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Geology and Hydrology , • GWSC 5 1 Outline GROUND-WATER GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY •• By Arthur M. Piper Introduction What is ground-water geology? Geology and its division.a Mineralogy and crystallography Petrology and pet~ography Historical geology Stratigraphy Paleontology Structural geology • Geodesy Geomorphology Economic geology Ground-water geology Ground water a d~c mineral deposit Hydr,,ology and the hydrologic cycle Potamology Limnology Ground-water hydrQlogy Cryology Sciences closely related to hydrology Meteorology • Oceanology (oceanography) GWSC 2 Outline-Con. Geologic phases of ground-water investigations include or involve- - ' . • "Rocks" of all types Rocks of all ages Geologic structures ~fall types Geologic mapping, to express determinations of-­ Stratigraphy Paleontology Structure Sedimentation Geologic history Geomoll)hology Petrogr~phy • Test drilli~ and other specialized procedures of sampling Geophysical studies Elect~ic logg~ng· '"'\ Gamma-ray logging nectr~cal resistivity surveys Seismic surveys Geochemical studies Gro'llll:d-w~ter hydraulics All or most phases of hydrologic cycle Horse se~se In summa.ry--what are the attributes of a ground-water geologist? • GWSC 5 3 Outline-Con • Geologic controls _on occurrence and movement of ground water • Type of rock Porosity and types of interstices Primary Secondary Sizes of interstices in relatioQ to capillary effect Conditions cont!olljJlg porosity Arrangement Qf grai~s Size of grains Shape of grains Degree of assortment • Range in porosity Reduction in porosity owing to­ Compaction Deflo~ulation of clay Cementa ti on Metamorphism Weathering Increase in porpsity owing to sQlution Evaporites Limestone and dolomite Source of CO2 Types of openings subject to solution Origin of solution openings with ~espect to water table Features of limestone terranes • Wells in limestone GWSC S 4 Outline-Con. • Mechan;i.cal analys_es Stratigraphy related to deposition Regional st~atification Local stratification Lateral gradations in texture and grai~ si~e Facies changes Modes of origin Marine Continental Volcanic Glacial • Unconfonnities Dikes and sills · Structure related to defonnation Folds Homocline Monocline Anticline Syncline Metho_ds of po_rtr~~ng ·folds Geologic maps Profile sections Isometric block (fence) diagrams • ·stru_cture contour maps GWSC 5 Outline-Con • Structure related to defonnation-Con. • Faults Normal or gravity Reverse Qr thrust Overthrust and underthrust Joints Geologic ma~ping on aerial photos Use of matched stereo pairs Field stereoscopes How to record data Need to walk out contacts and structures • Transferr.ing data to base map Measurement of geologic sections Methods Texture of sediments Color of rocks Acid tests Structural features Fossils Use of soil maps in geologic mapping Use of vegetation _changes in geologic mapping • GWSC 5 6 Outline-Con • Test drilling • Consolidated rocks Unconsolidated rocks Cable tool Hydraulic rotary Drilling m:ud Drilling speed "Feel". of drill Mud circulation Catching samples Description of samples • Field Office Preparation of samples Compressed-air rotary Jetting Power auger Electric or gamma-ray logging • GWSC 5 7 Outline-Con • Zones of subsurface water • Capillarity Influence ~r grain size Hygroscopic water and "hygroscop~c coefficient" Water yielding and r~taining capacity of rocks Specific yield and specific ~etention Limitations of definitions Time factor Size of sample Methods of determining Laboratory • Field MQisture equivalent Field capacity Wilting co~fficient Movenent of grqund water Turbulent flow Laminar flow Critical velocity Darcy's law Permeability and coefficient of permeability Transmissivity and coefficient or transniissibility • GWSC 5 8 Out.line-Coµ. • Movement of ground water-Con. Relations Permeability to porositr Porosity to velocity Permeability to texture and grain size Specific yield to porosity Specific yield to grain size Geologic structure and stratigraphy-their control of occurrence and movement of ground water Confined versus unconfined gro~ water Artesian water and the artesian system Old concept • Meinzer 1 s work Theory of compressibility and elasticity of artesian aquifers Elastic compression Plastic deformation 'Iheis I c,oncept of coefficient of storage Quantity r_eleased from storage by compression of aqll:1-fer and exp_ansion of water · Jacobs' work Expansion of water alone Subsidence from withdrawal of nuids Water fields Oil fields Determination of subsidence • Leakage of confining beds (Aquicludes) GWSC 5 9 Outline-Co~• Geologic structure and stratigraphy-their control of occurrence • and movement of ground water~Con. Effects or faults As conduits Aquifers produced by erosion along fault scB:rps As barriers Fmphasized by cementation Effects of' dikes and sills . Relation or ground-water reservoirs to the flow of streams--a function