Parental Alienation: from Adult Retrospective Recall to Current Parents and Parent Partners

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PARENTAL ALIENATION: FROM ADULT RETROSPECTIVE

RECALL TO CURRENT PARENTS

AND PARENT PARTNERS

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Stanislaus

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Social Work

By Natalie Conway May 2021

CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL

PARENTAL ALIENATION: FROM ADULT RETROSPECTIVE

RECALL TO CURRENT PARENTS

AND PARENT PARTNERS

by Natalie Conway

Signed Certification of Approval page is on file with the University Library

Dr. Sevaughn Banks Date Assistant Professor of Social Work

Dr. Kilolo Brodie Date Professor of Social Work

DEDICATION

To my children, who consistently amaze and inspire me every day. To my partner in crime, thank you for going on this journey with me. I love you all!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I was blessed to be a part of the three-year MSW 2021 cohort. Without them, this adventure would not have been as wonderful. Thank you for all the laughs, tears, and memories. Now, on to planning our reunions!

Thank you to the professors who educated, guided, inspired, and pushed us along, especially Dr. Garcia, Dr. Banks, Dr. Brodie, Dr. Rousseau, and Dr. Galvin.

To my family and friends, thank you for supporting me in this endeavor and understanding why I have not had a life in three years. Thank you for cheerleading, chastising, and believing in me, even when I did not always believe in myself.

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

Dedication ...... iv

Acknowledgements ...... v

List of Tables ...... viii

Abstract ...... ix

CHAPTER I. Introduction ...... 1

Background ...... 1 Statement of the Problem ...... 1 Statement of the Purpose ...... 6 Significance of the Study ...... 8

II. Review of the Literature ...... 9

Theoretical Considerations ...... 9 Attachment Theory ...... 9 Family Systems Theory ...... 9 Parental Alienation Syndrome ...... 10 Agreement and Disagreement Regarding Parental Alienation ...... 13 Empirical Support for Supporting Parental Alienation . 13 Dissenting Voice Regarding Parental Alienation ...... 15 Attachment Theory and Parental Alienation ...... 16 Family Systems Theory and Parental Alienation...... 17

III. Methodology ...... 19

Introduction ...... 19 Research Design...... 21 Sampling Plan ...... 22 Data Collection ...... 24 Instrumentation ...... 24

IV. Results ...... 26

Data Collection Approach...... 26 Participants ...... 26 Parental Alienation Recall & Report Survey ...... 28 Survey Tool ...... 29 Sample...... 30 Measures ...... 33 Experienced Parental Alienation as a Child ...... 34 Committed Parental Alienation as an Adult ...... 38 Committed Parental Alienation by the Other Parent Partner ...... 41 Summary ...... 42

V. Discussion ...... 44

Major Findings ...... 45 Limitations ...... 47 Existing Knowledge ...... 48 Practice ...... 49 Social Work and Parental Alienation ...... 49 Future Research ...... 54

References ...... 59

Appendices

A. Key Terms and Definitions ...... 70 B. Parental Alienation Recall and Report Survey ...... 72 C. Informed Consent...... 74

vii

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1. How Many Siblings Do You Have? ...... 31

2. How Many Children Do You Have? ...... 32

3. How Many Other Parent or Parent Partners Do You Have Children With? .... 32

4. What Is Your Relationship Status With Your Child(ren)’s Other Parent? ...... 33

5. Which Parent Were You Closer To? ...... 34

6. How Positive Was Your Relationship with the Parent with Whom You Were Most Close? ...... 34

7. What Was the Custody Status Between Your Parents? ...... 35

8. During Your Childhood, at What Age Did Your Negative Relationship With Your Parent Begin? ...... 36

9. Did You Feel Your Relationship Change With Your Other Parent Was Your Choice and Not Influenced?...... 36

10. Alienating Behaviors Experienced as a Child ...... 37

11. What Is the Custody Status Between You and Your Child(ren)’s Other Parent?...... 39

12. Alienating Behaviors Committed as a Parent ...... 40

13. Do You Feel Your Child Made the Choice Regarding Their Relationship Quality, With Their Other Parent, on Their Own? ...... 40

14. Alienating Behaviors Committed by Parent Partner ...... 41

viii

ABSTRACT

This qualitative research study focused on adult recall of experiencing parental alienation behaviors as a child and asked participants to report on whether they have committed parental alienating behaviors as a parent or experienced parental alienating behaviors from their parent partner in relation to their own child(ren). This research study indicated parental alienation behaviors are being experienced in childhood, as a parent and with parent partners in varying levels. There was a significant relationship between those who experienced alienating behaviors as a child and who have experienced it with their parent partner(s). There was not a significant relationship between experiencing alienating behaviors as child and being a parent who commits alienating behaviors towards their child(ren). There was a correlation between age, education level, committing alienating behaviors and other parent partner committing alienating behaviors.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background

Divorce is prevalent in our society. According to the Centers for Disease

Control, in 2019, 6.5% of the United States population married. In that same year,

2.9% of the United States population divorced. The percentage of divorce increases with each subsequent remarriage. Not all divorces are amicable and contentious divorces can take many paths. Not only is the parents' behavior (passivity or rigidity, withdrawal, immaturity, or lack of empathy) a factor in divorces, a child’s age, cognitive development, temperament, and personality are all factors in the child’s ability to process and cope (Kelly & Johnston, 2001). All these issues collide and impact parent-child relationships. There are many reasons a child may be against maintaining a relationship with a parent when divorce occurs, such as separation anxiety, inability to cope with conflict or change transition, dislike of a parent’s parenting style or fear of leaving the other parent alone. (Johnston, 1993; Johnston

& Roseby, 1997; Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980).

Statement of the Problem

While some parents verbally disparage each other, others take that to an extreme and “indoctrinate” a child to alienate one parent (Kruk, 2018).

Parental alienation can be a symptom of contentious divorces (Kruk, 2018).

According to Psychology Today (2020), parental alienation:

occurs when a child refuses to have a relationship with a parent due to

manipulation, such as the conveying of exaggerated or false

information, by the other parent. The situation arises during a divorce

or custody battle, but it can happen in intact families as

well (https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/parental-

alienation).

According to parental alienation expert Dr. Amy Baker’s website:

There are seventeen primary parental alienation strategies that have been

identified through research studies with adults who were alienated as children

and with targeted parents. These 17 PA strategies have been validated in a

series of subsequent studies. The 17 primary parental alienation strategies fall

into five general categories: (1) poisonous messages to the child about the

targeted parent in which he or she is portrayed as unloving, unsafe, and

unavailable; (2) limiting contact and communication between the child and the

targeted parent; (3) erasing and replacing the targeted parent in the heart and

mind of the child; (4) encouraging the child to betray the targeted parent's

trust; and (5) undermining the authority of the targeted parent. Taken together

these parental alienation strategies foster conflict and psychological distance

between the child and the targeted parent (https://amyjlbaker.com/parental-

alienation-syndrome.html).

Those seventeen parental alienation strategies are categorized in eight components: relentless denigration of the targeted parent; a frivolous, weak or absurd rationale for the denigration; a lack of guilt or embarrassment about the denigration; a lack of ambivalence such that the child considers one parent “good” and the other parent to be entirely “bad”; automatic support by the alienating parent in any conflict; hostility toward and refusal of contact with the extended family of the targeted parent; the “independent thinker phenomenon” where the child incorporates the denigrating parent’s words and ideas into their own thinking and insists it is their own opinion; and “borrowed scenarios” in which the child’s speech includes phrases used by the alienating parent (Gardner, 1985). Saini et al. (2016) agreed there is a general understanding that parental alienation refers to a child who has been influenced to reject or hate one parent by the other parent, and parental behaviors poison the child’s relationship with the other parent. Kruk (2018) indicated parental alienation manifests through a child’s reluctance or resistance to have a relationship with a parent for illogical, untrue, or exaggerated reasons. Children may become “pawns” in a divorce and the parents’ battle for custody. Abusive strategies can include:

Bad-mouthing, limiting contact, erasing the other parent from the

child’s life and mind, forcing the child to reject the other parent,

creating the impression that the other parent is dangerous, forcing the

child to choose between parents by threatening withdrawal of

affection, belittling and limiting contact with extended family (Kruk

2018, p. 145).

“Destructive inter-parental conflict can negatively affect children. These effects occur both cumulatively and across developmental stages” and “negative reactions can become amplified due to repeated exposure” (Verrochio, 2018, p. 603).

Verrochio (2018) further states chronic conflict can drain the emotional reserves and increase vulnerability in children.

Research on parental alienation “has increased substantially over recent decades; today, there are over 1,000 books, book chapters and articles in professional journals on the topic across 35 countries and six continents (Bernet, 2013).

Researchers are attempting to identify ways to diagnose, prevent, treat, and write policy to better meet the needs of the child, family and alienated parent through treatment and reunification services. Kruk (2018) attempts to identify parental alienation as child abuse and emotional aggression. Harman, Kruk and

Hines (2018) stated, “Despite affecting millions of families around the world, parental alienation has been largely unacknowledged or denied by legal and health professionals as a form of family violence” (p. 1275). Kruk (2018) goes on to explain parental alienation meets the definition of violence and abuse, as “there must be a significant human injury and it must be the result of human action (Kruk, 2018, p.

