M a.s.l. Meters above sea level PGF2 Prostaglandin F2α analogue OoARD Office of Agriculture and Rural Development PPI Post-Partum Interval PMSG Pregnant mare serum gonadotrophine SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences SSA Sub-Saharan Africa

Tables List of tables page

Table.1.Indigenous sheep Reproduction performance Ethiopian ------14 Table.2. Synchronization protocols on estrus onset and duration, pregnancy rate, lambing rate in sheep ------23 Table .3 household characterization ------33 Table .4. age of respondents participating on estrous synchronization ------33 Table 5. Educational level of household and perception on estrous sychronizaion inewes ------34 Table .6. land holding of the households------35 Table 7.work division of household------36 Table . 8. Mean (standard error) number of livestock holding/household in the study areas---- -37 Table 9.flock stracture of the house hold ------38 Table 10. source of income of interviewed household------38 Table. 11.purpose of sheep keeping by the household------39 Table 12. selecting breeding male sheep for mating------39 Table 13. type and season of offering supplementary feed in sheep------42 Table 14. Tethering and reason of tethering ------42 Table 15. Feeding condition in sheep in the study areas------43 Table 16. Reason of feed shortage ------44 Table 17 . general constraints in sheep production in study areas ------44 Table.18. perception of farmers on estrous sychronizaion in ewes ------45 Table.19. perception of farmers on estrous sychronizaion in ewes between woreda------46 Table 20. estrous response and times on set estrous (hours) ewes with and with out flushing subjected to PGF 2a and mate to begayt ram under traditional management------46 Table 21. Fertility ewes subject to PGF 2a and mate to begayt ram under traditional management ------48

List of Figures

Figure page

Figure 1 map of the study area------26

Abstract The study was conducted in eastern zone, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia with the aim to evaluate the Estrus response and fertility in ewes with and without flushing and naturally mated to Begait rams. Survey data on farmers perception on estrus synchronization from each selected sheep owners wre sellecte. Tewenty five households from Saesie Tsadaemba and thirty five households from Ganta Afeshum were selected purposively,to get information on perception on estrus synchronization in ewes. Field data was collected from 135 local ewes purposively selected at unknown stage of estrous cycles. Ewes were subjected to PGF2α with flushing (n=15) or without flushing (n=120). Ewes subjected to flushing were supplemented 0.25 kg per ewe. Begait rams was introduced to the ewes in each experimental group for time of estrus response detection and mating.The results showed that, the perception of farmers for estrus synchronization in ewes was 26.7%, 33.3%, 23.3% and 16.7% low, medium, high and very high respectively, farmers perception between woreda was significant different at p < 0.05. The time to onset of estrus was recorded in flushed ewes 33.42 ± 0.31h where as the longest time was in non flushed ewes 43.06 ± 1.26 h p < 0.05, Estrus response of flushed ewes 80 % while the low percentage (58.3 %) was observed in non flushed . The conception rate (%) was high (83.3) in flushed ewes as compared to that of non flushed (80). The lambing (%) was also high (90) in flushed ewes than that of no Flushed ewes (85.7), abortion percentage was high in non flushing (3.6) than flushing (0). The perception of estrus synchronization in ewe was low to medium. The reason is due to low knowledge and awareness on the new technology.Flushing ewes subjective to PGF2a has shorter time onset of respons,high response rate,high conception,lambing rate than non flushed ewes due to the feed supplement. further trainings and awareness creations through demonstration and experience sharing is mandatory for the success of the estrous synchronization in ewes. flushing should be demonstrated to more farmers and extension agents to improve local ewes under traditional management.Flushed local ewes subjected to PGF2α appear to be more effective in lambing than non flushed protocols, needs to be confirmed by further experiments in large number of ewes and double estrus synchronization with flushing. Keywords; Prostaglandin F2α a, Estrus synchronization, flushing, onset, pregnant, lambing rate

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Chapter one: Introduction

1.1. Back grounds and justifications

Small ruminants are integral part of livestock keeping in Sub-Saharan Africa contries (SSA) that are mainly kept for immediate cash sources, milk, meat, wool, manure, and saving or risk distribution (Kosgey, 2004). Small ruminants also have various social and cultural functions that vary among different cultures, socio-economies, agro-ecologies, and locations in tropical and sub tropical Africa (Ibrahim, 1998).

Small ruminant production is the predominant livestock practices of the high land part of Ethiopia. Sheep and goats production are among the major economically important livestock in Ethiopia (Hirpa and Abebe, 2008). Sheep contribute substantially to the livelihoods of rural households as a source of income, food (meat and milk), and industrial raw materials (skins and wool). In addition to adding to socio economic and cultural functions, sheep contribute to risk mitigation during crop failures, increase propertysecurity, and serve as a form of investment (Leta and Mesele, 2015; Tibbo et al., 2006). Livestock species

Ethiopia has adiverse indigenous sheep population numbering 29.33 million sheep are estimated to be found in the country, out of which about 72.77 percent are females, and about 27.23 percent are males sheep, Of the total sheep population about 99.7% are indigenous breeds which are owned and managed in the rural sedentary areas of the country while the remaining are crossbred and exotic (CSA, 2014).

Ethiopia is acountry of over 103 million people (Patel et al., 2017) of whom 84 percent live in rural areas (AGP, 2013). It is a country where agriculture accounts for about 54 percent of the GDP employs about 80 percent of the population and provides for about 90 percent of the exports (AGP, 2013).

The livestock subsector has an enormous contribution to Ethiopia’s national economy and livelihoods of many Ethiopians. The subsector contributes about 16.5% of the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Leta and Mesele, 2015) and 40-50 of the agricultural GDP (AGP,2013). It also contributes 15% of export earnings and 30% of agricultural employment. The livestock subsector currently support and sustain livelihoods for 80% of all rural population. The GDP of livestock related activities valued at 59 billion birr. Ethiopian livestock population trends, distribution and marketing vary considerably across space and time due to a variety of reasons (Leta and Mesele, 2015; Gizaw et al., 2013a ; Gebeyehu et al., 2013; Leta and Mesele, 2015; Tibbo et al., 2006). Reproduction and production efficiency is one of the most important economic traits in terms of livestock production. Maintaining good reproductive functions in the herd or flock is pivotal to the success of any livestock production system. Productivity and profitability is measured by ovulation rate, conception rate, the number of lambs born, the number of lambs weaned and the frequency in which they are produced. Reproduction is the propagation and continuation of a species through asequence of events. This process involves the reproduction management (Abebe and Yami, 2008).

The season of reproduction (births) is not similar for all. Dry seasons are usually the seasons known for feed scarcity since natural pasture and some browse plants shed their leaves at these seasons. therefore, lambs which are born in this season have lower birth weight and less body gain, hence, will have lower survival rate. The lambs born in September to December face the same problem at times though they are in better condition compared to that of lambs born in the dry season. Generally lambs born at the late rainy season have the advantage of season in which they get better feed that might help them to reach puberty at earlier age (Gebretsadik et al., 2012). The productivity of sheep as in case of most of the ruminants is markedly low due to several genetic and environmental factors besides the institutional (Hailemariam et at. 2013).

Productivity of sheep in the country is very low mainly due to poor survival, slower growth rate and poor fertility. Season of lambing has been indicated as one of the challenges in sheep in the country due to seasonality of feed availability and disease prevalence (Tibbo, 2006). Sheep production and productivity in the country is constrained by feed shortages, diseases, poor

infrastructure, lack of market information and technical capacity, and an absence of planned breeding programs and breeding policies. Institutions that are involved in research, extension, and services so far have failed to have a positive influence on traditional sheep husbandry practices (Gizaw et al., 2013b).

Estrus synchronization is a valuable management tool that has been employed successfully in enhancing reproductive efficiency (Safdarian et al., 2007). Estrus synchronization of livestock can be develop by treatments in the stage of corpus leuteum or folicolization of estrus cycle. sheep in Ethiopia are kept under traditional extensive systems with no or minimum inputs and improved technology, Estrus synchronization is very important for ewes’ reproduction management, However, no studies have been conducted on estrus response and fertility in ewes with and without flushing and mated to Begait ram under traditional management.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Farmers in Ethiopia depend mainly on the natural estrus cycle of the indigenous sheep and usually the herds are made up of a small number of sheeps and poor productive and reproductive performance of ewes (Tibbo, 2006). Reproductive performance of sheep is considered to be low with annual lambing rates of 1.2 per ewes (Ketema, 2007).

Estrus synchronization permits lambing to occur at suitable times in order to take advantage of feed and labour availabilities, markets, and increasing price trends. In the past, estrus synchronization focused only in cattle, sheep and dairy goats for optimal timing of milk production. However, with the upcoming interest in meat small ruminant production, attempts have been made to use synchronization programmers of small ruminant (Hezam and Saleh, 2008). In Ethiopia from total households only 34.46 % of the householdes owned sheep (CSA, 2014). In sheep production systems, sheep keeping and fattening is now adays becoming a common practice even among young landless men and women due to ever-increasing prices. Despite their potential in the study area, this commodity is influenced by lower lambing rate, long lambing interval and feed shortage and lack of veterinary services and low reproductive efficiency in general. The majority of sheep breeds differ in reproductive behavior depending on reproductive management systems (Abebe and Yami, 2008).

Therefore, it is crucial to systematically describe the Estrus response and fertility in ewes with and without flushing and mated to Begait under traditional management in order to expanded in other household sheep producers and design appropriate research and development interventions that were relevant to the estrus synchronization in sheep under traditional management system, Many researchers work on estrus synchronization in sheep on research center and on-station,

However, no research work was carried out in Ethiopia on estrus response and fertility in ewes with and without flushing and mated to Begait rams under traditional management, for this reason it was remaind to be difficult to use synchronization in sheep on farmer level, Estrous synchronization under traditional management was not clearly known.

1.3. Objectives of the study

1.3.1. General objective

 The general objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of estrus synchronization on estrus response and fertility in ewes with and without flushing and mated to Begait rams under traditional management.

1.3.2. Specific objectives

 To assess farmers’ perception on estrus synchronization in sheep  To measure time to onse of estrus and estrus response rate in ewes subjected to PGF2α with and without flushing  To evaluate the fertility of ewes subjected PGF2α with and without flushing and mating to Begait rams

1.4. Research questions

What is the perception of households on estrous synchronization in ewes? What is the effects of PGF2α with and wthout flushing time to on estrus and estrus response rate in ewes? . What is the effects of PGF2α with flushing on fertility of ewes under traditional management? What is the effects of PGF2α without flushing on fertility of ewes under traditional management?

1.5.Hypothesis of the study

No significant difference in response to PFG2α treatment between flushed and non- flushed ewes with regard to onset of estrus and fertility

1.6. Significance of the study

Significant of this study was focus on estrus response and fertility in ewes with and without flushing and mated to Begait rams in Eastern Zone,Tigray. This which give direction for policy makers in order to design appropriate policy interventions. As clearly stated in the objectives of the study, the essential attention of this research was mainly to examine the effect of estrus synchronization with flushing and without flushing, time onset of etrus, conception rate, lambing rate under traditional management and perception of farmers. It further helps them to recognize the necessity of detailed study of root causes of reproductive and also help stakeholders, including research to design appropriate technology and interventions based on micro level of information. Researchers who want further investigation on estrous synchronization would use the result from this study.The experiment was under taken at eastern zone under traditional management practices.

1.7. Structure of the thesis

This study was organized in to six chapters.The first chapter deals with the background, statement of the problem, objectives and significance of the study. The second chapter consists of the review of the literature that are essential to understand on sheep production and reproduction. Materials and methods including descriptions of the study area, Data collection method, survey data, field data, experimental designs and data analyzing procedures described in the third chapter. The fourth chapter covered the results and chapter five discussion part and the last chapter were covered conclusions and recommendations.

Chapter two: Literature reviews

2.1. Sheep production in Ethiopia

2.1. 1.Sheep production system in Ethiopia

There are various factors that should be considered to categorize small ruminant production systems in Ethiopia. In mixed crop-livestock production system which mainly seen in central highland of the country, small ruminant production is characterized by low productivity due to nutritional stress and internal and external parasites. The Pastoral and agro-pastoral systems which are found in the lowlands are characterized by extensive production based largely on the rangeland (Shenkute, 2009). In the agricultural systems, there are various integrated and interrelated systems among which crop farming and livestock keeping are important components. Livestock production system varies due to differences in livestock species, resource endowment, climatic condition, human and livestock population, and level of economic development, research support and government economic policies. Moreover, soil condition and crop farming also contribute for variation of livestock production systems, Almost all sheep in Ethiopia are indigenous; several breeds have been identified but are less clearly differentiated than cattle (Gizachew, 2012).

