The Teaching of Hydrology

Technical papers in hydrology 13

, .i Xhehx 4 teaching of hydrology

The Unesco Press

A contribution to the International Hydrological Decade Technical papers in hydrology 13 \

In this series: 1 Perennial Ice and Snow Masses. A Guide for Compilation and Assemblage of Data for a World Inventory. 2 Seasonal Snow Cover. A Guide for Measurement, Compilation and Assemblage of Data. 3 Variations of Existing Glaciers. A Guide to International Practices for their Measurement. 4 Antarctic Glaciology in the International Hydrological Decade. 5 Combined Heat, Ice and Water Balances at Selected Glacier Basins. A Guide for Compilation and Assemblage of Data for Glacier Mass Balance Measurements. 6 Textbooks on hydrology-Analyses and Synoptic Tables of Contents of Selected Textbooks. 7 Scientific Framework of World Water Balance. 8 Flood Studies-an International Guide for Collection and Processing of Data. 9 Guide to World Inventory of Sea, Lake and River Ice. 10 Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology. 11 Teaching Aids in Hydrology. 12 Ecology of Water Weeds in the Neotropics. 13 The Teaching of Hydrology. A contribution to the In tern at ion al Hydro logical Decade

The Unesco Press Paris 1974 The selection and presentation of material and the opinions expressed in this publication are the responsibility of the authors concerned, and do not necessarily reflect the views of Unesco. Nor do the designations employed or the presentation of the material imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or of its authorities, or concerning the frontiers of any country or territory.

Published by the Unesco Press, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Printed by Union Typographique ISBN 92-3-101168-5 French edition: 92-3-201168-9 Q Unesco 1974 Printed in France Preface

The International Hydrological Decade (IHD) 1965-74 opments in the planning of hydrological installations. was launched by the General Conference of Unesco at As part of Unesco’s contribution to the achieve- its thirteenth session to promote international co-opera- ment of the objectives of the IHD, the General Con- tion in research and studies and the training of specialists ference authorized the Director-General to collect, and technicians in scientific hydrology. Its purpose is to exchange and disseminate information concerning re- enable all countries to make a fuller assessment of their search on scientific hydrology and to facilitate contacts water resources and a more rational use of them as between research workers in this lield. To this end man’s demands for water constantly increase in face Unesco has initiated two collections of publications: of developments in population, industry and agriculture. ‘Studies and Reports in Hydrology’ and ‘Technical In 1974 Natonal Committees for the Decade had been Papers in Hydrology’. formed in 107 of Unesco’s 131 Member States to carry The collection ‘Technical Papers in Hydrology’ out national activities and to contribute to regional and is intended to provide a means for the exchange of international activities within the programme of the information on hydrological techniques and for the co- Decade. The implementation of the programme is super- ordination of research and data collection. vised by a Co-ordinating Council, composed of thirty The acquisition, transmission and processing of Member States selected by the General Conference of data in a manner permitting the intercomparison of Unesco, which studies proposals for developments of results is a prerequisite to effortsto co-ordinate scien- the programme, recommends projects of interest to all tific projects within the framework of the IHD. The or a large number of countries, assists in the devdop- exchange of information on data collected throughout ment of national and regional projects and co-ordinates the world requires standard instruments, techniques, international co-operation. units of measure and terminology in order that data from Promotion of collaboration in developing hydro- all areas will be comparable. Much work has been done logical research techniques, diffusing hydrological data already towards international standardization, but much and planning hydrological installations is a major fea- remains to be done even for simple measurements of ture of the programme of the IHD which encompasses basic factors such as precipitation, snow cover, soil all aspects of hydrological studies and research. Hydro- moisture, streamflow, sediment transport and ground- logical investigations are encouraged at the national, water phenomena. regional and international level to strengthen and to It is hoped that the guides on data collection and improve the use of natural resources from a local and compilation in specific areas of hydrology to be pub- a global perspective. The programme provides a means lished in this collection will provide means whereby for countries well advanced in hydrological research to hydrologists may standardize their records of observa- exchange scientific views and for developing countries tions and thus facilitate the study of hydrology on a to benefit from this exchange of information in elaborat- world-wide basis. ing research projects and in implementing recent devel- Contents

Foreword 9

1 Some remarks on the functions of the hydrologist 10

2 Diverse approaches to teaching hydrology 11 2.1 Reasons for the diversity 11 2.2 Principles 11

3 Levels in teaching hydrology 13 3.1 Research hydrologists an'd professors 13 3.2 Professional hydrologists 13 3.3 Hydrological technicians and auxiliary personnel 14

4 The role of hydrology in various study programmes 16 4.1 Introduction 16 4.2 Major fields in which a general course in hydrology is offered 16

5 Educational systems for teaching hydrology 25 5.1 Introduction 25 5.2 Special features of some educational systems 25

6 Technical-assistance policies 30 6.1 The need for planning 30 6.2 The creation of new institutions 30 6.3 Forms of aid 31 6.4 Affiliations between institutes in different countries 32 9

Foreword

The Co-ordinating Council of the International Hydro- which basic methodological concepts are presented, tological Decade (IHD), considering that hydrological gether with specific subjects that were not covered in the education is one of the most important activities carried other publications, is designed to meet this need and out within the IHD, established a Working Group on thus complements the previous publications. Education and Training in Hydrology with the main The paper was compiled by the IHD secretariat task of strengthening hydrological education in all parts on the basis of the reports of the first and second ses- of the world. In this connexion, the working group sions of the IHD Working Group on Education, and studied the education of hydrologists as it is undertaken particularly on a paper ‘Manpower Requirements, Train- in different countries and considered effective pro- ing and Research’, by Professor L. J. Mostertman, grammes suitable for international use. During the dis- Unesco Consultant for the United Nations Panel of cussions held by the working group on this subject, it Experts on Water Resources Development Policies, became apparent that approaches to the teaching of Buenos Aires, 1970. Sections of the paper that were hydrology vary from country to country, that ‘hydro- provided by individual members of the working group logy’ is not clearly defined, and that the contents of the or by individual authors bear the names of their res- various subjects which make up a hydrological course pective authors. The draft was approved by the working also differ greatly. group at its fifth session in April 1973, with the follow- In order to assess the methods used for teaching ing members and observers participating: E. Custodio hydrology, the working group undertook a careful exa- (Spain), A. Dembele (Mali), J. Dvorak (Czechoslova- mination of hydrological topics, of the literature avail- kia), J. S. Gandolfo (Argentina), W. L. Moore (United able on hydrology, of curricula and syllabi being used States), L. J. Mostertman (Netherlands), J. Sircoulon in hydrology courses, and of the training aids available. (France), K. Stelczer (Hungary), M.R. Tarafdar (Bang- The material was collected, evaluated and summarized ladesh), D. Tonini (Italy), S. J. Vartazarov (U.S.S.R.), in four Unesco publications: Textbooks in Hydrology J. Nemec (World Meteorological Organization), M.W. (vol. I and II), Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology, and Terentiev (World Meteorological Organization), H. W. Teaching Aids in Hydrology. Underhill (Food and Agriculture Organization) and These publications offer valuable material on W. H. Gilbrich (Unesco). specific aspects of hydrological education for those who A review of the manuscript was undertaken by teach hydrology or organize new teaching activities. an ad hoc panel which met in Paris in August 1973. However, the working group considered that there was This panel consisted of W. L. Moore (United States), still a need for a publication giving a general review of L. J. Mostertman (Netherlands), M.R. Tarafdar (Bang- hydrological teaching. The present technical paper, in ladesh) and W.H. Gilbrich (Unesco). 1 Some remarks on the functions of the hydrologist

Water resources schemes are now increasingly con- thus been difficult for it to emerge as a separate branch. sidered as integrated systems and consequently, civil In fact, hydrology has been established as a separate engineers, geologists, agricultural engineers and hydrau- field of study in only a few of the largest and most lic engineers engaged in planning and design no longer highly developed countries. work in isolation. During the planning phase, it is In order to follow modern teaching programmes in indispensable to ensure the collaboration of a team hydrology, the student requires a preparatory knowl- which, besides engineers and scientists, may also include edge of basic science as well as of some aspects of sociologists, geographers, economists, political scientists civil engineering, geology, geography, meteorology and and representatives of rural and urban planning autho- agricultural engineering. Because of his knowledge of rities. Even for the technical aspects of his task, the these related fields, the hydrologist may find employ- engineer woirks as a member of a team which may ment in a variety of jobs. The diversity of the basic include physicists, mathematicians, meteorologists, bio- training of a hydrologist gives him flexibility and the logists and economists. As a general rule, the water capacity to rapidly understand and solve various types resources engineer will play the leading role and will of problems. Of course, this does not mean that a be the project co-ordinator. hydrologist should independently undertake responsible Hydrology, which may be defined as the science tasks in professions that are not his own. of the waters of the earth and of the behaviour of Since, in the organization of many water-resources water within the hydrological cycle, as well as its rela- agencies, hydrological tasks are performed within a tion to the environment, is an indispensable require- wider framework of water-resources work, engineers ment for planning and design in the field of water are employed as hydrologists for only part of their time. resources development. Owing to its rapid development Where this is the case, engineers and scientists are not during the last decade, hydrology has become a funda- usually trained as full-time hydrologists but provided mental science for water resources management. Never- with a sound hydrological background so that they can theless, projects for river training, irrigation and drain- work as hydrologists as well as carrying out other tasks. age, hydropower, water supply, flood control and navi- An attempt to compare the teaching of hydrology gation are frequently executed without first carrying out at various levels may encounter difficulties because of an adequate programme of hydrological investigations. the complexity of the relations between hydrology and Such investigations, including the collection and its allied subjects. The different approaches to teaching interpretation of data on precipitation, evapotranspira- hydrology have led to syllabi differing in extent and tion, discharge, etc., are essential for the practical plan- depth of coverage, and consequently to personnel with ning and design of water development schemes. The differing capabilities. These differences are so nume- hydrologist is best qualified to undertake these tasks and rous, and the variations are so wide both as regards should, therefore, be associated with other specialists principles and levels that it is not feasible to describe in the planning and execution of such projects. fully the various methods and ways of teaching hydro- In spite of its important role, hydrology is not a logy, and this is reflected in the present report. common choice for a career, for two main reasons: (a) the The Working Group on Education and Training hydrological profession has not yet developed a clear in Hydrology considered drafting a model programme identity of its own, and (b) in many agencies, the career for hydrological education for use in universities, but prospects for hydrologists are unoortain. The science decided against this course because variations in local of hydrology has developed within many different fields circumstances and in approaches to the subjects taught of study, including civil engineering, meteorology, geo- would make the general application of a model pro- logy, physical geography and geophysics, and it has gramme impracticable. 2 Diverse approaches to teaching hydrology