of' the geol_ogy Northern Indiana Sand Hills of' Nebraska • Semi-arid central Oregon Limestone terranes Relation of' geology to quality of' water Relation to rock types Mixing of waters of different quality Surface and ground waters Ground waters Leakage of' aquiclu:ies Wells tapping more than one aquifer Wells having leaky casings • GWSC 5 10 Outline-Con • Relation of geology to quality of water-Con. • Soft~ning and hardening of ground waters by natural base exchange Salt-water intrusion Along seacoasts and islands ~ Ghyben-Herz?erg ~rinciple Artesian aquifers Other conditions Connate water Industrial wastes Oil-field brines St~atification of fresh and salt waters • The source of water derived from wells Essential factors controlling action of an aquifer Condition of equilibrium in aquifers A few chosen examples Southern High Plains of Texas Large valley Qf perennial stream Big Sandy Creek Valley, Colorado Closed desert valley Grand Junction, Colo., artesian basin "Safe" Qr economic yield • GWSC 5 11 Outline-Con • Hints on maps, field procedures,_ and expression of results • Preparation for field season Previous geologic and hydrol~gic work Base maps Federal USGS USGS&GS Forest Service scs Corps of Engineers State • Highway Dept. or Planning Comm . Geol. Surveys Engineer's off~ce Board of Agriculture County arrl city engineers Mounting maps Aer~al photQs, sources USGS, Map Information Office USDA SCS, AAA, Forest Service USC&GS Anny Air Corp_s TVA Fairchild Aviation Corp . • Other private agencies GWSC 5 12 Outline-Co~- Hints ,.on maps, field procedures., and expression-of results.Col\• I • Records of wells and springs When to contact drillers Questioning drillers Filling ,out schedules Sketch maps Measuring depth to water Water-table contour maps Spacing of contours By proportion By graphic methods • Transfer method Direct method By special dev~ces Interpretation Direction of mavement Gradient Recharge Discharge Relation tp geology and transmissibility Ground-water divides Relation to streams Maps showing changes in grown-water storage .Lines of equal chSllJe in water levei Construction of polygons • Determination of storage changes GWSC 5 Outline-Con • 13 Hints on maps, field procedures., and expression of results-Con. • Depth-to-water maps Maps of bedrock topography Isopach maps Isolith or lii;.hofacies maps Maps showing availability of ground _water • • GWSC 5 Geol. 1 Hydrologic cycle ® • WATER PRf:CIPITATEO FROM ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR ~ I TeffiPOrary storaq• .. .......... ir,e Infiltration Over-land runoff _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Wastaqe bLl1,bltmatinn _____ _J MelT waterl Capillary Sublftar1ne repl11nish111ent spr,nqs Soil-water • exces5 _ _ Consum~e waste __ -----; I t Wi1hdrawal e Consu~ptive (@@ waste by water - lov,,,q plants ♦ Discharqa Solid flow lines indicate movement of water as liquid; broken lines, movElllent as vapor. Heavy flow lines (lower central part of diagram) indicate man's principal changes in the natural cycle. M, components of the cycle for which records of measurements are common and fairly extensive, though not everywhere comprehensive; m, components which are not measured readily, and for which more extensive records and improved techniques of measurement are needed; s, components of natural water consumption that can be, or ultimately must be salvaged in substantial • part. GWSC 5 Gaol. 2 • Porosity and void ratio The pQrpsit7 of a rock or earth is its property of containing interstices or void spaces. It can b~ expres·sed quanti_tatively as the ratio, usually a percentage ratio, of the aggregate volume of all interstices to the gross volume of the rock or earth (including interstic.es) • P = 100 (Tvi) = 100 (V-vm)--r- (1) where P • porosity, in percent V • gross volume vm = aggregate volume of mineral p~ticles vi= aggrega~e volume of interstices • (2) where 'Yd= specific gravity of dry sample (gross dens:j.ty, interstice~ included) 'Yt'\1 = mean specific gravity of mineral particles 'Ys • specific gravity of water-saturat¢ sample The void ratio of a rock or earth is the ratio of the aggregate volume of its interstices to the aggregate volume of its mineral particles. Void ratio (3) • GWSC 5 Geol. 3 • General range in porosity of natural sediments and sedimentary rocks Percent Samstone • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4-30 Sand, clean and unifonn • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 25-45+ Gravel, clean and uniform •••••••••••••• 25-45+ Sand and gravel, ~ed • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 15± Silt and clay As deposited • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 40-90 Compacted and dewatered ••••••••••••• 20-40 Shale • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 3-20 Limestone • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • <1-15+ • £2mpaction
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