The livestock production systems are characterized as mixed crop-livestock, agro-pastoral, and pastoral and peri-urban and urban. The majority of livestock are kept in low input production system in rural areas, while some species are kept in medium input system mainly in peri-urban and urban areas (Desta et al., 2011).

The major production system of Ethiopia in general and Tigray in particular is a mixed crop- livestock system with farmers keeping especially ruminants to different extents in small areas. Mostly animals are left to graze or browse in rangelands or in almost degraded grazing lands during the day time and supplemented, if at all, with hay or stover in backyards in the evening (Gebretsadik and Anal, 2014).

Animals amixed crop production system are considered as low producing because of several factors such as insufficient feed availabile confounded with the prevalence of disease and parasitic pests (Ademosun, 1994).

Tigray region has suitable agro-ecology for production of small ruminants. However, the flock size maintained by farmers is small due to feed shortage and widely distributed diseases. to alleviate feed shortage, there is a need to take feed inventory and introduce of improved forages and some tree legumes in the cropping system without leading to a serious competition with cultivated land (Gebretsadik et al., 2012).

2.1. 2. Sheep breed in Ethiopia

Sheep (Ovis aries) are believed to be among the first animals to be domesticated, preceded by the dog and goat. The domestication of both sheep and goats probably dates back to the pre- settled agricultural period It is also believed that most domestication took place in western Asia where the majority of the present day small ruminant breeds likely originated The hair sheep of Africa and Asia are thought to have descended mainly from the urial (Gizaw et al., 2007).

Ethiopia is home for at least 9 breeds and 14 traditional sheep populations Ethiopia are classified into four major groups based on their physical characteristics: short fat-tailed, long fat-tailed, thin-tailed and fat-ramped sheep (Gizaw et al., 2007). Based on DNA differences Ethiopian sheep types have been classified into nine genetically distinct breeds (Gebremichael, 2008).

Major sheep breeds found in Ethiopia are Begayit, Farta, Horro, Abergelle, Menz, Begi-Degu, Arsi, Ille, Tukur, Bonga, Afar, Dangila and Black Head Somali (formerly known as Black Head Ogaden) sheep breeds. Farta sheep breed (found in South Gondar Zone of Amhara Regional State), and Abergelle, Begi-Degu and Ille sheep breeds (found in Tigray Regional State) have been reported recently by the agricultural burea of the respective regions (IBC, 2004).

2.2. Socio - economic importance of sheep

Small ruminant are among the major economically important livestock in Ethiopia. There are about 29,332,382 sheep (CSA, 2014). In the country, playing an important role in the livelihood of resource - poor farmers. They provide their owners with a vast range of products and services such as meat, milk, skin, hair, horns, bones, Manure and urine for cash, security, gifts, religious rituals and medicine. Small ruminants are relatively cheap and are often the first asset acquired, through purchase or customary means, by a young family or by a poor family recovering from a disaster such as drought or war. Sheep and goats, once acquired, become a valuable asset providing security to the family as well as milk and dairy products (Hirpa and Abebe, 2008)

Sheep and goats provide about 12% of the value of livestock products consumed and 48% of the cash income generated at farm level, 46% of the value of national meat production, 25% of the domestic meat consumption with production surplus, 58% of the value of hide and skin production (Gachagua, 2013). Sheep and goats, respectively, contribute some 20.9% and 16.8% of the total ruminant livestock meat output or about 13.9% and 11.2% of the total domestic meat production, with a live animal and chilled meat export surpluses (Ketema, 2007).

In crop livestock production system, The primary reason of sheep keeping is source of income generations through the sale of live animals. the cash obtained might be used to buy clothing and food items, pay taxes, additional fertilizers to manures and household supplies (children schools) (Gebretsadik et al., 2012).The second main reason of sheep keeping also for meat production and the keeping of sheep production for manure and social and cultural function were ranked as third and fourth with, respectively (Kocho, 2007).

2.3. Production and reproduction performance of sheep

The reproductive and growth performances of small ruminants are important factors influencing flock productivity. All forms of out put including milk, meat, wool and skins depend on these factors. The factors vary mostly between breeds and even within flocks in given population (Tegegne et al., 2010). These factors are influenced by many factors including genotype, nutrition, diseases and other management practices. In addition, these performance parameters are not a single trait each but the combination of other several traits that determine their expression (Shenkute, 2009).

2.3.1.Puberty

Puberty is the time when reproductive organs become functional. In the female, it is defined as the time when the first functional estrus takes place and the earliest age at which reproduction can occur. In some cases, however, ovulation without estrus occurs before the first observed estrus. At other times, animals may show estrus which is not associated with ovulation. The age at which puberty is attained is determined largely by genotype or breed, nutrition, season and other environmental factors (Gizaw et al., 2013b). As a consequence, large variations occur between and within breeds. The age at first lambing may also vary as a result. Full development of the reproductive organs is not reached until puberty (Ibrahim, 1998). These factors are influenced by many factors including genotype, nutrition, diseases and other management practices (Shenkute, 2009).

2.3.2. Performance of local sheep

Age at first lambing /AFL/

In small ruminants, it is an economically important trait because it determines rate of genetic progress and population turn over rate. However, many factors affecting pubertal development would also affect age at first parturition. Genetic and environmental factors especially nutrition determine pre-pubertal growth rate, reproductive development, onset of puberty and subsequent fertility (Shenkute, 2009). Age at first lambing is different across the agro-ecology it may be ascribed to the fact that the ewes attain maturity later in the dega areas when compared to those reared in the wenya-dega region which may be a fall out of both genetic and non genetic factors affecting of the trait.the average lambing is 12.4 month repoted by (Hailemariam et al., 2013).

Other finding reported that the first lambing for Ethiopian sheep within the range of 411- 475 days ( Rekik et al., 2015). Reproductive performances of Horro and Bonga sheeps Average age at first service for both breeds were 8.5 ± 2.5 months for females (Shenkute, 2009) reported that ages at first parturition of 17.5 in traditional systems of sub sahran africa for sheep and (Rekik et al., 2015) reported that average age at first lambing (AFL) 411-415 day, The same pattern was reported for Afar sheep under pastoral management (Gizaw et al., 2013). Ewes under village management conditions in south western Ethiopia, demonstrated a mean age of 404 days at first lambing ( Urgessa et al., 2013; Hailemariam et al., 2013).

Gestation period Management factors associated with artificial insemination in the ewe can modify fertility. In reproductive planning, intervals between lambings, season, age of ewe, heat stress, nutrition state or breed are some of the factors which have a great effect on fertility results (David et al., 2008). The normal gestation period of ewes is approximately 147 days, ranging from 144 to152 days (Ross, 1989).

Lambing interval (LI)

Lambing interval is the interval between two parturitions that determines reproductive efficiency in small ruminant production. ewe with long lambing interval has lower reproductive efficiency (Ibrahim, 1998). Lambing interval (LI) is the most important components affecting the life time productivity of the ewe. The average LI (7.87-8.04 month) (Urgessa et al., 2013). in other study conducted that the ewes are regular breeders and shortern the non-productive intervals (lambing to conception interval). One of the most common lambing interval techniques is the “3 lambing in 2 years” (Dankó, 2003). For this to be realized, lambing interval should reproductive not exceed 8 months (148-155 days). As the major component of parturition interval is postpartum interval (PPI), accelerated lambing or revolves around manipulating PPI. because a shorter PPI will result in a shorter parturition interval. Better nutrition and early weaning could impact this measure of performance ( Ibrahim, 1998).

Conception rates and fertility

In Ethiopian high lands sheep production the mating season is all year round usually in the field while grazing. Uncontrolled breeding due to random mating, with the ram grazing together with the ewes, leads to early breeding of females resulting in low conception rate, low birth weight and poor survival rates the rain season (Gebretsadik et al., 2012).

In sheep reproductive the critical time is the first and last months of pregnancy (nutritional stress) and the first month after lambing (period of environmental adaptation for the lamb). Periods in which reproductive wastage occurs are between ovulation and implantation for embryonic loss, between implantation and parturition for fetal loss and between parturition and weaning for lamb loss ( Landau and Molle, 1997).

table 1.Indigenous sheep reproduction performance Ethiopian

Species Breed Management Agea first Lambing litter Source lambing interval size (month) (month) mean

Sheep Indigenous Mixed - sheep management 13.8 8.58 (Nigussie et al., 2015)

Sheep Indigenous Mixed sheep management 12.7 7.8 1.70 (Ketema, 2007)

Sheep Indigenous Mixed 13.4 8.0 1.4 (Shenkute, 2009) sheep management

Sheep Ranches 22.06 7.6 (Lakew et al., 2014) Sheep Indigenous 14.9 8.9 - sheep (Edea et al., 2012) Sheep Indigenous - sheep 13.3 7.8 (Edea et al., 2012)

2.4. Opportunities and challenges of sheep production

2.4.1. Opportunities to enhance sheep production

The increasing feed shortage coupled with land degradation and population pressure is forcing farmers (93.6%), to shift from large ruminant to small ruminant production (Mekuriaw et al., 2012). The growing demand small ruminants meats, the improvement of transportation infrastructure and the experience of the farmers in small ruminant keeping and fatning are the opportunities to enhance sheep production (Mekuriaw et al., 2012). The incresead demand for small ruminants meat (Mekuriaw et al., 2012 ; Fikru and Gebeyew, 2015). The increased domestic and international demand for Ethiopian sheep and goats has established them as important sources of Inland Revenue as well as foreign currency (Hirpa and Abebe, 2008).

increase demand of small ruminant meats also creates an opportunity to substantially improvement food security of the population and alleviate poverty through small ruminant production incame (Ketema, 2007). small ruminant keepers are aware of the current high market values and demand for small ruminants and some of them are trying to make use of this opportunity through value addition practices such as fattening (Mekuriaw et al., 2012).

Population Growth and Urbanizing

Growth of the rural population is high in Sub-Saharan African standards and the demand for livestock products will increase. The possibility also exists for the country to regain its place in the export trade, especially sheep and cattle, have preference and established demand (Gizachew, 2012). Sheep and goats are very important especially for urban producers due to their biological factors such as short generation interval, twinning, have short growth periods and do not require much space. Sheep and goats High demand and incentive prices of the small ruminants in the local market as a result of population increase, urbanization, and increase in income opportunity for the small ruminant producers. Because of the rapid urbanization, substantial population growth and change in the life standard by urban society, these increase the demand for meat (Debele and Habta, 2015).

Increase Industrialization

Nowadays, many abattoirs flourish in the country; so agents and assemblers purchase small ruminant even at farm gate. Several development partners involved in higher learning, research and development are currently committed to sheep and goat development . These could facilitate entry of intervention (inputs, technology and recommendation) (Fikru and Gebeyew, 2015). Low Start-up Cost Low start-up cost is another factor that creates an opportunity for the development of a small ruminant production system by a small-scale farmer with limited resources. The small size of sheep and goats has distinct economic, managerial and biological advantages. Low individual values means a small initial investment and correspondingly small risk of loss by individual

deaths. They occupy little housing space, lower feed requirements, and supply both meat and milk in quantities suitable for immediate family consumption (Ketema, 2007).

2.4.2. Challenges to enhance sheep production

In Ethiopia small ruminants represent only 7% of the average total capital invested in livestock in the mixed crop-livestock production system, but they account on average for 40% of the cash income and 19% of the total value of subsistence food derived from all livestock production (Hirpa and Abebe, 2008). Sheep production and productivity in the country is constrained by feed shortages, diseases, poor infrastructure, lack of market information and technical capacity, and an absence of planned breeding programs and breeding policies (Mekuriaw et al., 2012). Institutions that are involved in research, extension, and services so far have failed to have a positive influence on traditional sheep husbandry practices.(Gizaw et al., 2013b).

Feed shortage: Tigray region has suitable agro-ecology for production of small ruminants. However, the flock size maintained by farmers is small due to those repeatedly mentioned problems especially feed shortage (Gebretsadik et al., 2012).