2.1 Reasons for the diversity its technical notes1 on hydrological textbooks, curricula and syllabi, and the application of modem teaching aids. Analysis of the professional activities of a hydrologist The working group identified three main parame- brings to light the manifold aspects of hydrology and ters which influence hydrological teaching and which these must of course be reflected in hydrological edu- are the basis of the systematic discussion which follows: cation. The diversity in educational programmes is even (a) levels in teaching hydrology, (b) the role of hydro- greater than in the subject matter itself due to diffe- logy in various study programmes, (c) educational sys- rences in local conditions. tems for teaching hydrology. The different systems for teaching hydrology follow the pattern of the existing facilities from which they emerge and also reflect the specific natural, econo- 2.2 Principles mic, social and administrative conditions of a given country. The achievements of scientific research and the This section is devoted to a discussion of the principles results of international programmes such as the Inter- that are valid for all types of educational activities in national Hydrological Decade have also influenced the hydrology. It is not possible to develop a uniform system development of hydrological education. The history of for teaching hydrology which would be valid for all the IHD is partially a history of hydrological education, countries. Nevertheless, it is useful to identify certain and it reflects the full spectrum of educational activities principles whose application may improve the quality undertaken under this programme. and increase the efficiency of teaching programmes under The necessity of adapting hydrological education to a wide range of local conditions. particular needs and to the socio-political structure of a country is characteristic, and distinguishes hydrology from other closely related fields such as meteorology, 2.2.1PLANNING AND OBJECTIVES for which teaching follows internationally accepted guide- OF TEACHING lines. The absence of such strict guidelines for hydrology is advantageous because the educational process The planning of a system for teaching hydrology must can adjust more quickly to changing needs and available start by defining the objectives. Besides the geographical facilities. However, it then becomes difficult to compare features and the water resources of the country, the the different teaching programmes. level and nature of the future employment of the hydro- The aim of this technical paper is to offer back- logist should be considered. In this planning process, ground material for the management of educational pro- the numbers and the educational attainments of poten- grammes. The reader will not find in these pages explicit tial students will also be determining factors. Hence instructions which avoid the need for study and reflec- there should be close liaison between the planning of tion. The proper answer for a given case will depend hydrological education and the over-all educational sys- on the local needs and facilities, on the objectives, the tem, taking account of the national priorities. After a system and level of education and also on the local study of these factors, a written statement of objectives social, economic and political conditions. Therefore, the should be prepared. working group has attempted only to summarize the experience gained in the course of its study of the 1. Textbooks in Hydrology, Paris, Unesco, 1970. (Technical teaching of hydrology and, on this basis, to present a Papers in Hydrology, No. 6.) Curricula and Syllabi in Hydro- logy, Paris, Unesco, 1972. (Technical Papers in Hydrology, systematic discussion. At the same time, the working No. 10.) Teaching Aids in Hydrology, Pans, Unesco, 1972. group sought to develop an appropriate framework for (Technical Papers in Hydrology, No. 11.) The teaching of hydrology 12

2.2.2THE ROLE OF BASIC SUBJECTS be illustrated and amplified by laboratory and field work. Observations and measurements under field con- The choice of subject matter to be taught depends on ditions are needed not only to demonstrate the the objectives of teaching; as remarked above, curri- principles but also to provide the dexterity and self- ala and syllabi cannot be designed to be universally confidence needed. The future hydrologist should have applicable. However, all future hydrologists-regardless some experience, in selecting a site for a gauging of their eventual specialkation-need a certain basic sation. Exercises in prospecting for ground water by knowledge, part of which should be acquired prior to geophysical methods and in the use of isotopes in ;their specialization in hydrology. This remark refers hydrology are also very desirable. Hydrological train- primarily to mathematics, physics, fluid mechanics, che- ing institutions should have access to a hydrometric and mistry, biology, geology, geography and meteorology as meteorological field station and to a representative or applied to hydrology. In addition to this basic knowl- experimental basin equipped for training purposes. This edge, it will be necessary to teach more advanced topics type of practical training is otten easier to conceive than in these basic sciences during the specialized hydrology to organize and carry out. The same applies to the course. demonstration of hydrological instruments, to measurement methods and to data treatment. Some hydrological phenomena cannot be demons- 2.2.3 REQUIRED LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE trated economically in their natural dimensions. Several IN HYDROLOGY processes in river-bed morphology, for example, can best be shown in small-scale models. The IHD Working Group on Education and Hydrology Phenomena that cannot be observed readily owing Training distinguished between topics which are indis- to their scale, to their very rapid or very slow rate of pensable for all hydrologists and those topics which can change or to their poor reproducibility can be studied be added to a hydrology curriculum if circumstances with the aid of films. Additional advantages are that warrant. A number of examples are given in CurrkuZu students may ask for specific scenes to be repeated for and Syllabi in Hydrology. later study. The best methods of using such films deserve exploration as also does the making of films specially adapted to the needs of teaching. 2.2.4NEED FOR PRACTICAL TRAINING Slides, charts, schematic drawings-and in particular hydrological maps-are important aids to the 'Theteaching of most scientific disciplines requires prac- visualization of concepts. Training institutions should tical training. Hydrology is no exception-on the con- have access also to a collection of hydrological, geolo- trary, it is particularly well suited to practical methods. gical, topographical, pedological and hydromietrical A significant part of the hydrologist's ability in the basic maps, together with records of meteorological and sciences-physics, geology, geography, etc.-and also hydrometrical observational data. in hydrology itself, requires practical study and expe- Details of these teaching aids are described in rience. Theoretical study of physical processes should the Unesco publication Teaching Aids in Hydrology. 3 Levels in teaching hydrology

An educational programme should follow closely the to research workers a more thorough knowledge of a manpower requirements of the branch of activity that special subject or of recent developments. Informal will employ its graduates. Hydrological personnel are seminars may be organized with research workers and needed at four main levels: research hydrologists, pro- hydrology professors from well-established institutions fessional hydrologists, hydrological technicians and as participants. Such seminars are held at universities auxiliary personnel. The role of the research hydrolo- where modern hydrology has reached an outstanding gist is to develop new techniques of observation and level. The programmes include discussions on modern to undertake basic studies of a scientific nature. The methods and curricula, lectures, exercises and labora- professional hydrologist at university level is needed for tory work in different topics; the discussions also cover the study of hydrological phenomena relevant to the the newer developments in hydrology such as automatic design, construction and operation of water resources data collection, the application of models in hydrology, schemes. Teachers of hydrology may be selected from etc. Experimental classes may be conducted, followed either the research or the professional level. Hydrolo- by discussions. gical technicians are needed to conduct measurements Similar training may be accomplished at interna- and process observed data, for which they usually apply tional symposia where the latest developments in hydro- only standard methods and techniques. Other auxiliary logy are presented. The participants learn by personal hydrological personnel (observers) are employed for exchanges of information and experience, by field trips reading instruments and for the maintenance of instru- and visits to exhibitions, institutes and laboratories. ments and field stations. The range of the subjects taught increases with the educational level, and reaches its maximum in the 3.2 Professional hydrologists case of the professional hydrologist. At higher levels there is also a greater need for elective subjects. At the professional level, education usually takes the The above definition of levels is similar to that form of a prescribed course of studies. However, there ganerally accepted for meteorological personnel; in is no standardized or uniform pattern. A general intro- hydrology the levels are not defined so strictly, they are duction to hydrology is most frequently given as part not applied in such a rigid manner and they have fewer of undergraduate curricula or specialized courses in implications for the careers of the persons concerned. water-resources engineering, civil engineering, agricultural engineering, geography, geology and meteorology and, in special cases, in other subjects such as agronomy 3.1 Research hydrologists and professors and forestry. Hydrology is thus taught within a very large number of departments in universities. The schools Hydrological research is not usually restricted to profes- (universities, colleges, polytechnics, etc.) which offer sional hydrologists but is also undertaken by scientists courses in general hydrology or in one or all of its with various backgrounds-civil engineers, hydraulics aspects (hydrometeorology, surface-water hydrology, engineers, agricultural engineers, mathematicians, phy- ground-water hydrology, etc.) are extremely varied. The sicists and other natural-science specialists. Research extent of the variety depends mainly on the differences workers are normally introduced to hydrology at the among educational systems in various countries, regard- post-doctoral level under the guidance of a professor less of whether they are industrially developed or not. or of a senior scientist. Hydrology is also taught as part of the educational pro- Summer training schemes and short refresher grammes in related subjects and some students may thus courses have proved to be effective means of imparting acquire the ability to perform simple hydrological tasks. The teaching of hydrology 14