141). Parental alienating behaviors are not discrete one-time events; in order to be considered a parental alienating behavior, it is typically enacted over time” (Harman,

Kruk & Hines p. 1276). “Studies have widely reported the negative impact of parental alienation on children with outcomes ranging from the development of psychopathology (e.g., depression, anxiety, substance abuse and conduct disorders)”

(Verrochio, 2018, p. 603) (e.g., Baker, 2007; Ben-Ami & Baker, 2012; Saini,

Johnston, Fidler & Bala, 2016).

According to the American Psychological Association, trauma:

is an emotional response to a terrible event, like an accident, rape or

natural disaster. Immediately after the event, shock and denial are

typical. Longer term reactions include unpredictable emotions,

flashbacks, strained relationships and even physical symptoms like

headaches and nausea (https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma/).

While the alienated parent is the intended target of the abuse, children are the vessel that is used to inflict that abuse and are also affected by the campaign of the denigrating parent. This alienation can cause temporary or permanent estrangement from the disparaged parent, which can have a lasting effect on the child into adulthood or their future romantic relationships. It can be argued that children who are manipulated through parental alienation are also victims of emotional abuse and/or general neglect. These children will display behaviors and somatic symptoms which are directly related to the parent’s actions and disregard for the child’s emotional and physical well-being as they are more focused on hurting the other parent. Somatic symptoms relate to physiology and can appear as stomach aches or headaches, among other symptoms.

Child Welfare Services receive numerous calls related to custody matters; however, child custody is the jurisdiction of Family Court, not Dependency Court. As social workers respond to calls regarding abuse and neglect, social workers need to

6 better learn the definition of parental alienation, recognize its symptomology and how to appropriately address those child and family needs. Professionals need to learn and understand exactly what symptoms children present with when parental alienation is present and how those symptoms will affect children long term. Research needs to focus on identification of parental alienation versus general contention in a divorced relationship, how parental alienation can be addressed by counselors, therapists, family law attorneys, and child welfare staff in a successful manner and determine a means to reunify families. With further research, we can better offer services and treatment to children and families affected by parental alienation.

Statement of the Purpose

The purpose of this study is to determine whether exposure to parental alienation as a child influences said population in terms of their parental relationship with their children. This study aims to explore parental alienation from retrospective recall of childhood as well as explore parental alienation from a contemporary perspective, as this same population views their parental relationships with their own children. By exploring these time frames, the focus will be on the impact to children who have experienced parental alienation and whether experiencing parental alienation as a child effects their own experience as a parent. The study will measure how prevalent parental alienation is within the sample population from their childhood and within their relationships with their own children, now that they are adults by measuring the participants exposure to relentless denigration of the targeted parent; frivolous, weak or absurd rationale for the denigration; lack of guilt or

7 embarrassment about the denigration; lack of ambivalence such that the child considers one parent “good” and the other parent “bad”; automatic support by the alienating parent in any conflict; hostility toward and refusal of contact with the extended family of the targeted parent; the “independent thinker phenomenon” where the child incorporates the denigrating parent’s words and ideas into their own thinking and insists it is their own opinion; and “borrowed scenarios” in which the child’s speech includes phrases used by the alienating parent comparing the two populations and their reported experience of parental alienation as a child or as a parent, this researcher can gain needed knowledge about long-term effects of parental alienation. The study population will encompass a variety of age groups, different socio-economic backgrounds, and educational levels.

The questions guiding this study are: 1) How prevalent do alienated children, who as parents or parent partners, experience parental alienation? 2) How prevalent do alienated children, who as parents or parent partners, perpetrate parental alienation? 3) What is the prevalence of parental alienation as a child from an adult recall perspective? 4) Within this same population, what is the prevalence of parental alienation in their adult relationship?

By identifying the pervasiveness of parental alienation, service providers, therapists and other systems can work towards successfully identifying ways to diagnose, prevent, treat, and write policy on parental alienation to facilitate positive outcomes with children and families through treatment.

Significance of the Study

As divorce rates continue to rise, the need for further research into the effects of divorce on children and families is vitally important to the emotional and psychological health of those impacted by divorce, particularly long-term effect on children who experience parental alienation. This study has the potential to discover areas of focus necessary to identify parental alienation, to successfully address parental alienation, and formulate appropriate services and treatment to better meet the needs of children and families to facilitate successful co-parenting skills. This study postulates whether research supports parental alienation as abuse or trauma.

Research is attempting to narrow the gap between how parental alienation is defined and what is understood about it from different time frames in parental alienation with the end goal of identifying ways to diagnose, prevent, treat, and write policy to better meet the needs of the child and family unit. With further study of parental alienation and understanding the prevalence of parental alienation, those who have experienced parental alienation, as children and as parents, can be better served through family counseling, in schools, in medical settings, and child welfare agencies.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Theoretical Considerations

Attachment Theory

John Bowlby’s and Mary Ainsworth’s Attachment Theory was established in the 1950s. Attachment Theory believed children have a biological predisposition to form attachments to ensure their survival and individuals develop attachment relationships with caregivers and seek to maintain proximity to these caregivers.

Attachment Theory describes different attachment styles based on parenting styles:

 Secure Attachment: individuals trust in their caregiver’s ability and responsiveness and react in ways that highlight positive expectations.  Avoidant Attachment: individuals develop a belief that they cannot turn to their caregivers for comfort, and the individual typically avoids the caregiver. The individual can control but does not regulate negative emotions.  Resistant Attachment: individuals learn their care is unpredictable, and they seek comfort inconsistently through clinginess and crying or withdrawal and anger. They are unable to be comforted.  Disorganized Attachment: individuals are in the care of a parents who are abusive, and these children do not present a coherent attachment and freeze instead of seeking proximity (Lowenstein, 2010).

Family Systems Theory

Murry Bowen’s Family Systems Theory was established in the 1960s.

Family Systems Theory views the family as an emotional unit and believes behavior is both informed by and inseparable from the functioning of one’s family of origin, thus, it is useful to address the structure and behavior of the broader relationship

10 system which helps form character. Bowen stated Family Systems Theory was based on:

 Differentiation of self: The manner in which a person can separate thoughts and feelings, respond to anxiety, cope with life, and pursue personal goals;  Emotional triangle: The smallest, stable network of human relationship systems.  Multigenerational transmission process: Depicts the way people seek out partners with similar differentiation, which may lead to behaviors or conditions being passed on for generations.  Emotional cutoff: When a person decides to emotionally distance themselves from other members of the family in an effort to reduce tension or stress;  Societal emotional process: Emotional systems of family affect emotional systems of society.  Nuclear family emotional process: Nuclear families experience issues in intimate partner conflict, behaviors or concerns with one-member, emotional distance, and impaired functionality in children.

Parental Alienation Syndrome

Parental alienation syndrome (PAS) is a term coined in the 1980s by child psychiatrist Dr. Richard A. Gardner. According to Maturana et al. (2018), a child rejecting a parent on reasonable grounds, such as a response to abuse or neglect is estrangement, not parental alienation. Parental alienation is defined as the outcome of one parent influencing their child to turn against their other parent (Maturana et al,

2018; Bernet, Boch-Galhau, Baker, & Morrison, 2010; Gerber, 2011) without legitimate justification (Maturana et al, Bernet & Baker, 2013). A parent who is angry at the other parent accomplishes this by painting a negative picture of said parent via deprecating comments, blame, and false accusations shared with the children. They may also inhibit the amount of time the child spends with the other parent. L’Abate

and Ryback (2014) stated, “Given today’s immense number of separations and divorces it is not surprising that parents and their children can become polarized”

(p. 92). L’Abate and Ryback (2014), reviewed books written by Linda J. Gottlieb and Wilfrid von Boch-Galhau indicate that Gottlieb’s work and findings supplement

Gardner’s findings and her assertion that “Now is the time for mental health professionals to stop ignoring the existence of PAS” (p. 219-220).

Von Boch-Galhau (2013) offered a perspective by interviewing adults who related their experiences as children with alienating parents. His book advocated for families who are affected by parental alienation to find appropriate help. Von Boch-

Galhau reported, “although the courts will often refer to the will and desires of the children involved, those same courts should also consider whether the children have developed sufficiently to enable them to make such critical decisions themselves

(2013, p. 31), while Gottlieb indicated, “society is being impacted by the approach taken by U.S. courts, which do not accord PAS with uniform legal standing” (as cited in L’Abate & Ryback, 2014, p. 93). Warshak (2015) reported, “A survey taken at the

Association of Family and Conciliation Courts’ annual 2014 conference reported 98 percent agreement in support of the basic tenet of parental alienation: children can be manipulated by one parent to reject the other parent who does not deserve to be rejected” (Baker, Jaffe, Bernet, & Johnston, 2011).

The sad reality is that parents who damage their children's natural affection for the other parent is doing serious – and even abusive – damage (Heilter, 2018).