The dry season extends from 3- 6 months during which chronic feed shortage occurs (mid January to mid April). Feed shortage is one of the limiting factors of live stock production in ethiopia. because of seasonal feed availability and poor quality of feeds (Urgessa et al., 2012). the main sources of feed for small ruminants are natural pasture which grows in communal grazing land, fallow land, around homestead and grasses and brows plants. Most of the farmers in Tigray region indicated natural pasture to be the main feed resource during all seasons (Gebretsadik et al., 2012). The quality and supply of these resources is seasonally variable. Grazing resources in the highlands are diminishing due to increases in croping land. Bush encroachment and overgrazing have reduced grazing resources in the pastoral areas (Tsega et al., 2014).

The decline in productivity is associated with increase in livestock population in the area has increased while the area of the communal grazing lands has decreased. The research conducted the communal grazing lands in the highland kebeles were overgrazed. About 42.5% of the respondents fed crop residues to sheep. Finger millet straw, maize stover and tef straw feeding to sheep during feed scarcity periods was common April – August (Fikru and Gebeyew, 2015).

Farmers sprinkle salt solution on tef straw before feeding it to the animals to increase its palatability. the nutritive value of the main feed resources is poor; the feed resources are low in crude protein and digestibility, so, supplementation of animals with better quality feeds (Abebe et al., 2013).

Feeding Practices: Supplementary feeding of small ruminant is not common practice. rearly cereal grains particularly maize and cereal mill by-products as supplementary feed for their small ruminants occasionally (Urgessa et al., 2012).

Lack of infrastructure: Infrastructure necessary to transport livestock or livestock products from remote rural communities, where production is concentrated, to urban markets is lacking. Sheep and goats are generally trekked long distances for marketing, often without adequate water and feed. They are also trekked similarly long distances in search of feed and water. There are very limited market centers and stock routes with the necessary facilities such as feeding and watering points (Abegaz et al., 2008).

Pre and post weaning mortality of lamb rates: The major causes of pre and post weaning mortality of lamb were attributed to causes associated with during wet season and inadequate feed supplies, followed by inadequate mothering ability and losses due to diseases and parasites. (Hailemariam et al., 2013) .

Disease: Sheep diseases were one of the main constraints for sheep production in Ethiopia. Foot rot, skin disease, pasteurellosis, and internal parasites were the main sheep diseases in the area. Especially pregnant and lactating ewes in the highland kebeles were affected by diseases. As the

animals marketed are introduced from different places into the flock, these animals may introduce diseases into the sheep flocks (Abebe et al., 2013).

In Tigray Diseases and parasites especially Ovine Pasturulosis, Ovine Pleuropneumonia, Fasciolosis and Menge mites are mentioned as major contributers to high mortality before weaning. The most common diseases noted from the description of symptoms of diseases in all surveyed areas are Ovine Pasturulosis, Ovine Pleuropneumonia, and dysentery, skin diseases like scabies, internal parasites such as Haemonchus, Hydatid cyst and Fasciola. (Gebretsadik et al., 2012). Certain disease conditions are also causing Ethiopian animals and products to be banned from export markets ( Abegaz et al., 2008). Different sheep disease which caused mortality of sheep are Pneumonias, Pasteurellosis, and sheep pox, bloating and ingestion of plastics materials, car accidents and predators (Debele and Habta, 2015).

The most common external parasites were Menge mites, ticks, fleas and lice. Most of the respondents indicated that they spray anti external parasite chemicals on their sheep and goat. The animals are vaccinated against few of the diseases only. It was clear from this study that there is occasional use of veterinary drugs and traditional medicines prepared from local medicinal plants. The traditional medicines are generally used to cure the animal but sometimes they cause serious problems due to higher dose and adverse effects (Gebretsadik et al., 2012).

Long marketing channels and lack of market information: In Ethiopia, the marketing of livestock and livestock products is underdeveloped. The system lacks market orientation, which would have been an important driving force for increased production (Shenkute, 2009). In Tigray may factors such as availability of feed, festivals, occurrence of disease and natural calamities, household requirements for expenditure such as purchase of grains and house consumables, consumer’s income and preference affect the price of sheep (Gebretsadik et al., 2012).

Low product quality: Poor quality of live animals and small ruminant meat and meat products prevents penetration into many export markets (Abegaz et al., 2008).

Absence or inadequate provision of credit services: Livestock owners have difficulty obtaining credit to begin or expand production, purchase inputs, and increase stock (Tsega et al., 2014). Low average reproductive rates: Typical reproductive rates average as low as 55 lambs born per 100 mature females per year in the central highlands (Hirpa and Abebe, 2008).

Ewes giving birth in the dry season have a longer interval compared to those lambing during the rainy season. Ovarian activity in most tropical breeds commences after weaning. Suckling interferes with hypothalamic release of GnRH, provoking a marked suspension in the pulsatile LH release, resulting in extended postnatal anestrous. Females at earlier parities take longer than older ones to return to reproductive status (Abegaz et al., 2008)

2.5. Reproductive technologies to enhance reproductive performance

2.5.1. Estrus cycle in sheep

Estrus synchronization programmes in ewes commonly involve the synchronization of luteal regression using PGF2α treatment (Ataman and Aköz, 2006). Synchronization of estrus is a valuable management tool that has been successfully employed to enhance reproductive efficiency, particularly in ruminants (Abdalla et al., 2014). The critical marker is the male partner (ram). estrus is difficult to detect among ewes alone as they do not exhibit homosexual behaviour. While the short duration of estrus may make it difficult for farmers to detect heat (Ibrahim, 1998). However, Non pregnant ewes will shown estrus cycles or sexual activities at regular intervals during their breeding season.The length of estrus cycle is 16-17 days with a range of 14-19 days (Gazal, 2010). As in other species the estrus cycle can be divided into phases. The follicular phase 3-4 days, and the luteal phase that lasts about 14-15 days, which characterized by the maturation of the corpus luteum and high levels of progesterone that reach a maximum peak about 6 days after ovulation (Jordan et al., 2005). The overall duration is adequate to ensure fertility if the ram to ewe ratio is favourable and rams of adequate fertility and libido are running with the flock. Using a teaser ram is the most practical way to detect estrus in sheep since other observable signs of estrus (swollen vulva,

mucous secretions etc) are most often absent or anatomically difficult to detect. A teaser ram is a castrate that mounts the ewes but does not mate with them (Ibrahim, 1998).

Estrus cycle control in sheep is useful for synchronizing estrus in groups of animals to be bred or inseminated at a particular time. Estrus cycle is controlled by GnRH (Gonadotrophic Releasing Hormone) released by the hypothalamus. Just before the onset of estrus, the pituitary gland, under the control of the hypothalamus in the brain, releases increasing amounts of luteinizing hormone (Abegaz et al., 2008). Luteinizing hormone stimulates the final maturation of the ovarian follicle(s) containing the egg and stimulates the follicle to produce the hormone estrogen that brings the ewe into estrus. The rising oncentration of estrogen, stimulates a surge in LH that causes ovulation (release of the egg) and stops further secretion of estrogen by the follicle, Once an egg has been released, LH transforms the follicle into a corpus luteum (Knights et al., 2003). CL produces progesterone, which in turn suppresses pituitary activity (Abegaz et al., 2008).

2.5.2. Methods of estrus synchronization on sheep

Estrus synchronization or the induction of estrus is a valuable management tool for increasing the pregnancy rate in ewes. The synchronization of estrus in ewes focuses on the manipulation of the estrus cycle (Zonturlu et al., 2011).

Ram effect is a potent natural tool used to advance the breeding season, shorten postpartum anoestrus, and advance age at puberty. Rams are normally kept with the flock round the year. Instead, if rams are kept separate and introduced into the flock only during the mating season, fertility and kidding rates increase significantly, and flocks can grow much fastert (Rekik et al., 2015). The methods of estrus synchronization can be classified as natural and hormonal) (METODIEV, 2015) A. Introduction of Rams

This method used to achieve breeding activity during the non-breeding season, which the anestrous ewes are previously isolated with rams before the starting of normal breeding season(estrous), introduction of rams to ewes inducing ovulation, this method is referred to as the ram effect or male effect (Jordan et al., 2005).

Ram Effect

Rams can stimulate gonadotropin secretion and ovulation of ewes through chemosensory cues due to the pheromones present in the ram’s wool and wax secretion (Abegaz et al., 2008). Male effect leads to a rise of the LH concentration in females within a few minutes and later to an increased LH pulse frequency, which is a pre-require for the stimulation of follicular growth and oestrogen secretion (Claus et al., 1990) This method used to achieve breeding activity during the non-breeding season, which the anestrus ewes are previously isolated with rams before the start of normal breeding season, introduction of rams to ewes inducing ovulation, this method is referred to as the ram effect or male effect ( metodiev, 2015). Rams are normally kept with the flock round the year. Instead, if rams are kept separate and introduced into the flock only during the mating season, fertility rates increase significantly, and flocks can grow much faster (Rekik et al., 2015). CL that results from the first ram-induced ovulation has two possible fates that determine the actual day after the rams are first introduced that estrus occurs. If the CL has a normal life span (12 to 14 days) then up on its regression, estrus and ovulation occur around 16 to 17 days after introduction of rams, so fertile mating are possible at that time. However, in about 50% of ewes, the CL regresses early, and another ovulation with out estrus occurs around 7 to 9 days after ram introduction. In this case, the first fertile mating can occur some 22 to 23 days following ram introduction (Knights et al., 2003) In previos study introduced rams into two different groups of mature Menz ewes. Group one was completely isolated from rams for one year. Group two was exposed to a vasectomies ram for one year. The introduction of rams to both groups resulted in a low overall level of estrus synchrony (27 percent). However, synchronization was higher for the group isolated from rams for one year (38 percent) as compared to those exposed to the ram (17 percent). The mean interval from ram introduction to estrus was 12.2 days, but this was significantly shorter for isolated ewes (9.4 versus 14.8). other study reported that ram stimulation was not influenced by the level of feeding (high or low) prior to the ram introduction (Rekik et al., 2015).

B. Progestagen

Estrous synchronization is a valuable management tool that has been successfully employed to enhance reproductive efficiency, particularly in ruminants (Hashemi et al., 2006)

The progestagen-based intravaginal sponge treatments are the most appropriate hormonal technique for sheep fertility control. In cyclic females acts by suppressing the pre ovulatory pituitary release of gonadotropins and, therefore, follicular growth and ovulation. After withdrawal of the progestagen source, the increasing amounts of gonadotropin released lead to oestrus and ovulation. Progestagens can be administered by different methods (sponge, injection, implants), by several routes (intravaginal, intra muscular , sub cutanias.) and at different doses. Sponges are impregnated with 30 or 40 mg of flurogestone acetate (FGA) or 60 mg of medroxyprogesterone acetate (MAP). They are inserted into the vagina with the aid of an applicator. The progestagen must be supplemented with follicle stimulating treatments pregnant mare serum gonadotropin (PMSG) to induce follicular growth, oestrus and ovulation; the dose of PMSG must be adapted to breed (Dankó, 2003).

C. Prostaglandin F2α

Prostaglandin F2a (uterine luteolycin) can be used to very effectively synchronise oestrus in sheep with fairly good fertility rates Prostaglandin F2α is produced by the uterus beginning around day 11 or 12 after estrus and causes the regression of the CL in the non-pregnant ewe. (Mekuriaw et al., 2016) . Prostaglandin F2a Beginning in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, workers around the world observed that synthetic PGF2α could regress the CL and so synchronize estrus and ovulation. However, it was soon observed that the CL did not regress as readily in ewes that were less than 5 days post-estrus, so that only a proportion of the flock was synchronized by treatment with PGF2 α (Knights et al., 2003) two injections, 10-14 days apart, are required for optimum synchronization (Dankó, 2003).

D. Estrogens

Estrogens also are female sex hormones. They are produced naturally by the ovary or they can be produced synthetically. The estrogen concentration in the blood is highest just before and during estrus. The follicles on the ovary from which eggs are developed and released are the main source of estrogens in the female. The estrogen level, therefore, drops rapidly near the end of estrus, when ovulation occurs. Estrogens are responsible for behavioral estrus (or heat). In combination with progesterone, they sensitize the animal to respond to ovulating hormones. They also influence uterine development and the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy (Gazal, 2010).

