EDITOR'S NOTE______Bernard Knox There is a story Bernard Knox tells that illuminates much about the man himself—the soldier and classical scholar whose remarkable career has led to his being chosen as the 1992 Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities. He is the twenty-first recipient of the honor, which is the highest award the federal government bestows for achievement in the humanities. The moment that shaped Knox's life came at the end of World War II in a ruined house in Italy where Knox, behind the lines with the partisans, had scrambled for cover from German fire. "I saw in the debris," he writes, "a handsome, gilt-edged book lying under a patina of brick dust and broken glass. One word of its long title was legible: Maronis. It was a text of Virgil, printed on expensive heavy paper, one of a series of classical texts issued by the Royal Italian Bernard Knox, the 1992 Jefferson Lecturer in Academy to celebrate the greatness of ancient (and modern) Rome; the Humanities, in front of the Center for Hellenic Studies, Washington, D.C. (Photo by the title page bore the improbable heading, in Latin, Iussu Benedicti Teresa Zabala) Mussolini— 'By Order of Benito Mussolini.'" He opened the book at random and stabbed his finger at a line. It was from the first Georgic: "Here right and wrong are reversed; so Humanities many wars in the world, so many faces of evil.... On one side the A bimonthly review published by the East moves to war, on the other, Germany. Neighboring cities tear up National Endowment for the Humanities their treaties and take to arms; the vicious war god rages the world over. "These lines," he continues, "written some thirty years before Chairman: Lynne V. Cheney the birth of Christ, expressed, more directly and passionately than any Director of Communications Policy: modern statement I know of, the reality of the world I was living in: Claire del Real the shell-pocked, mine-infested field, the shattered cities and the starv­ ing population of that Italy Virgil so loved, the misery of the whole world at war." He left the book behind—it wouldn't fit in his pocket— Editor: Mary Lou Beatty but Knox, B.A. Cambridge, '36, promised himself: "If I ever get out of Assistant Editors: James S. Turner this, I'm going back to the classics and study them seriously." Ellen Marsh And he did. Decorated with the Bronze Star and the French Croix Writer-Editor: Robin L. Baur de Guerre, Knox abandoned the military for Yale University, where Editorial Assistant: Amy Lifson he got his doctorate in 1948 and began teaching. He recalls the time: Editorial Board: Marjorie Berlincourt, "As I moved through the ranks of instructor and then assistant profes­ Harold Cannon, George F. Farr, Jr., sor, teaching, for the most part, the classics in translation, the same Donald Gibson, Guinevere Griest, James shock of recognition I had experienced in northern Italy recurred, even Herbert, Thomas Kingston, Jerry Martin, stronger this time, as I read and taught Thucydides in the forties and Carole Watson fifties as the Greek civil war reenacted the heroism and horrors of the Peloponnesian War and, on a global scale, the Cold War aligned the Marketing Director: Joy Evans opposing camps in the tense, fragile balance analyzed so brilliantly in Thucydides' introductory book. It seemed to me that there was no Design: Hausmann Graphic Design, Inc. better key to an understanding of the modern world's power struggles than this unfinished history of a war fought twenty-five hundred years ago between two states whose combined population was less than half a million." The opinions and conclusions expressed in Humanities are those of the authors and do not He was to teach at Yale for thirteen years. In 1961 he left to become necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material the founding director of Harvard University's Center for Hellenic appearing in this publication, except for that Studies in Washington, D.C., created to offer a year of residential already copyrighted, may be freely reproduced. Please notify the editor in advance so that study to young classical scholars from around the world. He retired appropriate credit can be given. Humanities as director in 1985. (ISSN 0018-7526) is published bimonthly for $11 per year by the National Endowment for Among his books are Oedipus at Thebes (1957), Oedipus the King the Humanities, 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, (1959), The Heroic Temper (1964), and Word and Action (1979). Knox's N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506. Second-class most recent book is Essays Ancient and Modern (1989), which won the postage paid at Washington, D.C., and addi­ tional mailing offices. Postmaster: Send address 1990 PEN/Spielvogel-Diamonstein Award for the literary essay. changes to Humanities, NEH, 1100 Pennsylvania —Mary Lou Beatty Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20506. Annual subscription rate: $11.00 domestic", $13.75 foreign. Two years: $22.00, $27.50.

Telephone: 202/786-0435. Fax: 202/786-0240.

MAY/JUNE 1992 HUMANITIES THE MAGAZINE OF THE NATIONAL ENDOWMENT FOR THE HUMANITIES

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Bernard Knox Classical Studies Other Features

4 A Conversation with... 16 Redefining Democracy for 37 Calendar Classicist Bernard Knox and the Modem State 38 Noteworthy NEH Chairman Lynne V. By Paul A. Rahe Cheney discuss how Knox gave Contrary to the ancient Greek up a military career for a life of ideal of common purpose, the scholarship. The Humanities Guide founders of modern liberal democracy viewed factionalism 39 Public Humanities Projects 10 Bernard Knox: as the basis for the modern state. By Wilsonia Cherry An Appreciation 20 In Touch with the Past By Hugh Lloyd-Jones By John McK. Camp II 40 The Annual List of The Jefferson Lecturer's contri­ A look at some recent develop­ NEH-Supported Books butions to classical studies. ments in Greek archaeology. and Museum Catalogues 12 A Light in Darkness 23 Worshipping Athena 46 Deadlines By Garry Wills By James S. Turner A well-known historian recalls A forthcoming exhibition on studying under Knox at Yale. classical Athens's great religious festival, the Panathenaia. 14 Excerpts: From the Books of Bernard Knox 26 Ellison's Modem Odysseus

Passages on myth and history, By William W. Cook on Athens as a Sophoclean hero, Comparing Ellison's Invisible on the Oedipus paradigm, and Man and Homer's Odyssey. on the lasting power of ancient Greek texts. 29 Myth in Pictures By Jocelyn Penny Small Images from the lexicon of classical mythology.

HUMANITIES 3 A Conversation with ... BERNARD KNOX

THE EARLY SCHOOL DAYS

Lynne V. Cheney: I think that our readers would be interested in know­ ing the story of your English school­ ing, and how you fell in love with Greek even though the school wasn't offering it. Bernard Knox: Well, I was at the stage that some of us go through where I was trying to learn all the languages in the world, including Russian, from books. Cheney: How old were you? Knox: I was in grammar school. I must have been twelve or thirteen. There was a secondhand bookshop across from the school which I frequented during lunch and where I spent my lunch money. I chanced on a book called Dr. Smith's First Greek Book, which is an old Victorian book—I think about 1880—and got fascinated by it because everything is so complicated. For example, in Latin, you have the active and the passive voices; in Greek, you have another one, the middle. You don't have just indicative and sub­ junctive; you have the optative, and so on and so on. The geometrical pro­ gression of forms is immense, and for some reason it's fascinating. Well every now and then, the teacher couldn't think of anything to say, so he would announce, "All right, study period," and you could do whatever When NEH Chairman you liked. Everybody did something or other, and the master went around Lynne V. Cheney talked patrolling to make sure people weren't recently with Bernard Knox, copying out obscene texts. It was quite a business, copying out something that the 1992 Jefferson Lecturer in the Humanities, purported to be from Lady Chatterley's Lover and another one from The Well the topics ranged from his exploits in war to his of Loneliness. years as a classical scholar. Knox was a distin­ Cheney: Oh, Radclyffe Hall. Knox: Yes. Years later I discovered guished professor at Yale University for thirteen that the passages we were copying years and the first director of the Center for Hel­ weren't actually in the book. The book is very pale compared with this text lenic Studies in Washington, D.C. Among his that was being circulated in school. five books are The Heroic Temper and Essays Cheney: How funny. Knox: Anyway, I got so bound up in Ancient and Modern. this Greek that I forgot about the silent figure pacing along, checking every­ severe. But if you passed that, then scholars who dealt with the text before one. Pretty soon a hand fell on my you could stay in school for two more him, and the things he says are so shoulder and a voice said, "What are years and prepare for the university, wounding but so funny. It turns out you doing, Knox?" and he confiscated so I did that. Then the man who that after his death, people found he the whole thing. I thought, I'm in tutored me in Greek, who came from had a notebook in which he put down trouble now. But apparently when Cambridge, said, "I think you might horrible things to say that suddenly oc­ he got back to the masters' Common get a university scholarship." So they curred to him while he was having a Room, someone said, "That's Greek," sent me up to St. John's, which was his walk. He was really something terrible. and the Latin master was very inter­ college, and I passed the exam. In fact, In his texts in the library at Trinity, ested. He said to me, "Would you like they gave me the biggest scholarship which were given to the library, you me to tutor you?" And I said, "Well, they had, one hundred pounds, and can find every now and then little yes." What could I say? But I did that was a lot of money in those days. marginal notes. There's an edition of want to. Then there was the wonder­ The London County Council kicked the Agamemnon of Aeschylus with a ful question of what I'd give up. in another one hundred or so if you handwritten note at the line where the Cheney: Please let it be algebra. got one of these things. So I was watchman starts talking about seeing (laughter) really in very fine shape. They were the stars—he's a sentry on the palace very generous. roof. In this particular edition that Knox: I couldn't get out of that one. Housman had, the editor had said, It was chemistry, which is a good thing "This shows some kind of knowledge because I was in trouble in chemistry. of astrology." Housman wrote in the I had invented a thing called the LIFE AT CAMBRIDGE margin, "Aeschylus knew as much of Battle of the Nile, which consisted of astrology as he did of Christianity or taking pipettes, these long tubes which Cheney: Cambridge is a wonderful the pox"—which was perfectly typi­ are on a wooden stand, getting pieces place to be. cal of Housman. He was quite a char­ of paper and putting the pieces of Knox: Marvelous place to be. acter. Cambridge was full of wonder­ paper on them like sails, and then fill­ Cheney: Wittgenstein was there when ful characters. ing the sink and floating them so they you were there? were like battleships of the eighteenth Knox: Oh, yes. He was in Trinity, century. Then we got some sodium— the college just next door, and I had I don't know where we got that from— a friend who lived on the floor just THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR and threw it in the water and created above Wittgenstein and just under­ explosions. The high point of the Battle Cheney: Did you fight in the Spanish neath Housman, the poet. of the Nile came when the chemistry civil war after you had received your master came back into the room. I had Cheney: Oh, my word. Did people degree? like Wittgenstein and Housman con­ to admit that I had invented this thing, Knox: Yes. I was a B.A. tribute to the intellectual life of Cam­ though everybody else was playing Cheney: So then you went off to the bridge, or did they just tend to their with it. From then on in chemistry, civil war, and then you taught for a own pursuits? what I did was go to the back of the while? class and write out the chemistry text­ Knox: Wittgenstein had a great influ­ Knox: No. When I got back from there, book, starting always with page one. ence. He had what we would call I was in pretty bad shape. It was getting monotonous. graduate students, and Housman was Cheney: You were shot, weren't you? Cheney: Was it British schooling that the same. Housman occasionally gave Knox: Yes, through the neck and aroused your curiosity about languages, a lecture, and when he did, everybody shoulder. or was it your home life? went because they thought it was go­ ing to be something wonderful, and it Cheney: And the two men you went Knox: I don't know what it was. We would be as dry as dust, deliberately, to Spain with were killed. did have a very good Latin teacher. I so that people had to start leaving in Knox: Yes, the other two, they were also had a very good French teacher. the middle of it. His very last lecture both killed. We were all, of course, Cheney: But then Greek was the lan­ is famous. Everybody came—the press wildly left wing. In fact, I guess tech­ guage that fascinated you. came from London—and he talked nically we were Communists. Knox: Yes, and they didn't have it as about some obscure text or passage in a regular course. I was tutored and Juvenal, I think it was, that drove them read a great deal, buying more Greek all up the wall. He was grinning to books, which were very cheap. Appar­ himself a ir the time. ently a great many people had them Cheney: You've done, in your essays, at school and were throwing them a review of a new book that makes away or selling them for a few pennies. him sound much more interesting I eventually had to take what they call than I was ever taught he was in matriculation, at the age of about 16, graduate school. I guess. That's why I needed the alge­ Knox: Well, if you ever want to read bra because you had to do mathemat­ an example of English invective at its ics, history, a language ... best, just read the preface to his edition Cheney: Is matriculation an exam? of a very obscure Latin poet called Knox: It was an exam set by the Manilius. It's in English, for once. It London authorities, and it was quite is mainly an attack on various German Cambridge, 1934.

HUMANITIES Cheney: In that everyone who fought education and was having a high old The only reason I had any money at on your side was labeled that way by time. We just fell madly in love with all was, there was a wonderful man— the other? each other. There's nothing else to be a German Jewish refugee and his Knox: Actually, the Spaniards issued said. She broke off with this chap, who whole family who had managed to us a Spanish Communist party card. was in the foreign office and destined get out and were coming to America. I think I lost it, by the way. But that's for a brilliant career, who'd been to Katz, he was called. He heard my story the aegis we came in under. John this country and visited her parents and he gave me, I think it was ten dol­ Cornford was very much a Commu­ and they highly approved of him. lars, something like that. I tried to get nist, a very devoted one, and a very She had an awful lot of explaining to his address and he said, "I don't have brilliant man. He was killed. do when she got back, I must say. We an address yet." I've never seen him since, but it was a wonderful gesture. Cheney: I'm sorry. He was one with sort of hung around together until Munich. And when that happened— whom you w ent. . . Cheney: Then you found a job teach­ what was that, summer of '38? ing after you got here. Knox: He was the son of Francis Cornford, the Regius Professor of Cheney: Yes. Knox: Yes. I got a job teaching in a Greek, very famous in England. John Knox: Her parents sent her a telegram private school in Greenwich, Connecti­ was, I think almost everybody agreed, saying, "You'd better come back at cut, of all places, a progressive school perhaps the most brilliant man at once," because it did look as though for boys and girls, very progressive. Cambridge in that year, as a historian. there was going to be a war. So she Cheney: This is the Auntie Mame It is hard, of course, for anyone who went back and she said to me, "Why period of American education. You wasn't there at the time to understand don't you come to America? It's the know the play? the appeal that communism had for best thing you can do." I was con­ Knox: Yes. Well, this one was really young people in the England of the vinced at this point, after what hap­ wild because you had to do what the early thirties. You have to realize that pened at Munich, that is, the total kids wanted. the Depression had been hanging on betrayal of the Czechs, I thought this Cheney: Did they want to learn Latin? for years, and it really looked as if capi­ government was never going to fight Is that what you were teaching? talism had foundered, gone belly up. Hitler and was just going to give way Knox: Yes. I had a terrible time. I an­ Even Harold MacMillan, who later all the way, and I didn't want any nounced the course in Latin. About became a Conservative prime minis­ part of that, so I thought I would like ten girls turned up. There were very ter, wrote, looking back on those years, to go to America. I got an immigrant few boys in the school—a progressive that "something like a revolutionary visa, which was pretty easy in those school for girls and boys wouldn't have situation had developed." Also, the days because the English quota wasn't a football team—didn't. But about ten Communist partieg had given up— filled at all. My poor bride-to-be had girls turned up, and I started telling just for the time, it later turned out— to go to her father and say, "Look, them about the mysteries of the first their revolutionary program and were Dad, I'm not going to marry John, I'm declension—agricola, agricolae, agri- actively organizing a broad front of going to marry somebody you haven't colam, and so on. And I gave them people and parties opposed to fascism. met called Bernard, and he's going to the verb amo, amas, amat, and showed That was the real reason so many come to this country and you have to them how to say "I am in love with people went to fight in Spain, the fact sign this form." The form, of course, the farmer"—Amo agricolam. I said, that Hitler and Mussolini had backed was an undertaking that this person "Learn those declensions and learn Franco with troops and arms from would never become a public charge. the conjugation of the present indica­ the very beginning, and a Franco vic­ Cheney: Saying he would support tive of amo and of the other verbs in tory would have been one more step you if all else failed, (laughter) the first lesson and the other nouns, toward a fascist Europe. Knox: He just said to her, "Do you and then come back and we'll make Cheney: So you came back and you really love this man?" and she said Latin conversation." Four came back. had to spend some time healing. yes. He said all right. I thought, "Hmmm, one more session like this and I'm out of a job." So I Knox: Yes, and looking around for a Cheney: What a good father. job. For a while I ran a left-wing book­ invented something called Latin poker. Knox: A good father, yes. shop in Cambridge. The man running I've often thought I ought to have it wanted to go to Spain, so he needed patented it. I made little cards which a replacement. He survived, I'm hap­ said agricola, agricolae, and this, that, py to say. But I made such a mess of ARRIVING IN AMERICA and the other, and gave them a few the shop, I finally turned it over to more. I gave them the second declen­ somebody else and just drifted around Knox: Anyway, I came over in early sion—-filius, filium, and so on. for a while doing odd jobs. '39, and all I had in my suitcase was Cheney: Oh, I see how this is going to Cheney: You were about twenty-two a typewriter, a Cambridge College work. And soon you've got a sentence. then, twenty-three. scarf—you know, those things about Knox: Well, if you got just two words Knox: Yes, about that, twenty-three. six feet long, which I still have—and in a grammatical relationship that you Then I met my wife, who is an Amer­ not much else. I had a little money, could translate, like filius agricolae— ican, whom I'd known at Cambridge but I got in some bad company on the you knew it meant "son of the boat, a couple of English drinking before. She was an undergraduate farmer"—you had a pair. You might there. She was then engaged to a companions, and one night my wallet have two pair. And then you might friend of mine. She was on a fellow­ was stolen. have threes if you could produce a ship from the Rockefeller Foundation Cheney: Oh, dear. grammatical, meaningful phrase. If to find out something about English Knox: So I really arrived in bad shape. you got three, you got a full house.

6 MAY/JUNE 1992 hts u eea Zabala Teresa buPhotos

. . . I invented something called Latin poker. I've often thought I ought to have patented it. I made little cards which said agricola, agricolae, and this, that, and the other .... Well, it really worked, and they were very enthusiastic. Of course they wanted to play for money.