Parental alienation has proponents who argue that it falls under trauma or child abuse.

It is argued that it falls under neglect, emotional abuse, physical abuse, or family violence (Baker & Ben-Ami, 2011; Meier, 2009; Reay, 2019; Kruk, 2018; Harman,

Hines & Kruk, 2018; Dallam & Silberg, 2016; Boch-Galhau, 2018). For the child, the biopsychosocial-spiritual effects of parental alienation are devastating. For both the alienated parent and child, the removal and denial of contact in the absence of neglect or abuse constitute cruel and unusual treatment. As a form of child maltreatment, parental alienation is a serious child protection matter as it undermines a basic principle of social justice for children: the right to know and be cared for by both parents. Thus, the agencies with the responsibility to protect children, such as child welfare services, courts, and mental health professionals need to have a full understanding and knowledge of parental alienation, the behaviors associated with it, the underlying cause for it and be able to psycho-educate parents and child(ren) and locate and facilitate proper treatment to address the behaviors to ensure the safety and well-being of the child(ren). Evaluators and therapists should avoid unwarranted assumptions about the roots of a child’s rejection of a parent; instead, they should remain neutral and attentive to all factors that contribute to a child’s alienation

(Warshak, 2015).

Warshak (2015) stated reliance on false beliefs compromises investigations and undermines adequate consideration of alternative explanations for the causes of a child’s alienation. Most critical, fallacies about parental alienation shortchange children and parents by supporting outcomes that fail to provide effective relief to those who experience this problem. The increasing recognition of the phenomenon of

13 children’s pathological alienation from parents brings with it a proliferation of mistaken assumptions about the problem’s roots and remedies. These assumptions fail to hold up in the light of research, case law, or experience. In some instances, a professional may lack sufficient experience and familiarity with research literature to understand parental alienation. In 2001, Kelly and Johnston reframed parental alienation as a family systems framework. Studies and clinical reports showed the favored parent was more likely to be controlling and coercive than the rejected parent

(Kelly, 2003; Garber, 2011).

Agreement and Disagreement Regarding Parental Alienation

There are two factions regarding parental alienation: those that believe parental alienation is legitimate and those that do not. There is no consensus on what to do about holding a parent responsible for supporting, influencing, or encouraging a child to reject the other parent or if the child should be taken from the parent with which they are most bonded, even though they are negatively influencing the child.

Scholars who believe in parental alienation have since lost the syndrome aspect as it has not been found to fit the definition of a syndrome.

Empirical Support for Supporting Parental Alienation

Aside from literature reviews (Harman & Bernet, 2019; Kelly & Johnston,

2001; Meier, 2013; Maturana, Matthewson, Dwan & Norris, 2018), research regarding parental alienation has predominantly been conducted on adults through retrospective recall (Verrocchio, Marchetti, Carrozzino, Compare & Fulcheri, 2019;

Aloia & Strutzenberg, 2019; Verrochio, Baker, & Marchetti, 2018; Ben-Ami &

Baker, 2012, Baker, 2005; Baker, 2010; Hands & Warshak, 2011) or to examine the validity, politics and science of parental alienation (O’Donohue, Benuto & Bennett,

2016; Rand, 2011; Milchman, 2019). Other research has evaluated the measurement tools for parental alienation (Bernet, Gregory, Rea, & Rohner, 2018; Rowlands,

2019a; Rowlands, 2019b; Huff, Anderson, Adamson, & Tambling, 2017); and attempted to further expand the behaviors and strategies or long-term effects of parental alienation exposure (Baker & Darnall, 2006; Dallam & Silberg, 2016).

Recommendations for best practice and treatment of parental alienation have been researched (Templer, Matthewson, Haines & Cox, 2017). Baker & Darnall (2006),

Maturana, Matthewson, Dwan & Norris (2018) studied behaviors and strategies employed in parental alienation as well as characteristics and experiences through parental experiences. Hands & Warshak (2011) researched the incidence of parental alienating behaviors by mother and fathers in both intact and divorced families.

According to Harman et al. (2019), “more is known about the impact of parental alienation behaviors on the targeted parents because they are most easily accessed for research purposes (p. 3)...there has been extensive scholarship on processes that constitute parental alienation behaviors, so even though it superficially appears that research on parental alienation is in its greening phase, it is actually blossoming because greater attention to theoretical extension and development has been occurring” (p. 4).

Dissenting Voice Regarding Parental Alienation

The controversy of parental alienation has been debated for several decades.

There is argument that parental alienation is not based on scientific arguments and empirical research findings, but on opinions or even ideologies (Boch-Galhau, 2018).

Those who do not believe in parental alienation support the ideology that because parental alienation has not been included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders (DSM-V) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11); it is not a valid diagnosis. However, per Boch-Galhau, “Parental Alienation” is discussed in the ICD-11 draft under “Caregiver Child Relation Problem.” Several authors suggest there is insufficient evidence to support the validation of parental alienation as a construct (Childress, 2015; Ellis, 2008; Kelly & Johnston; 2001;

Meier, 2009; Walker & Shapiro, 2010, Maturana, 2018).

O’Donohue, Benuto & Bennett (2016) identified numerous issues they thought were concerning regarding parental alienation. They stated parental alienation was vague, utilized underdeveloped measurement tools, lacked scientific testing, lacked clarity as to the conditions and boundaries of parental alienation, has not achieved a consensus in the field or any official organization, and the rates area unknown. They further stated parental alienation does not have a known error rate, suggests the obvious, does not consider any other explanation for the behaviors of the child, fails to define what is normative behavior post-divorce or separation, is developmentally and culturally insensitive and fails to consider if multiple people are involved.

Warshak (2015) indicated “the more often the fallacy is mentioned in professional presentations and publications, the more likely it is to become a woozle – commonly accepted idea that lacks grounding in persuasive evidence yet gains traction through repletion to the point people assume it is true” (p. 235). He further reports unwarranted assumptions regarding the cause of a child’s rejection of a parent must be avoided. Joyce (2019) stated a causal leap between A and B should be supported by scientific evidence and expert testimony in custody cases should only be admissible if it meets the legal standards for admissibility (p. 56). She argued that custody mediators make decisions on observable behavior and inferences regarding parental alienation thus, expert testimony is not necessary. “The term ‘parental alienation’ as it is used in child custody litigation means very different things to different people” (p. 58). In Mastrangelo vs Mastrangelo (2012), the Connecticut

Superior Court noted “the overwhelming legal and scientific precedents and objections to the scientific validity” of parental alienation syndrome theory and ruled that the theory did not meet admissibility standards.

Attachment Theory and Parental Alienation

Attachment theories have been applied to clinical observations to create a better understanding of parental rejection (Garber, 2004). Lowenstein (2010) argued that Attachment Theory has been misapplied to parental alienation to discredit the non-custodial parent’s intentions in seeking custody or visitation. The theory focuses on the premise that “infants and young children need to be closely attached to one figure, usually the female, in a relationship” and “whether an attachment to one

17 parent should mean the lack of attachment or association with the other parent”

(p. 158). He further explains “Attachment Theory accepts the customary primacy of the mother as the main caregiver, but there is nothing in the theory to suggest fathers are not equally likely to become the principal attachment figures” (p. 159).

Lowenstein argued using attachment theory is one of the most insidious, wrong, unfair, and unjust arguments offered by parents who do not wish the other parent to have any contact with their child.

Family Systems Theory and Parental Alienation

Family Systems Theory has been applied to parental alienation by Kelly and

Johnston (2001). Their article “presents a family systems formulation regarding the alienated child and those that follow focus on legal and psychological case management, assessment where child alienation is suspected, therapeutic work with alienated children and their families (p. 250). Kelly and Johnston further stated to identify and diagnose parental alienation a systems framework that identifies and assesses parental alienation behaviors and severity, other factors must be considered, such as,

Background factors that directly or indirectly affect the child,

specifically, a history of intense marital conflict; a humiliating

separation; subsequent divorce conflict; personality dispositions of

each parent; and the age, cognitive capacity, and temperament of the

child (p. 254)…each of these influences has their own particular

weight and significance for a particular child in a particular family. No

one factor produces the alienated child (p. 264).

It is a belief that by treating the whole family system, parental alienation severity and long-term effects can be mitigated.

While parental alienation research continues and has expanded the knowledge base over the past several decades, more research is needed. Research has primarily focused on retrospective data collections which is subject to recall bias and may only indicate one child’s experience within the family dynamic and has not taken into consideration siblings’ experiences. Research recommendations indicate that identification and treatment of parental alienation are critical and successful interventions are necessary at the micro (individual and family) and macro

(community, social and legal policy) level. Harman, Kruk & Hines reported there has been a prevalence of studies regarding etiology, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment outcomes. More information is needed from a longitudinal study which focuses on finding causality (p. 1278). Kruk (2018) believes the pillars for intervention fall under individual harm reductions, prevention, treatment, and enforcement…this includes effectiveness of family support/preservation programs and child removal interventions on the part of child welfare authorities. Baker & Darnall reported the

“next step for the field is to develop intervention programs for families affected by parental alienation. These should include therapeutic interventions for both parents as well as dyadic interventions for the child and target parent in order to assist in reparations of that relationship” (p. 119).