E. Flushing

One of the most obvious constraints to profitability in body conformation sheep flocks is lamb mortality. In some cases, up to 30% of the potential lamb crop is lost between late pregnancy and weaning. This is due to a number of causes ranging from poor nutrition of the pregnant ewe, to predation of lambs on pasture. Since 80-85% of the costs of producing a lamb are incurred before birth, a major effort must be made to bring the lamb successfully to market inorder to cover those costs. A lamb which dies at two days of age may not provide a return on an investment (Mohajer et al., 2013). The purpose of flushing in sheep is to obtain optimal ovulation tempo in ewes which could result in an increased lamb percentage (increased % of multiples) (Abegaz et al., 2008). The purpose of flushing is not to rectify existing problems. Ewes in a poor condition (< 2 condition count) or ewes that are too fat (> 3 condition count) will not benefit from flushing . It is recommended that flushing commences 3 weeks prior to mating. Flushing refers to the practice of having ewes on a rising plane of nutrition before mating. It is equally useful to provide the males with improved nutrition starting 6-8 weeks before they are required for semen collection or mating. Supplementary feeding of rams takes 0,5-0,7 kg seed mixture/head/day, the ewes receive 0,3-0,4 kg/head/day seed mixture and hay (Lucerne) ad libitum, respectively. There can be maize, oat, rye in the seed mixture and the germinated seeds are recommended as well in order to activate the hormonal function of the reproductive organs. The flushing period of ewes usually starts 3 weeks before the mating period (Dankó, 2003)

2.5.3. Effectiveness of estrous synchronization on sheep reproduction

If no embryo is present in the uterus on the twelfth day, the corpus luteum then regresses, and the estrus recur. on the twelfth day in the non pregnant and pregnant ewe, prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) increase in concentration, In the non pregnant sheep PGF2α reaches a peak on the fifteenth day of a concentration in the uterine vein of about 10ng\ml. PGF2α is known as the luteolysin in the sheep and reaches the corpus luteum by means of the close apposition of the uterine vein and ovarian artery. The CL of the pregnant ewe requires more PGF2α to cause luteolysis, this relative resistance might be produced by prostaglandin F2 from the uterus (Gazal, 2010).

Estrous synchronization in sheep after a single intramuscular injection of 16 mg prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α), It was also investigated whether two injections of PGF2α at an interval of 12 days would improve the degree of synchronization of estrus. The degree of synchronized estrus with two injections was similar to that with a single injection 72%, 74% respectively (Fukui and Roberts, 1977). Other findings estrus synchronization with out flushing in different region and breed of ewes the estrus response and fertility of Menz and awassi crossbred sheeps to single prostaglandin protocol was estrus response 65% Maximum pregnancy rate 84.62% ( range 33.3% -84.62% ) and the same protocol in local ewes of south Wollo zone also estrus response 82.5%, pregnancy rate 93.9 % and litter size 1.4 and in Tigray region estrus response 44 % and pregnancy rate 50.1 % was recorded (Mekuriaw et al., 2015).

The double injection of PGF2α at 11 days of interval recorded that the time of estrus interval (h) 54.8±2.61, estrus response 86.6%, pregnancy rate 84.6% and ambing rate 81.8 % was reported by (Ataman and Aköz, 2006).

According to (Greyling and Van der Westhuysen, 1979) findings that the double injection of

PGF2α 125 mg (Cloprostenol, Coopers Co., Germany ) at 10 days apart that the time of estrus interval (h) 45.38±9.91, estrus response 81.25%, recorded.

Other findings double injection of PGF2α at 11 days of interval recorded that the time of estrus interval (h) 50.4 ± 7.3, estrus response 78.58 % , pregnancy rate 81.82 % , lambing rate 100% and litter size 1.22 (Hashem et al., 2015).

Table.2. Synchronization protocols on estrus onset and duration, pregnancy rate, lambing rate in sheep

Specie breed management hormone estrus pregnanc lambin Source s onset(h y rate % g rate % Sheep awassi good 100 100 100 management FGA + PGF2Α (Ozyurtlu et al., 2010)

Sheep akkarama good 93.3 85.7 83.3 (Ataman and Aköz, n cross- management 2006) bred sheep FGAGNRH+P GF2Α Sheep Akkaram good (PGF2Α+PGF 81.8 Ataman and Aköz, an cross- management 2Α 86.6 84.6 2006) bred sheep awassi ranched (PGF2Α+PGF 85 55 40 (Alnimer et al., 2005) 2Α Sheep crossbred ranched PGF2 93 --- 73 (Knights et al., 2003) ewes

In another findings the shortest time to onset of estrus was recorded in Menz ewes (34.14±1.33 h),Where as the longest time on set of estrous was recorded in awassi crossbred (57.08±2.71 h). the findings have abreed differences in time to onset of estrus. The time to onset of estrus was recorded in (39.62±0.98 and 57.08±2.71 in Menz and Awassi crossbreds, respectively).

the highest lambing rate was recorded in local ewes treated with 2.5 ml of Lutalyse® (84.62 %), where as the least was recorded in awassi crossbred ewes treated with 0.8 ml Synchromate® (33.33%) (Mekuriaw et al., 2015)

Chapter three: Materials and methods

The study was carried out under smallholder farmers conditions in Ganta Afeshum and SaesieTsaeda Emba woreda in Eastern zone of Tigray in northern Ethiopia (Map 1 ). The area description for each woreda was provided below.

Figure 1.Location Map of the study area

3.1. Study area description The study was conducted in two selected woredas (Ganta Afeshum and Saesie Tsaeda Emba ) Eastern zone of Tigray. Northern Ethiopia.

These woredas are project site of International Research Institution - Livestock and Irrigation Value chains for Ethiopian Smallholders (LIVES), The two woredas have immense sheep population potential which is considerably higher than other species. The two wordas (Ganta

Afeshum and Saesie Tsaeda Emba ) were purposively selected because it was believed that these woredas are the ones where estrous synchronization in ewe is start to exercised under smallholder farmers. In Eastern zone of Tigray region sheep production is an integrated farming systems and provides enormous contribution to the livelihood of the smallholder farmers. Next to dairy, sheep are the most important farm animal. Thus, LIVES and the woreda OoARD have identified sheep potential tabia and priority commodity for improvement.

3.1.1. Ganta-Afeshum Woreda

3.1.2.Location

Ganta-Afeshum is found in Eastern Zone of Tigray National Regional State. The Woreda is located on the geographical coordinates of 14o 24' and 14o 21' N Latitude and 39o13' and 39o 37' E Longitude with about 115 km far from Mekelle to the North, and the main road to Axum and Zalambesa is across by this Woreda. It is bordered with Gulomekada, Hawzien, Saesie-Tsaeda Emba, and Ahferom Woredas in the North, South, East, and West, respectively (OoARD, 2010).

3.1.3. Climate

The woreda has consisted of 19 rural tabias, and amunicipal administration Bizet town. The altitude of the Woreda ranges from 1800 to 3200 meters above sea level and it is classified in to two agro-ecological zones. That is highland and middle land, which consists of 3 and 16 Tabias respectively, The average with rainfall of the woreda is 400-600mm and temperature of 15-24°C (Haftu et al., 2014).

3.1.4. Demographic characterstics

Human Population size of the woreda estimated at about 102765 of which 48607 are males population and 54158 females. Men headed households are 49% and 51% women headed household among the 22356 of the total households (OoARD report, 2010).

3.1.5, Farming systems

Agriculture is the main livelihood of the woreda and has mixed farming system both crop production and animal husbandry. According to (Haftu et al., 2014) reported, the total area of woreda is 504.07 Km2, from this 10276.5 ha cultivated land, 4181 area closure, 1257.75 grazing

land, 2860 irrigated land. The average farm size is 0.5ha per household. The Livestock population in 2014 about 42250 Cattle, 62820 Sheep, 29711 Goat, 5850 Donkey, and 54881 Poultry. The dominant crops grown in the area are: barley, wheat, Hanfets, teff, Maize, Beans, and vegetables such as Onion, cabbages, Garlic, Potato, and Tomato.

3.1.6. Saesie Tsaeda Emba Woreda

3.1.7. Location

Saesie Tsada Emba woreda was the second study area of the research and is also found in Eastern Zone of Tigray , National Regional State, and 78 km far from Mekelle to the center of the Woreda town Snkata . It is bordering with, klteawlaelo, hawzen and afar and Gant Afeshum in south, west, east and north, respectively.

3.1,8. Climate

Agro climatic zone of the Woreda is classified 1% high land 98% middle land and 1% lowland and altitude of the Woreda from 1400 to 3000 mm above sea level and the rainfall characteristics is erratic and early stopping, with an average rainfall ranges is the same as to Gantafeshum from 400-450mm and temperature 20-27°C (OoARD, 2015).

3.1,9. Demographic condition

Total human population size is 156940. out of this, 74201 and 82739 are males and females respectively. Among these people 19002 and 14601 are men and female headed households respectively (OoARD, 2015).

3.1.10. Farming system

The farming system in Saesie Tsada Emba is the same as to Ganta-Afeshum; Agriculture is the main livelihood of the district and farming system is mixed farming system both crop production and animal husbandry. Total area of the Woreda is 116896.68 ha, of this 20127 cultivated land, 6890 area closure, 4055.25 grazing land, 8318.2 ha irrigated land. Population of animals are, 80651cattle, 120000sheep, 40000 goats, 12379 equines are presented in this area (OoARD, 2015).

3.2 Sample size and sampling Techniques

3.2.1. Survey data

From each woreda, one peasant association with the highest sheep population was selected purposively,The survey data was Carried out with 25 household from Saesie Tsada Emba and 35 household from ganta Afeshum (total 60 households) was slected purposively sampling i.e. have user of estrous synchronization in ewes. from each study site to get information on perception of estrous synchronization in ewes and constraints for expansion of sheep production and on sheep reproduction efficiencies beside this.

3.2.2. Field data /Experimental data/

A total of 135 Ewes were purposively selected based on the lives project woredas in eastern zone ,Tigray region and the two kebelle Baalti Maymesanu have a 6350 ewes, the second study areas have kebelle Hadnet 5084 ewes from each woredas that means from Hadnet 60 ewes and Baalti may Mesanu 75 ewes selected purposively . at unknown stage of estrous cycle, to reduce the infertile, ewes aged 2 to 5 years and lambed at least once were selected purposively, 15 ewes purposively selected for flushing, the reason for purposively selection based on the household interested to supplemented for two week keeping before mating. The total selected ewes were kept indoors at night and had access to natural grazing area for most of the day. They were also being provided with natural grass hay in addition to grazing. The effects of flushing estrus synchronization programs and nonflushing estrus synchronization programs in ewes were evaluated.

3.3. Data collection method

3.3.1. Survey data collection method

Semi- structure Questionnaired were prepared, pre-tested and administrated to collected information on farmers perception on estrous synchronization from each selected estrous synchronization in ewes user. Before administration re-arangement and questioner was reframed in such away that users easily understund and give relevant information. Finally the adjusted quationares were administered to the sampled households to collect information.

The questionnaire was then translated into Tigrigna language,The quationnaire was collected using two development agent (DA,s) (animal science graduates from ATVET colleges) working in the kebelle who speak Tigrigna language and administered the questionnaire to the 60 porposivey selected households under the close day-to-day supervision of the researcher. data such as socio-economic and farming system characteristics including sex, age and level of education,land holding and livestock herdsize of the farmers,breeding practice (mating system, ram selection criteria, trait preference, routine husbandry practices), farmers perceptionon of estrous synchronization, feed situation and general constraints in sheep production were collected.

3.3.2. Field /Experimental / data collection method

Treatment one, 120 Ewes in this group subjected to prostaglandin F2α intramuscular (i.m.) injection of 0.5 ml Synchromate (each 0.5 ml solution containing 125 mg Cloprostenol, Coopers Co., Germany) without flushing. Treatment two, 15 Ewes in this group subjected to prostaglandin F2α intramuscular (i.m.) injection of 0.5 ml Synchromate (each 0.5 ml solution containing 125 mg Cloprostenol, Coopers Co., Germany) with flushing. the small sample size of flushing was due to economically surples. Ewes subjected to flushing were supplemented for fourteen days with 0.25kg per ewe per day of formulated commercial ration ( this ration prepared based on the ACDI VOCA refference (wheat brane 92.6%, nough cake 4%, minirals 2.8%,and salt 0.6%), before administration of

PGF2α to mimimize the risk of abortion due to PGF2α administration, the presence of early pregnancy were check used preg tone ultrasound. Estrus detection and mating :- nine Begait rams from humera ranch with good body conditions were introduced to the ewes in each experimental group (one Begait ram per 15 ewes) total nine Begait rams usesd for estrus response detection and mating. The ewes were observed visually for behavioral estrus manifestation daily for consecutive 4 days following ram introduction. Standing to mount was the key sign used to determine estrus response, Nine farmers head of the development groups in the kebelle were intensively trained and administered the form of field data collection method, the data of 135 ewes under the close day- to-day supervision of the researcher. the estrous response,time onset of estrous, conception rate,lambing rate, abortion, fecundity and litter size was noted.