You would have a straight flush if you He said, "What you need is a copy of But I consulted British friends, who had five. the Vulgate," and I said, "That's right." said, "Look, nothing's happening. Cheney: That's a wonderful idea. He said, "How many do you need?" Wait." Then when the collapse came, Knox: Well, it really worked, and I said, "Well, at the moment I need I was told, "Look, every single square they were very enthusiastic. Of course, about eight, and I'll return them all at foot of shipping space we have is for they wanted to play for money. They the end of the year." And he said, "I the food and ammunition. They don't were all quite well off. The school's think I can get them for you." So we need men." began reading that. It was extraordi­ fees were very high. So I said, "No, Cheney: The collapse? we can't do that, it's illegal." But we nary. They raced ahead. They would Knox: The French collapse in '40, played for match sticks or something. come back. They got through Matthew, when England was in danger of inva­ And pretty soon they were galloping and some of them were reading Reve­ sion. By this time, by the time the along and got a good grip of the lan­ lation, and that's rather a wild text. Battle of Britain was over, it was clear guage. And then they said, "Why don't Cheney: That's hard in English. they were not going to be invaded. I we read something?" and I thought, Knox: Then we sent them up to the relaxed, and I began thinking, "Amer­ "What do we do now?" because any­ Connecticut State Latin Exam at ica is certainly going to get into this thing you read in Latin is pretty diffi­ Hartford, and they all got distinction. war. Mr. Roosevelt is trying his cult. It's the word order and so on. I Cheney: Was this at the end of their damnedest to get us in, and I'm pretty thought, I've got to get some simple first year? sure he will soon. So I would like to text that we can start with. Usually Knox: The end of the first year we be an American, and the best thing what you do at this stage is use a did the Vulgate. Then we did Ovid. for me to do would be to fight in the made-up text. There's a famous one American army, so I'll just relax." called Fabulae Faciles—"Easy Stories." Cheney: I was just going to guess that But they are so unbelievably boring. that's whom you'd take up next. But They're the tales of Jason and so on, which Ovid? but told in such a stiff way. I thought, Knox: Well, we did bits and pieces. JOINING THE ARMY there is one text in Latin written by a Some of the Heroides—the letters of great Latin writer, which is very sim­ heroines to their heroes, Medea to Cheney: You got in as a British citizen? Jason, Penelope to Ulysses, and so ple, and it's the translation of the Knox: I was still a British subject. Bible by St. Jerome. on. They're great fun. And then bits Being married to an American gave Cheney: How interesting. and pieces of the Amoves, though I me the equivalent of first papers, as had to choose very carefully. But it Knox: It's very simple and meant to they call them, and when I was com­ was very nice. be, so that it wasn't like Ciceronian missioned, which was about three rhetoric. It was meant so that a person Cheney: So you taught for what, a months, four months—I had about who could only just read could read couple of years? four months as a private—I was still a this. Very often the word order is Knox: Yes, until just after Pearl Har­ British subject. In fact, I was natural­ more like English than Latin. And I bor. What had happened since, of ized in England. I was on an air base thought, but where can I get a copy of course, was that the war had started there. The adjutant called me in one that? And then I thought, well, I'll go in Europe and when this happened, day and he said, "You've got orders to the local Catholic church. I went • I said to my wife, "I really ought to go to report to replacement depot such there and talked to the priest and told back to England," and she said, "The and such." It was a place over near him what my problem was. He said, hell you will!" She said, "I've gone to Gloucestershire. And I said, "What "I think that's a very interesting idea." all this trouble to get you over here." for?" The replacement depot is a dread

HUMANITIES 7 word. It means you're sort of fired going to hang you, and they know from this outfit. You're just sent to they are before they try you. It comes replacement depot, and anyone who from the period of the border wars needs warm bodies will take you. between the English and the Scots. You may end up in cooks and bakers Jedburgh was the English base, so to school, God knows. He said, "No, speak; if they picked up some Scots­ no, it's not that. You're to be natural­ man they thought was a guerrilla, ized." So he said, "Here's a couple of that was the end of him. things you might look at on the train," Anyway, there were equal num­ and he gave me a copy of the Consti­ bers of English, French, and American tution of the United States and the "Jeds," as we came to be called, and Declaration of Independence and he some Dutch and Belgian, a small con­ said, "You'd better read up on these, tingent. The Americans had been Limey. You've got things to learn." recruited mostly from paratrooper Cheney: So how long was it, then, battalions. Not many of them, unfor­ before you were dropped behind lines tunately, spoke French, so I was sup­ into France? posed to help them with that. They Knox: That wasn't until the summer also needed instructors for the French, of '44, so all this happened in '43. I none of whom spoke English, of course. was on the air base. My job was to be First Lieutenant Knox, Cambridgeshire I was taken on as an instructor and B-17 base, England; 1943. defense officer, and I had to make the went up to this beautiful place, Milton defense plan for the place—I've still Hall near Peterborough. It was orig­ got a copy of it and all the attachments inally the sixteenth-century country and maps—and train machine gun­ home of some great aristocrat. Like ners in case we needed anti-aircraft on Savile Row. It was beautifully cut. nearly all these great English country machine guns and this sort of thing. A Princeton grad, I found out later. houses, it had been turned over to the But it was pretty clear that we were And he had a young woman, who army for training purposes. We had never going to be attacked and I was was clearly a secretary, who also was a grenade pit on the grounds and a getting very upset. I kept going to the beautifully dressed; this was obviously place where you could fire bazookas adjutant, Major West—Westie, we some high-class business. So he said— at old tanks and so on. called him. I said, "Westie, you've I was still a first lieutenant—he said, As an instructor, I was part of the got all these cables that come in ask­ "Lieutenant, I understand you speak permanent party, and it meant I lived ing for people. Don't you hear of any­ fluent French," and I said, "Yes, sir." in a very luxurious suite. The Jeds all thing interesting?" He said, "Well, He said, "Miss King, carry on." Miss lived like animals, ten in a room. There why not see what I can find." So one King said, "II parait que vous parlez came the time when I thought I would day he came in and he said, "I've got couramment franqais.” So we talked like to go on this operation, and I made something that sounds as if you'd like for about ten minutes. And then she that known. Next thing you know, a it." He said, "They want men to start said, "He's okay, Major." He said, sergeant came along and came into operations in a new theater." I said, "Very well, Miss King, you may go." my luxurious room and said, "Have "That sounds like fun." "Shall I put I mean, the whole thing was sheer you packed your things, sir?" and I you in?" I said, "Yes." Two days later Hollywood. It was the Office of said, "Oh, so soon?" "Oh yes, sir, yes." I got a call from wing headquarters. Strategic Services. So I packed and I went down to live A good friend of mine was there. He Cheney: Was everybody in the OSS with the animals. said, "What the hell have you been rich? Did this account for the dress? Cheney: Is that right? doing, Bernie?" I said, "What's the Knox: A lot of them were. OSS people Knox: Not only was I a Limey in matter?" He said, "They're sending said it meant "Oh So Social," because American uniform, but I had been you to Iceland to build an air base, everybody who was anybody was in it, one of the upper class, so I had quite for God's sake." So I said, "Oh, God, you see. I mean, Evangeline Bruce, all a time of initiation. But we became please get me off of that." And he these ladies, Mrs. Dillon Ripley. Any­ very good friends and still are. Bill crossed my name off and put down way, he explained to me what we were Colby is one of them, Lou Conein some other character's name. going to do. Originally they took me on another. Have you heard of him? After that, I was quiet for a while. just as an instructor. The Jedburghs, Cheney: No, I don't know that name. But then I got restive and started on as they were called—the code name Westie again and I said, "Try again." of the operation was Jedburgh. Knox: He was a legend in Vietnam, He said, "Remember what happened very famous. And he'd been in the Cheney: That's such a funny word, last time." The next one said, "Men Foreign Legion, of all things. When Jedburgh. with fluency in European languages," the war started in '39, he was in Kansas so I said, "Okay, put me in." And I Knox: Jedburgh. It's a town in the City or something like that, and he got a call to go to London and to report north of England, near the Scottish wanted to get into the war. He went to an address off Grosvenor Square. border. up to Canada and tried to join the I went into a room about as big as this Cheney: I just didn't understand Canadian Air Force, and they actually one, and for wartime London,-it was what this odd word was. held on to him for a few days till they luxuriously appointed. The American Knox: Why they chose that, I don't discovered that he was only seventeen. major sitting there was dressed in a know. In England they say if you have They threw him out and he went to uniform that must have been made a Jedburgh trial, that means they're New York and went to the French

8 MAY/JUNE 1992 He gave me a copy of the Constitution of the United States and the Declaration of Independence and he said, "You'd better read up on these, Limey. You've got things to learn."

consulate and said, "I'd like to join tured you. If it was a regular German you know, that great massacre at the French Foreign Legion," and they outfit, you were probably all right. If Malmedy. That was an SS outfit. There said, "Oh, yes, wonderful," so he did. it was the SS, not much hope. were about 120 Americans just shot Then what happened was, when we Cheney: Uniform or no uniform made after they surrendered. got into the war, all American citizens no difference. Cheney: And they were all in uniform. serving in allied armies were auto­ Knox: They'd just blow you away. The Knox: All in uniform and captured matically transferred to the American way they did our people in Belgium— continued on page 31 army, and so he was. Cheney: And by this time he'd picked up a little French. Knox: He had picked up the kind of French they talk in the Legion, which is to say, the lowest kind of foul slang you can imagine, freely mixed with Arabic. I used to talk to him just to get this stuff. He was quite a card. Another one that was transferred to us was Stuart Alsop, Joe's brother. Cheney: Is that right? Knox: He was in the British army. He'd gone into the British army as an officer and was in North Africa. Cheney: And then you were dropped.

BEHIND THE LINES IN FRANCE

Knox: We were dropped in teams of three, one British, one French, one American, or one Dutch or Belgian, as the case might be. And I had a regu­ lar French officer who'd been what they called un enfant de caserne—born in the barracks—and spent most of his life in North Africa in an outfit called the Tirailleurs Marocains, which is a crack French force there. Cheney: So they dropped you in, and you knew, being dropped in, that you were going to have to fight your way out. I mean, there was no way out. Knox: There was no way of parachut­ ing yourself out. We were in uniform, and this was one of the strange things about it. Cheney: This is part of the code of war. Knox: We didn't know whether that would actually work. In fact, one of our people who was captured was sent off to a concentration camp and never really recovered. He commit­ ted suicide a few years later. Others were shot. It depended on who cap­ Identification document issued by the Italian partisans.

HUMANITIES 9 Bernard Knox: a n APPRECIATION

BY HUGH LLOYD-JONES

e o p l e o f t e n p o in t to the kind of religion, which may indeed abundance of popularizations account for the actual nature of the P about the ancient world as world and human life more easily proof of widespread interest in the than can the worship of a single god subject, but at no time since the Ren­ who is entirely good and benevolent. aissance has knowledge of the ancient The student of ancient Greek has the languages been so rare. This makes it additional advantage of being able to exceedingly important that the work appreciate one of the greatest of all of interpreting ancient literature and literatures, which as Goethe observed religion to the modern educated reader retains its power over the reader be done as well as possible; for the because it is concerned with problems value of an acquaintance with that that are not likely to alter while human literature and that religion has never nature and the conditions of human been greater than it is now. life remain the same. Scholars are now coming to realize For more than thirty years, Bernard that the Greeks had a religion, though Knox has been the leading interpreter it was not like Christianity, and that of Greek literature to the educated Greek polytheism, modified by its audience in the United States. That is belief in one controlling god, accounted a position requiring an unusual combi­ for the universe in a way not more nation of qualities and an unusual unreasonable than that of other, more kind of experience, which he most for­ dogmatic systems. This religion did tunately possesses. He is a fine scholar, not have one answer and one only to with a wide knowledge of Greek liter­ most ethical problems; thus its believ­ ature and a delicate feeling for the ers were able to invent tragedy, which Greek language. He has also an excel­ had been an element in their literature lent knowledge of modern literature in long before they invented the kind of several languages, something that was drama that bears that name. Since the indispensable if he was to perform time of Goethe, there have been people his task. Finally, he is not a cloistered who have seen the advantages of that scholar who has spent his whole career in universities, but a man who has Sir Hugh Lloyd-Jones was Regius Pro­ wide experience of the harsh realities fessor of Greek at Oxford University from of life. Any account of him should 1960 to 1989. His most recent books are start with a mention of that experience, the Oxford text of Sophocles, Sophoclea, which he himself has admirably des­ and Academic Papers. cribed in the introduction to his Essays

MAY/JUNE 1992 Ancient and Modern (Johns Hopkins task was to dispatch three-man teams his familiarity with European life, he University Press, 1989). to arm, train, and direct the activities was the ideal person to deal with the Bernard Macgregor Walker Knox is of the French Maquis. For some time foreign scholars who spent a year as of Scottish ancestry; he is descended Knox was an instructor, but in July junior fellows of the center; he built up from those Macgregors who were so 1944 he was parachuted into France its library and used his wide range of formidable that at one time the very and took an active part in the opera­ contacts to arrange interesting and use of their name was banned, as read­ tions of the Maquis in support of the provocative lectures. Meanwhile, he ers of Scott's Rob Roy and Stevenson's invading forces. His citation for the brought out a steady stream of books Catriona will remember. But he was Croix de Guerre mentions "arms drops and reviews. brought up in London, where an ec­ which enabled four thousand men of Knox is a born teacher, and it is re­ centric schoolmaster, in defiance of the Maquis to take part in the libera­ grettable that he was lost to university the tradition of French teaching in tion of Brittany," and Knox was in the teaching at an early age. But he often England, taught him French in such thick of the fighting when the Maquis visited universities to lecture, which a way that he could actually speak it harassed the German Second Para­ he did with notable success. In 1975 and pronounce it properly, something chute Division as they moved against he was induced to spend a term at that turned out to have great impor­ the Americans and attacked them Oxford as the Nellie Wallace Lecturer; tance in his later life. He also studied again as they fell back on Brest. Later the bequest establishing this post en­ Greek and Latin to such effect that he he was transferred to the Italian front, ables the Faculty of Literae Humaniores won a scholarship at St. John's College, where his French and Latin enabled to invite for a term a scholar of special Cambridge, where he matriculated in him to pick up the language rapidly, distinction from a foreign country. 1933, the year Hitler came to power. and where during the Gothic Line and Knox chose to lecture about modern He thoroughly enjoyed Cambridge Po Valley campaigns he again took interpretations of Greek mythology; and profited by the teaching and part in heavy fighting. In more than he attracted large audiences from start friendship of a distinguished scholar, one way this Italian phase of the war to finish, and his lectures were not the Rev. M. P. Charlesworth; but pre­ had an important influence on Knox's only highly instructive but immensely occupation with political events pre­ life. He and his wife got to know Italy entertaining. He did not spare the vented him from concentrating on well and managed to arrange that their ridiculous excesses of Freudian inter­ his university studies in the way such son Macgregor should attend an Italian preters, and while he was describing a person would be expected to do. and not an American school; the con­ these, some of his hearers were rolling Under the influence of his friend John sequence of Mac's experience in Italy on the floor, unable to control their Cornford, the gifted son of the eminent was that he has become a distin­ laughter. Unfortunately the kindness scholar Francis Cornford and of the guished authority on modern Italian of his heart has so far prevented him poet Frances Cornford, nee Darwin, he history. Also, taking cover in a ruined from publishing these lectures, which was drawn into left-wing politics and house during a battle, Knox came those who were fortunate enough to the championship of the republican upon a handsome edition of Virgil. hear have long been impatient to see cause in the civil war in Spain. After This incident played an important in print. His presence in Oxford gave taking his degree in 1936 he left for part in his career and presaged his special pleasure to his hosts; at first Spain to fight against Franco with the return to the classics. In September Mrs. Knox was with him, and they International Brigade. Knox took 1945 he was demobilized; in addition stayed in the Randolph Hotel, but part in the gallant defense of Madrid to the Croix de Guerre a Vordre de later Mrs. Knox returned to America, by an ill-armed republican force, in Varmee (avec palmes), he had won the and her husband moved into rooms which his friend Cornford was killed Bronze Star with cluster. He now took in Corpus Christi College, where he and he himself was seriously wounded. up graduate work at Yale, where in made a splendid contribution to the Returning to England, he drifted from 1948 he obtained his doctorate with a conversation of the Common Room. one job to another, but fortunately dissertation on "Traditional Structure Most of Knox's learned work is con­ renewed his acquaintance with Betty and Formula in Tragic Narrative cerned with Greek tragedy, and in par­ Baur (the gifted novelist Bianca Van Speech." He taught at Yale till 1961; in ticular with Sophocles, the tragedian Orden), an American whom he had that year the Center for Hellenic Stud­ who has attracted the most interest met at Cambridge, and they became ies in Washington, D.C., was opened. during the last fifty years. He has writ­ engaged. He followed her to the On land given by Mrs. Truxton Beale, ten two books on Sophocles, Oedipus United States, and in April of 1939 and with an endowment set up by the at Thebes (Yale University Press, 1957) they were married in New Jersey. For Old Dominion Foundation, a group and The Heroic Temper (No. 35 in the two years Knox taught at a preparatory of handsome buildings was erected, series of Sather Lectures, University school in Connecticut; but when the comprising a library, a director's resi­ of California Press, 1964). In the latter, United States entered the war, he man­ dence, and quarters for the seven or Knox shows how each surviving play aged to get permission to join the army. so junior fellows, some from the United of Sophocles contains at least one He was soon commissioned, and States and some from Europe, who heroic character, who, without neces­ after a spell as defense officer on an were to spend a year each working in sarily being the "hero" of the play in American air base in England he these agreeable surroundings. Knox the sense of being its central figure answered an appeal for officers who was appointed to be its first director, upon whom all else centers, is braver, could speak foreign languages and a post he held till he retired in 1984. stronger, and more intelligent than was transferred to an allied unit whose With his command of languages and the common run of humanity, but

HUMANITIES suffers from the corresponding faults of pride and obstinacy. Knox also contributed a valuable introduction and notes to the volume The Three Theban Plays (Viking Penguin, 1984), which contains Robert Fagles's translation of the Oedipus Tyrannus, the Oedipus at Colonus, and the Antigone. A LIGHT IN To Fagles's recently published trans­ lation of the Iliad (Viking Penguin, 1991), he contributed an excellent in­ troduction, which gives a clear and DARKNESS accurate summary of the present state of the Homeric Question, dealing with the dispute over the date, author­ ship, and composition of the works attributed to the poet. He did valuable work as one of the two editors of the Cambridge History of Greek Literature Caricature of Knox the professor; from the Yale Daily (1985), making excellent contribu­ News, 1954. tions of his own, particularly his chap­ ) ter on "Books and Readers in the Greek World." But Knox's finest academic work is to be found in Word and Action: Essays on the Ancient Theater (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979). It contains three essays that complement his book about the Oedipus Tyrannus, with its sometimes-disputed thesis that Oedipus symbolizes the dynamic Athens of the fifth century B.C., and three essays on other Greek plays— the Ajax of Sophocles and the Medea and Hippolytus of Euripides—that are of high quality; so is the introductory essay, on "Myth in Greek Tragedy." In Essays Ancient and Modern he again deals with the issue of the Oedipus Tyrannus in "The Freedom of Oedi­ pus," perhaps the best of all his essays. The volume contains as well a number of reviews of books about antiquity that are not only beautifully written but often make original contributions to the topics they discuss. His writing about the classics is refreshingly free from humbug and pomposity; he has BY GARRY WILLS written that "most productions of Greek tragedies, though I should be the last person to say so, are a crash­ ing bore." N 1958, I ARRIVED at Yale's classics department just Knox confronts the modern world as an era was ending—the time of the excavations at in this volume of essays with the same Dura-Europos, the ancient Roman frontier city on the sense of brio. He writes about the EuphratesI River. The department's resources had long Spanish civil war not only with the been mobilized to interpret the finds from that Syrian authority of a participant but with the "dig," artifacts now in the Yale museum. Brad Welles, suc­ power of making the reader under­ cessor to Rostovtzeff in this effort, was head of the depart­ stand what it must have been like to ment; promising graduate students, on the Greek side, have been there. In these contempo­ were coaxed into fields useful for completing the project. rary essays he writes about modern poets—Housman, Siegfried Sassoon, Garry Wills is adjunct professor of history at Northwestern Uni­ Auden—as sensitively as he writes versity. His nezo book, Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That about ancient ones. □ Remade America, will appear in June.

