Iron in the Soul STUDIES in FORCED MIGRATION General Editors: Roger Zetter and Eva Lotta Hedman

Iron in the Soul STUDIES IN FORCED MIGRATION General Editors: Roger Zetter and Eva Lotta Hedman

Volume 1 Volume 13 A Tamil Asylum Diaspora: Sri Lankan Migration, Refugees and the Transformation of Societies: Settlement and Politics in Switzerland Agency, Policies, Ethics and Politics Christopher McDowell Edited by Philomena Essed, Georg Frerks and Joke Schrijvers Volume 2 Understanding Impoverishment: The Consequences Volume 14 of Development-induced Displacement Children and Youth on the Front Line: Edited by Christopher McDowell Ethnography, Armed Conflict and Displacement Edited by Jo Boyden and Joanna de Berry Volume 3 Losing Place: Refugee Populations and Rural Volume 15 Transformations in East Africa Religion and Nation: Iranian Local and Johnathan B. Bascom Transnational Networks in Britain Kathryn Spellman Volume 4 The End of the Refugee Cycle? Refugee Volume 16 Repatriation and Reconstruction Children of Palestine: Experiencing Forced Edited by Richard Black and Khalid Koser Migration in the Middle East Dawn Chatty and Gillian Lewando Hundt Volume 5 Engendering Forced Migration: Theory and Volume 17 Practice Rights in Exile: Janus-faced Humanitarianism Edited by Doreen Indra Guglielmo Verdirame and Barbara Harrell-Bond Volume 6 Refugee Policy in Sudan, 1967–1984 Volume 18 Ahmed Karadawi Development-induced Displacement: Problems, Policies and People Volume 7 Edited by Chris de Wet Psychosocial Wellness of Refugees: Issues in Qualitative and Quantitative Research Volume 19 Edited by Frederick L. Ahearn, Jr. Transnational Nomads: How Somalis Cope with Refugee Life in the Dadaab Camps of Kenya Volume 8 Cindy Horst Fear in Bongoland: Burundi Refugees in Urban Tanzania Volume 20 Marc Sommers New Regionalism and Asylum Seekers: Challenges Ahead Volume 9 Edited by Susan Kneebone and Felicity Whatever Happened to Asylum in Britain? A Tale Rawlings-Sanei of Two Walls Louise Pirouet Volume 21 (Re)constructing Armenia in Lebanon and Syria: Volume 10 Ethno-Cultural Diversity and the State in the Conservation and Mobile Indigenous Peoples: Aftermath of a Refugee Crisis Displacement, Forced Settlement and Sustainable Nicola Migliorino Development Edited by Dawn Chatty and Marcus Volume 22 Colchester ‘Brothers’ or Others? Muslim Arab Sudanese in Egypt Volume 11 Anita Fábos Tibetans in Nepal: The Dynamics of International Assistance among a Community in Exile Volume 23 Anne Frechette Iron in the Soul: Displacement, Livelihood and Health in Cyprus Volume 12 Peter Loizos Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange between Greece and Turkey Edited by Renée Hirschon Iron in the Soul

DISPLACEMENT, LIVELIHOOD AND HEALTH IN CYPRUS

Peter Loizos

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First published in 2008 by

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All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission of the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Loizos, Peter, 1937- Iron in the soul : displacement, livelihood and health in Cyprus / Peter Loizos. p. cm. -- (Forced migration ; v. 23) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84545-444-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-84545- 484-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Migration, Internal--Cyprus. 2. Political refugees--Cyprus. 3. Mortality--Cyprus. I. Title.

HB2093.5.A3L65 2008 304.8095693--dc22 2008014706

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Printed in the United States on acid-free paper

ISBN 978-84545-444-9 hardback In honour of Elizabeth Colson

Contents

List of Figures, Graphs, Maps and Tables ix Acknowledgements xi 1 Crisis State and Displaced Citizens 1 2 Ambivalent Relations: Moments in the Unmixing of a Village 11 3 Exits South: Improvisation Vignettes 27 4 Economic Recovery: A Retrospective View 41 5 Crisis Management by Political Consensus 53 6 Revisiting Former Homes 65 7 The Referendum 2004: Too Little, and Too Late? 85 8 Hearts as well as Minds: Illness and Well being 97 9 Coping with Severe Life Events 117 10 A Sociology of Argaki Displacement: the Thirty Year View 135 11 In Their Own Words 171 12 Iron in the Soul: On Grievance and Transcendence 183 Bibliography 189 Appendix 1: Cyprus Historical Highlights 199 Appendix 2: Main Political Groupings and Parties 201 Appendix 3: Presidents of the Republic of Cyprus 203 Index 205

List of Figures

1 Three of the nine Argaki volunteers in the 1912 Balkan Wars 15 2 Two more Argaki volunteers 15 3 Panayiota Hallouma, ‘Paskalena’, 1975 38 4 Ourania Christodoulou, 1975 38 5 Andreas Tchitonis, 1975 38 6 Thomas Diakou, 1975 38 7 Argyrou Diakou, 1975 39 8 Gogos Vashioti, Aliki and new baby, 1975 39 9 Pouyias: Dimitris Kneknas, 1975 39 10 Discussing the Annan Plan 60 11 Eral visiting Maria and Kouzas 81 12 Giorgios Nikola Tsangou, 2004 114 13 Sophia Paphitena, 2004 121 14 Dionysios Kneknas, 2003 126 15 Andreas and Iotta Polyviou, 2000 139 16 Pamphlet cover showing a large Greek Family 157 17 Pamphlet cartoon: Dr Kissinger takes a carving knife to Cyprus 158 18 Looking at photos of Argaki 163 19 The Refugee Club and Coffee Shop ‘Olympos’ 163 20 Mary and Philis Rousias, 2004 166 21 Loizos Pipis, 1975 175 22 His father Giorgios Pipis, 1975 175 x| List of Figures, Graphs, Maps and Tables