For more complete studies in hydrology, three of employment exist. This conclusion is valid not only different possibilities exist. The most common one for highly industrialized countries but also for the consists of post-graduate studies; the others are the developing countries where the professional hydrologist complete undergraduate university course, and in-service must have a broader background, generally in hydrau- training. lic, agricultural or sanitary engineering. A candidate for post-graduate studies should al- An undergraduate student who has taken only a ready hold a degree as a civil or agricultural engineer or, general course in hydrology (as one subject of a curri- in special circumstances, a mining engineer, geologist, culum) obviously cannot be considered a professional meteorologist or physical geographer. hydrologist. On the other hand, the natural and econo- Post-graduate courses are, of course, needed in mic characteristics of countries differ and the full range many fields other than hydrology and, as a general rule, of hydrological subjects is not required in all cases. such courses are given in universities or special training Frimary attention may be concentrated on surface water institutes. As the number of specialists in many coun- exploitation or on ground water, coastal hydrology, etc. tries is too small to warrant the organization of national At the undergraduate level, a student who is later to courses, it seemed desirable to set up international specialize in hydrology must receive a broad education. courses. Consequently, in 1962 Unesco initiated a pro- During his undergraduate studies he might be given an gramme to promote post-graduate courses in several introduction to hydrology and specialization may be sciences (mathematics, physics, geology, ecology, hydro- achieved through in-service training where the student logy, etc.). In the field of hydrology, one national course learns from older and more experienced colleagues. This functioning at that time received support from Unesco method takes longer than the others and it is applicable and a number of new courses were organized upon the only where a sufficient number of experienced hydro- initiative of Unesco. In 1973, Unesco-sponsored post- logists are available. On the other hand, the method graduate courses in hydrology were given in Austria, permits the training to be completed with less intermp- Czechoslovakia, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Nether- tion of the hydrologist’s services to his agency. lands, Spain, United States and U.S.S.R. While some of these courses cover nearly all fields of hydrology, others concentrate on special aspects. The courses have 3.3 Hydrological technicians an average duration of six months (two specialized and auxiliary personnel courses are shorter; and two of the courses last eleven months). Detailed information on the subjects taught in The greatest manpower need in hydrology is for techni- these courses is contained in Annex IV of Curricula cians, observers and other auxiliary personnel. Unfor- and Syllabi in Hydrology. tunately, in most developing countries the existing At present, complete specialized undergraduate provisions for training hydrological technicians are ina- courses for the training of professional hydrologists dequate to cope with present needs and the expected exist in the U.S.S.R.and to some extent in other coun- demands. tries of Eastern Europe. Graduates are primarily employed in the State Hydrometeorological Service (GUGMS in the U.S.S.R.) and in other State water- 3.3.1 TECHNICIANS resources services; this influences, to a certain extent, the programmes of the courses. One programme in the It is desirable that technicians be prepared for a number United States at the University of Arizona has started of related tasks in hydrology, rather than receive train- graduating professional hydrologists at the B.Sc., M.Sc. ing only for specific tasks. This is particularly necessary and Ph.D. levels. (Details of the above undergraduate in countries where manpower is limited or where the courses are contained in Curricula and Syllabi in Hydro- technician will work on his own at remote observation logy (Annex 111). stations. The training of such technicians may be Several universities in various parts of the world effected through on-the-job instruction under the super- are considering the introduction of undergraduate pro- vision of a professional hydrologist and also by means grammes in hydrology. Most of these plans are still at of relevant manuals and guidebooks. a preliminary stage and no official detailed information At the international level, efforts so far have been is yet available. On the other hand, general trends in concentrated on the education of university-level pro- university education throughout the world seem to indi- fessional hydrologists, research hydrologists and hydro- cate that a high degree of specialization in undergraduate logy teachers. The education of technicians and observers study is not desirable, except where special conditions is an equally important task, but priority was given to 15 Levels in teaching hydrology the training of professional hydrologists who would then training in these basic subjects so that, during the training be able to conduct the training at lower levels. The course proper attention may be directed exclusively technician should be familiar with the procedures and to hydrological subjects. Correspondence courses have methods in use in the country where he is working. been developed in a number of countries, particularly The training of technicians outside their home country for mathematics and physics. in a philosophy different from that of their parent In countries with a very large water-resource ser- service may lead to confusion and feelings of frustration vice, it is possible to organize special intermediate-level upon their return. Therefore, technician training is best training institutes for technicians. These can be attached carried out in the country and preferably in the service to existing technical schools or to the hydrographical in which the !technicianis employed. Where the hydro- or hydrometeorological service. logical services in neighbouring countries are organized Refresher courses are a necessary complement to along similar lines and have adopted a similar profes- technician training programmes. While refresher courses sional philosophy, it may be advisable to organize regio- are needed at all levels, they are particularly important nal courses. However, long absences from work to at the technician level. As a general rule, technicians attend training programmes are undesirable and it is have little opportunity to follow new technical develop- advisable to limit the total duration of the course or else ments and they may be faced with the introduction of to give a series of short courses. new instruments or procedures with which they are Among other tasks, the technician will be expected unfamiliar. Refresher courses should be organized when- to assist in the setting up and installation of measuring ever innovations occur and, in any case, at intervals stations, to supervise observers and to take measure- not exceeding five years. ments and process the data. He may also be responsible for calculations, for designing small facilities and for local administrative tasks. 3.3.2AUXILIARY PERSONNEL AND OBSERVERS For hydrological purposes the technician needs training in the following subjects: engineering drawing, errors in observations, principles of mapping, principles Auxiliary personnel and observers are recruited from of hydraulics, general hydrometry, general hydrology among the vocational school leavers and are given in- and maintenance of instruments. This basic programme service training. should be supplemented by a few other subjects accord- During this period of on-the-jobtraining, auxiliary ing to the physical and climatic conditions of the country. personnel should acquire sufficient ability and under- Technician trainees should have a complete secon- standing to enable them to observe hydrological pheno- dary education, preferably technical, and during their mena accurately and objectively and to appreciate the training period they should be employed on hydrolo- underlying significance of their routine tasks which gical work. The duration of a training course can then consist mainly of reading and maintaining hydrological be limited to two or three months. If during the instruments, in particular gauges, and maintaining the trainee’s previous education a number of basic subjects, observational records. Their duties may also include such as mathematics, physics, meteorology, surveying simple technical office work and the plotting of hydro- and earth sciences were not covered adequately, they logical diagrams. Additional auxiliary personnel are should be included in the programme of the course. needed for repair and maintenance of instruments, water Correspondence courses could be used to provide prior analysis and so on. 4 The role of hydrology in various study programmes

4.1 Introduction rology, physical meteorology, climatology, agroclimato- logy, hydrometeorology, marine meteorology and meteo- Because water occurs naturally in many forms and places rological instruments. and has many uses, it is of concern to several professions. As described in the Guidelines, meteorological The elements of hydrology are therefore present in many personnel (including personnel working in the field of differentstudy programmes. hydrometeorology) are divided into four classes. These The IHDWorking Group on Education and Train- are described briefly below: ing in Hydrology1 listed a number of such fields with Class I: University-trained personnel with adequate edu- the subdivisions in which hydrology is generally taught. cation in mathematics and physics who have sucess- For the purpose of this paper, the following fields and fully completed training in various fields of meteoro- subdivisions were selected for a more detailed discussion: logy including hydrometeorology. The minimum basic (a) geophysics (meteorology); (b) civil engineering (hy- educational qualification of this class of personnel is draulic engineering); (c) agronomy (agricultural engi- a B.Sc. degree or equivalent. There is no upper limit. neering); (d) forestry (watershed management); (e) geo- Those conducting research must be Class I personnel. logy (hydrogedogy); (f) geography (geomorphology); Class 11: Personnel must have completed secondary (g) sanitary engineering (water quality); (h) biology and school or equivalent education supplemented by addi- chemistry (environmental biology and chemistry). tional training in mathematics and physics to a level approximating to first- or second-year university standards. They will then have at least ‘two years 4.2 in a general of full+time meteorological training. The distinction Major fields which between Class I and Class I1 personnel lies not in the course in hydrology is offered skills acquired but in the fund of theoretical knowledge at their disposal. 4.2.1 METEOROLOGYz Class 111: Personnel will have received complete secondary school or equivalent education plus training in The need for introducing hydrology as a general subject meteorology. Their main duties will be processing in the training of meteorological personnel and the observational data and handling various meteorolo- possibility of meteorological personnel specializing in gical instruments. They will also assist personnel of the specific boundary field between meteorology and higher classes. The duration of their meteorological hydrology-hydrometeorology-instead of the whole training is eight to ten months’ classroom work, plus field of hydrology was recognized long ago by the World three to four months’ on-the-job training. Meteorological Organization (WMO). Class IV: Personnel must have the minimum of nine In 1969,the WMO distributed among its Member years’ primary- and secondary-school education, plus States a publication entitled Guidelines for the Education training in meteorology. Their training permits them to and Training of Meteorological Personnel (WMO No. observe and record various phenomena accurately and 258.TP.144). The material contained in this publication objectively, and at the same time understand and is the synthesis of the work of practically all of the WMO appreciate the underlying significance of their routine technical commissions and a number of WMO panels tasks. The duration of training is about four months’ and includes in addition contributions received from numerous individual scientists. The Guidelines at pres- 1. Final Report of Working Group on Hydrological Education, First session, Paris, 29 November to 3 December 1965, ent contain methods of training and syllabi in the Annex X, Table I. (Doc. Unesco/NS/204.) following fields: dynamic meteorology, synoptic meteo- 2. Provided by the World Meteorological Organization. 17 The role of hydrology in various study programmes

classrom work plus three to four months’ on-the-job meteorological personnel. Meteorologists who specialize training. in hydrometeorology either ‘on-the-job’or in hydro- A certain amount of training is common to all the per- logical post-graduate courses, may work as hydrologists. sonnel, irrespective of their fields of specialization. Finally, it should be noted that the Guidelines Therefore, when formulating the various programmes in do not recommend formal courses for research workers, the Guidelines a distinction was made between (a) fun- since their training can only be acquired through expe- damental education and @) specialization. This is des- rience, personal interest and close collaboration with cribed schematically in Figure 1 for Class I personnel. scientists of high repute. It is understood, however, that A study of Figure 1 brings out the following facts: specialists engaged in research activities should have all of the Class I meteorological personnel should have at least Class I training. an adequate knowledge of mathematics and physics- the ‘education in the basic sciences’ stage. This basic training is followed by ‘fundamental meteorological edu- 4.2.2CIVIL ENGINEERING cation’, a programme common to all Class I meteorolo- (HYDRAULIC ENG1NEERING)l gical personnel. Hydrology is part of this fundamental training. Such a programme will normally lead to at Before an attempt is made to evaluate hydrology as a least the lowest university degree (B.Sc. or equivalent). subject for students in civil engineering/water manage- Also, at the ‘advanced training or specialization’ level, ment, the concept of water management should first be hydrometeorology, as a boundary field between meteo- defined. rology and hydrology, is an important area of specialization which comprises: geomorphology and soil science; Water management surveying;hydraulics; open channel flow, dynamics and channel processes; streamflow and hydrological calcula- Water management is the application of all available tion; hydrometry; hydrological forecasts; general and knowledge to the practical development of water re- special hydrogeology; principles of hydraulic engineer- sources. Consequently,water management is, on the one ing, water management. hand, the management of material goods, physical forces These topics are also available to Class 11, Class and human efforts used for transforming the natural I11 and Class IV meteorological personnel. Thus, hydro- rtgime of water (hydraulic engineering). logy is part of the fundamental training of these classes 1. By Dr K. Stelczer, Director, Research Institute for Water and hydrometeorology is a field of specialization for Resources Development, Budapest (Hungary).