12 MAY/JUNE 1992 Even Greek literature was more valued if it came from the was interested in Euripides in the same way that people Roman period. I had a course from Welles on religious were interested, back then, in Jean Anouilh. Drama was, syncretism in Plutarch. He thought the subject would ap­ for him, a way of approaching the deepest mysteries. peal to me, since I had been in a Jesuit seminary. Today I Yet there was nothing dramatic about him in the class­ would find the subject fascinating; but then it left me cold. room. I heard he was a great undergraduate lecturer, but Literature as such was so neglected that Howard Porter I knew him in the graduate seminar, where he avoided all had to commute from Columbia to teach authors as dis­ professorial eccentricities. On that level, he could not parate as Homer and Horace. An old philological preju­ compete with Welles, who brought his large labrador dice against "appreciation" made establishing the text the retriever to class. In those days before air-conditioning, only proper task for scholars. Basil Gildersleeve had pigeons would stroll along the indoor window sills— mocked mere literary critics who, like Matthew Arnold, making, as the labrador erupted from under the seminar first arrange a poem and then arrange themselves in front table, for noisy lunges and feathery escapes, intermitting of it, reacting. A.E. Housman said you either get poetry's archaeological niceties with dumb-chum melodrama. frisson or you don't; but real classicists then spit on their Knox's seminar method was no different from that used hands and go back to work, rooting out corruptions in the by our other professors. Each student was responsible for transmission of the unreadable Manilius. The highest honor a certain number of lines in, say, a play of Euripides. After one could aspire to was getting one's own emendations discussing the difficulties in the text, one answered ques­ accepted in the standard text. In such an atmosphere, there tions from other students—some trying to trap or upstage was something shameful or embarrassing about actually the reciter, since a rather grim competitiveness was en­ loving a Greek poet. couraged. I was once alone on the top floor of Phelps during the lunch hour, where I observed—unobserved he department would later swing to the other myself—a student go into the seminar room and read extreme, under Eric Havelock—but the prejudices of from their notes what the reciters would be saying, so he Tthe fifties made me choose for my dissertation could prepare his response. I felt so crawly, embarrassed director, not a congenial soul like Howard Porter or at having seen it, that I slipped down the stairs (avoiding Bernard Knox, but Christopher Dawson, who had been the noisy elevator) before he could come out and see that extremely suspicious of my "subjective impressions" in a he was seen. course on Hellenistic poetry. I figured that I would have to work harder to convince Dawson (the American classi­ nox encouraged no such games. He wanted to get cist, not the British historian) of my view on Aeschylus; at the humane concerns of the artist, the dramatic and his wary scrutiny would armor me for the criticism I point of any scene, the function of characters within could expect in defending the thesis. (Actually, I prob­ Kthe playwright's vision. He was quick to pick up on, or to ably exaggerated Dawson's opposition to "literariness." introduce, critical notions outside the classicists' restricted He was not only very cordial and helping as I wrote, but a orbit of that day. I remember his eyes lighting up when I generous booster after I left the department.) quoted a line about poetry's "meaning more than it means Yet the truly encouraging professors, for those who to mean." He wanted to know the source (it is Chesterton). thought of the classic figures as great authors, were Porter On the other hand, he was satirical in his treatment of and Knox; and of these Knox had the more romantic image. critical pretentiousness—he gently mocked my use of one He had been a warrior as well as a scholar. Others on the phrase, "verbal tactics." And he could tease one for one's faculty had been in World War II, but mainly at intelli­ failures. In the written doctoral exam, the sight-reading gence desks. Knox had parachuted behind enemy lines. text I failed to recognize was from the Acts of the Apostles. Besides, he had fought in the Spanish civil war. Campus He asked how a Jesuit seminarian could miss that pas­ McCarthyites like Willmoore Kendall, of the political sage, of all things. He could not know that we had read science department, still muttered doubts about his sound­ the Bible always in Jerome's Latin. I bought my first ness on communism. Greek New Testament after leaving graduate school. More important to us, Knox was interested in literature His main gift to us was himself, the living proof that the of many sorts and many ages. He was as much at home classics could be broadening, not narrowing; that learning with the New Critics in the English department as with did not have to dwindle into pedantry; that the long per- the grammarians of Phelps Hall. He had been one of the durance of the great works of the past is evidence of life, first to apply New Critical methods to the classics—in a not just a residue of "dead" civilizations. In all these pioneering study of the Aeneid's imagery. He certainly did ways I thought of him, in Aeschylus's words, as moving not neglect the establishment of a sound text—the first, through that minor dark age of the fifties graduate school indispensable task for people studying authors so precari­ phos en euphronei pheron—sheltering torchlight through the ously descended to us. But things did not end there. He shadows. □

HUMANITIES 13

\ from the writings of Bernard Knox

ON MYTH AND HISTORY ple of conduct to be avoided. Myth, its past to live by, and even today, in in other words, is indeed history for the age of the record, that vision is as For the fourth-century Athenians, the fifth-century Athenians, but it is much mythical as scientific, in spite of as for those of the fifth, myth, history transformed by the selective the evidence and prestige of historians and therefore tragedy, which emphasis of a long tradition, shaped devoted to the search for "the untu­ gave it dramatic form, had the and concentrated, and so endowed tored incident, that actually occurred." unquestioned authority which with universal significance. In other But for the fifth-century Athenians, we grant to history; the masked words, it is a kind of poetry. there was no check of any kind on the actors on stage were the great Even today, in the age of records, of mythopoeic creation and adaptation figures of the audience's past. But it is computer banks which remember the of tradition; their vision of the past, history in which the original core of date of birth, credit status, and social of their own history, was fully poetic genuine memory, if indeed that ever security number of every one of us . . . from the start, its personages and existed, had been transformed by the a mythical history of this kind is not events symbolic representations of selective emphasis of the oral tradi­ dead. For most of us, history is indeed every aspect of man's life on earth, his tion. Over many generations of oral "what we can remember." And what strength and weakness in the struggle transmission, stories-change on the we can remember is not very much, against his fellow men, the forces of lips of tellers to reflect new preoccu­ and not even that little will always nature, and the bleak fact of his own pations, new attitudes. And in such a stand up to critical examination. I take mortality. Myth and its tragic adapta­ process only what remains meaning­ an American example again. What tion have, besides the authority of his­ ful and relevant will survive. The oral does the popular memory say of one tory, the power of poetry. The masked tradition, myth, "what they say," em­ Patrick Henry, a prosperous lawyer actors in the theater of Dionysus pre­ phasizes and preserves only what is who lived in Virginia in the eigh­ sent to the audience not only the his­ memorable. A witty book by two teenth century? That he forced the torical figures of the past but also poetic English history teachers, 1066 and All royal officials in Virginia to pay three symbols of its own life and death, its That, stated in a joking fashion a pro­ hundred pounds for the gunpowder ambitions and its fate. found truth: "History is what you they had removed from the colony's Word and Action: Essays on the Ancient can remember." And it is remembered stores? That he bitterly opposed the Theater (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins only because it has meaning (or is ratification of the Federal Constitution University Press, 1979). given new meaning by adaptation in 1788? It says none of these things; and addition); it embodies a view of in order to find them, one has to con­ life, an attitude, an ideal, a warning; sult the historical record. But if that ATHENS AS SOPHOCLEAN HERO it has contemporary significance. In record disappeared forever, the popu­ the absence of records, only what con­ lar memory would still credit Patrick he relevance of the heroic tem­ tinues to have significance will sur­ Henry with two unforgettable phrases. per to the splendid achieve­ vive in the communal memory. Speaking at Williamsburg against the ments and brilliant prospects What myth, the popular memory, Stamp Act, he said: "Caesar had his of Periclean democracy can be preserves is not historical fact, not the Brutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and found only in the great events particular details, the multiplicity, George III. . . Interrupted by cries of the century in which Sopho­ complexity, and ambiguity of any real of "Treason!" he continued, "and cles played his full part as citi­ happening. It preserves, creates, and George III might profit by their exam­ zen, statesman, and soldier. His life recreates symbolic figures and situa­ ple—and if this be treason, make the spans almost the whole course of the tions, persons and events which typify most of it." And he also said "Give me heroic saga of Athens' rise to a height recurring dilemmas and challenges, liberty or give me death." And after where the mastery of the whole Greek heroes whose relations to gods and to all, these two phrases are the most world seemed within its grasp, and of their fellow men embody permanent important thing about him. If he had its catastrophic fall. religious and social problems, whose not said these things his name would For Aeschylus, the Marathon fighter, actions present an ideal by which men hardly be remembered .... who had lived under the tyranny, seen can live and die or a monitory exam­ Every people has to have a vision of the establishment of Athenian democ­

14 MAY/JUNE 1992 racy, and taken a soldier's part in its participation as soldier and statesman inevitable defeat of human greatness triumphant vindication in the war in the great heroic drama of his time— the possibility of a purely human hero­ against Persia, the future was full of the attempt of the small city of Athens ism to which the gods can never attain, hope. The Oresteia, produced within to dominate the whole of the wide­ for the condition of their existence is two years of his death, is a pageant of spread Hellenic world, to impose its everlasting victory. man's advance, blind and violent, but political will, as it was already impos­ still an advance, from savagery to civ­ ing its art and thought, on all Hellas, Oedipus at Thebes (New Haven: Yale ilization under the mysterious guid­ the islands, the mainland, even, in a University Press, 1957). ance of a stern but benevolent Zeus. megalomaniac venture worthy of an The pattern of the trilogy is the thrust Ajax, on rich, powerful, distant Sicily. A PERSONAL REFLECTION and counter thrust of apparently irrec­ Undaunted by losses and defeats, im­ oncilable opposites, ending in their pervious to advice or threat, finding As I moved through the ranks reconciliation, and this reconciliation is always fresh sources of energy in its of instructor and then assis­ the basis for a new and better dispen­ passionate conviction of superiority, tant professor, teaching, for sation. In the democratic institutions Athens pursued, throughout the course the most part, the classics in of his city, so hardly won and so val­ of Sophocles' manhood and old age, translation, the same shock of iantly defended, Aeschylus saw the its stubborn, magnificent course to recognition I had experienced prototype of his reconciliation of op­ the final disaster. It was like a Sopho­ in northern Italy recurred, posites among men as among gods; clean hero, in love with the impossible. even stronger this time, as I read and force is superseded by persuasion, The Heroic Temper (Berkeley: University taught Thucydides in the forties and armed vengeance by the court of law, of California Press, 1964). fifties as the Greek civil war reenacted civil war by debate in assembly. There the heroism and the horrors of the would be more strife, new opposites Peloponnesian War and, on a global to be reconciled, new suffering to be ON OEDIPUS THE PARADIGM scale, the Cold War aligned the oppos­ endured for new progress made, but ing camps in the tense, fragile balance the strife and the suffering he saw as The Oedipus Tyrannus of Sopho­ analyzed so brilliantly in Thucydides' creative—that "violent grace" of the cles combines two apparently introductory book. It seemed to me gods which the chorus celebrates in irreconcilable themes, the that there was no better key to an the Agamemnon. greatness of the gods and the understanding of the modern world's But Sophocles, in the years of his greatness of man, and the com­ power struggles than this unfinished maturity, lived in a different age. The bination of these themes is in­ history of a war fought twenty-five political power and material wealth evitably tragic, for the great­ hundred years ago between two states of Athens reached a level which ness of the gods is most clearly and whose combined population was less Aeschylus, confident though he was powerfully demonstrated by man's than half a million. And in Greek trag­ of Athens' future greatness, could defeat. "The god is great in his laws edy, which became the focus of my hardly have foreseen; but the future and he does not grow old." But man scholarly work and teaching, I found became darker over the years. Atheni­ does, and not only does he grow old, the same modernity, the same imme­ an imperial policy enforced member­ he also dies. Unlike the gods, he diacy. The figure of Oedipus, the man ship in what had started as a league exists in time. The beauty and power who knew the answer to the riddle of of free cities for the liberation of Greece of his physical frame is subject to sick­ the Sphinx but not his own identity; but was now an empire which even ness, death, and corruption; the beauty Prometheus, champion of mankind's Pericles compared to a tyrannis, an and power of his intellectual, artistic, material progress, crucified on a moun­ autocratic, despotic power. Sophocles and social achievement to decline, tainside but unyielding in his defiance himself took part on more than one overthrow, and oblivion. His great­ of oppressive power; Antigone, a girl occasion in punitive operations against ness and beauty arouse in us a pride who without help or encouragement cities which had once been free allies in their magnificence which is insepa­ challenged the power of the state and and were now Athenian tributaries. rable from and increased by our sor­ buried her brother's body, though she The fear and hatred of Athens, the row over their immanent and immi­ knew the penalty was death—all these "tyrant city," grew with the years; all nent death. Oedipus is symbolic of were compelling images of the human over Greece the cry was once again for all human achievement: His hard-won condition in the twentieth century. I liberation, but this time from Athens, magnificence, unlike the everlasting remembered often the man in Lewis and it was achieved in the long and magnificence of the divine, cannot Carroll's poem who "thought he saw destructive war which Sophocles, now last, and while it lives, shines all the a rattlesnake, / that questioned him in an old man, saw almost to its bitter more brilliant against the somber back­ Greek. / He looked again and found it end. I have argued elsewhere that ground of its impermanency. Sopho­ was / The Middle of Next Week." Athens itself, its heroic energy, its re­ cles' tragedy presents us with a terri­ Though it had taken me a long time, fusal to retreat, to compromise, was ble affirmation of man's subordinate I had finally realized that when you the inspiration for the figure of Oedi­ position in the universe, and at the read Thucydides, or Sophocles, or any pus tyrannos. But, as we have seen, same time with a heroic vision of man's of the great Greek writers, you may Oedipus is cast in the same mold as victory in defeat. Man is not equated think you see an ancient text that speaks other Sophoclean heroes. The choice of to the gods, but man at his greatest, to you in Greek. You look again, and such a heroic figure, the fascination it as in Oedipus, is capable of something find it is The Middle of Next Week. exerted on the poet's mind through which the gods, by definition, cannot the long years of his career as a drama­ experience; the proud tragic view of Essays Ancient and Modern (Baltimore: tist, may owe more than a little to his Sophocles sees in the fragility and Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