Estrus response = number of ewes showing estrus x 100 Total number ewes treated hormone

Conception = number of ewes conceived x 100 number of ewes showing estrus and mated

Lambing rate = number of ewes lambing x 100 Number of pregnant ewes

Abortion (%) = number of ewes aborted x 100 Number of ewes conceived

Fecundity rate = number of lambs born x 100 numberof ewe mated

Litter size = number of total lambs x100 number of lambing ewes

3.4. Stastical analysis procedures

The qualitative data were coded and fed to Ms-Excel (2007), the perception of estrous synchronization users were analysed variance procedure using the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 20), ANOVA was used when values of P< 0.05 was consider as significant. The time on set of estrus in ewes subjected to PGF2α with and without flushing was compared using mean ± SE procedures of using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program(version 20) Estrous response in ewes with and with out flushing subjected to PGF2α were analyzed using descriptive statistics MS-Excel 2007 percentage. Fertility of ewes subjected PGF2α with and with out flushing and mating to Begait rams under traditional management that means conceptionrate, fecundity rate, abortion rate, lambing rate and little size were analyzed using percentage, For data involving frequencies, descriptive statistics were employed. Purpose of sheep keeping by the household and reason of feed shortage and general constraints in sheep production in study areas was analysed using ranking method, index was computed using weighed averages . Ranked using auto ranking with MS-Excel 2007, The following formula was used to compute index as employed By (Musa et al 2006): Index = Rn × C1 + Rn-1 × C2 ... + R1 × Cn/Σ( Rn × C1 + Rn-1× C2 + ... + R1 × Cn) Where, Rn = the last rank (example if the last rank is 8th, then Rn = 8, Rn-1 = 7, R1 = 1). Cn = percent of respondents in the last rank, C1 = percent of respondents ranked first.

Chapter four results

4.1. Socio-economic characteristics of the households

4.1.1. Household characteristics

From the survey result the estrus synchronization in ewes user of household have no ffected by sex of the sample households the result that showen in Table . 3 Out of the total respondents, about 15% female and 11.6 male of the interviewed households involved in estrous synchronization in ewes low perception, 1.66% female and 31.66 male of the interviewed households involved in estrus synchronization in ewes medium perception, 15% female and 8.33% male of the interviewed households involved in estrus synchronization in ewes high perception and 1.33% female and 13.3 male of the interviewed households involved in oestrous synchronization in ewes very high perception. In the study area, the majority of the estrous synchronization user in ewe of households were male headed (65%) while only small proportions (35%) were used by females.

Table. 3 Household characteristics

Sex of Perception of farmers in estrus synchronization X2 P value household low medium high Very high Female 15 1.66 15 1.33 2.635 0.060 male 11.6 31.66 8.33 13.3

Regarding to the religion of respondents all (100%) respondents are orthodox followers. This survey result indicated that orthodox religion is the most dominate religion in the study area.

Age of respondents About 40 percent of the households heads were in the age group of 16-44 and 38.3 percent of the sample respondent were in the age group of 45-62 years ( Table 4). About 21.7 percent of the household heads lie in the age range of 63-71 years.

Table .4. Age of respondents participating estrus sychronization

Age of respondents participating estrus sychronization p value variable N=60 % 0.436 category 17-44 24 40 Age group in 45-62 23 38.3 years) 63-71 13 21.7 Mean 47.8 age(years) .

Educational level of the sample households result showen In (Table 5) Overall, 13.3% of the household members are illiterates . about 18.3% of the respondents were writing and reading, 53.3% of the household members are from 1- 6 grade level of education and 7-10 class are 13.3% , above grade 10 are 1.7%, respectively.

Estrous sychroniution user in ewes are in all level of education.the higher percent of level of education are 1-6 class (53.3%) This could be attributed to good access to education in study areas. Table 5. Educational level of household on estrus sychronizaion user in ewes

Education Frequency % p value N

illiterate 8 13.3 0.000 writing 11 18.3 1-6 32 53.3 7-10 8 13.3 >10 1 1.7 Total 60 100.0

4.1.2. Land holding of the sample households

The average land holding per household in the study area was 0.25 ha (Table 6). There was significant difference in land holding for various purposes among the respondents. The total land used for crop production was greater than that land used for grazingland, irrigated land and follow land. estrus synchronization adapted farmers the land holding size was very small.it was needed asmall number of ewes population to keep due shortage of feeds. that population was improved in body weight and productivity, this coud be use estrus synchronization and mated begayt ram. Table .6. land holding of the households in hectar Descriptive Statistics Land classification N Mean±S.E follow land 60 0.000±0 crop land 60 0.23±.055 grazing land 60 0.02±.017

Irrigation 56 0.00±0

Total 60 0.25±.050

4.1.3. Labor allocation in sheep management

The division of activities by different members of households in the area is shown in (Table 7 ). Purchasing and selling of sheep is mostly practiced by husband (48.3%) and children (45%). However, all member of the house holds women, men and children are responsible. for purposes of keeping of sheeps 46.7%, 28.3% and 25 % respectively. About 51.6 % traditional vaccinated and veterinary services for sick flock were provided by child and 36.7% by men households. Large proportion of the sheep reproduction on estrus synchronization or reproduction management decision makers was by men (46.7 %) and children (45%). Women may have property right over the sheep, but are low decision makers when it comes to selling and reproduction management of animals. About 48.3% of sheep are sold by husbands and 45% by

the children. Husbands and children possess more power in deciding in reproduction management. Table 7.Work division of household

Work-sharing Household Women Men Children P value Feeding 35 26.7 38.3 0.522 Watering 45 25 30 0.142 Herding 46.7 28.3 25 0.086 Cleaning 31.7 31.7 36.6 0.861 Health management 11.7 36.7 51.6 0.001 Reproductive management 8.3 46.7 45 0.000

Harvesting products 15 45 40 0.100 Marketing products and 6.7 48.3 45 0.000 animals

4.1.4.. Household ownership of different livestock species

The mean and the standard deviation of livestock holding in the study area are given in (Table 8 ) in Saesie Tsademba the household owned 1.2 cattle, 1.72 sheep, 0 goats, 2.76 chickens and 0.56 hive and Ganta -Afeshum woredas owned 1.69 cattle, 1.77 sheep, 0.31 goats, 2.63 chickens and 0.66 hive. Farmers for sheep owned for both study area have no Significantly difference (p>0.05).and Farmers for cattle owned for both study area have no Significantly difference (p>0.05). Significantly (p<0.05) higher proportion of goat were observed in Ganta Afeshum woreda holding per HH.

Table 8. Mean (standard error) number of livestock holding in the study areas. Species Ganta Afeshum Saesie Tsaeda Emba P value Cattle 1.69(.168) 1.28(.136) 0.19

Sheep 1.77(.109) 1.72(.123) 0.91

Goat 0.31(.200) 00(00) 0.01 Poultry 2.63(.193) 2.76(.194) 0.12 Hive 0.66(.66) 0.56(.245) 0.59

4.2. sheep production system

4.2. 1.Flock structure of sheep on the households

The age distribution of sheep is presented by (Table 9). Breeding females represent larger proportion while lamb are the second largest age group in the flock, and the castrated represent the lowest proportion in the flock species. The mean average of the sheep flock, 5.15 (2.177), 2.75 (1.188), 0.85 (1.055) and 0.23 (0.673) for ewes, lambs, castrated ram and intack ram, respectively. The higher proportion of females may be attributed to the prevalent practice of retaining females for breeding while males are either castrated in order to fetch higher price or sold when they reach market age.

The result indicated that the respondents keep ewes for breeding purpose, but ram not keeping for breeding purpose, the castrated ram and intack rams sold, the respondent no more keeping intack ram for mating due low selection systems. The respondent used estrus synchronization for improving the breed and to controling neighbor mating.

Table 9. Flock stracture of sheeps owining by the respondents

Specie of class Mean(S.E)

2.75(1.188) Lamb

5.15(2.177) Ewes

0.85(1.055) Intact ram

0.23(.673) Castrated ram

4.2.2 Incame source of the households

From the survey result the farming system of farmers (table 10) in the study area was 51.7 % mixed type of production, 40 % livestock production and 60 % crop production. Most of the farmers were practiced mixed type of production of farming system. This result indicated that households in the study area depends their livelihood both in animal production and crop production.

Table 10. Source of income for interviewed household

Source of income N Frequency % P - value Crop production 60 24 40 0.000 Livestock production 34 60 0.047 Mixed production 31 51.7 0.000

Total 89

4.2.3. Purpose of sheep keeping by the households

The purpose of sheep keeping in the study is presented in ( Table 11 ). The primary reason of sheep keeping by the farmers is for source of income generations through the sale of live animals with an index value of 0.25 and the cash obtained might be used to buy clothing and food items, pay taxes, additional fertilizers to manures and household supplies (children schools). The second main reason of sheep keeping is for manure production with an index value of 0.18 and the keeping of sheep production for meat , saving,risk management, social and cultural function, milk and sacrified were ranked as third, fourth and fifth with index values of 0.16 , 0.12 , 0.11, 0.05 and 0.03 respectively. Table. 11. Purpose of sheep keeping by the household

Purpose 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Index Rank Sale 55 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.25 1 Meat 4 8 21 2 7 16 2 0 0.16 3 Milk 0 0 2 1 1 9 9 22 0.05 7 Manure 0 29 15 4 5 5 1 0 0.18 2 Sacrified 0 0 0 0 0 2 24 8 0.03 8 Social and cultural 0 7 9 9 6 5 1 1 0.1 6 function Saving 1 5 7 22 8 0 0 0 0.12 4 Risk management 0 5 6 14 15 3 1 0 0.11 5

4.3. sheep breeding and reproductive management

4.3.1 Sources of breeding ram and farmers perception for selection criterias

In the study area, majority of the households do have their owned breeding male. As a result indicated only 45 % of interviewed households neighbors breeding ram. selection criteria for breeding ram is presented in Table 12.in index body conformation 0.48 index, Second considered coat color 0.19 index and tail type /length 0.15 index, are the most important trait farmers considered for selection of breeding ram.

Table 12. Selection critera for breeding ram

Selection criteria for 1st 2nd 3rd Index % Rank breeding ram Body conformation 48 11 6 0.48 47.8 1 Colour 6 20 11 0.19 19.2 2 Horns 0 0 2 0.01 0.6 9 Character 0 8 8 0.07 6.7 4 Adaptability 0 0 4 0.01 1.1 7 Growth 0 1 1 0.01 0.8 8 Hair 0 2 2 0.02 1.7 6 Age 0 3 17 0.06 6.4 5 Libido 0 0 1 0.00 0.3 10 Tail type/length 6 15 7 0.15 15.3 3

Pedigree 0 0 1 0.00 0.3 10 total 60 60 60 1.00 100.0

4.3.2. Seasonality in lambing Before introduction of estrous synchronization to the study area, lambing occurr year-round, with the majority of lambing in September to November and l ate April to May. This period of high lambing percentage is characterized by adequate feed. Lambing was lowest in January to February, which is characterized by dry period under the Ethiopian conditions. The high lambing rate recorded during September to November and April to May might be attributed to availability of adequate feed. But in case of estrous synchronization in sheep to improve the varation in season, lambing occurred year-round by improving the managent. in the dry season it supplement concentrate feed and green feed in irrigated land and applyed estrous synchronization improve the number of lambing.

4.4. Feeding management of sheep

4.4.1. Major feeds available

Crop residue is the common feed source for small ruminants in the study area. Crop residue, after math, private grazing and cutting grass and brows indigenous brows, weeds are the

major types of feeds for sheep. From the interviewed households, 28.6%, 20.7% , 19.7% 14.3%, 9.5% and 7.2% of them utilize crop residue, after math, private grazing, cutting grass, indigenous browsing , weeds, respectively. Although there is difference in utilization across months of the years, crop residue are utilized almost throughout the year. Indigenous brows, cutting grass are utilized in dry season and short rain seasons while intensity of its utilization is highly in February to June. This may be due to the utilization of private grazing lands and weeds in wet months. During the rainy seasons farmers do not cut browses to feed small ruminants and cut-and-carry is much common during the dry season. Grazing aftermath is an important source of sheep feed from September to November, in the current study area sheep spend most of their time being sheltered in the house. on average they only spend about 8 hours per days grazing / browsing during the day time. They are under close supervision throughout the day and in all seasons of the year to prevent them from damaging forest land and to protect them from predators.