EDUCATION IN THE BASIC SCIENCES Mathematics

FUNDAMENTAL METEOROLOGICAL EDUCATION

1 Dynamic Synoptic Physical Ocean/Atmospheru 1 meteorology meteorology meteorology C1imatolo~ interaction

/=&GNG AND SPECIALIZATION I

Advanced training Specialization < wt __~ A

FIG. 1. Curricula for training Class I meteorological personnel. Schematic representation of contents (from WMO publication Guidelines for the Education and Training of Meteorological Personnel, prepared by the Executive Committee Panel of Experts on Meteorological Education and Training). The teaching of hydrology 18

One of the fundamental sciences of water manage ponds for fish cultures). (b) River training (Protection ment is hydrology and its practical application is hydraul- against damage: flood control; river training. Water ic engineering. power development. Inland navigation). (c) Municipal Most of the engineers employed in water manage- water management (Water supply. Sewerage and sewage ment are civil engineers (in certain countries there are treatment). specific educational programmes for hydraulic engineer- As a basis for performing these tasks, the engineer ing or water management). The extent of their education should be familiar with the basic components of the in hydrology is controlled by the requirements of their hydrological cycle, with the means and methods of their professional careers. Evidently, an engineer working in measurement (hydrometry), with data processing and the field of water-resources management needs hydrolo- interpretation. In addition, he should know how to gical knowledge at a higher level than one employed in establish the quantitative and qualitative relationships the constructional aspects of hydraulic engineering. It between important parameters with the aid of systems should also be emphasized that all those working in analysis, mathematical statistics, etc. For teaching the hydraulic engineering need a knowledge of hydrology. above, three or four semesters with two to four hours This requirement is not dependent on whether a single per week for theory and the same time for practice can State water management organization exists in the coun- be recommended. Wie it is necessary to undertake try or whether the tasks are divided between several field measurements in the teaching of hydrometry, in agencies. However, it is recognized that, except for some systems analysis it is important to demonstrate the countries having large territories, most countries do not theory by solving suitable numerical examples, recogniz- need to provide a separate education for hydrologists, ing at every stage the physical nature of the phenomenon. even if their water resources are highly developed. In most cases hydrology can conveniently be taught Post-graduate education for civil engineers working within the framework of civil-engineering education. For in hydrology those choosing a career in water-resources management (professional hydrologists or research hydrologists) twe re- For the research hydrologist or professional hydrologist, quired special knowledge in hydrology could be acquired post-graduate education is recommended. After gradua- by post-graduate education (national or international) tion and two to three years of practical experience, a taken after two to three years of practice. Nevertheless high-level course in hydrology is taken. Larger and it might be advisable for some of the professional hydro- hydrologically developed countries can organize national logists or research hydrologists to be graduates of a uni- courses; smaller or hydrologically less developed coun- versity with a complete programme in hydrology. tries can make use of international post-graduate courses. Now that hydrology is changing its character from Their duration should be at least six but preferably ten a purely empirical and descriptive science to an analytic to twelve months. National post-graduate education may science, education in hydrology can well be offered take the form of correspondence courses, with one or within the framework of civil engineering. Modern two oral sessions per month. In this case the duration applied hydrology, statistical methods, analytic and syn- of the programme should be at least two years. thetic models require a knowledge of advanced mathe- The educational content of a post-graduate pro- matics which is generally given in civil engineering gramme would mainly consist of the most recent and schools. modern methods of systems analysis, applying stochastic and parametric methods. Examples should be worked Teaching hydrology within the framework out on the TCgime of water couses, hydrology of sub- of education in civil engineering surface waters, hydrology of lakes and reservoirs and The civil engineer engaged in design, construction or surface run-off.Emphasis should be given to mathe- operation of hydraulic works must solve practical prob- matics and hydromechanics and the course should also lems. These are of varied nature and in most cases include selected topics from electrotechnics, instrument hydrology is needed for their solution. The following techniques, isotope techniques, hydrochemistry and hy- fields may be mentioned: (a) Rural water management drobiology. The most modem measuring equipment and (Land improvement: surface drainage by removal of sur- techniques should be demonstrated, including automa- face waters unwanted and harmful for agriculture and tization, nuclear techniques and data processing. The human settlements; subsurface drainage by removal of bulk of the time of post-graduate education would be subsurface waters unwanted and harmful for agriculture spent on theory; approximately one-fifth of the total time and engineering works; erosion control (sheet erosion, is recommended to be used for practical training, if bed erosion, gully erosion). Water utilization: irrigation, possible in experimental or representative basins. 19 The role of hydrology in various study programmes

After the formal post-graduate education, an indi- should be undertaken by specialists having a know- vidual programme of study may be developed leading ledge of both hydrology and agriculture. In 'these water- to the highest possible qualification. One prominent sheds the process of surface run-off is substantially in- expert in hydrology can give guidance to several candi- fluenced by factors which are of little importance or are dates at the same time. The conditions for such a quali- even insignificant in larger watersheds, for instance soil fication would be: a minimum of three years of practical char acteristics , vegetation, soil cultivation methods , etc. experience in the field or in a research institute, the Thus, the teaching of hydrology at agricultural univer- preparation of a thesis, and finally an oral examination. sities is an important contribution to agricultural practice. Their knowledge of certain aspects of hydrology will help agronomists to find ways to increase agricul- 4.2.3 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING' tural production. The influence of land-use and the precipitation-run-offprocess are of special importance The role of hydrology in agricultural engineering in connexion with the supply of soil moisture.