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

Divorce is common in our society and as such, has a direct impact on families and children. Divorce can be amicable or contentious, depending on the parties involved. Not only is the parents' behavior (passivity or rigidity, withdrawal, immaturity, or lack of empathy) a factor in divorce, a child’s age, cognitive development, temperament, and personality are all factors in the child’s ability to process and cope (Kelly & Johnston, 2001). According to the Data Resource Center for Child and Adolescent Health, adverse childhood experience (ACE) is defined as a variety of “events that a child can experience, which leads to stress and can result in trauma and chronic stress responses (https://www.childhealthdata.org). Divorce is identified as an adverse childhood experience (https://acestoohigh.com/). Adverse childhood experience and divorce collide and impact parent-child relationships.

“Given today’s immense number of separations and divorces, it is not surprising that parents and their children can become polarized” (L’Bate & Ryback, 2014, p. 92).

One purpose of this study is to explore parental alienation from retrospective recall of childhood parental alienation from one or the other parent. The other purpose of this study is to explore contemporary parental alienation in the same population through self-report of their and/or their parent partners’ relationships with

20 their own children. By exploring both time frames, the focus will be on those participants who have experienced parental alienation as children and the influence it had on their parental or parent partner relationships with their own children. This will lend to knowledge about long-term impact of parental alienation.

The study population will encompass a variety of people representing various age groups, different socio-economic backgrounds, and educational levels.

The research design of this qualitative study will be exploratory in nature as there is an attempt to describe the impact of parental alienation from two different time frames. This study will utilize online surveys distributed to a sample population to gather data to assess parental alienation during two distinct time frames 1) retrospectively as a child and 2) currently as a parent or parent partner.

Research is necessary to investigate childhood experience of parental alienation, ways parental alienation as a child has impacted parental or parent partner roles, and thoughts about how parental alienation as a parent or parent partner will influence relationships in the future. In this research, adults 18 years and older will be asked to identify if they were subjected to parental alienation in their childhood and if they have or are experiencing parental alienation as a parent or parent partner in adulthood.

The questions guiding this study are, 1) After retrospective recall, did adults experience parental alienation in their childhoods? 2) After reporting feelings of parental alienation from their childhoods, do parents or parent partners perpetrate parental alienation toward their own children? 3) Describe how parental alienation

21 influences parent and parent partner relationships with each other and with their children.

Research Design

This qualitative study was exploratory in nature as there was an attempt to describe the long-lasting effects of parental alienation on children and parents and parent partners. This study utilized electronic surveys, created in Qualtrics software, to be completed by the sample population to gather important data about this topic.

Research is essential to explore the consequences of parental alienation experienced in childhood and how that affects peoples’ parental roles as adults.

In recent years, more studies involving parental alienation have been completed such as Baker’s “Adult recall of parental alienation in a community sample: Prevalence and associations with psychological maltreatment” in 2010, Baker and Eichler’s “The linkage between parental alienation behaviors and child alienation” in 2016, Bernet’s “Parental Alienation: A Specific Example of Child

Psychological Abuse” in 2017, and Kruk’s “Parental alienation as a form of emotional abuse: Current state of knowledge and future directions for research in

2018. This researcher used established instruments to inform this design and created her own questions, as studies have not generally focused on how parental alienation experienced in childhood affects their roles as parents or parent partners as adults.

With the elevated number of divorces, this researcher hypothesizes the prevalence of parental alienation has increased as well. As parental alienation focuses on children’s negative relationships with their parents, this research examines whether parental

22 alienation experienced in childhood has an impact on their parental relationship with their own children now that they have reached adulthood. Adults were chosen as they provide a more accessible population and are able to speak cogently about their experiences.

Sampling Plan

The researcher recruited adult students at California State University,

Stanislaus and adults through social media platforms Facebook and Instagram. The students were chosen based upon the researcher’s relationship with CSU

Stanislaus. There was a greater chance of adult student participation due to the researcher’s proximity to the university. The sample may not be representative of all adult aged college students in other universities or community colleges in other states, regions, or countries.

This research employed convenience sampling, a type of nonprobability sampling through the California State University List Serv via email and via social media platforms Facebook and Instagram. Convenience sampling was appropriate as the researcher is focusing on participants who are more readily available and accessible. Convenience sampling was appropriate because the researcher is using participants who are easier to find and who may be likely to complete a survey.

There are several benefits to convenience sampling, as in the availability of the population, cost effectiveness, and less time consuming (Taherdoost, 2016). One of the strengths of this design is the use of the internet allows the participants to take the survey in the setting of their choice, at a time of convenience for them. The use of the

23 internet ensures no surveys can be lost or misplaced, which is possible with paper surveys. The use of Qualtrics will make it possible for one researcher to manage a large number of responses.

There are some drawbacks. According to Laerd Dissertation’s website, it is important to realize this research approach may have too small of a sample size, the sample size may not be representative of a larger population, or it could be deemed biased if an incorrect conclusion is drawn (https://dissertation.laerd.com/convenience- sampling.php).

One of the weaknesses of this design is the possibility of a low response rate, due to the CSU Stanislaus campus being closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Typically, an online survey generates a response of thirty to forty percent (Survey

Gizmo); however, with the pandemic, that amount may be decreased as individuals are preparing their lives to handle the pandemic. There were no incentives offered.

Permission was obtained after University Internal Review. Participants for this study were contacted through their university email address, inviting them to participate in the study by completing a survey. Participants were requested via posts in social media platforms asking for adults to complete the online survey. It was expected 300 participants would respond. The rate of internet survey participation can be lower at thirty to forty percent (Survey Gizmo, 2015). This would result in receiving between ninety to one hundred and twenty completed surveys.

Data Collection

This researcher was the sole person collecting the data. All participants were 18 years or older. The participants’ electronic contact information was accessed by gaining email addresses from the university. Bulk emails were sent to the participants’ university email address with a link to complete an online survey. One week and two weeks after the initial email was, a follow-up email was sent out. The survey link was available for two months weeks to allow participants to complete it.

Recruitment posts were made in social media platforms through an embedded link, taking people to the Qualtrics website.

Instrumentation

It is necessary to define parental alienation and its identifying behaviors. This study will use the definitions from Psychology Today and Data Resource Center for

Child and Adolescent Health. As such, parental alienation “occurs when a child refuses to have a relationship with a parent due to manipulation, such as the conveying of exaggerated or false information, by the other parent. The situation most often arises during a divorce or custody battle” but it can happen in intact families as well.

The tool for this study was created by this researcher and utilizes questions influenced by Rowlands Parental Alienation Scale (RPAS) and the Parental

Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ). The Parental Acceptance-Rejection

Questionnaire (PARQ) has been found to be extremely accurate in differentiating alienated children from non-alienated children (Rohner, 2016). According

25 to Rohner, four versions of the PARQ are available: (1) Early Childhood PARQ, (2)

Child PARQ, (3) Adult PARQ, and (4) Parent PARQ. The questions have been designed to have individuals, through self-report, identify whether they were exposed to parental alienation tactics as children and if they have experienced or perpetrated parental alienation as parents or parent partners in adulthood. There is a risk of recall bias due to the retrospective self-report. There is a risk of individuals underreporting or failing to report their own perpetration of parental alienation.

Data should be reliable and consistent as the same survey will be utilized with each participant. Face validity will be assessed to identify if the study actually measured what the research intended. Convergent validity would indicate if there was a correlation between what is being measured. Rowlands RPAS has been found to have convergent validity and composite reliability as the convergent validity exceeds

.70 and the composite reliability exceeds .50 (Rowlands, 2019). Rohner summarized the reliability of the Child, Adult, and Parent versions of the PARQ in a meta-analysis of 51 studies worldwide. The results strongly suggest that the measure is reliable for research and for clinical and applied purposes internationally as well as for use among ethnic groups within the United States (Rohner, 2016).

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Data Collection Approach

This researcher used Rowlands Parental Alienation Scale (RPAS) and the

Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ), established instruments, to inform the design and creation of her own questions, as studies have not generally focused on how parental alienation experienced in childhood affects their roles as parents or parent partners as adults. This researcher hypothesizes the prevalence of parental alienation has increased as the divorce rate has increased. As parental alienation focuses on children’s negative relationships with their parents, this research examines whether parental alienation experienced in childhood has an impact on their parental relationship with their own children now that they have reached adulthood.

Participants

Adults were chosen as they provide a more accessible population and are able to speak cogently about their experiences. The researcher recruited adult students at

California State University, Stanislaus and adults through social media platforms

Facebook and Instagram. The students were chosen based upon the researcher’s relationship with CSU Stanislaus. There will be a greater chance of adult student participation due to the researcher’s proximity to the university. Social media platforms were used to expand the population to non-college students to provide a better representation of the general population. The CSU Stanislaus students were

emailed through a List Serv provided by the university. Those students who chose to participate did so through the Qualtrics link provided in the email. The adults who chose to participate through social media platforms did so anonymously through the Qualtrics link to the survey. The sample may not be representative of all adult aged college students in other universities or community colleges in other states, regions, or countries. The sample may not be representative of the diversity of the general population.