List of Graphs

1 Myocardial Infarction 106 2 Angina 106

List of Maps

1 Turkish occupation and displacement (1974) xiii 2 Main concentrations of Argaki villagers displaced in unoccupied southern Cyprus (2004) xiv

List of Tables

1 Mortality 1930–40 birth cohort for the period 1974–2004 102 2 Reported morbidity (1974–2004) of the 1930–40 birth cohort 104 3 Evidence from the DhyDO study 105 4 Reported significant illness over lifetime for the 1930–40 birth cohort 109 Acknowledgements

The Two Villages Health Study was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council of the U.K., (Grant no RES 00-22-0792 ‘Transcending Dislocation?’) to which I am grateful. In planning the research I have benefited from discussions with Ted Cantrell MD, Tim Dyson, Pramjit Gill MD, Kaveri Harriss, Christopher Langford, Christina Loizou and Doros Loizou MD, Yiannis Papadakis, Pavlos Pavlou MD, Christina Pourgourides MD, Richard Wilkinson, Jonathan Mant MD, Gill Shepherd, Swaran Singh MD and Derek Summerfield MD. Participants in Anthropology and Development Studies seminars at London School of Economics; the Max-Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, Halle/Salle; in anthropology seminars at University College, London and the University of Kent at Canterbury; and at Intercollege, Nicosia must also be thanked, as must the organizers of the Health and Diaspora workshop at SOAS, 2005. To Thomas and Argyrou Diakou, to the mayor of Astromeritis, Aris Constantinou and to Solonas Papamoyseos I am grateful for help in identifying persons on the birth registers. For statistical help thanks to George Gaskell, LSE, and Patrick Heady, Office of National Statistics, and for data analysis to David Hanton. For permission to quote from an unpublished study, Dr Stavros Pouloukkas. I am particularly grateful to Dr Marios Sarris, and Dr Olga Demetriou for counting gravestones in Kato Polemidhia, and Pano Arodhes, respectively, and to three close Argaki friends for all kinds of support – Christos Pelavas, Nikos Pelekanos and Zenon Papaloizou. Much thanks to the 260 respondents for tolerating our research with good grace. If it cannot help them directly, perhaps it can help other refugees. A number of people commented on some or all of this book, or gave me advice when asked. None is responsible in any way for errors or emphases in the book. Nikos Andilios; Vassos Argyrou; Tozun Bahcheli; Rebecca Bryant; Stephan Feuchtwang; Niels Kadritzke; Yael Navaro- Yashin; Yiannis Papadakis; Zenon Papaloizou; Susan Pattie; Paul Strong; Margarita Zervidou; Roger Zetter. My thanks, to all. Any errors are mine, alone. xii | Acknowledgements

My thanks to Eral Akarturk who grew up in Argaki for sharing with me the fruits of his interviews with Argaki Turkish Cypriots, which helped me deepen my understanding of how they experienced certain key events. I am particularly beholden to Mary Campbell for her analytic comments, and for her copy editing. I gratefully acknowledge the permission of Moufflon Books to reprint a number of photographs first published by them. For institutional support I must acknowledge the Anthropology Department of the London School of Economics, during the many years of preparatory research which underwrote this study. My retirement from the LSE has been eased by the academic hospitality of LSE’s Development Studies Institute, and my employment at Intercollege, Nicosia is due to Nicos Peristianis. To his college and my many academic friends there, my warmest thanks – without them all, there would have been no book. Special thanks, then to Costas Constantinou, Christina and Doros Loizou, Nikos and Irini Philippou, Haris Pellapassiotis, Mary Georgiou, Margarita Zervidou, David Officer, Youli Taki, Stelios Stylianou and Marios Sarris. For hospitality and friendship in Cyprus, Ruth Keshishian, Diana and Sophoklis Markides, the Pipis families, the Protopapas family, the Polyviou family, Yiannis Papadakis. And a very special thanks to my family for their loving support. -EDITERRANEAN3EA

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Map 2 Main concentrations of Argaki villagers displaced in unoccupied southern Cyprus (2004) 1 Crisis State and Displaced Citizens

Forced migration hurts. But how badly it hurts, what heals those hurts, or what keeps them septic, depend on many things, and this book uses a case study approach to suggest what some of them might be. It does this by tracing the fortunes of a particular community over more than forty years, combining both qualitative and quantitative methods. There have been three main study periods. The first was in 1968, when the Greek Cypriot villagers of Argaki in north-west Cyprus, along with their Turkish Cypriot neighbours, were at home and prospering. The second was in 1975, the first year of the Greek Cypriot displacement. The third lasted several years between 2000 and 2004, at the end of which many of the Argaki refugees, like three-quarters of all Greek Cypriots, voted not to sign up to the UN Peace Plan for a federal Cyprus. This decision meant that the return to Argaki they had talked about for so long was indefinitely postponed. This study wishes to build bridges with economic history and medicine (both the social and biological) where issues of validity, reliability and precision remain central. Scholars in these disciplines write without making their authorship more than a small, implicit aspect of their intellectual frameworks. In my view, it is time anthropologists grew out of their epistemological anxieties, and affirmed their links to other social and life sciences rather more strongly. A reader who wishes to know more about how my biography influenced my earlier research may consult Loizos (1994). The book is chiefly about the fortunes of the Greek Cypriots of Argaki after they left their village in August 1974, and does not provide a parallel account of the fortunes of the Argaki Turkish Cypriots in the same period. There are several reasons for this. Before 1974, when political relations between the nationalist leaders of Greek and Turkish Cypriots were violently adversarial, it was judged difficult to devote much public