HUMANITIES MODERN LIBERAL democ­ The citizens of a tiny, warrior com­ racy and the ancient Greek munity in such a world needed a unity polis stand, in their funda­ that an extended, bourgeois republic mental principles, radically opposed. endowed with a dynamic economy The ancient city was a republic of vir­ and located on a vast and nearly empty tue—by its very nature, and because continent could afford to dispense it had to be one in order to survive. Its with. Pythagoras is said to have com­ cohesion was not and could not be a pared faction (stasis) in the city with function of negotiation and calculated disease in the body, ignorance in the compromise; it was and had to be soul, division within the household, bound together by a profound sense and a lack of proportion (ametria) in of moral purpose and common strug­ general. "One must avoid these things," gle. Alexander Hamilton captured he reportedly observed, "with every the difference between the two polities means at one's disposal, and one must when he wrote, "The industrious habits root them out with fire and sword and of the people of the present day, ab­ with every sort of contrivance." For sorbed in the pursuits of gain, and the cities of Hellas, the presence of the devoted to the improvements of agri­ enemy without required the suppres­ culture and commerce are incompat­ sion of dissidence within. ible with the condition of a nation of For this reason, James Madison's soldiers, which was the true condition well-known antidote for faction could of the people of those [ancient Greek] never have been applied within the republics." The point is a simple one: Greek polis. No one in antiquity would The modern citizen is a bourgeois; his have countenanced economic differen­ ancient counterpart was a warrior. tiation and the multiplication of reli­ No ancient thinker could have writ­ gious sects. If the commonwealth was ten of any Greek city what Montes­ to survive, it was vital for the citizens quieu said of England—that it was a "to act in unison with each other," nation devoted to a "commerce of eco­ which Madison understood to be the nomy," that it sought, "gain, not con­ essence of tyranny. As a consequence, quest," and that it was so "pacific from the ancient republic sought to solve principle" that it would sacrifice "its the problem of civil strife not "by con­ political interests to the interests of trolling its effects," but rather "by re­ commerce." The Enlightenment vision moving its causes." As Madison him­ of the benign effects of trade—so cen­ self had occasion to observe, the Greeks tral to the understanding of political attempted this not by granting free economy which guided America's rein to opinion and by encouraging a founding fathers—would have seemed proliferation of special interests, but absurd to the ancients. The Greeks BY PAUL A. RAHE rather "by giving to every citizen the were not a nation of shopkeepers. same opinions, the same passions, and Their cities were brotherhoods of peas­ the same interests." Where the Greeks ant warriors, not associations of mer­ subjection. So Hellas rarely knew excluded the merchant and the crafts­ chants, and one community's freedom peace—and when she did, it was gen­ man from political life, and where they was understood to entail another's erally a peace purchased at the price simply held the tradesman in disdain, of freedom. Greek history was a strug­ the cause was not some bizarre and Paul A. Rohe is associate professor of his­ gle for mastery: Turmoil was the irrational prejudice against men of tory at the University of Tulsa. norm, and tranquillity the exception. business. Instinctively, the Greeks redefining

for the modern state

16 MAY/JUNE 1992 recognized that the differentiation of case, their passions will be engaged states," and it is "very questionable" interests inevitably fostered by trade and they will quarrel with bitterness. in any case "whether it would be the and industry was a danger to the "Neither moral nor religious motives," best mode of legislation." After all, hard-won solidarity that enabled them writes Madison, "can be relied on as direct democracy had been "practised to survive. an adequate control." Men will always in the free states of antiquity; and was Among the theorists, this recogni­ be at odds, particularly where the the cause of innumerable evils." "To tion was more than merely instinctive: landed and the landless coexist. avoid these evils," he asserted, "the Looking back on the experience of the Madison was not the first to fathom moderns have invented the doctrine Greeks as well as the Romans, Cicero the human propensity to quarrel. The of representation, which seems to be observed that "it is easiest for there to ancients were no less conscious of the the perfection of human government." be concord in that republic in which clash of interests dividing the rich from Like Webster, the authors of The the same thing profits everyone; from the poor, and they were acutely aware Federalist shared Montesquieu's opin­ a diversity of interests, when one thing that the heightened political rivalry ion concerning the defects of classical is of advantage to some and another innate to republics tended to give rise republicanism. Alexander Hamilton to others, discord is born." Cicero was to disorder and incessant civil strife. prefaced his eulogy for the new by no means the first man to reach "science of politics" by restating the this conclusion. Centuries before, case made by Thomas Hobbes and Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle had the other defenders of enlightened directly addressed the corrupting despotism. "It is impossible to read influence of the marketplace, and the "Neither moral nor the history of the petty Republics of last two members of this threesome Greece and Italy," Hamilton noted, had even discussed the geographical "without feeling sensations of horror issue that would later so plague the religious motives," writes and disgust at the distractions with proponents of the American Consti­ which they were continually agitated, tution. Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, "can be relied and at the rapid succession of revolu­ Madison would have understood per­ tions, by which they were kept in a fectly well why Plato and Aristotle on as an adequate control." state of perpetual vibration, between proposed assigning to every citizen the extremes of tyranny and anarchy." two plots of land—one on the periph­ Of course, Hamilton was no more ery of the civic territory, the other near Men will always be at ready to accept Hobbes's conclusions its center. The circumstances’ that give than Montesquieu had been. To refute rise to the clash of interests were as odds, particularly where the "gloomy sophisms" of the English fully apprehended in antiquity as they philospher concerning "free govern­ were to be in 1787. Some Greek cities the landed and ment," Hamilton could point to states even excluded those owning land on such as England and perhaps the the border from participating in delib­ Netherlands as well, where "stupen­ erations regarding war against their the landless coexist. dous fabrics reared on the basis of immediate neighbors. liberty ... have flourished for ages." In the most famous of his numerous Madison was no less unhappy than contributions to The Federalist, Madison Hamilton with all forms of direct rule directly addressed the problem of fac­ and no less attached to what he called tion in his new constitution. He argued Aristotle, nonetheless, considered it "the great principle of representation." that it was "impracticable" to remove possible to blunt, if not resolve, class Direct democracies, he told his readers, "the causes of faction" without sacri­ tension by establishing a mixed regime provide an arena for sycophants and ficing political liberty and suggested and to restrain and channel the love demagogues: They "have ever been that one could cure "the mischiefs of of glory by giving first place to an spectacles of turbulence and conten­ faction" by regulating its effects. aristocracy of true gentlemen (kaloi tion; have ever been found incompat­ kagathoi) educated in prudence, moder­ ible with personal security, or the As long as the reason of man continues ation, and virtue and dedicated to cul­ rights of property." In rejecting Aris­ fallible, and he is at liberty to exercise it, tural as well to martial pursuits. James totle's antidote to the diseases inci­ different opinions will be formed .... But Madison and his colleagues harbored dent to self-government, he charged the most common and durable source of no such convictions. that direct aristocratic rule was simi­ factions, has been the various and unequal Noah Webster, for instance, readily larly flawed. As he put it, "in all very distribution of property. Those who hold, conceded the attractiveness of the no­ numerous assemblies, of whatever and those who are without property, have tion that "all the members of a society characters composed, passion never ever formed distinct interests in society. should be present, and each give his fails to wrest the sceptre from reason. Opinions, passions, and interests— suffrage in acts of legislation." But Had every Athenian citizen been a these are the notions that lie at the this did not prevent him from restat­ Socrates, every Athenian assembly heart of Madison's analysis. As long ing Montesquieu's critique of partici­ would still have been a mob." as men are men, they will form dif­ patory democracy. As he put it, direct The authors of The Federalist believed ferent opinions and have different popular exercise of the legislative that if republican government was on interests; and as long as this is the power is "impracticable in all large the verge of collapse in the various

HUMANITIES states, it was largely because the state discussion as well. "If men were Hume used much the same scheme constitutions were too faithful to the angels," he observed, "no government of classification as Montesquieu and classical models. They had discovered would be necessary. If angels were to shared his preference as well. "The that modern representative govern­ govern men, neither external nor inter­ chief support of the British government ment could reconcile the advantages nal controuls on government would is the opposition of interests," he wrote, of monarchy with those of republi­ be necessary. In framing a govern­ "but that, though in the main service­ canism and effectively promote the ment which is to be administered by able, breeds endless factions." He subordination of passion to reason. men over men, the great difficulty lies broke with him on only one fundamen­ Madison hoped that, in a superin­ in this: You must first enable the gov­ tal issue: With the proper institutions, tending role, the new national govern­ ernment to controul the governed; and he thought it possible to do without ment would perform the function in the next place, oblige it to controul the monarchical disguise; he believed reserved for the monarch in the English itself." That statement—elegant in its that, even in a large sphere, one might regime and serve as a "disinterested simplicity—summed up the political establish a pure republic—lacking and dispassionate umpire in disputes." problem with admirable brevity. king and aristocracy alike. In a semi­ To this, he and his colleagues thought In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu nal essay read by James Madison, the new nation's ablest citizens could Hume asserted: make a special contribution. Along Though it is more difficult to form a repub­ with David Hume, Madison was pre­ [ a j lican government in an extensive country pared to believe that the substitution than in a city, there is more facility, when of representative government for di­ once it is formed, of preserving it steady rect democracy might enable a repub­ and uniform without tumult and faction. lic "to refine and enlarge the public "The British Constitution . .. The parts are so distant and remote, views, by passing them through the that it is very difficult, either by intrigue, medium of a chosen body of citizens, was to Montesquieu," prejudice, or passion to hurry them into whose wisdom may best discern the any measures against the public interest. true interest of their country, and Madison observed, whose patriotism and love of justice, Here lay the inspiration for the course will be least likely to sacrifice it to of "reflection" on Madison's part that temporary or partial considerations." "what Homer has been explains his and his fellow framers' At the same time, Madison conceded choice. that the effect might be the reverse. to the didactic writers As the framers of the American He was sensitive to the increasingly Constitution conceived it, the modern populist tenor of American politics, on epic poetry." alternative to ancient republicanism and he was aware that "men of fac­ involved neither the direct, systematic tious tempers, of local prejudices, or promotion of genuine civic virtue nor of sinister designs, may by intrigue, the outright suppression of factions by corruption or by other means, first but, rather, an indirect assault on "the obtain the suffrages, and then betray mischiefs of faction." The establish­ the interests of the people." Madison distinguished two types of republi­ ment of representative institutions and the others hoped to discover canism—the sort represented by an­ would make possible what Hamilton firmer ground on which to erect the cient Athens, Sparta, and Rome; and had called "the enlargement of the edifice of republican liberty. the kind exemplified by eighteenth- orbit" of the republic "either in respect Montesquieu and Hume showed century Great Britain. The classical to the dimensions of a single State, or the framers of the American Constitu­ city was a republic of virtue: It could to the consolidation of several smaller tion where to look. They acknowl­ not long survive on an extended ter­ States into one great confederacy." edged the greater nobility of public­ ritory because the dispersion of its The most controversial element in spiritedness but suggested that baser citizens undermined the force of the the new constitution was to turn out motives would provide a more solid moral and religious motives which to be its mainstay. "Extend the sphere," foundation. "Every man who pos­ sustained the public-spiritedness it Madison argued, "and you take in a sesses power," Montesquieu explained, required. In contrast, Great Britain greater variety of parties and interests; "is driven to abuse it; he goes forward was a "republic which disguises itself you make it less probable that a major­ until he discovers the limits." On this under the form of a monarchy"; it is a ity of the whole will have a common subject, Hume was characteristically "democracy founded on commerce": motive to invade the rights of other blunt. In a passage echoing Machiavelli such a regime cannot survive without citizens; or if such a common motive and much admired by Alexander an extended territory because, in the exists, it will be more difficult for all Hamilton, John Adams, and like- absence of genuine civic virtue, its who feel it to discover their own minded Americans, he asserted that stability depended on a balancing of strength, and to act in unison with it was "a just political maxim, that every factions of the sort possible only in a each other." As he would put it some man must be supposed a knave." This complex society. "The British Consti­ months later, conviction, shared by nearly all of the tution was to Montesquieu," Madison political theorists of the early modern observed, "what Homer has been to The society itself will be broken into so age, was the foundation for Madison's the didactic writers on epic poetry." many parts, interests and classes of citi­

18 MAY/JUNE 1992 zens, that the rights of individuals or of ties composing the nascent republic And yet its framers doubted whether the minority, will be in little danger from were suited for different modes of sub­ it could survive if its citizens were interested combinations of the majority. sistence: for the growing of different utterly bereft of that quality. The Amer­ In a free government, the security for crops, for the procurement and export ican republic was, as James Madison civil rights must be the same as for reli­ of different raw materials, and for would later insist, "a system without gious rights. It consists in the one case the manufacture of different finished a precedent ancient or modern." It in the multiplicity of interests, and in the goods. This geographically dictated claimed to be unmixed. In a sense, other, in the multiplicity of sects. The division of labor would pit town it was. And yet, in its own, strange, degree of security in both cases will depend against country, seaport against hinter­ convoluted way, it bore a certain, on the number of interests and sects; and land, and frontier region against undeniable resemblance to what the this may be presumed to depend on the settled district; it would set mountain ancients chose to refer to as a mixed extent of country and number of people against plain, swamp against forest, regime. It occupied an intermediate comprehended under the same government. and thin soil against rich. status between the enlightened des­ If Madison and his colleagues potism of Thomas Hobbes and the Madison's solution was not so much thought it possible to improve on the classical republicanism of the ancient an extension of the territory encom­ Greeks, and in assessing the degree passed by the republic as a multipli­ to which man could justly be termed cation of the factions composing it. If a political animal, its advocates tried the new federal government could be to strike an appropriate balance. made a dispassionate and impartial James Madison and his colleagues umpire, it was paradoxically because paid careful attention to the weakness of the great number and variety of The American republic of human reason and to its propensity petty parties and factions clamoring to fall under passion's sway. But, just for its favor and maneuvering to gain was, as James Madison as they rejected enlightened despotism political leverage. and a slavish dependence on political In Madison's view, factions should would later insist, architecture and on man's unreason­ normally spring into existence because ing spirit of resistance, so they stopped men (and the rich and poor in particu­ well short of endorsing the presump­ lar) have conflicting material interests. "a system without tion, fundamental to the proponents It was with this in mind that he devel­ of these mechanical principles, that oped the most controversial and orig­ a precedent ancient reason is simply the slave of the pas­ inal aspect of his argument for the sions. They considered government extended republic. Madison's experi­ or modern." "a reflection on human nature," and, ence with religious diversity in as we have already remarked, they Virginia enabled him to see that the were acutely sensitive to the fact that economic diversity noted by Hamilton men are not angelic. The defects in could be politically advantageous as human nature that render government well. In Europe, where aristocratic necessary render it rightly suspect as hauteur added insult to the injuries of ancients and to avoid class struggle well. By means of the extended sphere, class, it might be impossible to obviate altogether, it was because they believed federalism, the separation of powers, the tension between the rich and the that the economic diversity character­ and the other "inventions of prudence" poor. But, in a large and prosperous istic of an extended republic and the built into the constitutional frame, society unencumbered with the tradi­ social fragmentation that went with Madison and his colleagues hoped that tion of juridically defined orders, the that diversity would undercut the "the passions" of the citizens could various distribution of property would fundamental antagonism between the "be controuled and regulated by the greatly outweigh in importance its rich and poor by generating a host of government" so that "the reason of unequal distribution. petty and easily reconcilable antago­ the public," liberated from bondage, In short, once artificial factions had nisms. The framers did not establish might serve "to controul and regulate been disposed of, the real import of a corporate state, but they did devise the government" in turn. In this regard, geographical extension was economic institutions intended to have some­ the American Constitution was to diversity, and this was the goal that thing of the same effect: As they well deploy institutional checks not only was Madison's primary concern. His knew, the representatives elected from as a substitute but also as a reinforce­ argument was essentially an economic the various territorial districts would ment and inspiration for virtue. □ argument and only tangentially a geo­ inevitably take to heart, at least in graphical argument. Because of the some measure, the parochial interests dissimilarity in climate and in terrain, and affections of their constituents. This article is adapted, with permission, because of the disparity in soil quality The new American republic was not from Republics Ancient and Modern, and in natural resources, and because what the ancients would have called to be published this fall by the University of the discrepancy in the conditions a democracy. Nor can it be accurate­ of North Carolina Press (Chapel Hill & of security, in the ease of communica­ ly described as an aristocracy, an oli­ London). Its publication is supported by a tion, and in the means of transport garchy, or even a limited monarchy. $7,000 subvention from the Division of available, the myriad of distinct locali­ It certainly was not a republic of virtue. Research Programs.

HUMANITIES rchaeology can best be defined as the study of Aantiquity using the surviving physical evidence. In recent years there has been a great increase in the use of scientific technology to recover this evidence of the past, but it should be emphasized that these modern tech­ niques are primarily a tool. Archaeol­ ogy as a discipline remains a human­ istic study of the history of man and his place in the world. This is espe­ cially true for classical archaeologists, who enjoy a distinct advantage over their colleagues working in other periods or in other parts of the world. The Greeks and Romans were literate people, and a huge collection of writ­ ten evidence survives to supplement and shed light on the finds and sites uncovered around the Mediterranean. One of the great pleasures of prac­ ticing classical archaeology is the sense of immediate contact one feels in confronting the past. The texts of Herodotus and Pausanias, for instance, allow one to visit the plain of Mara­ thon and recreate the battle of 490 B.C., when the Athenians turned back a Persian invasion which, if successful, would surely have changed the course of Western civilization. It is still pos­ sible to stand on the burial mound of the 192 Athenians who died, to visit the great swamp where 6,700 Persians perished, and to see the Ionic column of white marble the Athenians set up to commemorate their victory. This confluence of written history and physical remains is a major compo­ nent in the "romance" of archaeology which attracts the interest and enthu­ siasm of so many people. The literary

John McK. Camp II is Mellon Professor of Classical Studies and resident director of the Agora excavations at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens.

