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Working Paper Series 2016/45/EFE Working Paper Series 2016/45/EFE Destructive and Transformational Leadership in Africa Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries INSEAD, [email protected] Jennifer C. Sexton West Virginia University, [email protected] B. Parker Ellen III Northeastern University, [email protected] The continent of Africa presents a unique context of study for leadership scholars. A vast expanse of land encompassing over 50 countries, territories, and states with over 1.1 billion people, Africa’s diversity of ethnicities, cultures, and languages are both sources of richness and potential conflict. In this article, we explore examples of two leadership extremes within the context of Africa: transformational and destructive leadership. Through foundational work on transformational leadership, as well as relatively newer work on destructive leadership, we explore some of the psychological, situational, and institutional forces that account for the contrasting natures of exemplary transformational and notorious despotic African leaders. Following this contrast, we present countermeasures that can be taken to survive and thrive despite narcissistic leaders, and even the possibility of transforming them before they become truly destructive. Keywords: Destructive Leadership; Transformational Leadership; Narcissism Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2803042 A Working Paper is the author’s intellectual property. It is intended as a means to promote research to interested readers. Its content should not be copied or hosted on any server without written permission from [email protected] Find more INSEAD papers at http://www.insead.edu/facultyresearch/research/search_papers.cfm 1 “The trouble…is simply and squarely a failure of leadership.” ~ Chinua Achebe (from The Fate of Africa) The continent of Africa presents a unique context of study for leadership scholars. A vast expanse of land encompassing over 50 countries, territories, and states with over 1.1 billion people, Africa’s diversity of ethnicities, cultures, and languages are both sources of richness and potential conflict. Although conflict and warfare are not exclusive to Africa, it does prove to be an interesting case (Williams, 2013). In the 1990s, while armed conflicts in other parts of the developing world were in sharp decline, Africa saw an increase in violence and warfare (Williams, 2013). Conflict in Africa is difficult to understand, due to the many complexities that stem from prior colonization by European nations, tribal differences, and religions. As a result, many peace agreements and treaties have been signed by opposing forces, only to dissolve, collapse, or fail (Williams, 2013). The colonization of most of Africa has had important bearings on its development, and the transition from colonization to independence has been driven by its leaders (Williams, 2013). Thus, leadership is an important part of the historical narrative of Africa, and one can understand the current environment by understanding how the leaders of Africa have shaped its story. Emergence from the colonization of Western nations was an important time for Africa, but also a time that demonstrated the best and worst of leadership (Jallow, 2013). At the negative extreme, destructive leaders, marked by narcissism, personalized power motives, and ideologies of hate (Padilla, Hogan, & Kaiser, 2007; Rotberg, 2013), demonstrate the depravity and damage that can be inflicted on innocent people. These leaders take advantage of situations marked by instability and primed for the emergence of a singular and powerful figure, capitalize on followers’ unmet needs, and negatively affect constituents’ quality of life by focusing almost exclusively on their own need for power and control. 2 Conversely, their counterparts at the positive extreme, described as transformational leaders (Bass, 1985), go beyond selfish concerns, offer their people the chance to be creative, to learn, and to nurture their own leadership abilities. Truly transformational leaders instill in others a sense of pride, respect and trust, inspiring a heightened level of commitment, self-sacrifice, motivation, and performance. These leaders demonstrate courage, vulnerability, integrity, and trust – the building blocks of collaboration and connection. They enable healing, restitution and restoration in both givers and receivers, and have an unshakeable belief in excellence and improvement. In this article, we explore examples of these leadership extremes within the context of Africa. Through foundational work on transformational leadership, as well as relatively newer work on destructive leadership, we explore some of the psychological, situational, and institutional forces that account for the contrasting natures of exemplary despotic and transformational African leaders. Following this contrast, we present countermeasures that can be taken to survive and thrive narcissistic leaders, and even the possibility of transforming them before they become truly destructive. The Spirit of Despotism: Destructive Leadership in Africa “African history is filled with experiences of people shooting their way to power and then splintering into factions, like in Somalia and Liberia.” ~ George Ayittey Many associate the concept of leadership with the idea of goodness - so much so that some have considered destructive leadership to be an oxymoronic term (Padilla et al., 2007). Unfortunately, history has shown destructive leadership to be all too real. Too many countries have been ruled by power-hungry, narcissistic leaders-for-life, whose destructive ways lead followers to the edge of the abyss. Destructive leadership has been defined as reflective of 3 dominance and coercion (i.e., rather than persuasion and commitment), as well as a selfish orientation, which results in negative outcomes, including decreased quality of life for constituents (Padilla et al., 2007). The dominance and coercion stems from destructive leaders’ personalized need for power, negative life themes, and ideology of hate, while their selfish orientation is derived from a combination of their charisma, hubris, and narcissism (Padilla et al., 2007). Destructive leaders crave power, and they seek to acquire and use it for personal gain (Conger, 1990; Padilla et al., 2007). This incessant need for control results in coercion in efforts to impose their goals on followers, and often stems from a lack of control experienced in early childhood trauma (O’Connor, Mumford, Clifton, Gessner, & Connelly, 1995; Zaleznik & Kets de Vries, 1985). Further, these childhood difficulties often create an ideology of hate in destructive leaders, which justifies their use of violence (Padilla et al., 2007; Strange & Mumford, 2002). Narcissism, hubris, and destructive leadership. Destructive leaders are known for their narcissism, defined as “a relatively stable individual difference consisting of self-love and inflated self-views” (Campbell, Hoffman, Campbell, & Marchisio, 2011: 269). This extreme self-importance typically manifests in destructive leaders as an autocratic style, demands for unquestioned loyalty, and a hyper-aggressive abuse of power resulting in mistreatment of followers (Campbell et al., 2011; Padilla et al., 2007; Rosenthal & Pittinsky, 2006). Not surprisingly, narcissists are known for a lack of remorse for their self-serving behavior (Exline, Baumeister, Bushman, Campbell, & Finkel, 2004). Although their charisma gives narcissistic leaders a sense of dominance, entitlement, and grandiosity associated with arrogance (Judge, LePine, & Rich, 2006; Padilla et al., 2007), narcissistic leaders also are known to suffer from severe self-esteem issues that makes them fear others are “out to get them” (Campbell et al., 4 2011). Not all charismatic leaders are destructive, but research has demonstrated a link between the two (e.g., Beyer, 1999; Conger, 1990). Specifically, destructive leaders seem able to sell their vision of the future, a key component of charisma. However, that vision typically is focused on the enhancement of their personal power, and often depends on the displacement of rivals (O’Connor et al., 1995). The essential characteristics of narcissism are a need for grandiosity, a persistent search for admiration and a lack of empathy. In short, narcissists are preoccupied with dreams of glory, power, status and prestige. Restless and bored when they are not in the limelight, they are flagrant attention-seekers (American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Kernberg, 1975; Kohut, 1971; Kets de Vries & Perzow, 1991). Because narcissistic leaders overvalue their own worth, they see special treatment as their inalienable right and believe that the rest of the world owes them something. Considering themselves above the rules that others play by, they disregard social conventions and often are arrogant, haughty and disdainful. Determinedly self-involved, these people have difficulty recognizing the desires and subjective experiences and feelings of others. Even when they do recognize a desire contrary to their own, they believe that their own needs take precedence over everyone else’s; hence their interpersonal relationships tend to be exploitative. All these traits tend to alienate those who have to deal with such leaders. Like the mythological figure Janus, narcissism has two faces. Some self-love is required for survival; without concern for the self, the organism dies. On the other hand, too great a preoccupation with the self can become self-destructive. While narcissism
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