Hydrology is one of the main subjects in agricultural Agricultural engineering for the hydrologist engineering study programmes. Agricultural engineers design, construct and operate systems for irrigation and Hydrologists working in the field of agronomy should drainage, the protection of agricultural land against ero- be acquainted with the main types of plant cultures, their sion, the regulation of small water courses and land water requirements, and the required depth of the reclamation. The task of hydrology is to provide the ground-water table, together with the influence of dif- necessary knowledge for the determination and evalua- ferent cultures on the water balance. Methods of soil tion of the basic factors of the works proposed. cultivation for various plant cultures and the influence In the basic study of agronomy,on the other hand, of agrotechnical practices on the water balance and hydrology is not included as a separate subject,but some particularly measures for soil reclamation are further of its principles are incorporated in other subjects, i.e. important factors to be studied. This concerns above soil science, agro-meteorology,irrigation, drainage, soil all factors influencing evapotranspiration, soil evapo- conservation etc. ration and infiltration. The influence of the various fac- Plant production has a substantial influence both tors which may affect the above parameters, the pro- on the water regime and water balance of the water- cess of surface run-off and its relation to water erosion, shed. Knowledge of the basic properties of individual as well as the precipitation-run-off relations are of cultures and different methods of cultivation enables an primary interest. understanding of hydrological processes and the evalua- Since agronomy is a complex science, it wouId be tion of their influence on components of the water desirable for the purpose of hydrological education to balance. The natural water balance is further influenced introduce an abbreviated course which would include by measures for the increase of crop production (irriga- selected material from the subjects of plant production, tion, drainage, soil conservation, etc.). Knowledge of the soil cultivation and agrometeorology. Hydrology students influence of these measures on the water balance enables should study in detail soil science and methods of soil the hydrologist to evaluate the evolution of the water reclamation and soil conservation. balance. Thus, studies in agronomy will improve the understanding of the hydrological cycle as influenced by plant cover. As a main subject in the study programme at 4.2.4FORESTRY2 agricultural universities, hydroIogy is indispensable for specialists engaged in the improvement of soil fertility. The role of hydrology in forestry Professional hydrologists usually deal with medium-sized and large watersheds, for which purpose they investigate In study programmes for forestry engineering, hydrology or process hydrological data necessary for the design is a separate subject for the education of specialists. Such of water management structures. They are also concerned with the r&gime or control of the run-off in river 1. By Dr 3. Dvorbk, Acting Director of the Post-Graduate systems. They devote less attention to the study of Course in Hydrology, Prague Agricultural College, Prague- small watersheds, which form the basis for the planning Suchdol (Czechoslovakia). 2. By Dr J. DvorAk, Acting Director of the Post-Graduate of reclamation projects. Studies for small agricultural Course in Hydrology, Prague Agricultural College, Prague- watersheds and for the planning of reclamation works Suchdol (Czechoslovakia). The teaching of hydrology 20 programmes include drainage of forest soil, protection it is desirable !to introduce a short course specially against erosion, torrent control and transportation struc- adapted to the needs of hydrological education. This tures. The task of hydrology is to supply data for the would include selected material from the theory of planning of these structures and measures. forest stands, forest phytocoenology, typology, dendro- In basic study programmes, on the other hand, logy, bioclimatology, elements of forest management and hydrology is usually not taught as a separate subject, of economical forest exploitation. Some information con- its principles being included in other subjects such as cerning the techniques of afforestation should be bioclimatology, forest structures and torrent control. included. Forests represent an important type of vegetational cover and substantially influence the water rbgime and water balance of the watershed. Basic information con- 4.2.5GEOLOGY (HYDROGEOLOGY)l cerning properties of forest stands and methods of their exploitation leads to a better understanding of hydrolo- An adequate understanding of geology is necessary for gical phenomena and evaluation of the water balance. most ground-water studies. The description and specia- The introduction of hydrology into forestry study lized study of water-bearing strata lead to a separate programmes will be beneficial not only for the education branch of geology, namely hydrogeology. of specialists in the reclamation of forest soil and in Some hydrogeological studies require a thorough torrent control but for the training of specialists in knowledge of geology, whereas for other studies a gene- forest management. In forestry, hydrological knowledge ral descriptive knowledge suffices. In somes cases the is needed for the assessment of the laws controlling the existing geological theory or the available descriptive rbgimes of surface and ground water of forests and for material is not a sufficient basis for ground-water studies. the application of these laws to the management of forest Ground water has been studied in a descriptive areas. manner by geologists and in an analytical way by engi- A forest manager with a good hydrological educa- neers. Geologists are increasingly engaged in practical tion will be able to promote an almost constant run-off ground-water problems and therefore need to apply from watersheds in regions with a water deficit and more quantitative methods. where ground or surface water is accumulated in reservoirs. The application of hydrological knowledge, esps Hydrology in geological education cially with respect to ground water, to silviculture may be expected to result in higher wood production. Hydro- Many geologists, geophysicists, some geological engi- logy is useful for the design of torrent control works, neers and mining engineers are successfully engaged in measures against avalanches, the stabilization of land- ground-water studies. This is a logical consequence of slides, transport structures, and drainage of forest Soils. their basic training. Although prior to the IHD only a few universities offered specific courses in hydro- Forestry for the hydrologist geology, at present this type of course is more common. Many of these courses are still devoted to nonquanti- A hydrologist engaged in forestry studies should be tative aspects and they sometimes do not give sufficient acquainted with the main types of forests and their insight into ground-water flow. This results from the properties and, furthermore, with forests at various inadequate mathematical background of some students elevations. All these stands differ in their water rbgimes. and teachers in developing and developed countries A good knowledge of the forest cover in a region com- alike. The growing interest in ground-water studies is pared with other local land uses is therefore indispen- the outcome of a search for new employment possibili- sable. For such hydrologists a general knowledge will be ties and a rising demand for specialists in this field. required of the main properties of the most important Especially in developing countries there is an tree species, especially in relation to light, temperature, appreciable demand for geologists with a hydrological moisture, snow, fog, frost and soil. A knowledge of background. They are engaged mainly in prospecting, forest ecology and of the principles of silviculture will making inventories, preliminary reporting, surveying and be desirable. evaluations. Geologists with a wide hydrological back- Knowledge relating to agorestation is especially ground are also engaged in surveying and studying important for hydrologists. Data from small watersheds ground-water pollution, and settling conflioting water are important for this activity, although not always suffi- claims. ciently available. 1. By Dr E. Custodio, Vice-Director, International Ground In view of the complexity of the science of forestry, Water Course, Barcelona (Spain). 21 The role of hydrology in various study programmes