This research employed convenience sampling, a type of nonprobability sampling through the California State University List Serv via email and via social media platforms, Facebook and Instagram. Convenience sampling was appropriate as the researcher is focusing on participants who are more readily available and accessible. Convenience sampling was appropriate because the researcher engaged participants who may be likely to complete a survey and did not need parental consent. The benefits to convenience sampling is in the availability of the population, cost effectiveness, and less time consuming (Taherdoost, 2016).

The use of a Qualtrics survey allowed the participants to take the survey in the setting of their choice, at a time of convenience for them. The survey link was active from December 22, 2020 through February 22, 2021. The use of the internet ensured no survey were lost or misplaced, which is possible with paper surveys. The use of

Qualtrics made it possible for one researcher to manage a large number of responses.

There were possible drawbacks to this design, should too small of a sample size occur, the sample size may not be representative of the larger population, or it

28 could be deemed biased if incorrect conclusions are made. One of the weaknesses of this design was possibility of a low response rate, due to the CSU Stanislaus campus being closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Typically, an online survey generates a response rate of thirty to forty percent (Survey Gizmo); however, with the pandemic, that amount may have been decreased as individuals were preparing their lives to handle the pandemic. There were no incentives offered.

Permission to undertake the research was obtained after University Internal

Review. Participants for this study were contacted through their university email address, inviting them to participate in the study by completing a survey. Participants were recruited via posts in social media platforms asking adults to complete the online survey.

Parental Alienation Recall & Report Survey

This researcher created the Parental Alienation Recall and Report Survey

(2020). This researcher was the sole person collecting the data. Bulk emails were sent to the participants’ university email address with a link to complete an online survey. Three days after the initial email has been distributed, a follow-up email was sent. The email was re-distributed two weeks after the initial email was sent. The survey link remained available for two months. Recruitment posts were made on social media platforms through an embedded link, directing people to the Qualtrics website.

Survey Tool

It was necessary to define parental alienation and its identifying behaviors.

This study used the definitions from Psychology Today and Data Resource Center for

The tool for this study was created by this researcher and utilizes questions influenced by Rowlands Parental Alienation Scale (RPAS) and the Parental

Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ). Bernet et al. (2018) reported the

Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ) has been able to distinguish between alienated and non-alienated children and alienated children and neglected children. The questions were designed to have individuals, through self-report, identify whether they were exposed to parental alienation tactics as children and if they have experienced or perpetrated parental alienation as parents or parent partners in adulthood. There is a risk of recall bias due to the retrospective self-report. There is a risk of individuals underreporting or failing to report their own perpetration of parental alienation.

Data should be reliable and consistent as the same survey will be utilized with each participant. Face validity will be assessed to identify if the study actually

30 measured research goals. Convergent validity would indicate if there was a correlation between measures.

Sample

The researcher originally estimated a response between 120 and 300 people.

In actuality, the sample population was n=724. Of the 724 participants, 52 did not provide their gender. There were 545 female participants. There were 108 male participants. There were 15 non-binary participants. There were 4 transgender participants. While this was a qualitative study, interesting quantitative findings have been included. A one-way ANOVA of gender and alienating behaviors experienced as a child, showed a statistically significant (p=.015) difference between conforming gender and non-conforming gender roles. Those identified as non-binary, transgender or preferred not to answer, experienced more parental alienation as children. Further, as children males experienced 1.91 alienating behaviors, females experienced 2.62 alienating behaviors, non-binary experienced 3.71 alienating behaviors, transgender experienced 5 alienating behaviors and two who preferred not to answer, experienced

6 alienating behaviors.

Of the 724 participants, there were 292 Caucasian participants, 18 African

American participants, 260 Hispanic participants, 44 Asian participants, 9 Native

American/Alaskan Native participants, 6 Pacific Islander participants, and 8 Indian participants. Thirty-seven of the participants chose Other as their race.

Participants ages varied. There were 387 participants aged 18-28 years. There were 155 participants aged 29-39 years. There were 95 participants aged 40-50 years.

There were 23 aged 51-61 years. There were 14 over the age of 62 years. There was missing data for 50 participants.

The education levels of participants ranged from high school to doctoral degrees. There were 181 whose highest level of education was high school. There were 177 whose highest level of education was Associate Degree. There were nine who completed trade school. There were 230 whose highest level of education was

Bachelor’s Degree. There were 76 participants whose highest level of education was a graduate degree. There was one participant with a doctoral degree. Using a one- tailed Pearson test there was an inverse correlating relationship between education level and experiencing alienating behaviors as a child (r= -.072). The lower the education level, the more alienating behaviors were experienced as a child, and the higher the education lever, there were lower alienating behavior experiences using.

Participants reported a range of siblings. Of the six hundred and seventy-three respondents, thirty-one participants reported they do not have siblings, 458 participants reported they have 1-3 siblings, 139 participants reported they have 4-6 siblings, and 45 participants reported having seven or more siblings (see Table 1).

Table 1

How Many Siblings Do You Have?

N % None 31 5% 1-3 458 68% 4-6 139 21% 7 or more 45 7% Total 673 100%

Of the six hundred and seventy-four respondents, four hundred and seventeen participants reported they do not have children, 216 participants reported they have 1-

3 children, 40 participants reported they have 4-6 children and one participant reported having seven or more children (see Table 2).

Table 2

How Many Children Do You Have?

N % None 417 62% 1-3 216 32% 4-6 40 6% 7 or more 1 0% Total 674 100%

Participants reported they have a varied number of parent partners with their children. Of the three hundred eighty-two respondents, three hundred and twenty participants reported they have one parent partner, 51 participants reported they have

2 parent partners, nine reported they have 3 parent partners and two participants reported they have four or more parent partners (see Table 3).

Table 3

How Many Other Parent or Parent Partners Do You Have Children With?

N % 1 320 84% 2 51 13% 3 9 2% 4 or more 2 1% Total 382 100%

Participants reported a varied number of relationship and/or custody statuses.

Of the three hundred forty-six respondents, one hundred and fifty-five participants reported they have never been married, 133 participants reported they are married, eight participants reported they are separated, and 50 participants reported they are divorced (see Table 4).

Table 4

What Is Your Relationship With Your Children(s) Other Parent?

N % Never married 155 45% Married 133 38% Separated 8 2% Divorced 50 14% Total 346 100%

Measures

This qualitative study was exploratory in nature as there was an attempt to describe long-lasting effects of parental alienation on children and parents and parent partners. The survey consisted of twenty-six questions using yes/no and Likert scale questions. The survey was structured into sections. The first section provided informed consent and participant acceptance or denial, then, moved forward or ended the survey. The second section captured demographical information. The third section captured information regarding participant recall of their childhood experiences, prior to age 18, and the relationship with the participant’s parents. The fourth section collected information from participant parents regarding their relationship with their co-parent and child(ren).

Experienced Parental Alienation as a Child

When asked which parent they were closer to as a child, of the six hundred eleven respondents, 368 reported they were closer to their mother, 123 reported they were closer to their father, and 120 reported they were close to both of their parents during their childhood, between ages 0 to 18 years old (see Table 5).

Table 5

Which Parent Were You Closer To?

N % Mother 368 60% Father 123 20% Both 120 20% Total 611 100%

Participants were asked to rate how positive their relationship was with the parent with whom they were most close. The scale ranged from 0-3 Not very positive,

4-6 Positive, and 7-10 Extremely positive. Of the six hundred nine respondents, seventy-two participants rated their relationship 0-3, 235 participants reported their relationship 4-6, and 302 rated their relationship 7-10 (see Table 6).

Table 6

How Positive Was Your Relationship With the Parent With Whom You Were Most Close?

N % 0-3 Not very positive 72 12% 4-6 Positive 235 39% 7-10 Extremely Positive 302 50% Total 609 100%

Participants were asked to rate how negative their relationship was with their other parent. The scale ranged between 0-3 Not very negative, 4-6 Negative, and 7-10

Extremely negative. Two hundred and twenty-seven participants reported their relationship 0-3, 187 participants rated their relationship 4-6, and 144 participants reported their relationship 7-10. Participants reported a variety of custody statuses between their parents during their childhood (see Table 7). Those participants who experienced negative relationships reported the ages those negative relationships began (see Table 8). Participants reported whether their relationship with the other parent was their choice or influenced by their favored parent (See Table 9).

Table 7

What Was the Custody Status Between Your Parents?

N % Full custody, raised you together 390 64% Shared custody 50/50 31 5% Mother had majority or full 151 25% custody Father had majority or full 20 3% custody I don’t know/Unsure 22 4% Total 614 100

Table 8

During Your Childhood, at What Age Did Your Negative Relationship With Your Parent Begin?

N % 0-5 90 15% 6-10 120 20% 11-15 165 28% 16-18 88 15% I don't know/Unsure 137 23% Total 600 100%

Table 9

Did You Feel Your Relationship Change With Your Other Parent Was Your Choice and Not Influenced?