4.4.2. Type and season of offering supplementary feed in sheep

In the study area farmers supplement their sheeps wheat bran, oilcake, mineral, maize grain and food-left over. About 86.7 % of the respondents supplement concentrated feed for their sheep while the remaining (13.3%) do not practice supplementation of concentrates (Table 14). Most of the supplementation (68.4%) is practiced in the dry season. However, some of the respondents supplement in both seasons (13.3%) and wet season (5%). Table 16 presents feed supplementation by age and supplemental feeds. In the study area, majority of farmers usually supplements 85% of all age of sheeps and 1.7% separetly lamb supplemented concentrate feeds. This may be because the farmers in the study area have few sheep in which they do not separately supplement specific age. During supplementation the interval of supplementing their sheeps daily (53.3%) or twice aday (26.7%) and 13.3% when ever available. Reason of not supplement concentrated feed in sheep about 11.6% consider not want offered concentrated feed in sheep. 1.7% respondent due to expensive of supplemented feed.

Table 13. type and season of offering supplementary feed in sheep Supplement feed in sheep 1. Have you supplemented in sheep Percentage Yes 86.7 No 13.3 2. Type of sheep supplement Lamb 1.7 Young 0 Ewe ,ram, castrated and young 85 3. Season of supplementation Dry 68.4 Wet season 5 Both season 13.3 4. Frequency of supplementation Daily 53.3 Twice aday 26.7 When ever available 13.3 5. If not supplement why Not accesseble 0 Expensive 1.7 Not want offered in sheep 11.6

4.4.3, Reasons for tethering sheep

The majority (81.7 %) of the interviewed households are not applied tether their sheep in the study area and 18.3% of the interviewed respondents are accustomed to tether their sheeps. (Table 14), The major reasons includes avoid to crop damage (10 %),to save labor (8.3%). Table 14 . Tethering and purpose of tethering

Reasons Frequancy % Practice of tethering Yes 11 18.3 No 49 81.7 Reasons of tethering To avoid damage 6 54.5

To save labor 5 45.5

4.4.4. Season of feed shortage and reasons

Feed shortage is one of the limitations for sheep production in the area. From the interviewed households, 100 % of the respondents reported feed shortage in the area ( Table 15 ). Although the shortage is indicated across all seasons of the year, higher percentage 63.3 % was reported for dry season, while 1.7 % and 35 % were also reported for wet and both seasons, respectively. The higher feed shortage during the dry season may be due to the grazing area is closed, which provides little forage cut and currying in dry season, in wet season as most lands are covered by crop, the animal are not allowed to move freely. The reasons for higher intensity of feed shortage in the study areas may be associated with drought and decrease productivity of the lands and grazing land changed to cultivated land. Table 15. feeding condition in sheep in the study areas Feeding condition % Feed shortage 100 Season of shortage Dry season 63.3 Wet season 1.7 Both season 35

Various reasons have been viewed by respondents for the prevailing feed shortage in the study area (Table 16), Most households in the study area reported that the main reason for feed shortage in the area was drought and decrease productivity of the lands and grazing land changed to cultivated land from year to year.

Table 16. reason of feed shortage

Reason of feed reduction 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Index Rank

Decrease productivity 4 35 15 6 0 0.24 2

Cultivated grazing land 9 6 14 18 13 0.18 4

Increase animal 11 16 16 9 9 0.22 3 population

Drought 36 1 2 21 0 0.26 1

Increase human 0 2 13 6 39 0.11 5 population

4.5. Constraints in sheep production

There are several sheep production constraints in the study area (Table 17). According to respondents feed shortage, drought, genotype, diseases, water shortage, market problem, lack of extension service, predator and shortage of labor 0.24, 0.21, 0.14, 0.12, 0.10, 0.08, 0.07, 0.03 and 0.0 index were recorded, respectively. as the main constraints in sheep production, Lack of market and lack of extension service the expert and extension agent were also mentioned a sheep production constraints with lower index values. From the current study it was observed that the severity and scope of the sheep production constraints differed from woreda to woreda, For instance, water shortage was the main problem in Baalti maymesanu , but it was not the main problem in Hadnet kebelle . Table 17. Constraints in sheep production in study areas

Constraints Frequencey Weigh Rank Index 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Genotype 7 9 4 4 17 3 2 2 0.14 3 Feed shortage 33 23 1 2 0 0 0 0 0.24 1 Water shortage 0 0 12 18 5 1 1 0 0.10 5 Disease 1 5 19 12 2 0 0 0 0.12 4 Drought 20 19 12 0 2 0 0 0 0.21 2 Market problem 0 2 8 2 4 11 11 4 0.08 6 Lack of extension service 0 0 4 3 15 9 2 0 0.07 7 predator 0 0 2 1 0 1 8 20 0.03 8 shortage of labor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 9

4.6. Smallholder farmers perception on estrus synchronization

Smallholder farmers perception on estrus synchronization of sheep is presented in Table 18 Farmers were practiced estrous synchronization to reduce the time onset of estrous and to improvement conception rate in ewes. About 100% of the respondent practiced natural mating before LIVES project intervations, the time onset at natural mating is not well recording and the conception failed were not solved properly during natural mating. There are a number of factors contributing to unsuccessful pregnancy after mating. the reason for failure of natural mating in the study area was disease problem, feeding problem, lambing at dry season low survaivale of new born lambs.

The overall, the perception of farmers for estrus synchronization in ewes was 26.6%, 33.3%, 23.3% and 16.7% low, medium, high and very high, respectively.

On other side the result indicated that 26.7% of the households responded estrus synchronization was low its perception rate in the study area, this result was due to in available of breeding ram, shortage of feed, low awareness of farmers on the estrous synchronization in ewes.There was also poor awareness on the advantage of estrus synchronization in which some farmers understand injection of hormones consider similar to mated by ram which did not keeping the ewes with the ram until to mating and some ewes not response for PGF2α treatment.The perception of farmers for estrus synchronization in ewes was highly significant at p<0.05.

Table 18. Perception of farmers for estrus synchronization in ewes

Perception N % X2 P value Low 16 26.7 13.56 0.000 Medium 20 33.3 High 14 23.3 Very high 10 16.7 Total 60 100 Where ,N the number of respondents

The Smallholder farmers perception on estrus synchronization between the two woreda presented in Table.19 the perception of farmers in Saesie Tsaemda highly significant than the perception of Ganta Afeshum at p > 0.05. Table 19. The perception of households on estrous sychronization between worda

Perception of households Perception woreda Gnta Afeshum Saesie Tsada total x2 p-value Emba N % N % N % 1.667 0.19 Low 16 45.71 0 0 16 26.67 Medium 11 31.43 9 36 20 33.33 High 4 11.43 10 40 14 23.33 Very high 4 11.43 6 24 10 16.67 Total 35 100 25 100 60 100

4.7.Time to onset of estrus and estrus response rate

Table 20 presents the time to onset of estrus with and without flushing. The result shows that the in time to onset of estrus among flushing and non flushing local ewes subjected to PGF2α highly significant difference at (P<0.05) . The shortest time to onset of estrus was recorded in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α 33.42 ± 0.31h where as the longest time was in non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α 43.06 ± 1.26 h.

Table 20. Estrous response and times to onset estrus (hours) ewes with and without flushing subjected to PGF2α under local management. Time to on set of estrus (h) Factor N Estrous response Mean ± SD P (%) X2 value

Flushing 15 80 (12/ 15) 33.42 ±.313 8.307 0.004 Non flushing 120 43.06 ± 1.26

The differences in time onset estrus between two groups are significant difference at (p < 0.05). Where, N the number of ewes onset estrus Where, and SD is standard deviation

Estrus response rate of the flushed and non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α were showen in (Tabe 21).The estrous respose % was higher than in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α (80%) as compared to that of non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α (58.3%).

4.8. Fertility of ewes subjected to PGF2α with and without flushing and mating to Begait rams

The conception rate was (83.3%) in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α and non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α (80%). The conception in the case of non flushed group was not a clear reflection of their poor nutritional status as they were not able to meet their nutrient requirements solely from flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α.

The lambing (%) was also higher (90%) in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α than that of non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α (85.7 %) due to supplement feeds. . The abortion rate was relatively higher (3.6%) in non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α than of flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α (0%), p<0.05 Significant differences among the treatment were observed concerning the abortion rate, the cause of this abortion was due to poor management. . Fecundity and litter size at birth in ewes are shown in Table 21. Increasing sheep productivity by increasing lambing rate, litter size and fecundity is considered as an important factor in the development of ewes’ production. In the present study, there was significant increases in Fecundity in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α compared to non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α. Fecundity rates recorded were found to be 75% and 68.6% in flushed subjected to PGF2α and non flushed subjected to PGF2α, respectively. Litter size at birth is expressed as number of born lambs per ewe lambed and is considered an important parameter of fertility. No significant differences recorded between these two groups in litter size (p > 0.05) in flushed subjected to PGF2α and non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α.

Table 21. Fertility of ewes subjected PGF2α with and without flushing and mating to Begait rams under traditional management Reproductive traits Flushing Non flushing P - value No of ewes 15 120 Conception rate % 83.3 (10/ 12) 80(56/ 70) 0.01 Lambing rate % 90 (9/ 10) 85.7 (48/ 56) 0.01 Abortion % 0 (0/ 10) 3.6 (2/ 56) 0.01 Died % 6.7(1/15) 5(6/120) 0.01 Fecundity % 75 (9/ 12) 68.6 (48/70) 0.01 Little size 1 (9/ 9) 1 (48/48) 0.98

Chapter 5: Discussions

The perception of smallholder farmers on estrous synchronization in ewes in the study areas almost low and medium The high and very high perception was very small this technology was not applied in small ruminant before this application. This result was agreed with (Gebremichael, 2015) who reported in central zone of Tigray in dairy cattle the overall perception of farmers for estrus synchronization was 54.7%, 26.5%, 14.5% and 4.3% low, medium, high and very high, respectively.

The perception of farmers on estrus synchronization of ewes affected by level of education of the respondents. The high level of farmers that means 53.3% of the respondents 1- 6 level of education, similar finding reported by (Nigussie et al., 2015 ; Gebremichael, 2015) who reported Better educational background of respondents obtained in mixed crop-livestock and agro- pastoral system might be a good potential for adoption of improved technologies and facilitate performance and pedigree recording.

Large proportion of the sheep reproduction on estrus synchronization or reproduction management decision makers was men 46.7 % and child 45% . Women may have property right over the sheep, but are not decision makers when it comes to selling and reproduction management of sheep. About 48.3% of sheep were sold by husbands and 45% by the child. Husbands and child possess more power in deciding in reproduction management. The results obtained in this study were slightly different from (Hailemariam et al., 2013) who reported where women and children may have property right over the flocks, but women not decision makers when it comes to selling of animals. About 48% of sheep were sold by husbands.

Body conformation was the most important trait farmers considered for selection of breeding rams. About 55% of the respondents own their own breeding rams, while 45% of the respondents share breeding rams with their neighbors. This result was dis agree with (Urgessa et al., 2013 ; Shenkute, 2009) who reported that coat color (16.3%), body conformation (57%) and pedigree performances (25%) as the most important criteria in selecting breeding rams in Ilu Abba Bora zone and Gamogofa zone and disagree with (Kocho, 2007) who reported that

desirable physical traits of sheep and for breeding and fattening coat color 54 %, Horn 50 %,ear 10 % and tail 53%.

The results ontained on lambing season in this study differ from (Belete et al., 2015) where intensive lambing during April to October and lowest lambing rate during October to January were reported in Gomma district. This result was similar with (Urgessa et al., 2013) who reported in Illu Ababora zone lambing occurred year-round, with the majority of lambing occurring in September to October and late April to June.