Most geology students take a general introductory Since the development of ground water often course of thirty to forty class hours in basic principles involves legal problems, several hours of teaching in of ground water. Those who desire a special competence water law are needed. in ground water need between 150 and 250 hours of teaching in ground-water subjects, such as hydraulic properties of earth materials, ground water flow, well 4.2.6GEOGRAPHY] hydraulics, models, geohpdrochemistry, tracers and some nuclear techniques. In preparation for these courses some Everywhere on the land surface of the earth, water preliminary short courses on mathematics, calculus, and is a component of the geographical landscape in the chemistry will be necessary in many cases. Some uniform of rivers, lakes and glaciers, and also as soil water versities offer courses in hydrogeology for a duration of and ground water. In the form of ground water, ins- one or two terms only and this is generally insufficient. tration water and water in the zone of aeration, it influences the ecology of a region, and is of essential Geology in hydrological education importance for vegetation and agriculture, and also for the development of settlements and industry. Hydrologists deal with natural processes on and in the Geography is interested not only in the present earth, and therefore a general geological background is occurrence of water on the earth but also in the ways in needed. Examples of teaching geology to hydrologists which it has shaped the surface of the earth in the can be found in Unesco’s publication Curricula and course of centuries and millennia. Geography also con- Syllabi in Hydrology. A thirty- to forty-hour course in siders water as the most important eIement influencing physical geology followed by a fifteen- to thirty-hour ecology and as an economically important factor which course in hydrogeology may suffice for general and may determine the location of industry. surface-water hydrologists. This teaching should be For a long time the science of water has been supplemented by field work. For ground-water hydro- taught as the study of streams (potamology), lakes (lim- logists education in geology should be more extensive nology) and glaciers (glaciology). Since the geoscientists and may encompass about sixty to eighty hours on phy- A. Penck and E. Briickner developed the first water sical geology, including elements of stratigraphy, tecto- balance equations for Middle Europe at the end of nics, sedimentology and earth materials. the nineteenth century (at about the same time as For geological problems of some importance, the A. Voeikov), such investigations have gained greater services of a geologist should be obtained. When a importance in geographical research. hydrologist encounters a geological problem of minor The main endeavour of a geographer engaged in importance he may be able to deal with it himself. hydrological studies is to attain a comprehensive view of water as an integral component of all environmental Geology in post-graduate hydrological education conditions. It is not the aim of geographical research Geology teaching in post-graduate courses on hydrology to find laws for the flow of water as does hydraulics. varies according to the special purpose of the course One who is concerned with run-off-as in the studies of and the previous knowledge of the students. Some com- floods, soil erosion or lake currents-must be familiar plementary information may be found in Unesco’s publi- with some results of hydraulic research. This compre- cation Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology. hensive view should not prevent one from studying special phenomena such as pollution, temperature chan- Special fields ges or the water balance of lakes. Physical geography is concerned with the earth as Geohydrochemistry is a developing field which is con- the space in which man develops his activities. Nature cerned with the mutual relationships between rock,water determines the possibilities given to man, and on the composition and ground-water flow. These relationships other hand man influences his natural environment. The are very important in many scientific and practical study of this mutual interaction is a main theme of ground-water studies. With an adequate training in che- geography in which hydrology is of special importance, mistry, engineers and geologists may carry out this for example how hydrological processes are influenced work, but complex problems are best handled by che- by man. mists with a special understanding of ground water, geo- Some aspects of the planning of canals, reservoirs, logy, sedimentology and geochemistry. Ground-water tracing and some nuclear techniques are also of concern 1. By Professor R. Keller, Head of the Geographical Institute I of the University of Freiburg, 78 Freiburg-Breisgau (Federal to geohydrochemists. Republic of Germany). The teaching of hydrology 22 water supply and irrigation systems are also problems tures and exercises are offered in related disciplines. of applied geography, the solution of which comprises In the Federal Republic of Germany, a training aspects of physical geography, economic geography and programme has been developed which combines geo- social geography. If, for example, reservoirs and cultures sciences, engineering, biology and chemistry. The sub- based on irrigation are set up in arid regions, these jects to be taught are divided into two parts: (a) topics not only influence the local climate and water balance and subjects which are obligatory for all hydrologists but also the vegetation, fauna and the social structure without regard to their specialization; CO> specializations of the area. within hydrology. The position of hydrology in geography differs Thus the training is not carried out within one of widely from country to country. Many, if not most of the the traditional disciplines alone. To the first part of university departments of geography in America and the hydrological training, geography contributes regional Western Europe deal with hydrology only in occasional and general hydrology, general climatology, geomor- lectures and exercises. A much greater number of hydro- phology and pedology, geography of vegetation and logical problems are included in research and teaching settlements as well as the fundamentals of geodesy and under different names and belong to the standard sub- cartography. Within the geographical training the hydro- jects of geographical teaching programmes as, for logist may then specialize in morphology of rivers, example, glaciology, geomorphology of rivers and water balance, potamology, limnology, glaciology, watersheds, karst morphology and karst hydrology, geo- water resources management and sometimes data graphy of soils (comparative pedology), climatology, treatment and hydrological forecasting. geography of vegetation, ecology of the landscape. Other At some universities these subjects are also dealt hydrological problems are dealt with by economic geo- with outside geography within other traditional disci- graphers or by agricultural geographers, as for example, plines, for example pedology or geology. Field training problems of irrigation and agriculture as a location and studies in experimental and representative basins factor for settlements and industry. are part of the basic training; here the students become In Northern and Eastern Europe as well as in acquainted with the use of instruments and with the Japan and other countries, however, geographers deal problems arising in practical work. more extensively with hydrology (Moscow, Krakow, Belgrade, Uppsala, Tokyo, etc.). Here they are often concerned with the description and typification of 4.2.7SANITARY ENGINEERING' waters; for many years investigations of the water balance of smaller and laTger regions have been carried Hydrology for sanitary engineers out by geographical hydrologists. Co-operation with other branches of science and technology is essential. During the major effort to improve health conditions Although several aspects of hydrology are dealt with by in the cities at the end of the nineteenth century, many geographers, they do not include all fields of hydrology. sanitary engineering works were needed. In designing A hydrologist cannot be educated in geography alone: these works, the shortcomings in our knowledge of the complementary related sciences must be added which hydrological cycle were revealed. The sanitary engineers will often predominate. The solution of purely geogra- in charge of such schemes had, therefore, to undertake phical problems will often depend on the results of hydrological research and they made notable contri- engineering and other sciences. The geqrapher is depen- butions to this science. In 1856, Darcy formulated his dent on insights obtained in practice and on hydrolo- law on the movement of ground water. His motivation gical data provided by engineers. Thus there cannot be was not a theoretical one but rather the sheer necessity a sharp delimitation between general hydrology and of his assignment to improve the water supply system geographical hydrology. of the city of Dijon. When Allen Hazen, one of the most prolific civil engineers of our century, was given Training of hydrologists in geography the assignment to improve the sanitary conditions in Massachusetts, he could not restrict his studies to water It is not possible to present a general survey of the quality, but was obliged to develop new methods in hydrological lectures and exercises given in geographical hydrology. His studies on flood flow and his introduc- institutes dealing with hydrology, since ,they differ very tion of statistical methods undertaken in connexion to much from country to country and from university 1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Cour- university. At the departments of geography of univer- ses in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, 95 Oude Delft, sities in Eastern Europe that train hydrologists, lec- Delft (Netherlands). 23 The role of hydrology in various study programmes with storm drainage and water supply schemes are More explicitly, one can say that operational milestones in the history of hydrology. Several other hydrologists will be required to co-operate in studies of examples could be cited of sanitary engineers who water demands and the dilution of waste effluents. were outstanding hydrologists at the same time. They will therefore need a rather profound knowledge Tapping water sources which are reasonably close of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of water to a densely populated urban centre requires an optimal demand for various purposes and of liquid wastes. It is use of scarce water resources. Prediction of amounts of not sufficient to work out water quality studies on paper, storm drainage from heavily built-up areas requires they should also be undertaken as practical exercises advanced research. For the design of systems for water in the laboratory. supply and water quality protection, one needs more General theoretical hydrologists would not need than just a limited knowledge and experience of the to go as deeply into water demand studies as would laws of hydrology. A sufficient mastery of the qualita- the operational hydrologists. However, when the cir- tive aspects of water resources and of the biological and cumstances permit, they should also receive instruction chemical laws underlying the design of water and waste in water quality. treatment plant constitutes, however, a vast field of It is possible for hydrologists to practise the most studies in itself. It is hardly possible for an engineer to important techniques of water examination in a labo- master the control of water quality together with ratory course that does not exceed twelve half-day advanced methods of predicting water quantities and sessions. However, in order to make the most efficient advanced hydrological methods. use of this short-term course, the laboratory instruction For schemes of any significance, the hydrologist must be well organized. This course should encompass and sanitary engineer must work together with other primarily natural impurities. Standard techniques for professionals in a multidisciplinary team. This does not turbidity, salinity, ammonia, nitrite and nitrate content mean, however, that hydrology is not an important should be included in addition to tests for iron, man- subject for sanitary engineers. They should not only ganese and magnesium which are indigenous to ground know enough of it to be able to converse with the pro- waters. Wherever equipment and staffis available, man- fessional hydrologists but they should also be able to made pollutants would also be studied, including bac- undertake independent hydrological work for smaller terial counts (coli) and a demonstration of measuring or simpler schemes. In countries where ground water is methods for biochemical and chemical oxygen demand. an important source of supply, the sanitary engineer should be well versed in the hydrology and hydraulics of ground water. Recommendations on curriculum con- 4.2.8ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY tents could hardly be given in a general way because AND CHEMISTRY1 they would depend very much on local circumstances. One could assume, however, that the sanitary engineer Hydrology for the environmental scientist should have at least sixty hours (expressed in equivalent lecture hours) in hydrology. Wherever necessary, he Water, as a universal solvent, is the main vehicle for the should also carry out exercises in hydrological calcu- transportation of many other substances in nature. It is lations and, where possible, field measurements. In the also the main transporter of pollutants. Therefore, the past, sanitary engineers used purely empirical methods pathways of several substances in nature, such as nitro- in their water resources studies. Teaching the concepts gen, phosphorus and carbon, coincide to a large extent of scientific hydrology to sanitary engineers could con- with the hydrological cycle. Even in the earth’s natural tribute significantly to an improvement in the design state, the quality of the water undergoes several changes of schemes for water supply management and domestic during the hydrological cycle. When water falls, several water supply. Hydrology should, therefore, be an gases are absorbed into it. During its stay at the surface important subject in every sanitary engineering curri- of the earth or underground, it may undergo important culum. geochemical changes. In the discharge of water into lakes and oceans, the chemical properties of water Sanitary engineering for hydrologists undergo further changes. The environmentalist’s work is, therefore, very closely related to hydrology. Any The extent to which it will be necessary and desirable programme on environmental science and technology for a hydrologist to follow instruction in sanitary engi- 1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International neering will be determined by the nature of his future Courses in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Delft job. (Netherlands). The teaching of hydrology 24 should contain a treatment of the hydrological cycle and ment. The hydrologist, as a natural scientist concerned its components. Those fields of hydrology in which the with one of the most important components of the envi- behaviour of pollutants transported by water are studied ronment, requires a more than superficial knowledge are still relatively underdeveloped and more research of environmental influence. For studies of practical work is needed in them. water use also, sufficient insight is needed into the state Persons specializing in environmental science and of lakes, ponds and other natural waters. A study of the technology have as a rule already acquired a back- principles of hydrobiology with some notions of geo- ground in chemistry, biology, microbiology or related chemistry is therefore recommended. branches of natural science. It should not be diacult Two days’ hydrobiological field-work would for them to master within a relatively short time the suffice for a good cross-section of the problems which main concepts of the hydrological cycle. For deeper would be encountered in practice. The first day could studies of the behaviour of water vapour in the atmo- be devoted to quality studies of running waters. For sphere the mathematical background of a biologist may example, turbidity, oxygen and nitric content could be prove inadequate. Most chemists will be able to work measured upstream from a human settlement where the with these quantitative aspects after taking a course of water is relatively unspoiled and then compared with one academic year’s duration. The requirements of the same parameters immediately downstream of a settle- environmental control may make it necessary to devise ment where wastes have been discharged and, finally, a curricula in which both the qualitative and quantitative few kilometres further downstream. The experience of aspects of the hydrological cycle can be considered. actually observing oxygen depletion and its subsequent recovery is a most valuable lesson. The second day could be used to study the strati- Environmental science and technology fication of a lake or, if possible, two neighbouring lakes, for the hydrologist a deep one and a shallow one. The data from these measurements of gradients of temperature, oxygen and Every professional worker should be knowledgeable other water-quality parameters should be evaluated in about the possible impact of his work on the environ- the classroom. 5 Educational systems for teaching hydrology

5.1 Introduction Professional and research hydrologists are at present being trained under the following systems: (a) post- Although it is not possible to set up a detailed classi- graduate study (at M.Sc.or Ph.D. level in established fication of systems of university education, two broad academic programmes)’ (elective curricula; prescribed types may be distinguished among the many existing curricula); (b) in specialized post-graduate courses, national educational patterns: the elective curriculum mainly international courses, lasting from six months to type in which the undergraduate, particularly in the one year; (c) comprehensive undergraduate courses last two years of study, has a choice among several (United States, U.S.S.R.). elective subjects (this might be called the Anglo-Saxon Study of the methods currently employed for type, since it is used particularly in American and training hydrologists may facilitate the selection of the British universities) and the prescribed curriculum type most suitable among the existing methods and may also in which the student, after choosing a study field, must lead to the recommendation of new methods. take all the subjects which are prescribed and fill the entire curriculum (this might be called the Continental European type as it is used in most of the Central 5.2 Special features of some European universities and to some extent in the French educational systems and Soviet educational systems). There is no rigid geographical boundary between these types. In some 5.2.1 ELECTIVE CURRICULA IN HYDROLOGY* countries both systems co-exist. For instance, some American universities use the prescribed curriculum Definition system and in France, where the universities offer elective subjects, the grandes e‘coles use the prescribed Even in an elective curriculum which allows the greatest curriculum system. As a general rule, the variety of flexibility in the choice of courses, there are always fields in which a hydrology course is offered is greater some specified requirements. Certain prerequisites must in the elective curriculum system. be met before starting the programme of studies. These In both systems, so far as hydrology is concerned, may take the form of specific courses which must be it is sometimes dficult to draw a sharp line between passed satisfactorily or, for post-graduate programmes, the undergraduate and lower post-graduate level. It is an undergraduate degree from one of the following just as difficult to make any comparison of standards. fields would usually be appropriate: engineering, geology, The situation in the developing countries of agriculture, forestry or meteorology. There are usually Africa, Asia and Latin America does not differ mate- some requirements as to the number of credit hours in rially from that described above. Obviously, in most of the major field and additional hours in a minor field or these countries the number of universities that off er in ‘supporting course work‘. Sometimes a named ‘area of courses in hydrology is considerably smaller than in concentration’ within the field is selected and a portion the highly industrialized countries, mainly because of of the programme is specified by listing certain required the lack of adequate training staff and also because of courses in that area. In addition, the student must the relatively small number of students graduating from technical colleges in general. A survey made by the 1. For additional information on these programmes, see Curri- Unesco Secretariat shows that the fields in which a cula and Syllabi in Hydrology (Technical Papers in Hydro- general hydrology course is offered are usually civil logy, no. 10). 2. By Professor W. L. Moore, Department of Civil Engineer- engineering, agricultural engineering, geology and geo- ing of the University of Texas, Austin, Texas (United States graphy * of America). The teaching of hyarology 26 develop his programme in consultation with an adviser for a change in the curriculum may affect all of the and submit it to a graduate dean for final approval. In faculty and students in the programme. A change or this way an elective curriculum allows for a considerable adjustment then becomes of major importance to the difference in individual programmes, but maintains a entire group and it may be difficult to gain acceptance of relevant content at an adequate level. the proposed changes.