N % Yes 187 26% No 215 30% I don't know/Unsure 197 27% Missing 125 17% Total 724 100%

Of the 592 participants who responded, 383 experienced parental alienation

in their childhood. A frequency distribution indicated 194 experienced one to three

alienating behaviors, 125 experienced four to six alienating behaviors as a child, 64

experienced seven to nine alienating behaviors as a child, 17 experienced all ten

alienating behaviors as a child, and 209 participants reported they did not experience

37 any parental alienation as a child. The participants responded to each alienating behavior they experienced as a child (See Table 10).

Table 10

Alienating Behaviors Experienced as a Child

Did one or either of your parents speak negatively about the 323 other parent to you?

Did one or either of your parents denigrate or belittle the 289 other parent?

Did one or either of your parents influence your feelings 222 about the other parent?

Did one or either of your parents express that the other parent 206 was a bad person/parent?

Did one or either of your parents force you to choose 101 between them?

Did one or either of your parents limit or cease your contact 66 with the other parent?

Did one or either of your parents limit or cease your 7 communication with the other parent?

Did one or either of your parents express anger to pull you 122 away from the other parent?

Did one or either of your parents withdraw love to pull you 78 away from the other parent?

Did one or either of your parents tell you the other parent did 55 not love you?

After retrospective recall, did adults experience parental alienation in their childhoods? Of the 592 responses, 383 (64.9%) of the participants reported they experienced parental alienating behaviors as children. The scale is mild, moderate, or severe on the parental alienating behaviors. In the mild, (1-3 behaviors), there were

194 responses. In the moderate, (4-6 behaviors), there were 125 behaviors. In the severe, (7-10 behaviors), there were 64 responses. Of those 64 responses, 17 reported they had experienced all ten alienating behaviors as a child.

Committed Parental Alienation as an Adult

Participants were asked to rate how positive their relationship was with their child(ren). The scale being 0-3 Not very positive, 4-6 Positive, and 7-10 Extremely positive. Fourteen participants rated their positive relationship with their child(ren) 0-

3, 37 reported their relationship with their child(ren) 4-6, and 211 participants reported their positive relationship with their child(ren) 7-10. Participants reported how negative their relationship with their child(ren) were based on the same scale.

One hundred and sixty-three reported their negative relationship with their child(ren)

0-3, 17 participants reported their negative relationship with their child(ren) 4-6, and four participants reported their negative relationship with their child(ren) 7-10.

Participants reported their relationship status with their parent partner (see Table 11).

Table 11 What Is the Custody Status Between You and Your Child(ren)'s Other Parent?

N % Full custody/raise together 164 22.7% Share 50/50 custody 33 4.6% You have primary or full custody 63 8.7%

Other parent has primary or full custody 7 1.0%

Missing 457 63.1%

When asked if participants felt their child made the choice regarding their relationship with the participant on their own: 210 participants said Yes and 50 participants said No. A frequency distribution indicated 652 participants reported they have not committed any parental alienation behaviors, 47 reported they have committed one of the alienating behaviors, 16 reported they have committed two of the alienating behaviors, 3 reported they have committed three of the alienating behaviors, and 6 reported they have committed four or more of the alienating behaviors (See Table 12). Participants were asked they had influenced their child’s relationship with their other parent (see Table 13).

Table 12

Alienating Behaviors Committed as a Parent Have you spoken negatively about the other parent to your child(ren)? 55 Have you expressed anger to pull away from your child(ren)? 9 Have you withdrawn love to pull away from your child(ren)? 6 Have you limited the contact between your child(ren) and their other parent? 22 Have you limited the communication between your child(ren) and their other parent? 18 Have you forced your child(ren) to choose between parents? 3 Have you ever told your child(ren) that the other parent does not love them? 4

Table 13

Do You Feel Your Child Made the Choice Regarding Their Relationship Quality, With Their Other Parent, on Their Own? N % Yes 209 28.9% No 52 7.2%

After reporting feelings of parental alienation from their childhoods, do parents or parent partners perpetrate parental alienation toward their own children?

While there is a percentage that reported they have committed parental alienating behaviors on their children, it is a small percentage (16.1%) (r= .029).

Committed Parental Alienation by the Other Parent Partner

A frequency distribution indicated 245 participants reported the other parent partner has not committed any alienating behaviors, 21 reported the other parent partner has committed one alienating behavior, 14 reported the other parent has committed two alienating behaviors, 7 reported the other parent has committed three alienating behaviors, and 20 reported the other parent has committed four or more alienating behaviors (See Table 14) Participants were asked if they felt their child made the choice regarding their relationship with their other parent: 209 participants reported Yes and 52 participants reported No.

Table 14

Alienating Behaviors Committed by Parent Partner

Has the other parent spoken negatively about you to your child(ren)? 42

Has the other parent expressed anger to pull away from your 35 child(ren)?

Has the other parent withdrawn love to pull away from your 29 child(ren)?

Has the other parent limited the contact between your child(ren) and 21 you?

Has the other parent limited the communication between your 21 child(ren) and you?

Has the other parent forced your child(ren) to choose between 17 parents?

Has the other parent ever told your child(ren) that you do not love 9 them?

Do parental alienation experiences as a child influence parent and parent partner relationships with each other and with their children? Those participants who identified having experienced parental alienation as a child, 10% have committed alienating behaviors as an adult towards their own child(ren) and 9% of their parent partners have committed alienating behaviors towards their shared child(ren) (p=

.003). Although additional research is necessary to verify the quantitative findings in this study, it may appear having experienced parental alienation as a child decreases the behavior as a parent and that those who experienced parental alienation as a child are with parent partners who are less likely to commit parental alienating behaviors.

Summary

Respondents reported parental alienation behaviors experienced in childhood and parental alienating behaviors committed as a parent/parent partner. In this study,

65% of respondents reported experiencing parental alienating behaviors as a child,

10% of parents have committed alienating behaviors with their own child(ren) and

9% of their parent partners have committed alienating behaviors towards their child(ren). There was a statistically significant relationship between those who experienced alienating behaviors as a child and who have experienced it with their parent partner(s). There was not a statistically significant relationship between experiencing alienating behaviors as child and being a parent who commits alienating behaviors towards their child(ren). Younger participants may not have children, or

43 their children are too young to experience alienating behaviors. The same could be said for relationship status. Older participants are more likely to have married, separated, or divorced. While younger participants may not be married or have not been married long.

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

Knowledge gained from scientific inquiry is something that tends to

progress over a long period of time, and often unfolds in ‘messy’ and

unpredictable ways…Each contributor, whether pro, anti, or neutral

where PAS is concerned, has their own perspective, based on their

professional background, theoretical orientation, and the knowledge

and experience gleaned from their work (Rand, 2011, p. 50).

L’Abate and Ryback stated, “Given today’s immense number of separations and divorces it is not surprising that parents and their children can become polarized”

(p. 92). In their review of books written by Gottlieb and von Boch-Galhau, L’Abate and Ryback indicate Gottlieb’s work and findings supplement Gardner’s findings and her assertion that “now is the time for mental health professionals to stop ignoring the existence of PAS” (p. 219-220).

While parental alienation does not specifically appear in the DSM-V as a diagnosis with a numerical code, it does fall in the category of Unspecified Mental Disorder:

“This category applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of a mental disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full criteria for any specific mental disorder” (DSM-V, 2013, p. 708). The Other

Specified mental disorder category is used in situations in which the clinician chooses

to communicate the specific reason that the presentation does not meet the criteria for any specific mental disorder. The DSM-V has also included Other

Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention: Problems Related to Family

Upbringing:

This category should be used when the main focus of clinical attention

is to address the quality of the parent-child relationship or when the

quality of the parent-child relationship is affecting the course,

prognosis, or treatment of a mental or other medical disorder.

Typically, the parent-child relational problem is associated with

impaired functioning in behavioral, cognitive, or affective domains

(DSM-V, p. 715).

This relational problem encompasses avoidance without resolution of problems, excessive parental pressure, negative attributions of the other’s intentions, hostility or scapegoating, unwarranted feelings of estrangement as well as sadness, apathy, or anger towards the other individual in the relationship. The DSM-V added Child

Affected by Parental Relationship Distress: “When clinical focus is the negative effects of parental relationship discord (e.g., high levels of conflict, distress or disparagement) on a child in the family, including effects on the child’s mental or other medical disorders” (p. 716).

Major Findings

The participants appeared to be a diverse group, by having conforming and non-conforming gender identities, a multitude of age range, variety in education and

46 ethnicity. It was significant that 65% of the participants identified experienced at least one parental alienating behavior as children.

The education levels of participants ranged from high school to doctoral degrees. There were 181 people whose highest level of education was high school.

There were 177 people whose highest level of education was Associate Degree. There were nine people who completed trade school. There were 230 people whose highest level of education was Bachelor’s Degree. There were 76 participants whose highest level of education was a graduate degree. There was one participant with a doctoral degree. Interestingly, there was an inverse correlational relationship between education and experiencing alienating behaviors. The lower the education level, the more alienating behaviors were experienced as a child, and the higher the education lever, there were lower parental alienating experiences (r= -.072).