Supplement feed listed in the present finding were different from (Shenkute, 2009) who finding in Alaba woreda, southern Ethiopia, were the practice of supplementing sheep and goats with concentrates is not common and farmers supplement their sheep and goats with non-conventional supplements. During dry season about 92% of the households supplement their animals from which two-third of them supplement in both seasons of the year.

Feed shortage in terms of both quantity and quality was identified as a major constraint in the study areas which is in the agreement with different research report else where in the country (Nigussie et al., 2015 ; Gebremedhin et al., 2004; Shenkute, 2009). . Feed shortage especially in the long dry season is critical problem in the study areas. The main reason for feed shortage in the area was drought and decrease productivity of the lands and grazing land changed to cultivated land from year to year. This findings agree with the previous finding by (Shenkute, 2009 ; Urgessa et al., 2012) who reported the main reason for feed shortage in the area was expansion of arable farming and decline of land productivity.

Disease prevalence was identified as the fourth major cause of sheep mortality and affects the productivity in the present study. Similar finding was reported by (Abebe et al., 2013, Gebretsadik et al., 2012, Shenkute, 2009) whose reported that diseases and parasites especially Ovine Pasturulosis, Ovine Pleuropneumonia, Fasciolosis and Menge mites are mentioned as major contributers to high mortality before weaning.

Local ewes have a poor reproductive performance. Therefore, increasing local ewes productivity by increasing lambing frequency and fecundity is considered important in local ewes production in the study area. On the other hand, the control and planned breeding for lambing in feed available season and to minimized the lamb mortality and increased the lambing rate by estrous synchronization in local ewes. estrus synchronization programmes in ewes commonly involve the synchronization of luteal regression using prostaglandin treatment.

The present finding was the flushed local ewes subjected PGF2α has shorter time to on set of estrous 33.42 ±0.31 h than non flushed local ewes subjected PGF2α 43.06 ± 1.26 h. This result was dis agreement with provious finding by (Sabra and Hassan, 2008 ; Mekuriaw et al., 2012; Ataman and Aköz, 2006). The time on set minimum 34.14±1.33h and maximum 57.08±2.71h.

The present finding was longer time of onset than the previous finding of (Hashemi et al., 2006) CIDR + eCG te treatment 30.1±7.6 h and MAP sponge + eCG treatment 29.6±5.6 h .

In estrus responses the current study that higher in flushed subjected to PGF2A 80 % than non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α 58.3 %. These results were higher than previous finding of (Mekuriaw et al., 2015) who reported that estrus response rate in local ewes synchronized by intramuscular injection of 2.5 ml Lutalyse® ,Intramuscular injection of 2ml Lutalyse® Intramuscular injection of 1ml Synchromate®, Intramuscular injection of 0.8 ml Synchromate® (60 % , 55 %,60 and 45%) respectively.

Estrous respose the present result was slightly lower than the previous finding of (Abdalla et al., 2014 ;Zonturlu et al., 2011; Ozyurtlu et al., 2010) who reported that in Awassi ewes out breeding season the estrous response with difference estrus sychronition treatment FGA, PGF2α + FGA and PMSG +FGA and PGF2α + FGA + GnRH . estrous respose rate (70%,100%, 100 %and 100% was recorded respectively, The present result of estrous response was lower than the previos of (Ataman and Aköz, 2006) 86.6% recorded by double PGF2α synchronization, and finding by (Naderipour et al., 2014; Awel et al., 2009 ; Hashemi et al., 2006), the respose rate of PGF2 α was 80% recorded in University of Zanjan iran and finding by (Knights et al., 2003) respose rate of PGF2α12 days apart (PGF; 20 mg/injection) was 93 % recorded,

Conception rate was relatively higher (83.3%) in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2 α than non flushing of ewes subjected to PGF2A (80%).This result was higher than that obtained by (Chaturvedi et al., 2006) reported (79.2%) in flushed ewes and (66.7%) in non flushed ewe and lower than that obtained by (Abdalla et al., 2014) sychronized Barki ewes by second injection PGF2α , PGF2α, FGA and PMSG and PGF2α, FGA and GnRH the conception rate (95%, 100% and 100%) recorded respectively and higher than finging by ( (Awel et al., 2009) who reported that Half Dose Norgestomet Implant + Injectable + eCG and Full dose Norgestomet Implant + Injectable + eCG) conception rate was 71.42% and 42.85% recorded respectively. and slightly lower than (Ataman and Aköz, 2006) who reported that 84.6 % estrous response recored by double PGF2α synchronization in Turkey.

Lambing rate (%) was a higher (90 %) in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α than that of non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α (85.7%), The flushed and non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α . the present findings were higher than the pevious finding by (Mekuriaw et al., 2015) the lambing rate recorded in local ewes treated with 2.5 ml of Lutalyse® and Intramuscular injection of 2ml Lutalyse® (58.33 % and 54.55% ) respectively, and the present findings were higher than the previou report by (Knights et al., 2003) who reported lambing rate synchronized by PGF2α 12 days apart (PGF; 20 mg/injection) was 73 % recorded in western verjinia.and (Chaturvedi et al., 2006) flushed and non flushed 73.7% and 37% respectivey. The present findings lower than the previous finding of (Awel et al., 2009) who report Half Dose Norgestomet Implant + Injectable + eCG and Full dose Norgestomet Implant + Injectable + eCG) the lambing rate 100% and 100 % recorded respectively. (Ozyurtlu et al., 2010) reported that in awassi ewes out of breeding season the lambing rate with difference estrous sychronition treatment FGA, PGF2α + FGA and PMSG +FGA and PGF2α + FGA + GnRH, lambing rate (100%,100%, 100 %and 100% was recorded respectively.

Abortion rate was relatively higher (3.6%) in non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2 α than of flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α was (0%), abortion rate of flushed ewes subjected to PGF2A result was similar with that obtained by (Abdalla et al., 2014) who reported sychronized Barki

ewes by second injection PGF2α , PGF2α, FGA and PMSG abortion rate (0% and 0% ) recorded respectively, and lower than that finding obtained by (Abdalla et al., 2014) sychronized Barki ewes by PGF2α, FGA and GnRH abortion rate was (5.26%) recorded. The 0% of abortion in flushed ewes may be due the supplement concentrated feeds.

In the present study, there was significant increase in fecundity in flushed ewes subjected to PGF2 α compared to non flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α. Fecundity rates recorded were found to be 75% and 68.6% in flushed and non flushed respectively, this result were lower than reported by (Abdalla et al., 2014) who reported that fecundity with different protocols PGF2α, PMSG and GnRH 100% ,134% and 94% recorded respectively. The present result was disagree with (Chaturvedi et al., 2006) who reported that fecundity in flushed ewes lower than non flushed ewes due to died the flushed pregnant ewes,

In the present study, the mean litter size at birth is expressed as number of born lambs per ewe lambed, was considered an important parameter of fertility. There was no significant difference in mean litter size in flushed and non flushed ewes .This result was agreement with (Abdalla et al., 2014) sychronized Barki ewes by PGF2α, FGA and GnRH little size single lamb recorded and lower than that obtained by (Abdalla et al., 2014) sychronized Barki ewes by second injection PGF2α and PGF2α, FGA and PMSG average litter size (1.05 and 1.38 ) were recorded. lower than finding of (Knights et al., 2003) who reported little size of synchronized by PGF2 α 12 days apart (PGF; 20 mg/injection) average number of little size was 1.63 recorded.

Chapter 6: Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1.Conclusions

The perception of farmers on estrous synchronization in ewes was low and medium The reason is due to low knowledge and awarennes on the new technologyin the study woreda. for expansion and adaptation of this technology it need awarennes creation and introduced as apackage in breed improvement and incresead the productivity of ewes.

Most of the respondent practiced natural mating and ram tethering , the time onset at natural mating is not well recording and the conception failed were not solved properly during natural mating. the perception of farmers on estrous synchronization in ewes all most low and medium there was a need to create awareness of the farmers through demonstration and Experian’s sharing with the awared farmers for a wider adaptation of the estrous synchronization in ewes

Breeding objective of small ruminant under traditional management indicated that farmers attached greater importance for source of income generations through the sale of live animals than any other stated reason.

Body conformation coat color and tail type /length were the most important qualitative traits considered for selection of breeding rams and this needs to be considered in decision making of small ruminant breeding improvement programmed in the study area. The common feed for small ruminant in the study areas is crop residue, after math, private grazing and cutting grass and brows indigenous brows, weeds, the most feeds were seasonal but crop residue uses yearly, all of the farmers have shortage of feeds especially during the dry period. The main reason for feed shortage in the area was drought and decrease productivity of the lands and grazing land changed to cultivated land from year to year,

Range land in the study areas is low and insufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of ewes prior to the mating season. Concentrate supplementation of ewes for two weeks before mating, during this critical stage supplement of feeds, reduce the time of onset and increase the response rate and reproductive performance. Sheep producers must control the reproduction of their flocks and herds. Because reproductive traits are only slowly improved through genetic selection, producers must manage the factors of nutrition and plane of lambing.

The applied PGF2 α for flushing ewes had good synchronized effect, but low non flushed ewes. These PGF2 α for flushing ewes could be applied, if the farmer wants to shorten time of onset estrus and increased the response rate nd easily improved the breed of ewes, Flushed ewes subjected to PGF2 α has shorter time to onset of estrus, higher response rate, higher percent of conception rate and higher lambing rate. Due to the feed supplement. The supplemental nutrition provided to the local ewes appears necessary to maintain a high level of ewe reproductive performance. Nutrition was a major limiting factor in the productivity of ewes in the study area, and supplementation of ewes in any season had great advantages compared with to the traditional practice. Therefore, flushed ewes subjected to PGF2α should be demonstrated to more farmers and extension agents to improve the fertility of local ewes. The supplementations in this experiment indicates that formulated commercial ration are a promising strategy. In the present study it is clearly that flushed local ewes subjected to PGF 2 α under traditional management with the present supplement concentrate feed for two week improved the reproductive performance of local ewes indicated by the increase estrus incidence, shortened the time onset of estrus, increased the pregnant percentage and increased lambing rate.

The time to onset of estrus was very short in flushed local ewes subjected PGF2 α under traditional managements than non flushed local ewes subjected PGF2 α under traditional management. there fore, the degree of estrus response was high in flushed local ewes subjected PGF2α under traditional managements than non flushed local ewes subjected PGF2α under traditional management. The supplemental nutrition provided to the local ewes appears necessary to maintain a high level of ewe reproductive performance.

6.2.Recommendations

the perception of farmers on estrus synchronization in ewes was low and medium that technology was not applied in that areas before this study. Therefore, there is a need to created awareness of the farmers through demonstration and Experience sharing. Local ewes were capable of being breed and lambing using flushing and subjected to single injection prostaglandin analogue given to at unknown stage of estrous and mated to Begait rams. Local ewes appear to be more effective in the synchronization of conception rate than non flushed protocols, needs to be confirmed by further experiments in large number of ewes.

further studies flushed ewes and subjected to PGF2α in which energy differences between treatment diets are more pronounced, would be very helpful in understanding the increase the fertility rate seen after nutritional flushing.

In the present study it is clearly that flushed local ewes subjected to single injection of PGF2α under traditional management with the supplement concentrate feed for two week improved the reproductive performance of local ewes indicated by the increase estrus incidence, shortened the time onset of estrus, increased the pregnant percentage and increased lambing rate. Further research is necessary with larger numbers of ewes productivity rate of the local ewes following double estrus synchronization with flushing .