Institutional setting Economic eficiency The elective curriculum is feasible only at a large diver- The prescribed system is capable of more efficient use sified educational institution with a sufficient number of faculty and facilities than the elective system. In the of students and a large number of disciplines. In this prescribed system, the total number of students in a setting, various departments offer courses in their res- given institution can be set within close limits and then pective fields, some primarily of interest to students in the number of students in each of the individual classes the department's own field and some of interest to can be determined in advance. This means that the students in other related fields. Courses in hydrological number and type of faculty required, the size and subjects will usually be available in departments such number of classrooms, and the necessary laboratory as civil engineering, geology, agricultural engineering, space and equipment can be determined within close forestry,atmospheric science and, to a limited extent, in limits. As long as the programme continues without other departments. The hydrology student may be based changes, all of these factors will remain constant and in one of these departments but select courses from the most efficient utilization pattern can be developed. several of the other departments. Thus, in terms of immediate financial cost, the pres- As a general rule, this type of diversified elective cribed system is probably more efficient. Owing to its programme would not be possible in a small, specialized flexibility, the elective system is more diflicult to predict institution. However, in a very few small institutions and the faculty and facilities may not be always utilized elective programmes have been outstandingly successful. in the most efficient manner. Thus, on a short-term In these instances, a small faculty of high quality has basis and considering classroom teaching only, the elec- dealt with a few carefully chosen graduate students in tive system is probably more costly. a close relationship providing individual instruction. The reduced direct teaching efficiency of the elec- This setting provides for great flexibility in the educa- tive method may be at least partially offset by an tional content. increased availability of faculty time for research in developing improved methods of analysis and incorpor- Characteristics of the elective system ating these methods in the educational system. The gains to society from improved methods in professional work One of the characteristics of the elective system is the will be much greater than the loss of maximum econo- opportunity it provides for variety. However, all students mic efficiencyin the educational system. The greatest completing such a programme should have a good contribution education can make is to prepare students grounding in the basic subjects. Having made a per- to enter the profession prepared to use and develop sonal choice as to what to include in his programme improved methods and techniques to replace outdated and what to exclude, the student is aware of the limi- and less efficient methods for performing their hydro- tations of his education and of the importance of related logical activities. The flexibility of the elective system topics for his professional work. He may wish to study will encourage adaptation to new and more effective these topics independently at a later time. methods. In most situations, the elective system would be more flexible in adapting the educational system to new 5.2.2PRESCRIBED CURRICULA concepts and changing conditions. In such a system it IN HYDROLOGY1 is relatively easy to develop courses that cover new topics and new methods. A new course can be offered Definition on a trial basis and easily modified or adjusted to meet a current need. If it is successful it will continue, while The prescribed curricula system in hydrological educa- if it is not accepted by the students and their advisers tion is prevalent in Central Europe and is also in use it will drop out. In this process of experimentation, only 1. By Dr J. H. Sircoulon, Bureau Central du Service Hydro- a few people are affected and hence it is easy to expe- logique de l'Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique riment. In contrast, in a prescribed system a decision Outre-Mer (ORSTOM),Paris (France). 27 Educational systems for teaching hydrology in a number of other countries. In such a system the considerably with climatic and physical conditions. student must follow a prescribed programme in which For instance, snow and ice are studied in great detail the subjects offered are compulsory. in ‘cold countries’ while many countries are not con- Section 5.2.1 has shown that a strict separation cerned with them at all. A student studying in a foreign between the two types is not possible and that the country where the circumstances differ from those in student never has to face an absolutely rigid programme. his home country-as well as a hydrologist preparing The compulsory subjects never restrict the inspiration for work in developing countries-needs supplementary of a student, who may always devote special attention training, which would be more readily available in an to a field of his choosing. The experience of the pro- elective system. fessors, who follow his educational career very closely, is always available to guide the student. Moreover, Results of curricula distinguishing between the two systems is particularly difficult because many institutions have a tendency to The results of different curricula in terms of the effect change. In France the grades e‘coles, which employed on graduates cannot be determined with certainty. a prescribed system for a long time, are now using a Either type of curriculum can produce graduates with mixed system in which the compulsory subjects are com- a wide range of abilities. Both the elective and the pres- plemented by optional subjects (i.e. subjects selected cribed types of curriculum have produced men who from a prescribed list). have made outstanding contributions to the science of hydrology and to teaching of the science. Characteristics of the system In a prescribed curricula system the student acquires a 5.2.3 SPECIAL ISSUES ARISING IN CONNEXION sound basic education which is indispensable for a good WITH THE ORGANIZATION understanding of hydrological phenomena: hydraulics, OF POST-GRADUATECOURSES’ statistics, meteorology, geomorphology, etc. The subjects The organizers of post-graduate courses are, in many taught are well prepared, as are the practical exercises in cases, bound by general organizational patterns deter- the laboratory and in the field (for example, in perma- mined by the statutes governing university education in nently operated experimental basins). The students can the country considered. Therefore, the contents of the be limited to the number that can be taught effectively. following paragraphs should be considered to be indi- The prescribed system ensures a better-balanced pro- cative rather than prescriptive. gramme in which the student does not lose sight of certain important items. Moreover, in the prescribed Level of admission system, the student’s choice of subjects is not affected by the relative popularity of the professors. A number of years of practical experience after the In order to ensure their effectiveness, both sys- first degree may be an important advantage for those tems must be subjected to certain constraints. Hydro- following a professional post-graduate course. One can logy is still a young science; new techniques are being expect not only a better motivation but also a better found, other techniques are being developed. This pro- insight into the requirements of practice. For a subject gress requires constant updating of the teaching pro- like hydrology with multi-disciplinary aspects, one might gramme. Subjects that develop gradually along with the consider it useful to have a class consisting of post- general growth of knowledge and others that represent graduate students of different professional origins. For new bodies of knowledge, for example the use of com- a study of scientific hydrology there are, however, cer- puters, must be added during the course of repeated tain minimum standards, for example in mathematics revisions of the programme. Fortunately, hydrology and physics, which will limit the permissible extent of teachers are generally also research hydrologists and the diversity in professional origins. A group of course are therefore able to adjust their courses in response participants that includes students with a variety of pro- to new developments. The prescribed system will not fessional backgrounds may require the adaptation of stagnate because the students will demand that the the teaching in order to take into account the needs of teaching keep pace with scientific progress. individuals. Any deficiencies which exist should be taken The content of a teaching programme is also care of by means of supplementary tutorials. influenced by local geographical conditions. A nucleus of subject matter is common to studies in all parts of the 1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Courses world, but the relevance of some other subjects vanes in Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Delft (Netherlands). The teaching of hydrology 28

Duration of the programme design work. In the hydrological services or institutes in which they will later work, they will also have to When the aim of the programme is the training of pro- conduct water use studies. It is recommended that, in fessional hydrologists, the minimum duration should addition to purely hydrological subjects, the programme be one academic year. A full year of post-graduate should also include water use technologies, such as irri- studies would not be sufficient for an initiation into all gation, hydropower and water supply. Examples of the modern hydrological techniques, but it is a sufficient various programmes may be found in the Unesco publi- period for the specialist in hydrology to study the most cation Curricula and Syllabi in Hydrology, issued in important techniques. During this period he will also the same series as the present publication. have an opportunity to select from a number of optional The wide social and economic impact of water- subjects those that are most relevant to his individual resources development schemes has led many univer- needs. For practising hydrologists, a course in which sities and institutes to include water administration and the programme is limited to specific selected modern law, water-resources economy, and other political and techniques may prove to be most useful. Such a course social sciences in the curricula. would have a duration of a few months. The Unesco Secretariat, working in close co- operation with scientific and professional organizations, Field-work and laboratory work has gathered a great deal of information and acquired much experience in the area of teaching methods and in Many methods and techniques can best be studied the teaching of specific subjects related to water-resources the field. In determining the period of the year during development. Use should be made of this body of know- which the course will be held, it is wise to take clima- ledge and experience in setting up new teaching pro- tological and seasonal hydrological conditions into grammes and in improving existing ones. account. The field-work to be undertaken as part of a hydrology course should comprise stream gauging, simple 5.2.4UNDERGRADUATE TEACHING meteorological measurements and, where possible, geo- OF HYDROLOGY IN THE U.S.S.R.I electrical or other geophysical tests. In some instances the course institute has the necessary instruments available together with cars or boats for their transport. Before 1930 there were no educational establishments These cars or boats may even be equipped as mobile for the professional training of hydrologists in the laboratories or workshops. Often, however, the course U.S.S.R. Several higher educational institutes in engineer- will have to rely on the loan of equipment from a hydro- ing trained specialists in hydroelectrical power, water logical service. management, irrigation and land reclamation, and in For chemical and biological water quality studies, water transport, thereby providing sufficient hydrological interpretation of aerial photographs, or hydraulics information and knowledge for the practical work in model studies, use is often made of the facilities of these fields. nearby agencies and specialized institutes. From the late 1930s onwards, the professional training of specialists in hydrology has been provided Computing facilities by ten universities (including Moscow and Leningrad State universities) and by two hydrometeorological insti- Electronic computers have become indispensable tools tutes (in Leningrad and Odessa). All have an expert staff in hydrologioal teaching. Each course in which hydro- of professors and teachers and all the necessary training logy is taught should, therefore, have its own programme facilities and laboratories are available. library. Costs can be considerably reduced by inter- About 300 highly qualified hydrologists graduate changing programmes between different institutes. annually for work in the various organizations of the Many hydrological programmes have considerable out- Hydrometeorological Service of the U.S.S.R.,in insti- put and memory requirements. Direct access to a ter- tutions for the design of water projects and in scientific minal of a large computer system is, therefore, highly research institutes, as well as in the operational centres desirable. of power and irrigation systems. A number of these graduates will undertake pedagogical work as teachers Subjects oflered or assistants.