Of the 592 responses, 383 (64.9%) of the participants reported they experienced parental alienating behaviors as children. The scale is mild, moderate, or severe on the parental alienating behaviors. In the mild, (1-3 behaviors), there were

Forty-seven participants reported they have committed one of the alienating behaviors, 16 reported they have committed two of the alienating behaviors, 3 reported they have committed three of the alienating behaviors, and 6 reported they have committed four or more of the alienating behaviors. While there is a percentage

47 that reported they have committed parental alienating behaviors on their children, it is a small percentage (16.1%) (r= .029).

Twenty-one participants reported the other parent partner has committed one alienating behavior, 14 people reported the other parent committed two alienating behaviors, 7 reported the other parent committed three alienating behaviors, and 20 reported the other parent committed four or more alienating behaviors. Those participants who identified having experienced parental alienation as a child, reported

10% have committed alienating behaviors as an adult towards their own child(ren)

(p=.240) and 9% of their parent partners have committed alienating behaviors towards their shared child(ren) (p= .003). It appears having experienced alienating behaviors as a child decreases the alienating behavior as a parent and those who experienced alienating behaviors as a child have chosen parent partners who are less likely to commit alienating behaviors.

Limitations

This study verified parental alienating behaviors are occurring in childhood and there were participants who verified they committed alienating behaviors towards their own children and/or had parent partner(s) who committed alienating behaviors towards their children. The sample size was larger than predicted and encompassed a more diverse group than anticipated. However, the survey questions regarding childhood were subject to the participants accurate recall and possible lapse in memory over time. The survey questions regarding themselves as parents and their parent partners are subject to their honesty and minimizing or embellishing behaviors.

The survey did not ask a question relating to the cause of the parent or parent partner’s alienating behaviors. It is possible there are valid reasons for what they perceive as their protective capacity.

Existing Knowledge

Baker (2007) conducted several studies, one which surveyed custody evaluators views on parental alienation. Baker and Darnell (2007) conducted a construct validity study of the criteria for severe parental alienation. Maturana et al.

(2008) added to the knowledge base through a systemic review of behaviors experienced by the alienated or targeted parent. They found limited data specifically related to this population; however, the information obtained indicated the alienated parent experienced manipulation, defiance, inhibiting time with the targeted child or were denied important information regarding the child by the other parent. It should also be noted gender and level of severity of parental alienation needs further research as it is not evident. Does the gender of the child and parent have statistical significance in correlating and predicting alienating behaviors? Alienated parents reported disappointment with the legal system and mental health system due to the lack of knowledge or understanding of parental alienation.

There is a lack of data pertaining to alienated parents and their experiences.

Mercer stated, “we have no clear information about the frequency with which mother and fathers are preferred or non-preferred (p 360)”. The data predominantly focuses on defining parental alienation, how parental alienation affects the alienated child, and the repercussions of parental alienation in divorce or custody proceedings.

There are many other factors to be considered that may affect a child’s perception or attitude toward a parent. Parenting styles, being witness to domestic violence, parent(s) substance abuse, financial security or instability, proximity to school and friends are all important when thinking of children or teens appearing to have a preferred parent.

Baker has done research and written many articles relating to parental alienation (Baker, 2010; Baker, 2005; Ben-Ami & Baker, 2012; Baker, 2018; Baker

& Darnall, 2006). She discusses childhood traumas, adverse childhood experiences

(ACEs), and how parental alienation could be considered childhood trauma. It would behoove future research to focus on how many ACEs alienated children experience and how those affect not only their emotional health and well-being, but also their physical health. By studying parental alienation through a trauma-informed lens, we can provide better treatment to counteract the negative effects for children who experience parental alienation.

Practice

Social Work and Parental Alienation

Meier (2009) reported parental alienation labeling has entered child welfare agency practices. Meier believed child welfare agencies frequently discounted and sometimes turned against mothers who report child abuse by a father. She sites reversed court cases where alienating labeling affected the outcome of court decisions. Dallam and Silberg (2016) stated:

Acceptance of PAS can result in failure to adequately investigate

reports of abuse and even when abuse is formally investigated, it is

frequently not substantiated as allegations of interpersonal violence

can be very difficult to independently confirm, especially if the law

enforcement or child protective services personnel also believe in the

myth of PAS, and therefore, do not conduct their normal

comprehensive investigations (p. 137).

There is very little research done relating to social work and parental alienation. Most of the research encompasses courts, custody evaluators, and mental health professionals. However, social work deals with neglect, abuse, and families in crisis at the micro level. O’ Donohue et al (2016) said parental alienation “involves a very serious accusation, perhaps even one that triggers mandated reporting due to alleged emotional abuse. Being involved in an accusation is harmful to the targeted parents and thus the children” (p. 122).

The emergent state of knowledge about parental alienation indicate

that parental alienation may well be serious form of emotional child

abuse connected to both physical abuse and child neglect…First, child

abuse and parental alienation represent a signification form of harm

and pose a serious threat to the well-being of a child. Second, the

source of the abuse is attributable to human agency; it is the result of

human action (Kruk, 2018, p. 145).

As social workers deal directly with the children and families, it is imperative this knowledge base grows, so the effectiveness of social workers increases, their ability to identify, educate, and locate effective treatment to assist in family reunification.

Social workers may encounter these problems in a number of settings,

such as family service agencies, schools, and family court, as well as

in private practice working with high-conflict divorcing couples,

parents who believe the other parent has or will turn the children

against them, alienated children refusing to see a parent, adults who

are still alienated from a parent, or elders who have “lost” their

children to parental alienation. Social workers may formulate a

hypothesis that one parent has engineered the child’s rejection of the

other parent. However, unless the social worker is familiar with

parental alienation, he or she is missing a useful conceptual framework

for understanding how one parent is able to poison a child’s

relationship with the other parent in the absence of just cause. (Baker,

2008, p. 26).

Social workers follow the Welfare and Institutions Code, Section 300, regarding neglect and abuse. Emotional abuse is when:

The child is suffering serious emotional damage or is at substantial

risk of suffering serious emotional damage, evidenced by severe

anxiety, depression, withdrawal, or untoward aggressive behavior

toward self or others, as a result of the conduct of the parent or

guardian or who has no parent or guardian capable of providing

appropriate care. A child shall not be found to be a person described

by this subdivision if the willful failure of the parent or guardian to

provide adequate mental health treatment is based on a sincerely held

religious belief and if a less intrusive judicial intervention is available

(WIC 300 (c)).

The information in the DSM-V (2013) “is of value to all professionals associated with various aspects of mental health care, including psychiatrists, other physicians, psychologists, social workers, nurses, counselors, forensic and legal specialists, etc.” (p xli). The following definitions are extracted from the DSM-V. “A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s condition, emotional regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological or developmental processes underlying mental functioning. Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other important activities” (p. 20). Child Neglect

“encompasses abandonment; lack of appropriate supervision; failure to attend to necessary emotional or psychological needs; and failure to provide necessary education, medical care, nourishment, shelter and/or clothing” (p. 718). Child psychological abuse includes “berating, disparaging, or humiliating child; threatening the child; harming/abandoning - or indicating that the allege offended with

53 harm/abandon-people or things that the child cares about; confining the child; egregious scapegoating of the child” (p. 719).

Currently, there are not many social work practice interventions or policies in place regarding parental alienation. During investigations, social workers defer to court custody orders regarding custody disputes. When allegations are made, the social worker must meet with all children and parents involved to gather information essential to deciding on the validity of the allegation. A search of the

National Association of Social Workers (NASW) website found no records relating to parental alienation. The NASW is a driving force of policy and change in the social work field. California family courts are required to consider the best interests of the child in any custody matter; however, there are no specific laws pertaining to parental alienation.

Hands & Warshak (2017) state, “moving beyond the controversies about parental alienation, most people would agree that no child should have to suffer growing up feeling estranged from a good and loving parent…Identifying elements of parental alienation early in the process can contribute to the prevention of some of the negative outcomes” (p. 441).

Kruk (2018) reports “numerous studies show alienated children exhibit severe psychosocial disturbances. These include disrupted social-emotional development, lack of trust in relationships, social anxiety, and social isolation (Baker, 2005, 2010;

Ben-Ami & Baker, 2012; Baker & Verrochio, 2013; Friedlander & Walters, 2010;

Godbout & Parent, 2008). “As adults, they tend to enter into partnerships earlier, are

54 more likely to divorce or dissolve their cohabiting unions, more likely to have children outside any partnership, and more likely to become alienated from their own children” (Kruk, 2018, p. 150). Ben-Ami & Baker (2012) reported long-term psychological correlations as those that experienced parental alienating behaviors as a child have lower self-sufficiency and self-esteem, higher depression rates and attachment issues.