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JORDAN, K. M., INSKEEP, E. K., KNIGHTS, M., LEWIS, P. E. & WARREN, J. E. 2005. Approaches to improve the ovulatory response and reproductive performance of ewes introduced to rams during seasonal anestrus, West Virginia University Libraries. KETEMA, T. K. 2007. Production and marketing systems of sheep and goats in Alaba, southern Ethiopia. Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis Hawassa University, Ethiopia. KNIGHTS, M., HOEHN, T., MARSH, D., LEWIS, P., PATE, J., DIXON, A. & INSKEEP, K. 2003. Reproductive management in the ewe flock by induction or synchronization of estrus, West Virginia University, Davis College of Agriculture, Forestry and Consumer Sciences, WV Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station. KOCHO, T. 2007. Production and marketing systems of sheep and goats in Alaba, Southern Ethiopia. LAKEW, M., HAILE-MELEKOT, M., MEKURIAW, G., ABREHA, S. & SETOTAW, H. 2014. Reproductive Performance and Mortality Rate in Local and Dorper× Local Crossbred Sheep Following Controlled Breeding in Ethiopia. Open Journal of Animal Sciences, 4, 278. LANDAU, S. & MOLLE, G. 1997. Nutrition effects on fertility in small ruminants with an emphasis on Mediterranean sheep breeding systems. Options Mediterraneennes. Serie A: Seminaires Mediterraneens (CIHEAM). LETA, S. & MESELE, F. 2015. Spatial analysis of cattle and shoat population in Ethiopia: growth trend, distribution and market access. strategic direction, 2010, 11-2014. MEKURIAW, S., MEKURIAW, Z., TAYE, M., YITAYEW, A., ASSEFA, H. & HAILE, A. 2012. Traditional management system and farmers’ perception on local sheep breeds (Washera and Farta) and their crosses in Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 24. MEKURIAW, Z., ASSEFA, H., TEGEGNE, A. & MULUNEH, D. 2015. Estrus response and fertility of Menz and crossbred ewes to single prostaglandin injection protocol. Tropical animal health and production, 1-5. MEKURIAW, Z., ASSEFA, H., TEGEGNE, A. & MULUNEH, D. 2016. Estrus response and fertility of Menz and crossbred ewes to single prostaglandin injection protocol. Tropical animal health and production, 48, 53-57. METODIEV, N. 2015. ESTRUS SYNCHRONIZATION OF EWES BY USING “RAM EFFECT” AND SINGLE TREATMENT WITH SYNTHETIC ANALOGUE OF PGF2Α. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, 21, 889-892. MOHAJER, M., ALIMON, A. R., NASLAJI, A., TOGHDORY, A. & KAMALI, R. 2013. Effects of late flushing and ewe breed on lamb mortality at birth. International Research Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences, 4, 231-233. NADERIPOUR, H., YADI, J., SHAD, A. & SIRJANI, M. A. 2014. The effects of three methods of synchronization on estrus induction and hormonal profile in Kalkuhi ewes: A comparison study. African Journal of Biotechnology, 11, 530-533. NIGUSSIE, H., MEKASHA, Y., ABEGAZ, S., KEBEDE, K. & PAL, S. K. 2015. Indigenous Sheep Production System in Eastern Ethiopia: Implications for Genetic Improvement and Sustainable Use. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences (ASRJETS), 11, 136-152. OZYURTLU, N., KUCUKASLAN, I. & CETIN, Y. 2010. Characterization of Oestrous Induction Response, Oestrous Duration, Fecundity and Fertility in Awassi Ewes During the Non‐breeding Season Utilizing both CIDR and Intravaginal Sponge Treatments. Reproduction in domestic animals, 45, 464-467. PATEL, K. B., DOOLEY, M., ABATE, A. & MOLL, V. 2017. distributed learning: revitalizing anesthesiology training in resource-limited ethiopia. Frontiers in Public Health, 5.

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Evaluation of estrus response and fertility in ewes with and without flushing and mating to begait rams under traditional management in eastern tigray, northern Ethiopia

Appendix-1

Research Questionnaire

The questionnaire is designed by a post graduate student from mekelle University to conduct a thesis research in partial fulfillment of masters Degree in livestock production and pastoral development.

The questionnaires are fully for academic research purpose and any information that you provide will be kept confidential and valid.

The results of this study that depends on your data is expected to help different stakeholders including you, policy and decision makers to take appropriate measures to further improve ewes reproduction. Thus, your cooperation is very necessary to achieve the desired goal of the study.

Thank you in advance for your cooperation

Shambel gdey

Id card CDAA/PS008/06

Email:[email protected]

Tel: +251 934822716

General direction to respondents

 For questions that demands for your opinion, please try to describe honestly.  You can also give your opinion in tigrigna or English language  Please tick or write your answer on blank space provided

Appendix n01: questionnaire for survey on perception of farmers about synchronization in sheep

1. Enumerator’s Name ______

2. Date of Interview ______

3. Kebele Name ______

Section One: General information

1. socio economic condition 1.1 back ground information 1.2 name of house hold head ------1.3 sex of respondent------(code a) 1.female 2.male 1.4 age of respondent------1.5 position in the household ------(code b) 1 head 2.member 1.6 address 1.6.1 woreda------1.6.2 tibia------1.6. house hold size and status

S/N Name I. II. III. IV. V.

Sexed code a Age Education code c Occupation code Religion d

Code c. 0 = illiterate 1=writing/reading 2= 1-6 3=7-10 4= >10

Code d. 1 farmer 2 house hold wife 3 business person 4 government employee 5 student 6 under age 7 retire person 8 other specified

s.n Source monthly income rank

1 month salary

2 sale of sheep

3 house resent

4 kiosk

5 crop production

1.7. Famers perception on estrous sychronization

Name of sex low medium high Very high farmers male female

1.8. perception houshold based on education level

Name sex 0 = 1=writing/reading 2= 1-6 3=7-10 4= >10 farmers illiterate male female

1.10. Land holding and land use systems

1.10.1 What is the size of your total land holding? (Exactly as indicated on land holding

Certificate) ------ha

1.10.2 How much is your land allocated for the followings?

1=Crop land------ha 3=Fallow land------ha

2=Grazing/pasture land ------ha 4=others------ha

1.11 Did you have labor shortage for any sheep activity?

1. Yes 2. No

1. 11.1 If yes, place specify the type of activity and seasonal shortage of labor according its priority?

------

1.11.2 If you have labor shortage for any livestock activity, what measure you take to solve the problem?

------

1.12. Which part of your major agricultural activity contributes most of your family income? 2 crop production 2 livestock production

3. Both crop and livestock

4 others(specify) 1.13. labour sources, work division among the family and gender aspects of work sharing

Work-sharing Household

Women Men Children

Feeding

Watering

Herding

Cleaning

Health management

Reproductive management

Harvesting products

Marketing products and animals

1.14. Which part of your major livestock activity contributes most of your family income? s/no species rank

1 Sheep

2 Cattle

3 Goats

4 poultry

5 Hives

15. Livestock holding per households in the study area how many of the following animals you keep? s/no Species No

1 Cattle

2 Sheep

3 Goat

4 Poultry

3. Flock structure of sheep owning by the respondents s/no sheep No

1 Lamb

2 Ewe

3 Intact ram

4 Castrated ram

4. Purpose of keeping of sheep by households

1. Why you keep sheep? (Rank) s/no Purpose of keeping of sheep Rank (1upto 9)

1 Intermediate source of income / Sale

2 Meat

3 Milk

4 Manure

5 Sacrifices/rituals

6 Social and cultural functions

7 Saving

9 Distribute benefits/risks with other animals

10 others, specify

Cod 1=Sale (income source) 2=Meat 3=Milk 4=Manure

5=Sacrifices/rituals 6=Social and cultural functions 7=saving

8=Distribute benefits/risks with other animals

9=others, specify

5. What are the major cause for unsuccessful of sheep expansion practice? s/no Reasons Rank

1 low market demands

2 Poor extension service

3 Shortage of feed

4 Shortage of breeding technology

5 Breed problem

6 Inadequate space

7 Other, specify

6. Sheep breeding and reproductive managements

1. Do you select your male animals for breeding purpose? 1=Yes 2=No

2. What are the criteria for sire (Ram) selection?

a. Appearance/conformation * Tick any reason for choice considered in first half of box; one or more boxes to be ticked. Then rank top three by writing in b. Colour second half of box, 1 for primary reason, 2 for second and 3 for c. Horns third. List the top 3 in rank d. Character e. Adaptability f. Growth List the top 3 preferred ram selection g. hair 1. ______h. Age 2. ______i. Libido 3. ______j. Ability to walk long Unwanted ram

distance k. Tail type/length 1. ______l. Pedigree 2. ______

3. ______

3. Do you have your own breeding male animals (ram)? 1=Yes 2=No

4. When (season/months) during the year you observe intensive breeding and conception months before using synchronization?? s/no species Intense breeding and conception months

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

1 sheep

7. When (season/months) during the year you observe intensive lambing after using synchronization? s/no species Seasonal availability

Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug

1 sheep

8. What is the Reproductive performance of ewes after estrus synchronization?( place put by percent) s/no No ewe

Reproductive performance of ewes

1 estrus response

2 Pregnancy rate

3 Lambing rate

9. Have you ever practiced estrous synchronization in sheep? 1. Yes 2. No

9.1.if success, what factors determine to success estrous synchronization in ewes under traditional management?

9.2. no success, what factors determine to filer estrous synchronization in ewes under traditional management?

S /no Reasons Number of Farmers

1 Poor Feeding

2 Diseased Condition

3 Poor Management

4 Ram Inefficiency

5 No estrous cycle/ less in heat/

10. What are the Major ewes’ synchronization service problems in the study site? s.n Problems Rand

1 Conception failure

2 In availability of breeding ram

3 Death

4 Poor knowledge about heat detection and synchronization

5 High cost of synchronization

6 less acceptable of synchronization by the people

8 Higher incidence of abortion

List if other Problems of synchronization service in ewes present.

11. Have you acceptable estrous synchronization practices on sheep?

1 = Yes 2 = No

11.1. If yes, for what purpose to use?

1=improve breeding 2.lambing in the same time 3.planed breeding 4.improve number of lam per ewe life

11.2. If no, acceptable?

1. Awareness problem 2. Technological problem. 3. Extension problem 4. Not religious acceptable

13. Constraints for sheep production

1. What are the main constraints for sheep production? Rank them according to their significance.

Constraints Thick Rank the top three a. Genotype b. Feed shortage c. Water shortage d. Disease e. Drought f. Market g. Inadequate/lack of extension support h. Predator i. Labor

Others (specify) ______

14, List here anything regarding estrous synchronization in sheep that you would like to improve.

______

14. Feed managements of sheep

1. What are the major basal feed resources of sheep their availability?

Feed type se oc nov dec jan feb mar april may jun july cot p t

Grazing aftermath

Private grazing land

Cut grass and browses

Crop residues (straws, stovers)

Indigenous browses

Weeds

Communal grazing land

Others, specify

2. Do you graze your sheep? 1=Yes 2=No

3. If yes, for how long? ______days in a week ______hours a day

4. How you practiced grazing your sheep in the dry season?

1=Free grazing 2=partly kept/tethered grazing 3=fully kept/tethered grazing

5. How you practiced grazing your sheep in the wet season?

1=Free grazing 2=partly kept/tethered grazing 3=fully kept/tethered grazing

6. Is there any poisoning grasses and browses that kills or make sick sheep in this area?

1=Yes 2=No

7. If yes, what are they (local name)? ______

8. Do you usually provide your sheep with supplementary feeds in addition to grazing?

1=Yes 2=No

9. If yes, what type of feed and others?

Type of supplement sheep feed Young lambs Ewe Ram Castrates Young

Wheat bran

Oil cakes

Maize grain

Crop residues

Leak mineral/stone

Food leftovers

10. When you usually offer your sheep with supplements?

1=Dry season 2=Wet season 3=both

11. In what intervals you offer supplements to your sheep?

1=Daily 2=Twice a day 3=whenever available 4=others, specify

12. If you not provide with supplements, why?

1=Not accessible 2=Expensive

3=Not want to offer sheep 4=others, specify

13. Do you practice tether feeding of sheep? 1=Yes 2=No

14. If yes, why?

1=to avoid crop and vegetation damages 2=Save labor

3=Protect from predators and theft 4=Utilize marginal land and hillsides

5=Prevent breeding 6=others, specify

15. Is there feed shortage/constraint for your sheep? 1=Yes 2=No

16. If yes, when? 1=Dry season 2=Wet season 3=both

17. If feed shortage in your locality, why? (Rank)

1=decline in productivity of grazing lands

2=Increase of animal population

3=Cultivation, settlement and protection on grazing lands

4=Drought 5=Increase of human population 6=others, specify

Appendix n0 2: with out flushing ewes synchronization field data recording format

zone ------district ion---- PA------date------

sheep synchronized estrous time of estrous mating PD status lambing litter SN owners name ID date (present/absent response date +/_ abortion date size lamb sex remark

Appendix no 3: With flushing ewe’s synchronization field data recording format

zone ------district ion---- PA------date------

time of sheep Flushing synchronized estrous estrous mating PD status lambing litter SN owners name ID date date (present/absent response date +/_ abortion date size lamb sex remark

The lamb born by estrous synchronization and mated begait rams

Supplement feed for small ruminant under traditional managements

Supplement feeding under traditional management