Only a limited number of hydrologists will work on 1. By Dr S. Vartazarov, Director, International Higher Hydro- pure research and most will be engaged in practical logical Courses, Moscow State University, Moscow (U.S.S.R.). 29 Educational systems for teaching hydrology

Three forms of undergraduate studies are available the organization and undertaking of hydrological inves- in the field of hydrology in the U.S.S.R.: tigations, for the study of hydrological processes and A five-year training programme in the day faculties of for hydrological forecasting. the higher training institutions mentioned above, with When preparing the curricula and syllabi for interruptions in the schedule for work experience. various forms and at various levels of hydrological train- Applicants should not be over 30 years of age. ing, ‘hydrology’is understood as a general science deal- Extra-mural training of specialists in the evening ing with the hydrosphere in all its aspects. This concept faculties, without interruption of their studies for also includes particular fields, such as the investigation work experience. of water resources, analyses of man’s impact on hydro- Study by correspondence. logical processes and on the water cycle, etc. All students of the day faculties who successfully carry All graduate specialists may take, if they wish, out the work plans are provided with a fellowship. a post-graduate course at one of the universities or Extra-mural students enjoy some privileges: they have institutes for advanced scientific training. This post- additional paid leave to do their laboratory studies, to graduate education lasts three years and fellowships are take examinations and to prepare their graduation work. provided. After the completion of a written thesis at The programme for the students of the evening facul- the end of the course, a degree of ‘Candidate of Science’ ties, and for those studying by corespondence, does not is awarded. Extra-mural post-graduate training can be differ from that of regular day faculties except for the undertaken by those who do not wish to interrupt their fact that the period of training lasts six years instead work. of five. The doctorate degree (Doctor of Science) can be Two levels of hydrological training should be rnen- awarded and is based on a written thesis on new scien- tioned, although these levels are not officially acknow- tific problems which have been studied in personal ledged. The first is the university-level training of the research work. There are no specific requirements. ‘research hydrologist’ with a diploma of engineer-geo- Several post-graduate short-term courses have been grapher, which generally prepares the hydrologist for organized for specialists at different levels, including a scientific and educational career. The second level is the technician level. the ‘professional hydrologist’ who is mostly trained for 6 Technical-assistance policies

6.1 The need for planning sities, agencies and 'even individuals strive vigo- rously for the creation of new educational facilities under Each technical-assistance activity, no matter how small their aegis. They contact international agencies, donor it may be, should fit into a more general planning frame- countries and financing foundations to obtain support. work. With respect to education there are two dimen- Unfortunately, this often results in overlapping or in the sions: adaptation to the manpower planning of the unplanned creation of facilities for which there is no employing agencies, and modification to suit the coun- demand. Careful planning based on the anticipated needs try's educational system. When the number of persons of, and the demand for, graduates is therefore called possessing the qualifications required for admission to for. Special care should be taken to ensure that a institutes for hydrological education is limited, the same viable unit is created. What has been set up carefully shortage will affect other technical fields. Consequently, with the aid of outside assistance too often dissipates one should be careful to make optimal use of the scarce after the assistance has ceased. To reduce this risk, manpower. Before initiating an educational programme small institutions should be attached to a university or or awarding fellowships, a thorough study based on other larger organization. The working conditions of existing water-developmentplans should be made of pre- the personnel should be sufficiently attractive to keep sent and future manpower requirements, not only in them at the institute after the outside assistance has ter- hydrology but also in fields where similar skills are minated. They should be given opportunities for scien- required. Wherever possible, individual career plans tific work and professional development. should be drafted to promote job satisfaction and con- In some countries,circumstances warrant the orga- sequently to minimize the number of employees leaving nization of hydrological education within the framework the service. These policies will help to prevent a criti- of the national authority in charge of water-resources cal shortage of specialists in one field together with a development. When a single authority is mainly respon- surplus of specialized staff in another field. sible for such development this solution has many As remarked earlier, the relatively limited man- advantages; in particular, close liaison can be ensured power needs for hydrology and the interdisciplinary between educational and manpower planning. Another nature of the subject argue in favour of a close inte- advantage may be that the specific circumstances and gration of hydrological education into the national edu- working procedures of the ministry can be taken into cational system. account in the training, and experienced professionals It is primarily the responsibility of the country from the ministry may be available for teaching. As a which receives technical assistance to ensure that this rule, however, such institutions cannot deal adequately assistance fits into the national economic and educational with the introductory and auxiliary subjects and their plans; the assisting agency might, however, be able to educational bases are consequently too narrow. Where give advisory support for this planning. Unesco has water development is in the hands of several ministries, already done so for many countries. each desiring to create a separate educational unit, there is a danger of creating too many weak units in competition with one another. 6.2 The creation of new institutions When a hydrology course is started at an existing educational institute, university or other, the educational The founding of a new institution for hydrology teaching, or the extension of an existing institution for this 1. By Professor L. J. Mostertman, Director, International Cour- purpose, can be an effective means for the promotion ses in Sanitary and Hydraulic Engineering, Delft (Nether- of hydrological education. However, numerous univer- lands). 3 1 Technical-assistance policies programme will be given sufficient breadth. However, working arrangement whereby an institute in a donor the exact scope of an aid project in such a multidisci- country will ensure the prompt supply of spare parts plinary field may be difficult to define owing to the and components of instruments when requested by an participation of several university departments. In the institution in a developing country will be of consider- case of a comprehensive scheme for assistance to the able help. It is, of course, indispensable to build up the university, the interests of hydrology may be assimilated local capacity for manufacturing, repair and calibration easi'ly,provided that sufficient capability is available in of instruments. allied fields. Only in rare cases will it be possible to In a number of developing countries with sufficient strengthen, for instance, a department of geology or a scientific manpower, such as India and Brazil, original water chemistry laboratory to enable it to co-operate designs of high-quality aids for hydrology teaching have in a hydrological education programme belonging to been developed. Such work deserves encouragement. another department. The feasibility of the third possible A concerted effort to make available on a wide solution, namely the organization of hydrological edu- scale design drawings and descriptions of simple teach- cation within the framework of an independent natural ing aids that can be produced locally deserves serious resources or water resources institute, depends on the consideration. specific circumstances. Nothing has a more pernicious influence on teaching programmes than a lack of employment possibilities 6.3.2 FELLOWSHIPS for the graduates. Proper care should be taken to ensure that suitable employment is available for a period which From the beginning of the IHD,the granting of fellow- will continue long after the end of the assistance pro- ships has been viewed as an important form of assistance gramme. If necessary, the teaching programme should to the promotion of hydrology. This is especially true be adapted to provide for wider job mobility. for teaching staff. Care should be taken to avoid the granting of fellowships for study abroad to students from countries where there is already a sufficient teach- 6.3 Forms of aid ing capacity. It is frustrating for professors to see their best students being enticed away by study possibilities 6.3.1 EQUIPMENT AND BOOKS in other countries. For high-level professionals and university teach- Appropriate books and professional periodicals are often ers however, a period of study abroad can be of in short supply in the educational institutions of develop- capital importance. Confrontation with the procedures ing countries and to make them available is a relatively and theories in use elsewhere will deepen their insight inexpensive but effective means of development aid. into the prevailing circumstances of their own country Books and periodicals can be put to wide use irrespective and will help to reveal ways for improvement. of the details of programme and organization of the A student can only draw the full advantage from receiving institute. A basic consideration, of course, is a period of study abroad if he remains in contact with whether they are printed in a language which is under- the host institute after his return home. Keeping former stood in the receiving country. students informed of new developments by sending them Research and specialized teaching are often res- literature and replying quickly to their requests for spe- tricted by the absence of recent primary sources of cific information is a service that should be rendered documentation published in periodicals and reports. A without cost and as a matter of course. Other measures working arrangement whereby an institution in a donor that might be considered are the organization of follow- country will promptly make available literature, abstracts up seminars and travel grants for working visits to the and photocopies of needed scientific articles when re- host institutes.l quested by an institute in a developing country will be of considerable help. Also the transfer of hydrological computer programmes is a commendable means of 6.3.3VISITING LECTURERS assistance. Aid in the form of instruments and equipment can Visiting lecturers can be extrem'ely useful agents for be very important if it is well planned. Too often instruments sent from abroad are not suited to the cir- 1. See the recommendations given in the report, Meeting of Directors of Unesco's Long-term Postgraduate Courses in the cumstances of the receiving country, or essential com- Basic Sciences, Vienna, December 1972, published by the ponents and spare parts are not made available. A Austrian National Commission for Unesco, 1973. The teaching of hydrology 32 the introduction of recent developments or new methods. have sufficiently wide views and a feeling for the cir- By means of personal contacts, the relevance of new cumstances of the host country. ideas to the work of the host institute can be tested more easily than is possible by consultation of the literature alone. Discussions with visiting lecturers are 6.4 Affiliations between institutes particularly valuable for the staff of the host institute: in different countries they may be helped in the orientation of their research and may gain useful information about opportunities There are many reasons which may cause a visiting for improving their work. lecturer to leave his job unexpectedly. Immediate replace- Short-term guest lecturers should not be employed ment should then be possible and this is best ensured to teach a recurring series of courses because the by a permanent relationship between the receiving insti- lecturers’ relatively short stay prevents the building up tute and an institute in a donor country. At the donor of close working contacts with students and staff. institute there should be a sufficient and continuing Visiting professors who are going to stay for at interest in the receiving country so that personnel who least one year could be employed when no permanent are familiar with the specific conditions of the other staff member is available, for example when nationals country are always available. Another advantage of a of the host country are still preparing for teaching permanent af5liation is that it ensures a dependable posts. This situation occurs frequently at new institutes. interaction between institutes. Examples are the occa- Especially in the early years, the person appointed can sions when it is necessary to make a quick reference to make a considerable impact on the programme orien- literature, when an instrument must be repaired or spare tation and equipment of the institute. Much care should parts are needed. Such interaction constitutes a definite be taken, therefore, to ensure that the persons chosen advantage for both the receiving and the donor institute.

[B] SC.74/XXI.I3/A ISBN 92-3-101168-5