Ruins of the Royal Stoa, ca. 500 B.C., in the Agora in Athens. This stoa housed the king archon, second-in-command of the Athenian government, who was responsible for religious matters and the laws. Socrates was indicted in this little building in 399 B.C. record that permits these associations Thanks again to Pausanias's descrip­ became known as the Stoics, taking is largely fixed, and no significant new tion of Athens, we can identify the the name from their unusual class­ related text has been found since building with a fair degree of certain­ room. Diogenes Laertius is one of Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians, ty: It should be the Painted Stoa (Stoa several sources for this information: discovered more than a century ago. Poikile in Greek), built around 465 "He used to discourse in the Poikile Archaeological evidence, however, B.C. and used as a gallery to display Stoa .... Henceforth people came continues to be recovered in large panel paintings done by the best artists hither to hear him, and for this reason quantities, allowing us to increase our of fifth-century Athens. Pausanias they were called Stoics." In this case, number of direct associations with the describes several, already very old, the extensive literary tradition of past. Even after more than a century which he saw in the year A.D. 150; Athens allows modest and only par­ of exploration in Greece, it still remains they were removed and carried off by tially excavated remains to be identi­ possible to make startling discoveries, a Roman proconsul around A.D. 370, fied as the birthplace of a major West­ usually through excavation but occa­ after adorning the Stoa Poikile for ern philosophy. sionally even from surface exploration. nearly eight hundred years. The stoa Other attempts to associate the Athens, the greatest city-state of was a true public building, dedicated archaeological figures or events are Greece, produced most surviving by a rich family for the use of all the more controversial. In 1977, a barrel- Greek literature, and here the possi­ citizens and not for any one group or vaulted tomb was found deep within bilities for associations are greatest. function. Athenians flocked to the a huge artificial mound at the small Plato, for instance, preserves a crucial stoa, which faced south overlooking village of Vergina, ancient Aigai, in reference to the legal difficulties of the Agora square, and those whose western Macedonia. About sixty such Socrates: "Now I must present myself trade required a large crowd followed tombs have been found throughout at the stoa of the Basileus (king) to them there; beggars, sword swallow­ northern Greece, but this one was meet the indictment of Meletos." The ers, fishmongers, and jugglers are all unusual in that it was unplundered archon basileus, or king archon, was known to have frequented the build­ and contained amazing grave goods: second in command of the Athenian ing. Also drawn to the stoa, where a gold wreath, silver vessels, an iron state, with especial concern for reli­ they were sure of finding a ready helmet and cuirass, a gold and ivory gious matters and the laws. He held audience, were the philosophers of shield cover, wooden furniture inlaid office, according to the traveler the city, especially Zeno, who came with gold, ivory, and glass, and numer­ Pausanias (ca. A.D. 150), in a stoa or to Athens from Cyprus in the years ous bronze weapons and vessels. The colonnade bordering the Agora, the around 300 B.C. He so preferred the dead man's bones were wrapped in main square of the city. In 1971 exca­ Poikile that he and his followers a cloth of purple and gold and placed vators from the American School of Classical Studies uncovered the modest remains of a small colonnade of eight columns at the northwest corner of the square. The building is in a piti­ ful state of preservation: The north wall stands waist high, the two sur­ viving stumps of columns come up to one's knees, and the rest rises no higher than the ankles. An inscribed statue base, dedicated by a king archon around 400 B.C., still stands in its orig­ inal position on the steps of the build­ ing, assuring its identification and allowing us to associate these unpre­ possessing ruins with one of the great trials of antiquity, the conviction of Socrates for impiety and corruption of the youth of Athens in 399 B.C. Across the street lies a second stoa, partially cleared in 1981 and still under - excavation today. It is forty feet wide, and its full length is concealed under Northwest corner of the Agora, as it would have appeared ca. 420 B.C. The Royal Stoa the buildings of modern Athens. is on the left; at the upper right is the west end of the Poikile (Painted) Stoa. Sulla 19), Sulla "inscribed upon his trophies the names of Ares, Nike, and Aphrodite because he had brought the war to a successful conclusion no less by good fortune than by shrewdness and strength. Now the trophy of the battle in the plain stands where the forces of Archelaos, extending as far as the stream Morios, first gave way, but there is another placed on top of Thourion to commemorate the encirclement of the barbar­ ians, which signifies in Greek letters that Homoloichos and Anaxidamos were the heroes." In February of 1990, five members of the American School were spending the day scouting the ancient border between Boeotia and Phokis. Reconstruction of the west end of the Painted Stoa, built ca. 465 B.C. and used as a picture gallery for eight Walking from Boeotian Chair­ hundred years. The philosopher Zeno used this stoa as his classroom, which gave the name "Stoic" to that oneia to Phocian Panopeus branch of Western philosophy. we spotted a likely hill for a fort guarding the border be­ in a golden casket, as were the bones to be done and much scholarly ink will tween the two traditional enemies. We of a woman found in the antecham­ be spilled before it is clear whether struggled up the steep, rocky slope, ber. The tomb had an ornate architec­ we have another association of archae­ and on top there were indeed the rem­ tural facade decorated across the top ology and written history, between nants of a fortification. More interest­ with a painted frieze of a lion hunt. the Vergina tomb and one of the most ing, however, Was a large worked Material from the tomb clearly dates powerful figures of ancient Greece. block that we found lying in a pile of to the second half of the fourth century Chaironeia, in central Greece, was rubble. The bottom was smoothed, B.C., and the suggestion was put for­ the scene not only of Philip's victory the top carried a round socket for a ward that this burial was actually the over the Greeks in 338 B.C. but also column of some sort, and the face car­ tomb of Philip II, king of Macedon and of a pivotal battle between Rome and ried a weathered inscription. It took father of Alexander the Great. After Mithridates, king of Pontos, on the a few minutes to decipher all of the uniting the Macedonians and having Black Sea. As so often, the conflict name Homoloichos and most of the defeated the Greeks at Chaironeia in between East and West was fought on name Anaxidamos. It took only a little 338 B.C., Philip was preparing for an Greek soil, in this case between the longer to realize that we had found invasion of Asia when he was assassi­ Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla the inscribed base of the trophy set nated in 335 B.C. in the theater at and Mithridates' general Archelaos in up by Sulla to honor the two local men Aigai, the Macedonian royal capital. 86 B.C. The biographer/philosopher who were so instrumental in his vic­ He was presumably buried there, and Plutarch, whose hometown was tory. The trophy that stood on the base the association of rich tomb and king Chaironeia, describes the campaign would have been a sculpted repre­ is attractive. Nonetheless, several in detail. Before the battle, Archelaos sentation of a suit of armour, the tradi­ scholars have come forward to chal­ installed a large contingent of Pontic tional form of a trophy, now lost. The lenge this thesis, on several grounds. troops on a hill called Thourion, inscription described by Plutarch, how­ Some archaeologists argue that the true overlooking the broad valley of the ever, had been on this hill, unnoticed, arch used in the vault construction Kephisos River where the battle was for more than two thousand years. reached Greece only after Alexander's to be fought. Sulla was concerned The victory and trophies were im­ conquest of Asia Minor in the 320s. about this threat to his flank until two portant to Sulla; after the battle, he Others also suggest that the burial is citizens of Chaironeia, Homoloichos changed his signet to a representation too late to be Philip on the basis of and Anaxidamos, volunteered to lead of trophies, and several coins issued pottery found in the tomb. Physical a troop of Romans through the moun­ under his authority after 86 B.C. bear anthropologists are not in agreement tains behind and dislodge the enemy trophies on the reverse. Sulla also as to whether or not the partially cre­ force. The two men were successful, added the title Felix (fortunate) to his mated skull shows signs of an eye killing more than 3,000 Pontic troops name; centuries later good fortune wound Philip is known to have sus­ and contributing significantly to Sulla's had once again put us in touch with tained in 340 B.C. More work needs victory. According to Plutarch (Life of the past. □ BY JAMES S. TURNER

NLIKE THE POSTMODERN world, in which there is no Uconsensus about what is sacred, all of life for the ancient Greeks was a sacred drama in which the gods were the script writers and, together with heroes, the principal actors. Orig­ inating in Bronze Age oral traditions that were formalized by Hesiod and Homer probably in the eighth century B.C. and written down two centuries later as the Theogony, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, the anthropomorphic deities of the Greek pantheon helped make the vicissitudes of life explicable. But the ways of worship proliferated. And when the fifth-century historian Herodotus credited Hesiod and Homer with establishing for the Greeks the genealogy of the gods, giving the gods their titles, dividing their functions among them, and defining their images, Panathenaic he pointed to the essential fact that [ prize amphora, only the poets' cultural authority pre­ ca. 480 B.C. It con- served a measure of coherence among tained forty liters of olive oil and was one the mixed religious ideas and prac­ of sixty such vases awarded tices of ancient Greek communities. to the winning wrestler in In Herodotus's day, these commu­ the Great Panathenaic games nities ranged from the eastern end of held in Athens every four years. the Black Sea almost to the Straits of Athena is depicted on the front. The Medusa head on her shield is the hall­ Gibraltar. Each independent Greek mark of the artist known as the Berlin painter. city-state, or polis, honored its own (Photo courtesy of the Hood Museum of Art) patron god or goddess in addition to other deities of the pantheon. With­ out sacred texts, creeds, or ecclesiasti­ cal authorities, Greek religious prac­ tices evolved into patterns of ritual devoted to particular gods. What emerged were spectacular festivals, Today, perhaps the best-known of Zeus. These were called the "crown which included consultations with ancient Greek religious festivals are festivals" because the winning athletes oracles, colorful processions, athletic the panhellenic gatherings at Olympia, were crowned with wreaths, such as and other contests, votive offerings, in honor of Zeus, where the Olympics the olive wreath of Olympia. are said to have originated in 776 B.C.; animal sacrifices, and other rites. Yet in ancient Greece there were at at Delphi, in honor of Apollo; at the least 300 public, state-run religious James S. Turner is assistant editor Isthmus of Corinth, in honor of festivals celebrated at more than 250 of Humanities. Poseidon; and at Nemea, also in honor locations in honor of some 400 deities.

HUMANITIES 23 Most of these festivals the best athletes by of­ were held in the cities, in fering monetary prizes— contrast to the crown fes­ for instance, 140 vases tivals, which were held of olive oil for winning at rural sanctuaries. In the chariot race—as Athens, for example, four opposed to honorific annual festivals honored wreaths." Athena, the city's divine From the mid-sixth protectress, in addition century B.C. until the to those for other gods. end of antiquity when In all, some 120 days—a the Christian emperors third of the year—were suppressed pagan reli­ This inscribed marble relief commemorates the athletic victories of a son of devoted annually to festi­ gions, the high point of Alexandros o f Rhamnous, showing the prizes awarded at each of the games in which vals in Athens. he competed. The Panathenaic amphora is at the left, followed by the pine wreath Athenian religious life By far the largest event oflsthmia, the shield of Argos, and the celery wreath o f Nemea. It is possible that was the Great Pana­ of the Athenian religi­ the olive wreath of Olympia appeared just beyond the broken left end of the relief. thenaia, held every four ous calendar, rivaling years in July—tradition­ the crown gatherings in prestige, was over possession of Attica. In a contest ally the month of Athena's birth—and the Great Panathenaic festival. "The between the two, for which Zeus lasting for about eight days. public knows next to nothing about appointed a panel of gods and heroes The importance of the Great Pana­ this event," says Jenifer Neils, chair of to decide the winner, Poseidon struck thenaia for scholars is immense, Neils the department of art at Case West­ the Acropolis with his trident, unleash­ says, because of the iconographic evi­ ern Reserve University in Cleveland, ing a sea of salt water, and Athena dence for ancient Greek festivals that Ohio. "Yet it is the one that is best planted an olive tree on the crest of the it generated. Some 1,300 painted documented in the ancient sources." hill. Athena, judged the winner, was amphorae, or vases, were commis­ That documentation, the fact that made the patron goddess of Athens, sioned every four years for the occa­ this is an Olympic year, and the fact to which she gave her name. This sion; about 300 are extant. Olive-oil- that this year also marks the twenty- myth doubtless reflects the Athenian filled amphorae depicting the athletic five hundredth anniversary of the economic dependence on olive oil, and equestrian events went to the birth of Athenian democracy, reckon­ Neils suggests: "Athens had extensive winners, and many amphorae, even ing from the constitutional reforms of olive groves, and olive oil was a major though they were not used as prizes, Cleisthenes in 508 B.C., is the impetus export commodity used for lighting, depict other events of the festival— behind "Goddess and Polis: The Pana­ perfumes, as well as cooking." musical contests, the procession, and thenaic Festival in Ancient Athens," an The origin of the Panathenaia, how­ the animal sacrifices. exhibition supported by the National ever, is shrouded in mystery. One an­ "As far as we know, none of the Endowment for the Humanities. It cient source states that it was founded crown games commissioned any art opens next September at Dartmouth by Erichthonius, a prehistoric king of for their festivals," says Neils. "Ironi­ College's Hood Museum of Art in Athens. According to legend, after cally, when you look at books on Greek Hanover, New Hampshire, and travels having been reared by Athena on the sport, they use the Panathenaic vases to three other art museums in 1993. Acropolis, he held games for his foster to illustrate the events that took place Neils, who is guest curator of the mother and competed in the chariot at Olympia and elsewhere." exhibition, says the show will trace race, which he reputedly invented. The accoutrements of Athena in the development of the Panathenaic The first concrete evidence for the the iconography—helmet, spear, and festival—the ritual embodiment of festival, says Neils, is a Panathenaic shield—figured prominently in the the cult of Athena—as it evolved from prize vase from ca. 560 B.C. depicting contests of the Panathenaia. Events a purely local religious event into a a horse race, which implies an older included javelin throwing; pyrrhic civic and panhellenic one. This trans­ lineage for the event. Scholars also dancing, or martial-movement routines formation, and that of the image of infer that equestrian events were part by spear-wielding men in full armor; Athena from an aggressively martial of the early festival from two legends— and a race by hoplites, or soldiers, goddess to a more humane figure of the tradition that Athena taught the in full armor. Other athletic events victory, parallels the great political Athenians horsemanship and Homer's included footraces, wrestling, boxing, changes that occurred in Athens from account of her assistance in building the pentathlon (a combination of dis­ 560 to 430 B.C. as it evolved from a the Trojan horse to aid the Greeks cus throwing, running, broad jump­ tyranny to a democracy, and from a against Troy. ing, javelin throwing, and wrestling), city-state to an empire. "By shedding Much more is known about the and the pankration, a fierce struggle for new light on the Panathenaia," she Panathenaia after 566 B.C., when the physical supremacy permitting almost says, "we hope to show the ways in festival was reorganized under the any kind of bodily attack. Equestrian which a major religious festival shaped tyrant Peisistratos. At that time, the events included horse races, chariot the culture and identity of a flourish­ festival, in addition to its annual cele­ races, and javelin throwing from horse­ ing center of civilization." bration, was heightened every fourth back. There were boat races, musical Athenian reverence for Athena orig­ year into the Great Panathenaia. competitions on the lyre and double inated in Greek mythology with a "They added athletic contests, which pipes, and poetry contests in which quarrel between Poseidon, god of the began to attract people from all over rhapsodes, or storytelling troubadours, sea, and Athena, daughter of Zeus, Greece," Neils says. "They attracted would recite long passages of the Iliad

24 MAY/JUNE 1992 and Odyssey, with each contestant pick­ Parthenon gleaming on the Acropolis, sculptures, bronze statuettes, terra­ ing up where the previous one left off. they also crawled into caves on the cotta figurines and reliefs, silver coins, And there was a torch race run as a north slope and made offerings to and painted vases, the exhibition will relay, the original significance of which gods of the underworld—all sorts of begin with representations of Athena was the ritual transfer of fire to the bizarre mystery cults with snakes and in the early sixth century B.C. and Acropolis, where it was used to light things like that." Everyday decisions, end with the classical image designed the altar for the sacrifice to Athena. she says, were based on consultations by Pheidias for the Parthenon. Physi­ The climax of the Great Panathenaia with oracles—the ancient equivalent cally and visually the viewer will was a procession to the Acropolis, of palm readers—who threw dice or move through the events of the god­ ending at Athena's sanctuary, where read the flights of birds to determine dess's festival to recapitulate the ex­ all the people of Attica paid homage the auspices before any undertaking. perience of ancient Athenians as they to the city's patron goddess in a great Fifth-century Athens is perhaps witnessed the rituals. At the same time burnt offering. Prominent in the remembered less for the ordinary devo­ viewers will move chronologically procession was a floatlike shipcart; tional piety of its common citizenry through two centuries of Greek art. stretched across the mast's yardarm than for the extraordinary reflective­ A symposium titled "Athens and was the peplos, the woolen robe that ness of its uncommon intelligentsia, Beyond," in conjunction with the would be draped around a wooden whose luminaries at the time included exhibition at the Hood Museum, will icon representing the goddess. the philosopher Anaxagoras, the explore the distinctiveness of the Pan­ The sacrifice of cows to Athena at sophist Protagoras, the historians athenaia in relation to the other major the procession's end augmented the Herodotus and Thucydides, the poli­ festivals of ancient Greece and examine Athenian diet, Neils says. "This was tical leader Pericles, the playwrights its impact on the life and culture of one of the rare times that Athenians Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and ancient Athens. □ ate meat. They didn't kill animals at Aristophanes, and the gadfly Socrates. For this project, the Hood Museum of Art will, only when they made a sacrifice But the glory of classical Athens is as at Dartmouth received $192,545 from the to a god. They burned the bones and attributable to the former as it is to Humanities Projects in Museums fat on an altar, and the rest was dis­ the latter, Neils says. "My ultimate the­ and Historical Organiza­ tributed to the populace. There was a sis is that this procession, this august tions program of the Divi­ huge barbecue, literally." festival, which was full of color, spec­ sion of Public Programs. The Acropolis's grandest monument tacle, and great performances, must to Athena was the Parthenon, built in have had an impact on the civic con­ the interlude between the Persian wars sciousness of these Athenians that of 490-479 B.C. and the Peloponnesian contributed directly to the classical wars of 431-404. It housed a colossal style in art." ivory-and-gold-plated marble statue Because the culmination of the of a standing, armed Athena, made Panathenaic festival was the proces­ by the master sculptor Pheidias. Wor­ sion to the Acropolis, the exhibition ship did not take place inside the win- will be laid out in a processional dowless edifice, but rather at the altars format. Containing outside. From there, the people could seventy objects, have viewed their own actions in the including marble continuous frieze that decorated the temple wall behind the colonnade, This small bronze which depicted scenes from the Pana­ Athena holds her spear thenaic festival. upright and launches "The imagery of the frieze is unique an owl, a symbol of both Athena and the in Greek sculpture because it depicts "Goddess and Polis" Itinerary city of Athens. The mortal Athenians in their worship of sphinx atop her helmet Athena," Neils says. "This is totally • Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth recalls the colossal anomalous in the history of temple Hanover, New Hampshire statue of the goddess by sculpture, which always shows the September 12-December 6,1992 the sculptor Pheidias Symposium: October 23-24,1992 that was once housed in gods or heroes but never mere mortals. the Parthenon; this The Athenians, I think, were apotheo­ • Tampa Museum of Art statuette, like many sizing themselves—elevating them­ Tampa, Florida others, may derive from selves to the level of the gods." January 9-April 16,1993 the monumental proto­ Popular piety, with its considerable type now lost. (Photo • Virginia Museum of Fine Arts courtesy of Walters Art folk element, was not always so gran­ Richmond, Virginia Gallery, Baltimore) diosely expressed, says Neils. "We May 11-August 1,1993 look at the fifth-century Athenians as Princeton University Art Museum the great enlightened thinkers of the Princeton, New Jersey world. But the fact is that religion August 31-November 28,1993 among ancient peoples was character­ ized by superstition. Even though they have the gorgeous marble

HUMANITIES hts orey f ode & kto Gley Nw ok City York New Gallery, Ekstrom & Cordier of courtesy Photos

Circe's Domain, Romare Bearden (1914-1988). This work comes from Bearden's series of twenty Odysseus Collages, first exhibited in 1977.