Kruk, Bernet et al. (2018), Clawar and Rivlin, (2013), and Von Boch-

Galhau (2018) have reported parental alienation is generally considered a form of emotional or psychological abuse, but often co-occur with three other types of child abuse. Parental alienation occurs with neglect as the alienating parent’s feelings regarding and actions against the targeted parent are more important than their love of the child and, they are incapable of meeting the child’s emotional needs. Parental alienation occurs with physical and sexual abuse as the children who are experiencing parental alienation have one absent parent and are at greater risk of being placed in harmful situations. Hands & Warshak (2011) reported while divorced parents report a higher level of alienating behaviors, it is not experienced by every divorced family and such behaviors can also be found in intact families.

Future Research

Harman et al (2019) stated future consideration should establish which parental alienating behaviors have the strongest association with parental alienation outcomes, develop methods for assessment and treatment of parental alienation at different states of severity, and identify short-term and long-term effects. More

55 studies are needed to identify behaviors observed by parents, the frequency and duration of said behaviors and other factors are needed to label the behaviors as parental alienating as well as to define parental alienation as mild, moderate, or severe. Further research needs to identify how many child welfare referrals are parental alienation under the guise of false allegations and how parental alienation as neglect or abuse is identified and treated in the child welfare system, if it is at all.

There is not a substantial history of data and research to indicate social services, mental health providers, or court mediators would be able to rate the same families in a consistent, reliable manner. There is much subjectivity which causes inconsistencies, especially in those who do not believe parental alienation is a genuine issue. Turkat (2002) indicated there is not a clear specification of how many of the indicators of parental alienation are necessary to determine the presence of parental alienation nor is there a definitive guideline for determining the severity of parental alienation.

Mercer (2019) indicated “none of the attempts to identify cases of PA have been based on demonstrably reliable and valid methods” (p. 355). Mercer further stated:

Real understanding of the potential risks and benefits of PA principle

and practices must wait for further systematic investigation…if a

concept and associated treatments are implausible, they will be

ineffective, and their use may involve risks ranging from minor to

serious (p. 357).

Programs based on psychoeducation alone are not sufficient to instigate the changes necessary in behavior and mindset in alienated children.

Social workers, mental health providers, and court personnel need to have a better understanding and knowledge regarding the signs of parental alienation, the behaviors causing it, and the way the alienated child and alienated parent may respond to each other, emotionally or behaviorally. Greater knowledge would assist those working with children and families to better identify, acknowledge, address, and educate families. This would lead to better communication between all parties and assist in offering the appropriate services to enable reunification between the alienated child and parent.

The number of parental alienation treatment programs are not abundant, but there are several different programs and approaches. The curriculum for these treatment programs is varied, with young adults expressing they had negative experiences through isolation, direct or implied threats, removal from their families to camp settings, and forced interaction between the alienated child and targeted parent

(Mercer, 2019). Some of these programs are Family Bridges, High Road,

Overcoming Barriers, Family Reflections and Transitioning Families. Behavioral health professionals are encouraged to seek out well-researched diagnoses and therapies that can be designated as evidence-based treatments or empirically supported treatments.

Parental alienation is a subject with many opportunities to research and to add to the knowledge base. A longitudinal study of the factors that affect children who

57 have been alienated would be beneficial, especially when compared to a similar longitudinal study focused on children with a more traditional experience. A study which incorporates sibling sets would be beneficial to show differences of experiences in parental alienating behaviors between siblings and if birth order affected those experiences.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

The International Support Network for Alienated Families (ISNAF) (https://isnaf.info/) defines:

 Alienation as “a family dynamic in which a child, as a result of undue influence and/or indoctrination by one parent denigrates or rejects the other parent despite the fact that there has been no abuse or neglect, and no other behavior by the rejected parent, that would warrant such” behaviors by the child. The alienated child “expresses negative thoughts, feelings, attitudes and/or behaviors toward the rejected parent that are disproportionate to the child’s actual experience with that parent.”  Alienated Parent: “A parent who has been alienated from a child, and whose relationship with that child has been interfered with, undermined, damaged, or disrupted without valid reason or justification.”  Alienating Parent: “A parent who, either consciously or unconsciously, has either caused, or attempted to cause a child, to become alienated from the other parent.”  Parental Alienation: “Efforts by one parent to turn the child unjustifiably against the other parent, through the use of indoctrination, manipulation, programming or other types of undue influence of the child.”

The Merriam Webster dictionary (https://www.merriam-webster.com) defines:

 Syndrome as a group of signs and symptoms that occur together and characterize a particular abnormality or condition or a set of concurrent things (such as emotions or actions) that usually form an identifiable pattern.  Theory as a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena; a belief, policy, or procedure proposed or followed as the basis of action; an ideal or hypothetical set of facts, principles, or circumstances —often used in the phrase; a hypothesis assumed for the sake of argument or investigation; an unproved assumption or conjecture; a body

71 of theorems presenting a concise systematic view of a subject; the general or abstract principles of a body of fact, a science, or an art; abstract thought; or the analysis of a set of facts in their relation to one another.

APPENDIX B

PARENTAL ALIENATION RECALL AND REPORT SURVEY

1. Informed Consent. Acceptance needed prior to moving onto the survey. 2. What is your gender? 3. What is your race? 4. What is your ethnicity? 5. What is your age? 6. What is your highest level of education? 7. How many siblings do you have? 8. How many children do you have? 9. How many other parent or parent partners do you have children with? 10. How would you define your parents’ relationship status? 11. Which parent were you closer to? 12. How positive was your relationship with the parent you were closest to? 13. Between the ages of 0-18, how negative was your relationship with your other parent? 14. What was the custody status between your parents? 15. During your childhood, at what age did your negative relationship begin? 16. Did you feel your relationship change with your other parent was your choice and not influenced? 17. Did one or either of your parents: a. Speak negatively about the other parent to you? b. Denigrate or belittle the other parent? c. Influence your feelings about the other parent? d. Express that the other parent was a bad person/parent? e. Force you to choose between them? f. Limit or cease your contact with the other parent? g. Limit or cease communication between you and the other parent? h. Express anger to pull you away from the other parent? i. Tell you the other parent did not love you? 18. If you do not have children, please click yes. (This skipped the parenting questions). 19. What is your relationship status with your child(ren)’s other parent? 20. What is the custody status between you and your child(ren)’s other parent? 21. How positive is your relationship with your child(ren)? 22. How negative is your relationship with your child(ren)? 23. Do you feel your child made the choice regarding their relationship quality, with you, on their own? 24. Have you influenced your child(ren)’s relationship quality with their other parent? 25. Do you feel your child(ren) made the choice regarding their relationship quality, with the other parent, on their own?

26. If you or the other parent have ever done one or more of the following behaviors when your children were between the ages of 0 and 18, please mark your response in the appropriate column. a. Spoken negatively about the other parent to my child(ren)? b. Expressed anger to pull away from your child(ren)? c. Withdrawn love to pull away from your child(ren)? d. Limited the contact between your child(ren) and their other parent? e. Ever limited communication between your child(ren) and their other parent? f. Forced your child(ren) to choose between parents? g. Ever told your child(ren) that the other parent does not love them?

APPENDIX C

INFORMED CONSENT

California State University, Stanislaus Online Consent to Participate in Research

California State University, Stanislaus Natalie Conway, [email protected]

Parental Alienation: From Adult Retrospective Recall to Current Parents and Parent Partners

Purpose of the Research The Principal Investigator, Natalie Conway, is a student at California State University, Stanislaus conducting research for a master’s thesis in Social Work.

The purpose of this research is to learn more about parental alienation and the effect of experiencing parental alienation in childhood, as an adult parent or parent partner.

Procedures You can complete an online survey at your computer or on your mobile device. It is estimated your participation will require approximately twenty minutes.

Potential Risks or Discomforts There are no known major risks to you for your participation in this research study. However, you may experience some discomfort from the interview questions asked in this research study. Should you experience any discomfort from the interview questions, please contact Merced County Behavioral Health at 209-381-6800 or Stanislaus County Behavioral Health at 209-558-7494.

Potential Benefits of the Research There are no direct benefits to you from this study, though your responses may benefit social work professionals studying the impact of parental alienation on children and families.

Confidentiality The information collected by the researcher will be protected from all inappropriate disclosure under the law. All information, including survey responses and any written notes, will be kept in a secure location on a password protected device. Only the researcher, and her faculty sponsor, will have access to the data.

The researcher will keep your research data for three years per university protocol. The records will be kept on a password protected computer.

Costs There is no cost to you beyond the time and effort required to complete the procedure(s) listed above.

Compensation There is no compensation for your completion of participation in this research.

There is no anticipated commercial profit related to this research.

Participation and Withdrawal Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or stop participation at any time.

Questions If you have any questions about this research, you may contact the researcher, Natalie Conway, at 209-761-3531 or my faculty sponsor, Dr. Sevaughn Banks at 209-667-3541.

If you have any questions regarding your rights and participation as a research subject, please contact the IRB Administrator by phone (209) 667-3493 or email [email protected].

Consent I have read and understand the information provided above. Clicking the “Next” button below indicates that you are 18 years of age or older and indicates your consent to participate in this survey. Please feel free to print a copy of this consent page to keep for your records.