N THE INTRODUCTION to the Crucial to understanding Ellison's thirtieth anniversary edition of text is what literary scholar Henry ELLISON'S Invisible Man, Ralph Ellison notes Louis Gates, Jr. in The Signifying Monkey that the novel he originally (Oxford University Press, 1988) calls Iplanned "was upstaged by the its "signifying" potential—its repeti­ voice which spoke so knowingly of tion and its simultaneous critique of invisibility." This is the voice of the the older text. Ellison's Invisible Man trickster, the voice that complicates speaks in a number of voices, the MODERN and often redirects discourse. It fre­ surface dialogue and narrative often quently undermines even as it appears undermined by resistant and dissent­ to conform, a voice at once mimetic ing voices of its trickster protagonist. and parodic. As a result, Ellison's It is a "black" text, in terms of Gates's modern Odysseus, although he shares definition of blackness as a reflection with the Homeric protagonist a wan­ of "literary uses of language that are ODYSSEUS dering movement toward self and shared, repeated, critiqued, and home, is no simple modern version revised." Ellison's trickster voice, as of the Homeric hero. Gates argues, parodies the literary BY WILLIAM W. COOK structures of Richard Wright's Native William W. Cook is Israel Evans Profes­ Son through repetition and difference. sor of Oratory and Belles Lettres at But that voice also constitutes a Dartmouth College. Last November, he "critical parody" of a much older and spoke on the subject of this article at a even more canonical text than that of public conference on the oral and epic Wright—the Odyssey of Homer. traditions in Fairlee, Vermont, sponsored Critical parody, Gates notes, is an by the Vermont Council on the Humanities. "exaggerated imitation of a work of

26 MAY/JUNE 1992 art... a form of literary criticism which pursuit of the "bitch goddess success." signifying purpose. The vet who at­ consists in heightening the character­ This is not the flawless beauty of tempts to open his eyes is not Homer's istics of the thing imitated." He fur­ Homeric lore. "goddess gray-eyed Athene," who ther notes: "When the subject matter Another convergence of the texts frequently appears in masculine guise, of the original composition is paro­ can be found in the chapel scene that but a man who is condemned to a died ... it may prove to be a valuable follows the protagonist's accidental mental institution because he foolishly indirect criticism or it may even imply delivery of Norton to Trueblood's believed that he could live according a flattering tribute to the original house and to the Golden Day. In this to his talents and ambitions. His writer." How does Ellison's novel par­ scene, Homer Barbee, a blind bard with advice that the young man learn the ody Homer's Odyssey? a clearly allusive name, chants the game in which he is a player falls on In Ellison's text, the protagonist's heroic tale of the founder, that great deaf ears. He offers the gift of invisi­ wandering follows that of Odysseus, man whom all the students have been bility and the freedom that it makes who is doomed by Poseidon to wander taught to emulate. On hearing this possible. But unlike Homer's hero, forever, never to find his way home epic, marked by conventional tropes who uses Athena's gift of invisibility, from Troy because he has offended of African American oral narratives, Ellison's young man is baffled and the god by tricking and maiming the protagonist is as overcome with repulsed by the vet's wise counsel. Polyphemus. The event that triggers sorrow and remorse as was the The protagonist cannot understand the protagonist's wandering—the Homeric hero on hearing Demodokos the language used by the vet and the "battle royal" scene—is both a clear (Homer's blind bard) relate the glori­ other inhabitants of the Golden Day: parallel to Homer's battle at Troy and ous and tragic history of Troy. He just as clearly a parody of that incident. weeps over the great dream he has They were supposed to be members of the In both instances, a group of fighters failed to realize. But is that dream as professions toward which at various times struggles not so much in response to worthy of his tears as is Odysseus's I aspired myself, and even though they individual grievances as from the com­ dream of returning home from his never seemed to see me I could never pulsions and at the directions of the wanderings? So caught up is Ellison's believe that they were really patients. gods, represented in Ellison's revision listener in the myth of the "black Sometimes it appeared as though they as the leading white men of the town. Horatio Alger" that he is not aware of played some vast and complicated game They fight to amuse these gods and the blindness of his guide. Odysseus, with me and the rest of the school folk, a are selected by individual deities as on the other hand, is the deceiver and game whose goal was laughter and whose their champion. The literal object of not the deceived. He hears the story rules and subtleties I could never grasp. the struggle here is not the beautiful of his own life and not that of a fictive Helen of the Homeric work, however; other. He is aware that the teller is He is invisible, deaf, and blind. He she is a hired stripper at a kind of blind, as blind to his true identity as has forgotten how to use language as high-class smoker. She is blond and are the other listeners. a tool of resistance and liberation. possessed of a steamy sexuality that In his blindness, Ellison's protago­ More seriously, he has confused those arouses men and gods. Yet her cheap­ nist has several guides. His relation­ men who control his life with gods. ness and seeming indifference to her ship to them further amplifies Ellison's Norton is "not a man to him, but a tawdry situation mocks the original. By failing to repeat the cant of Booker T. Washington's Atlanta Expo­ sition Address about capitulation to the status quo, the protagonist incurs the wrath of the "mighty gods" and after the battle is sent on a futile mis­ sion, a mission that is to take him away from, rather than toward, the "home" that he desires. He is given a brief­ case containing seven letters intended to "keep this nigger boy running." Just as Odysseus incurs divine wrath from "the Earth Encircler Poseidon who, ever relentless, nurses a grudge" (Odyssey V.68-69, translation by Richmond Lattimore [Harper and Row, 1965]) and who "drives [Odysseus] back from the land of his fathers" (V.75), making Odysseus "a fugitive from the sea and the curse of Poseidon" (V.445), so Ellison's protagonist incurs . divine wrath from another Poseidon figure, Dr. Bledsoe, who condemns him to seven letters (years) in vain

HUMANITIES God, a force." Neither the vet nor The texts sometimes diverge. For Elpenor. The death of Ras, like that Mary nor Brother Hambro succeeds instance, the homecoming in the Ho­ of the most odious of the Homeric in playing Athena/Mentor to this meric work does not occur in Ellison's suitors, Alcinoos, is at the hands of young man. text; nor does Ellison's protagonist the protagonist, who, like Odysseus, Significant omens, especially those possess the consciousness of Homer's pierces the neck and jaw of his oppo­ involving the flight of birds and those "man of many ways." If Ellison's pro­ nent. The time span encompassed by connected with the divine eagle of tagonist is both a cunning trickster these tales of epic remembering is also Zeus, mark Homer's text. Such bird and liar as well as an effective orator, comparable. Ellison's protagonist imagery also appears in Ellison's ironic his oratorical flights are the result of states that his tale encompasses twenty treatment. Telemachus receives a por­ accident, his deception usually uncon­ years of his life; Odysseus spent ten tent that the suitors will meet with scious. The Mary he desires to find years at Troy and ten years of wander­ disaster, prefigured in the Homeric again— "I was going to Mary's ... to ing in his journey home. text by the battle of the eagles: Mary I thought, to Mary"—is not the Finally, Ellison's tale reveals a lin­ circumspect and inevitably attainable guistic character that literary scholar and for his sake Zeus of the wide brows domestic dream of Penelope; rather, Mae Gwendolyn Henderson has sent forth two eagles, soaring high from his final destination is the dark yet called "heteroglossia"—the various the peak of the mountain. These for a while exceptionally lighted descent into an social dialects particular to individual sailed on the stream of wind together, underground cellar of the individual groups, in this case the black commu­ wing and wing, close together, wings consciousness. Darkness is light, the nity. That Ellison's tale speaks in spread wide. (11.146-149) light of 1,369 bulbs. many and varied tongues reflecting The same imagery directly precedes A list of parodic/ironic parallels "the complex matrix that is the sub­ the destruction of the suitors: between the texts reveals Ellison's jectivity" of its protagonist is borne out project: The vet signifies Homer's in the public utterances of the protago­ A bird flew over them on the left side. Tiresius, since the Golden Day is an nist. These range from literal repeti­ This was a high-flown eagle, and carried American land of the dead and the vet tion of Booker T. Washington to the a tremulous pigeon. (X.242-243) a true prophet doomed to remain there call-response of African American While the bird signs are positive for forever. Sibyl and Emma are an inter­ preaching, from glosses on song titles Odysseus— "indeed, the bird signs esting recasting of Circe/Calypso. and lyrics to playing the dozens— were good at this going"—for Ellison And Tod Clifton, that most handsome that African American game of verbal the images of eagles'and pigeons and all-powerful warrior who drops combat in which each antagonist become objects of parody. If eagles out of the struggle and reenters it only insults the female relatives of the other. prophesy the bloody triumph of to meet his foreordained doom, is not Stylistic shifts from naturalistic to Odysseus in the Homeric text, they unlike the noble Achilles. Further, expressionistic to surrealistic utterance symbolize the exploitation and help­ the protagonist, following his return reflect the state of his consciousness. lessness of Ellison's naive protagonist. from the downtown underworld, con­ He is a man—if not, like Odysseus, He is not an eagle; he is a pigeon, a ducts a funeral for Clifton that suggests a master—of many ways, of varied guileless tool of others. This image, Odysseus's funeral for the tragic selves and discourses. □ like that of Zeus's eagle, is a constant in Ellison's text. It appears first in chapter two when the protagonist is blindly observing the statue of the founder, a visual text he cannot read: I am standing puzzled, unable to decide whether the veil is really being lifted, or lowered more firmly in place; whether I am witnessing a revelation or a more efficient blinding. And as I gaze, there is a rustle of wings and I see a flock of starlings flighting before me and, when I look again, the bronze face, whose empty eyes look upon a world I have never seen, runs with liquid chalk—creating another ambiguity to puzzle my groping mind: Why is a bird-soiled statue more com­ manding than one that is clean? Later the protagonist finds himself soiled as he flees the riot— "even the birds; even the pigeons and the spar­ rows and the goddam gulls! I ran blindly ... running from the birds to what, I did not know." Battle with Cicones, Romare Bearden

28 MAY/JUNE 1992 hrotnug Bri 8099; Berlin Charlottenburg, LIMC Ahles 642 AchilleusI

Figure 1.

BY JOCELYN PENNY MYTH SMALL IN PICTURES

IMAGES OF THE

TROJAN WAR, FOUGHT IN THE MYCENAEAN PERIOD CA. 1250 B.C. BETWEEN GREEKS AND TROJANS, APPEARED THROUGHOUT CLASSICAL ANTIQUITY WITH DIFFER­ ENT EMPHASES AT DIFFERENT TIMES. EACH PERIOD RETOLD THE SAME STORIES, BUT IN ITS OWN WAY. ONE OF THE MOST FAMOUS EPI­ SODES OF THAT WAR, TOLD BY HOMER IN TH E ILIAD , IS THE STORY OF THE RAN­ SOM OF HECTOR. ACHILLES AVENGES

5 Finally, a Roman silver cup with pictures of many objects being from the time of Augustus published for the first time, the LIMC (ca. 27 B.C.-A.D. 14) portrays is the premier resource for classical a politicized version of the iconography. story (Figure 3). Priam again The LIMC works like any other dic­ kneels, but instead of taking tionary. Gods, goddesses, demigods, Achilles by the knees, he heroes, heroines, monsters—all are in­ takes his extended right cluded in alphabetical order with brief hand and kisses it just like summaries of their deeds and what the a barbarian king rendering ancient sources said about them, fol­ obeisance to the emperor lowed by a catalogue of their major rep­ Augustus, to whom Achilles resentations and a discussion of the bears a clear resemblance. changes and vicissitudes in the artistic Figure 2. Over a period of six hundred tradition throughout classical antiquity. years, the same story is con­ Complementing the hardbound vol­ the death of his friend Patroclus by stantly updated to reflect umes, a computerized system has been killing his killer, Hector. Achilles drags the current cultural context. developed at the U.S. Center of the Hector's body—attached by the feet Whether seeking to understand how LIMC at Rutgers University to keep to his chariot—around the walls of a story developed in classical times, track of classical objects with mytho­ Troy, and then returns to the Greek how attitudes toward a story changed logical scenes in American collections. camp with the defiled corpse. Priam, over time, how people dressed, or This arrangement makes it easier to Hector's father, naturally wants his what life was like then, scholars refer find certain kinds of information not son's body back for burial. With the to the Lexicon Iconographicum Mytho- easily ascertained through the alpha­ aid of the god Hermes, he sneaks into logiae Classicae (LIMC), an enormous betically arranged hardbound volumes the Greek camp to persuade Achilles illustrated dictionary of classical of the LIMC. For example, a scholar either through words or gifts. mythology that receives NEH support. can find all mythological scenes depict­ The earliest representation of the The project synthesizes current knowl­ ing women on Greek objects made dur­ ransom of Hector appears on a bronze edge of classical iconography from ing the archaic and classical periods. relief from Olympia (Figure 1), dated the end of the Mycenaean period to Even nonmythological questions can be to the early sixth century B.C. Hector the beginning of Christianity. The answered, as in the case of the scholar lies on the ground with his head by LIMC differs markedly from its pre­ interested in women working wool. his father and Hermes, on the right. decessors by being organized on an Just as Helen—the most beautiful Priam, bent with age, takes Achilles international scale with nearly forty woman in the Trojan world and the by the chin with his right hand so that countries participating. Each country cause of the Trojan War—was for Achilles cannot throw his head back documents the classical objects with Christopher Marlowe "the face that to say no, but must nod down to say mythological scenes in its own collec­ launched a thousand ships," the LIMC yes. So Thetis in the Iliad "came and tions and from its excavations abroad. is, for scholars, a project that is launch­ sat beside [Zeus] with her left hand Of a projected eight volumes, five ing a thousand endeavors. □ embracing/his knees, but took him have already been published. Each underneath the chin with her right volume appears in two parts—text hand" (Iliad 1.500-501, translation by and plates— with up to five thousand Since 1980, the LIMC has been supported Richmond Lattimore [Chicago 1961]). plates per volume. Never before have by $535,000 outright and $284J550 match­ In the fourth century, a South Italian so many photographs of classical ob­ ing from the Reference Materials program fragment shows a slightly later mo­ jects been published together; and, of the Division of Research Programs. ment (Figure 2). Priam takes Achilles, ainl uem Copenhagen; Museum, National seated on the couch, by the knees— the other ancient gesture of entreaty. Priam now wears Phrygian dress, be­ cause people from Asia Minor, where Troy is located, wore that kind of attire at the time this vase was made,

and the Greeks did not realize that LIMC people from the period of the Trojan War had dressed differently. In fact, 687 AchilleusI this costume becomes standard for representations of barbarian kings through the Roman era.

Jocelyn Penny Small, a classical archae­ ologist, is director of the U.S. Center of the Lexicon Iconographicum Mytho- logiae Classicae based at Rutgers Uni­ versity in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Figure 3.

30 MAY/JUNE 1992 Towards the end, the Germans decided to deal with us. They started moving troops around us in a circle, and it looked as if we were going to be in real trouble.

Conversation Air Service, which was getting ready inefficient indeed. We figured some continued from page 9 to jump a whole battalion of its people armored force that was part of Patton's into France and it was thought we'd army would come dashing along that in a battle, and there's a monument go in with them. But that didn't come coast, and at that point we would let to them now in the spot with all their off. We went back to London. Finally loose everything we had. That was names. But that was an SS outfit, we took off and this time we said to the idea. really nasty. each other, and we said to the pilot, "If Well, it worked pretty well except Cheney: I know you were young but you don't see any lights, drop us any­ that we couldn't keep these chaps it must have been a very frightening way. We can't stand this." He said, quiet. They'd been waiting to shoot thing to jump in and know that... "All right, if that's what you want." Germans for four years. Luckily, the Knox: No. It was very exciting, as a He was one of these British pilots— wonderful thing about this kind of matter of fact. "all right, very good, chaps." But he operation is that, back at the base, they Cheney: Really? Not frightening? did see the lights and we went in. only know what you tell them, so you Knox: No. When you've been trained Cheney: How long were you in there? can do what you like. So every now and then we would have a little opera­ for this thing and have thought about Knox: It must have been about tion to keep the troops quiet. There it in all kinds of ways . .. August 15 that the first American was one awful one when everybody Cheney: You want to go. troops came through. ran out of cigarettes, and in those days, Knox: That's it. You can't stand wait­ Cheney: Meanwhile, what you'd been of course, everybody smoked like ing. In fact, we had a horrible thing doing is collecting weapons that were fiends. And so ... happen to us. We were supposed to dropped from planes. Is that right? Cheney: You conducted a raid. go in on July 4th, and the aircraft got Knox: We were calling in weapons over the landing ground and there Knox: We conducted a raid. We killed with radio messages. Somebody who were no signals. There were supposed a couple of Germans, too, pour souls. had a bunch of young people they to be three flashlights in a row or They died for tobacco. The awful thing were taking to the woods to fight three fires, and one of them flashing a was that we didn't get any cigarettes. would send one person to us, and we prearranged Morse letter. There was We got a particularly horrible brand would ask, "Have you got a drop nothing there. So the pilot started of French pipe tobacco. ground? Where is it? Show us on the back. We felt terrible. There were no Cheney: How long were you behind map." We would check it out to be lights in England, because there were the lines? sure that there wasn't some kind of still a lot of German aircraft coming wild hill or something, because the Knox: I suppose about five weeks. across. When the lights went on at plane was coming in at 500 feet, so Cheney: Did you ever feel in danger? the last moment, the pilot was direct­ we had to be a little careful. Obviously, when you ran these raids ... ly above the field. And he knew that they wouldn't keep the lights on very Cheney: So you were arming the Knox: Towards the end, the Germans long, so he went straight down in a resistance. decided to deal with us. They started moving troops around us in a circle, sort of dive, this four-engine bomber, Knox: We were arming the resistance. and pulled up. We couldn't hear any­ Then our problem was to prevent and it looked as if we were going to be in real trouble. We thought we thing for nearly a week. them from using the arms right away. They couldn't take us back to Milton We wanted to build up quite a big might have to move the whole outfit Hall because we'd been briefed. We and efficient force and keep it quiet east into the next province. The only trouble was, the way there was barred knew too much. They put us up at a until the exact moment when it would flat in London, just off Oxford Street, do the most good. That would be, of by a chateau. It had been built in the and it was right on the path of the course, when the allied armies broke late nineteenth century by someone buzz bombs which were now coming out of the Normandy pocket where who'd made a fortune in sugar, I think in, the V-ls. You could hear these they were stuck and came along the it was, in Martinique. things groaning away, then they'd Brittany coast heading to Brest. That Cheney: With all the modern conve­ stop, and that meant it was coming port was going to be vital. We didn't niences. down. The only reason we didn't go have a harbor because Cherbourg had Knox: I think with modern conve­ crazy was we found in the closet a been completely destroyed by the niences, but also with pinnacles and demijohn of rum. They hauled us out Germans before it was captured. The that sort of thing. And the Germans again. They said, "We're going to try Allies were still landing everything had naturally occupied this. They con­ again." They took us off to a camp of from these artificial booms that they'd trolled all the routes, and they could an outfit called the SAS, the Special set up off the Normandy coast—very see us when we started to move, so we

HUMANITIES thought, let's see if we can get some kept asking for his PX ration. There mountains. Let's see, in 1944, the Ger­ air on that. We sent a message back were Germans in the place, too. They mans were driven north out of Florence, explaining what was going on, and had to keep him quiet. But of all the and it looked as if they were going to the answer came back saying, "It's optimistic things, I mean, it's really evacuate Italy. But there was still one not an important enough objective. wonderful. He wasn't prepared to die. mountain barrier, the Apennine range, Air is scarce," and of course it was Cheney: You tell these stories so won­ which separates Florence and Tuscany being used on a terrific scale in the derfully. When you look back on the from the Po Valley. The Germans battle of Normandy. whole course of your life, is there any had a very strong defensive position I remembered something, and that other time that was ever as exhilarat­ there. It was known as the Gothic was that the radio operators and the ing as the war? Line, and it looked that time as if they communications staff at our base in Knox: Well, being in love. Otherwise, were going to evacuate it. And at that England were British naval personnel. no. I mean, compared with this, my point, all the partisan outfits in the Po So I sent another message saying, existence has been rather humdrum. Valley and elsewhere rose up. Some "I've just discovered that the chateau of them actually declared a republic. Cheney: What does this tell us about is used as a rest home for German However, Alexander, the allied gen­ human nature? You talk about this submarine crews from Brest." We eral, was not able to push on. when you talk about Thucydides and got three planes on the place the next how he focused on war. Cheney: Was he British? morning. Then it turned out that this Knox: He was British. He was the was true, that there were some sub­ Knox: I think war does bring out the overall commander. And his troops marine crews there. So that sort of best in people and also the worst in were not in shape to push on. So all eased things. And just about this people. The worst is very bad and the these partisans, the only thing they point, it became clear that the Germans best is quite remarkable—all the cour­ could do was to run through the moun­ couldn't afford to deal with us. The age people show, and the self-sacrifice. tains to our side. And there they were. breakthrough had been launched and It seems at times almost beyond hu­ They were in camps, and no one knew Patton's tanks were on the way. man capacities. It sometimes takes a war to bring out the best in people. what to do with them, until the allied Cheney: What was it like when you command realized that it was very first saw the American troops coming? That's no argument for having one. I don't mean that. short of men. They turned this job It must have been amazing. over to the OSS, to organize these Cheney: No. I understand. Knox: The first ones I saw were dead, people and to command them. In a unfortunately. They ran into an am­ Knox: And, of course, the spectacle way it was an ideal place for the par­ bush, and there were two of them, of atomic war is something different. tisans. Between the coastal road to actually, dead in the jeep. Then some­ Cheney: Well, why did Thucydides the west and the Futa Pass to Bologna thing happened—a woman ran out of focus on war? to the east there was really no way a house and screamed in French that Knox: Mainly, I think, because the through the mountains except a couple there was a wounded American Greek states were constantly at war. of roads that it was easy to block, and inside. He had a wound in the chest They were all separate cities with their the Germans had blocked them by that was bleeding and it was near the separate ambitions and their separate blowing down the side of the precipice. heart, and I thought, "He's a goner." frontiers. War was a sort of perma­ So we held about 75 miles of front. So I looked at his tag. It always had nent condition. In fact, Plato says We held mountaintops and they held the religion on the tag, and his was that peace is merely a sort of break be­ mountaintops and we watched each Roman Catholic. So I said, "It's all tween wars. There's no such thing as other during the day. At night, we right, you're among friends." My uni­ constant peace. Both the republic of could go all over the place, and did. form didn't look—I mean, it was a Plato and the model city of Aristotle These partisans, many of them, came British camouflage jacket and I'd lost make provisions for war, constant from the other side of the mountains, my hat on the jump, so I had a black training of citizens, and so on. Of from Modena. They had been smug­ beret on. I said, "I'm an American course, Thucydides was writing about glers, and they knew these mountains. officer. It's all right, you're going to the war that he claimed was the great­ There were smugglers because in be okay." And I said, "I'll send for a est and most important war to have Italy every single provincia, like Tus­ priest." He said, "I don't want a god­ ever happened in history. He had been cany and Modena, had customs. If damn priest, I want a doctor." Well. a participant, an admiral, and that's you brought rice from the Po Valley to So, we got the local doctor, and he what fascinated me. He says at one Florence, you paid duty. The same if looked at it and said, "If he's still alive, point that war is a hard taskmaster you took olive oil from Tuscany. So he's probably going to live. I can't and it sharpens, I think he said it bru­ these chaps would take great sacks of figure him out." The doctors had an talizes, the people who take part in it. rice and cans of olive oil through the underground that had been helping Cheney: But it didn't brutalize you. mountains at night on paths that they us—in fact, we got them a decoration knew, and sell them. They knew paths Knox: I was pretty brutal at the time, after the war, two of them—by taking that weren't on the map—that the Ger­ I think. One had to be. care of our wounded. What they did mans didn't know—and they could was slip them into civilian hospitals go everywhere. as traffic casualties. So we would go through and come Cheney: How interesting. WITH THE PARTISANS IN ITALY back the same night, except one awful Knox: So they got him into a hospital occasion we kept going, and it was in a part still controlled by the Ger­ Cheney: You jumped in again into too late to turn back. I was getting mans. I heard later that they had to Italy. worried. They said, "Non si preoccupi, put him under sedation because he Knox: No, in Italy, we were in the capitano"— "Don't worry." Pretty soon

32 MAY/JUNE 1992 I think war does bring out the best in people and also the worst in people. The worst is very bad and the best is quite remarkable ...

we had to hole up and wait a whole the famous Palazzo Malatesta, all in day. We went on the next night. white marble—that was just dust and Finally I said, "Where the hell are you rubble, smashed by British artillery. going?" and one of them said, "Well They had the plans, of course, and put you see, Rinaldo here, his mother is it all back together. But at the time, sick." We'd gone all the way to see there wasn't a bridge left standing. Rinaldo's mother. I was furious. But The Ponte Vecchio, the exception, was luckily, on the way back we picked saved only because the German com­ up some prisoners, so it worked out. mander who was ordered to blow all Cheney: Tell me the part about en­ the bridges thought, "My God, I can't countering the text of Virgil issued blow it. It's the oldest bridge in under Mussolini. You were in an old Europe," and sent a special telegram, castle? in fact, which got to Hitler, and he was told to leave it. But they had to Knox: As part of the main offensive make it impassable, so what he did in April, we were told, "All right, you was blow down all the buildings for can capture the mountains over there about a quarter of a mile on either side. and just keep going." So we did, we captured the mountains. It was rather Cheney: So the text you picked up, rough going, but we did. And then we the Virgil, the passage was about ruin went through all the way to Modena, and devastation after war. which was rather wonderful. We had Knox: Yes, exactly, yes. to go on foot and we had to wade Cheney: You know, one of the big across rivers. It was like an old Roman Captain Knox (center) with debates that goes on in the humani­ war. In fact, there'd been a great Italian partisans, 1945 ties, not just now but for a very long Roman civil war in that area, when time, is whether or not Virgil's words Modena was called Mutina. Anyway, can transcend their time and really when Charles I, during the civil war, the Germans sort of held. They weren't speak to us. This certainly seems to was at Oxford, and he went into one fighting. They just had a rear guard argue that they can. of the college libraries, opened a text to hold us. of Virgil, and came to a passage which Knox: I think so, and in other ways, Cheney: This is '45 now? predicted the fate of Aeneas—that he too. His great poem, the Aeneid, is Knox: This is '45, April. The Germans would be faced with hostile people, about empire, about what it costs in would just leave a rear party to hold his own people against him, that he sacrifice, and this is something for us us up for a couple of hours with a would die and be left unburied on to think about, too. heavy machine gun. And at one point the shore. Some of that did happen Cheney: You've lectured at the Naval we ran into one of those and had to to Charles. So I thought, I'll do that. War College, I know, about the rele­ jump for it. We were in a house that I flipped it open and came across a vance of ancient texts to modern for­ had been bombed and were lying in passage in the Georgies, the Virgil poem eign policy. the rubble there, in shelter. We sent a in four books which is about work on Knox: That was because of Stansfield flanking party around to get behind the land, and came to a passage Turner. When he was appointed com­ the machine gun. So we had to wait which was a pretty good description mandant of the school up in Newport until the firing stopped, and that's of the Italy we were in. It was about he put in a very rigid schedule. He where I saw the book. It was a special the farmers having to leave their fields added a strategy course that was to text of Virgil issued by the Academy. and the place being ravaged and so begin with Thucydides. Well, Thucy­ I hadn't read any Latin for years. I on, and I suddenly felt: He seems to dides, to the incoming marine and just thought, I wonder if I can still be talking about now. Italy, you naval officers, consisted of the Penguin read it. Then I thought, why don't I know, was a dreadful mess. It was so text full of names they'd never seen try something. In the Middle Ages, destructive, that war. It's frightful. before and couldn't pronounce. Very they used Virgil as a kind of I-Ching. And the people don't realize when tough going. He almost had a mutiny You would open to any place in the they go there now what they're look­ on his hands. book, and the passage there would - ing at. Every single bridge in Florence The next thing I knew, I was on a tell you what was going to happen or was blown to smithereens except the navy plane flown up there. I must tell you something important. There's Ponte Vecchio. They've all been put say, it was something—not just the a famous incident in English history back just as they were. In Ravenna, lectures, but the seminars were extra-

HUMANITIES 33 ordinary. We'd have a long table and "Defensive strategy? It's absolutely the Spartans come in and lay waste to seven or eight people. And these ridiculous. You can't have a defen­ Athenian territory all around the city. Marine colonels and so on would ask sive strategy. It's a contradiction in This was the other side of the strategy, me things like, "Well, these galleys, terms." I said, "But, look, he wasn't waiting, and they had to put up with what draft did they have?" and all talking about a victory. All he needed this, and Pericles became unpopular kinds of things. I'd just say, "I have was a stalemate." And he said, "You and was not reelected for that year. to look that up." I'd never thought can't even have a stalemate with a So it was a democracy in the sense about these problems. defensive strategy. You've got to take that you would change the leadership. There were a certain number of for­ the offensive." At this point, the mod­ It was a peculiar democracy because eign students there from allied navies. erator, who was from the staff, was it was direct and not representative. And there was one wonderful occasion getting distinctly annoyed. He sud­ The meeting of the Athenian assembly when a sort of national character was denly said to this chap, "Would you was like a town meeting. Anybody revealed. I was talking to them about please put on your identification." could go—any man, that is; women the Periclean strategy in the war, which Everybody was supposed to have couldn't take part. was defensive. Since Athens was a one. And he said, "What happened Cheney: Nor did slaves, of course. naval power and couldn't really beat to it? Who are you?" and the fellow Knox: No, nor slaves. Anyway, all Sparta on land, and Sparta couldn't answered, "Captain Levy, Israeli the offices were yearly, and at the end really capture Athens because the for­ Navy." Everybody burst into help­ of the year you had to give your ac­ tifications were so strong and the con­ less laughter. counts to the people. Anyone could nection to the port was well enforced, ask you a question about what you'd all Athens really had to do was to done or where the money went and wait, because it was Sparta that started ON ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY so on. After a while, as the century the war to try and cut down Athenian wore on, they decided that there wasn't power. If they went on banging their Cheney: What does the story of much point really in electing people heads against a brick wall, they would Pericles tell us about leadership in a for most of the offices. They would have had to stop at some point and it democracy? just draw lots, from a select list prob­ would in effect have been an Athe­ Knox: Well, Thucydides says that ably. We don't know, but they must nian victory. Athens was in name a democracy but have excluded people who were re­ Cheney: And Pericles understood this. in fact the rule of one man. This one garded as quite hopeless. Otherwise Knox: Yes, that was his policy. It man had to be reelected every year to it was felt that any citizen could do didn't work because, of course, the the position on the board of generals, any of these jobs, with one exception: plague took such a toll among the from which, so to speak, he directed general. There was a board of ten gen­ Athenians. Anyway, we were talking Athenian policy. After the plague, erals because they were organized in about this, and there was one officer he wasn't reelected. People got sick ten tribes, so-called—ten tribal regi­ who was very impatient. He said, of waiting, because they had to watch ments. For that, you had to be elected. And you could be elected year after year. Not many people were. Pericles was, which meant that after two or three years, he was the one figure who had been consistently in a position of authority for some time. Cheney: What was the secret to his being able to be elected repeatedly and yet manage the democracy? That's the problem, being loved by the people and at the same time managing the country—the city-state—in a way that's decent and wise, and sometimes tough and difficult. Knox: He was a political genius of some kind, obviously, because he was very much admired and loved. We are told that he was a magnificent orator, too, though we have only the speeches written by Thucydides for him, so to speak. This ability was vital in Athens. If you couldn't persuade your fellow citizens, you were not going to get anywhere. The thing that's impor­ tant is you have to be able to persuade the people to do something that they don't like. There's a better example of this in Knox receiving the Bronze Star from General William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan. Themistocles, the original Athenian

34 MAY/JUNE 1992 It was a peculiar democracy because it was direct and not representative. The meeting of the Athenian assembly was like a town meeting. Anybody could go—any man, that is; women couldn't take part.

leader who led Athens during the below was organized by one particu­ gradually broadened towards the end Persian War in the 480s. Just before lar clever politician who managed to of the century until it became a full- the war started, the silver mines in get supreme power, and he's what fledged democracy. The Areopagus Attica ran into a new and very rich they called a tyrant. It's not a Greek was stripped of all of its powers and vein, and it was immediately proposed word, tyrannos; it comes probably became simply a court of law. in the assembly that they share the from one of the Eastern languages. proceeds so there'd be a bonus for And it simply means a ruler who has seized power and retains it by armed every citizen. But Themistocles sug­ IN DEFENSE OF SOPHISTS gested that they use it instead to build force. Now he may be a good or a bad a fleet and persuaded them. Can you ruler, and many of them were not Cheney: You've written about how imagine? Instead of getting money in tyrants in our sense at all. In fact, the rise of democracy led to the your pocket, you were going to get a they seemed to be rather progressive humanities. fleet. He did persuade them, and people. On the island of Samos, the Knox: Yes, with the so-called Sophists. that's what saved Athens and the West. tyrant Polycrates carried out great If it hadn't been for that fleet, the public works so as to keep people Cheney: I am just amazed when I read Persians would have overrun Greece. employed. There's the famous tunnel you on the Sophists because you make such a good case for them. Cheney: And there would have been that was built to bring water to the Knox: Well, a case has to be made for no Periclean Golden Age. town. And they engaged in a forward foreign policy and trade. Usually them because Plato blackened their Knox: There'd have been no democ­ they lived out their lives, and then, name. racy or anything. of course, the son succeeded, and the Cheney: Is it possible that that is a Cheney: You know, that is an inter­ son usually wasn't as clever as his bit of sophistry? Are you making the esting question. Somebody asked me father. At this point you either went worse the better cause when you write this the other day, and I had no good back to oligarchy, though probably about the Sophists? answer. Why did democracy arise with a wider group of people control­ Knox: I think the results of their teach­ first in Greece? ling policy, or, as in the case of Athens, ing were both good and bad. This is Knox: Nobody knows. In a way, the you ended up in a democracy. true of most teaching. But certainly question really is why did politics in Athens wasn't the only one. It's the they've been much maligned. Plato is that sense arise in Greece? In Egypt, one we know most about. Argos was such a great artist. It's so brilliant, in Babylon, and so on—in these king­ another one. And in Sicily, in Syracuse, this picture of them, that it's hard to doms run by divine kings and priestly for a while they had a democracy believe that there was more to it than castes and so on—there weren't really about the same time. Of course, the that, but there obviously was. any politics. There might be intrigue Athenian democracy at the beginning Cheney: When I read you, I keep at the top, but the idea of a discussion was fairly limited. I mean, there was wanting to say, "Stop, wait." It's true, of policy on the citizen level begins in a court, the Court of the Areopagus, being able to persuade your fellow Greece, and it begins before democ­ which consisted of all the ex-magis­ citizen is essential in democracy, but racy. Before democracy you had an trates, and which exercised an enor­ the worse is still the worse cause. oligarchy—an upper-class, partly mous influence on policy. People de­ And if you can manage to make the aristocratic and, as the years went on, ferred to it. But as the years went by, worse seem the better cause, I'm not partly commercial government—as Athens became a permanent naval sure you've done your fellow citizens in the great city of Corinth—which power with its wide-flung empire and a favor. guided the affairs of the city by discus­ all those different cities were contrib­ Knox: Yes, but the same word in sion with a restricted number of uting money to it for its fleet. This Greek that you translate and I some­ people taking part in the discussion. depended now not on the landed class, times translate "worse" and "better" Then you got what were called mostly the farmers, who were the peo­ also means "stronger" and "weaker." tyrants. The lower classes, of course, ple that had armor and fought in the felt depressed under this oligarchy. Cheney: So it's complete relativism, ranks at Marathon on land; it depended then. As the economic situation got worse, on the men who rowed the ships. and it did, apparently what happened Knox: The weaker cause may not be Cheney: People who rowed the gal­ was that the cities became overpopu­ the worse cause but the one that's leys were citizens? lated, which is why they spread colo­ more difficult to defend. It all depends. nies all over the Mediterranean. People Knox: They were citizens. And they Cheney: I see. just took off to find some other place realized, of course, that everything Knox: At any rate, these were just to plow the earth. The discontent depended on them, so democracy was training devices, and we have a col­

HUMANITIES lection of what are obviously not real Knox: Well, yes, because, you see, Knox: I'd agree with that, because law cases, but rather like what you do they professed to teach. Protagoras although some of the Sophists made in law school. They are remarkable ex­ said he knew how to make a man a philosophical statements—Gorgias amples of the different techniques that better citizen—he meant somebody did, for example—you wouldn't really were used, the argument from proba­ who can take his place in the democ­ call them philosophers. Whereas with bility, for example: Is it conceivable racy, persuade his fellow citizens, Plato, you are in that realm—very that I would attack a man who is twice influence people, and so on. To do much so. as strong as I am? If you once start that, you need not just the tricks of Cheney: What is the state of classical thinking of what's probable, then you rhetoric. You need to know a lot more. studies today? Is it healthy? begin to wonder about the Trojan War. You need to know history, you need Knox: I think it's very healthy. Is it probable that it took ten years? to know poetry because the Greeks Cheney: Or that it was all because of are still under the spell of poetry. Cheney: And what about the state of Helen. Homer is their sacred book. The way the humanities? Knox: And that they had a wooden the Jews have the Torah, and the Bible, Knox: Well, I haven't taught in uni­ horse. You get this rationalistic ap­ and so on, the Greeks have Homer and versities for a long time, but what I proach. Thucydides deals with what is other poets too, including Aeschylus read is not very reassuring. All these probable when, in his first chapters, and the other tragic dramatists. You attempts to break down the common he reconstructs the early history of had to be able to understand these culture that we've always had—at least Greece, and he does have a Trojan texts and use them. You had to know since English-speaking people have War. He says, more or less, if it lasted what was, in effect, anthropology, had any kind of a common culture. ten years, that was because they had something about other peoples. All It is hard, even now, to give stu­ to keep going somewhere else to get this is part of the training to be a full, dents more than a superficial acquain­ supplies. He put his finger on the useful citizen. It's the humanities. tance with the main documents of the weak point. How do you supply an Cheney: Couldn't you look at it Western tradition; all we can do is try army for ten years outside a city another way? That the Sophists had to give them enough so that they will that's besieged? one approach to the humanities and want to read on for themselves later. Take another—the business of in­ the Platonists another, an approach But if we add Asian, African, and other voking human nature—it's a court­ that emphasized the idea of truth, as literatures, I'm afraid that no one will room defense. When I gave the lecture opposed to the extreme relativistic get more than a smattering not only on this at the Naval War College, I con­ stance of the Sophists? of the new additions but also of the structed a Greek sophistic argument, Knox: If you look at what Plato is actu­ texts that have defined our identity a case where there's. a man whose ally recommending in the Republic . .. since the Renaissance. wife has been deceiving him, and he Cheney: Oh, it's very undemocratic. Cheney: But other than that, classical doesn't know this but he says, "I have I understand that. studies are healthy, other than the fact to go across to the island of Aegina that they're part of Western civiliza­ Knox: It isn't very humanistic either. today and I'll be back tonight." She tion, which has been declared "civili­ Poets are not going to be allowed in says, "Yes, dear." But he realizes he's zation non grata." (laughter) the republic unless . .. forgotten a vital document and he I don't mean to keep you much comes back. And what does he find? Cheney: They sing the state song. longer, but there's one part of the His wife in bed with this chap, and he Knox: Yes, right. It sounds like some­ Virgil story you didn't tell. When kills him. He says to the jury, "Human thing that just collapsed recently on you found that copy of the book and nature was too strong for me." Well, the other side of the world. you saw the relevance to your own that sort of argument you can see might Cheney: That's true. life, did that set you on a course of be useful in a courtroom, and in fact classical studies? Knox: I think one has to attribute the the whole business of crime passionnel humanities to the Sophists. They had Knox: Yes. I remember thinking, I in French court is pretty much that. this idea that to be a citizen, you need ought to get back to this, I'll do what Cheney: I suppose what always makes this full, all-around training, and these I was trained for. On the other hand, me uncomfortable just reading about are the things you study. They're still at that point I was thinking of staying the Sophists—obviously, I'm far away the things you study. in the army. I liked the life. I would from my area now, and probably about Cheney: I just read again a book by have, except when I got back here and to ask you ten naive questions—is its inquired about what could happen extreme relativism. Bruce Kimball called Orators and Philosophers, and he suggests that now — and I'll never forget — it was Knox: Yes, it does have that. In fact, there's a school that we would think a colonel talked to me, who said, "Do Protagoras has this famous statement, of the Sophists as representing, and you realize, we've got something like "man is the measure of all things, of another school that we would think 13 million men under arms and they're the existence of what exists and of the of Plato as representing; and that these going to be reduced to about maybe a nonexistence of what does not exist." two forces, the one which is extreme­ million?" He said, "You know what It's interpreted in various ways. Plato ly skeptical, relativistic, and the other will happen to you if you stay in? You suggests one interpretation at one point which has commitment to the prin­ might make corporal." So I said, "Oh, and then something else at another. ciple of truth, have throughout the well." But I'm glad I didn't. I'm glad But at any rate, it's relativism—- history of the humanities come into that happened because I'm very happy you're right. conflict. It's an interesting way to look with what did happen. Cheney: And you do think that the at it since it does seem to explain part Cheney: The army's loss has been humanities came from the Sophists. of what's going on now. classical studies' gain. □

36 MAY/JUNE 1992 CA LENDAR May ♦ June ihr ad ain Pohrt Marion and Richard

"American Studies and the Undergrad­ uate Humanities Curriculum" will be discussed at a conference at Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, May 29-31.

A family in the rural South thins out plants and removes weeds in this photograph from "Field to Factory: Afro-American Migration, 1915-1940," which travels to the Museums at Stony Brook, New York, from June 20 through September 7.

Sanctuary, a 1946 linocut by Wilmer Angier Jennings, is interpreted as a representation This Gros Ventre shield, made of buf­ of either slaves on the underground railroad falo rawhide, buckskin, wool stroud, or victims of the Holocaust in "Bridges and and eagle feathers, is part of the "Art Boundaries: African Americans and Ameri­ of the American Indian Frontier: The can Jews," a current exhibition at the Jewish Collecting of Chandler and Pohrt," Museum in the New-York Historical Society. opening May 24 at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.

Among the Columbian Quincen­ tenary exhibitions continuing throughout the country are "First Encounters: Spanish Exploration in the Caribbean & United States, 1492 to 1570" at the Science Museum of Minnesota in St. Paul, May 29-September 7; "The Age of the Marvelous" at the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston, May 19-August 25; and "1492: Two Worlds of Science" at Library of Congress the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry, Portland, June 20- The "International Bicentennial Confer­ November 1. ence on Percy Bysshe Shelley" will be held at the New York Public Library, May 20-23.

HUMANITIES 37 news and public-affairs broadcasts and movies. A six-day workshop for participants will conclude the program. The course also has far-reaching im­ plications for teaching other languages, according to Twarog. "There are greater numbers of badly prepared teachers of French, Spanish, and German. If this is successful, we will acquire materials and implement programs for those languages."

Wiesel Lectures at Johns Hopkins Nobel Prize winner Elie Wiesel once said, "If there is a single theme that dominates all my writings, all my ob­ sessions, it is that of memory." The Daniel Coit Gilman Lectureship will present Wiesel at the Johns Hopkins Medical Institution on May 27, as part of the "New Perceptions of Memory" New Marianas Council "After sailing for three days, the crew lecture and film series. Wiesel's lecture, was hopelessly lost. Finally, the old Fewer than fifty miles north of Guam "The Ethics of Memory," concludes a navigator stepped in, changing their in the Pacific Ocean lies the newest yearlong public programming effort course some sixty degrees, and within state council of NEH, the Common­ by Johns Hopkins devoted to the phe­ a half day, made it to Fais. The incred­ wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands nomenon of memory, part of a larger ulous volunteer asked how, with no Council for the Humanities. Fourteen endeavor by the institution to renew instruments or apparent signs, the man islands comprise the Marianas with a dialogue between humanists, the medi­ knew that Fais lay there, precisely in total land mass of 182 square miles. cal profession, and the general public. the canoe's path. The navigator sol­ The capital island is Saipan, where Institution Medical Hopkins Johns emnly replied: 'It's always been there.'" the council will be located. William R. Barrineau, executive director, says Dial-a-Professor that the Marianas' two populations, the Chamorros and Carolinians, are Ohio State University is keeping pace facing an erosion of their culture and with current events by improving the values. The council will be supporting Russian skills of foreign language projects that maintain these traditions, teachers. Through a telephone teacher- especially those that involve the assisted program, secondary school manamko, or elders of the community. teachers will spend fifteen minutes "In Micronesia, the proper practice each week for six months speaking of certain intricate customs literally conversational Russian on the phone means the difference between life and with a fluent Ohio State professor. death," says Barrineau. Leon Twarog, professor emeritus of To illustrate this, he tells the story the Slavic department at Ohio State, of a young Peace Corps volunteer who has developed an unusual opportunity had been allowed to accompany a for thirty Russian teachers from schools Elie Wiesel canoe on an ocean voyage to Fais, a around the country to strengthen their tiny spit of sand some two hundred listening and speaking proficiency. Since 1985, Johns Hopkins has been miles away, which was a rookery for While all participants are currently exploring the historical relationship green sea turtles. "The voyage would Russian language instructors, they between the humanities and medicine take several days. Precise navigation have varying levels of experience and through a series of NEH-funded pub­ was a must and one of the oldest and skills. lic film viewings, videotaped lectures, most reliable native navigators was "These are teachers who may not discussions, and symposia. Concerned planning to make the voyage. But the speak Russian in class, who cover only that this relationship had disappeared volunteer, being something of a sailor the basics of grammar," Twarog ex­ from the immediate human reality of himself, produced a chart, a sextant, plains. "They will never enroll in an medical care-giving, the project direc­ and a compass, and persuaded the institute or a class because they fear tors set out to reestablish this connec­ navigator to let him direct the course. showing their ignorance." One-on- tion in their urban community. To "Reluctantly, the old navigator agreed one telephone instruction avoids these achieve these ends, the series has also to let the volunteer and modern sci­ obstacles, says Twarog, whose project examined topics such as "The Vision ence take over where tradition and is supported by NEH. of Tragedy," "Reading the Past: custom had never failed. However, Integrated with the conversations Archaeologies of Medical Thought," he remained with the party to see how will be exposure to the cultural and "The New Sciences of the Past." the instruments worked. media—viewing videotapes of Soviet — Robin L. Baur

38 MAY/JUNE 1992 HUMANITIES GUIDE FOR THOSE WHO ARE THINKING OF APPLYING FOR AN NEH GRANT

A SCHOLAR ASSUMES THE • • • politics and culture in Europe in the persona of Frederick Douglass years leading up to the events of 1492, under a chautauqua tent in the fall of Granada, and the transmis­ Minot, North Dakota. A regional insti­ sion of European and African cultural tute plans lectures at locales along a traditions to the Americas. 1,000-mile walk undertaken by Public Another ongoing project that brings eighteenth-century naturalist John the history, theory, and criticism of Lawson as he traversed the Carolinas. the arts to the public is the American A high school group studies Shake­ Dance Festival in Durham, North speare after school and watches behind Humanities Carolina. In conjunction with a national the scenes as the Folger Theater mounts tour, the group will organize programs Measure for Measure. on the history of African American These are a few of the diverse proj­ dance using slides, videos of African ects supported by the Public Humani­ Projects American choreographers, and panel ties Projects program of the Division discussions by scholars of dance his­ of Public Programs. Unlike the divi­ tory and theory. sion's other three programs (Humani­ Sometimes a number of different ties Projects in Media, Humanities institutions will work together to Projects in Museums and Historical BY WILSONIA CHERRY mount an array of public programs, Organizations, and Humanities Proj­ as when the Brooklyn Historical ects in Libraries and Archives), Public social, architectural, and cultural his­ Society, the Mercantile Library, the Humanities Projects (PHP) does not tory of the White House. The monthly Walt Whitman Birthplace, and the restrict its grant making to a single set lecture series will engage other cul­ Museum of the City of New York of constituencies or activities. Rather, tural institutions in Washington, D.C., planned symposia, lectures, readings, it encourages a range of applicants to including the Martin Luther King and walking tours to explore Whitman's be creative in finding effective ways Library, the Historical Society of Wash­ life, work, and legacy. In another to bring scholarship in the humanities ington, the Garden Club of America, instance of cooperation, six states— to public audiences across the country. and the American Institute of Archi­ Washington, Idaho, Montana, Wyo­ Applicants include historical societies, tects, to examine topics such as "The ming, and North and South Dakota— colleges and universities, community White House: Planners and Builders" worked with the Montana Historical groups, and performing arts organi­ and "First Ladies: Influence in Their Society to investigate their common zations. These grantees have used a Time." The exhibition will travel to heritage in community forums, using variety of innovative formats, includ­ various presidential historic sites. A a slide-tape overview and a booklet ing symposia, community forums, book of photographs and essays will of essays. Large or small, multistate debates, festivals, lecture series, after­ also be published and made available or local, PHP projects are character­ theater discussions, brochures, and to the public. ized by both their scholarship and the books. PHP is not a program where In addition, the State University particular suitability of format and "anything goes," but one where all of New York, College at Brockport, subject matter to the public. things are possible. coordinated scholarly symposia, exhi­ The Endowment welcomes appli­ From time to time anniversaries bitions, and a film and lecture series cations to PHP from nonprofit insti­ have served to focus PHP projects on commemorating the fiftieth anniver­ tutions and organizations for planning subjects or themes of broad scholarly sary of America's entry into World or implementation grants. Deadlines interest. For example, the White House War II. Similarly, the Waverly Consort, are semiannual, in March and Sep­ Historical Association received a grant a group devoted to the performance tember. We invite potential applicants to coincide with the two-hundredth of early music, responded to the to write to the program briefly describ­ anniversary of the laying of the corner­ Endowment's initiative on the five- ing the proposed project and request­ stone of the White House. The pro­ hundredth anniversary of Columbus's ing guidelines and application forms. grams include a symposium, monthly voyages with "Musical Reflections of The staff will be happy to work with discussion programs, a traveling exhi­ the Year 1492: Cultural Encounters in prospective applicants. Drafts should bit with education programs, and a the Age of Discovery." The multiyear be submitted six weeks in advance of publication to examine the political, project will employ lectures, colloquia, the deadlines. For further informa­ exhibitions, radio programs, and pro­ tion, contact the Division of Public Wilsonia Cherry is program officer for gram books to provide a cultural con­ Programs, NEH, 1100 Pennsylvania Public Humanities Projects in the Divi­ text for the age's musical repertories. Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20506, sion of Public Programs. Themes include the confluence of 202/786-0271.

HUMANITIES 39 ■ Modern Language Association, Morton N. • • • Cohen Award, 1991, for a distinguished edition of letters Darwin, Charles. The Correspondence of Award Winners Charles Darwin. Vols. 1 -7. Edited by Frederick Burkhardt and Sydney Smith. Cambridge, ■ Alaska Historical Society, Historian of the Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1985-1991. Year Award, for research and publications ■ National Jewish Book Award in Scholar­ in the field of Alaskan history ship, 1990 Fienup-Riordan, Ann. The Real People and EX Cohen, Jeremy. ‘‘Be Fertile and Increase, the Children of Thunder: The Yup'ik Eskimo Fill the Earth and Master It": The Ancient Encounter with Moravian Missionaries John and Medieval Career of a Biblical Text. and Edith Kilbuck. Norman: University of Ithaca: Cornell University, 1989. Oklahoma Press, 1991. ■ North American Conference on British ■ American Association of State and Local Studies, John Ben Snow Prize in History History, Award of Merit, 1991 and the Social Sciences, 1991 de Caro, Frank. Folklife in Louisiana Photo­ LIBRB Peck, Linda Levy. Court Patronage and Cor­ graphy: Images of Tradition (museum cata­ ruption in Early Stuart England. Cambridge, logue). Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univer­ Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1990. sity Press, 1990. ■ PEN Book of the Month Club, Translation Horne, Catherine Wilson. Crossroads of Prize, 1991, for an innovative translation Clay: The Southern Alkaline-Glazed Stone­ closer to the text than any previous English ware Tradition (museum catalogue). Columbia: NEH translation University of South Carolina Press, 1990. Dostoevsky, Fyodor. The Brothers Smith, Barbara Sweetland, and Barnett, Karamazov. Translated by Richard Pevear Redmond J., eds. Russian America: The and Larissa Volokhonsky. San Francisco: Forgotten Frontier (museum catalogue). BOOKS North Point Press, 1990. Tacoma: Washington State Historical ■ Phi Beta Kappa Society, Christian Gauss Society, 1990. PUBLISHED Award, 1991, for outstanding work of ■ American Historical Association, George literary scholarship or criticism Louis Beer Prize, 1991 RECENTLY Altick, Richard D. The Presence o f the Gillingham, John R. Coal, Steel, and the Present: Topics of the Day in the Victorian Rebirth o f Europe, 1945-1955. Cambridge, WITH NEH Novel. Columbus: Ohio State University Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Press, 1991. ■ American Historical Association, Leo SUPPORT ■ Phi Beta Kappa Society, Ralph Waldo Gershoy Award, 1991 Emerson Award, 1991 Nader, Helen Liberty in Absolutist Spain: Degler, Carl N. In Search of Human Nature. The Hapsburg Sale of Towns, 1516-1700. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990 Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, Internazionale di Studi Etnoantropologici ■ Piedmont Center for the Study of Middle 1990. Pitre—Salomone Marino and Extreme Orient in Turin, Italy, CESMEO ■ American Historical Association, Joan Pentikainen, Juha Y. Kalevala Mythology. Prize Kelly Memorial Prize, 1991 Translated and edited by Ritva Poom. Lariviere, Richard W. A Critical Edition Glenn, Susan A. Daughters of the Shtetl: Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. and Translation of the Hindu Legal Text Life and Labor in the Immigrant Generation. ■ Dance Perspectives Foundation, De la Naradasmrti. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. Torre Bueno Prize, 1990, for best dance- ■ Pulitzer Prize in History, 1990 ■ Association of American Publishers, Out­ history book Ulrich, Laurel T. A Midwife’s Tale: The Life of standing Book in Philosophy and Religion, Souritz, Elizabeth. Soviet Choreographers Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785- 1990 in the 1920s. Edited by Sally Banes. Trans­ 1812. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990. Zuckert, Catherine H. Natural Rights and lated by Lynn Visson. Durham, N.C.: Duke ■ Quarterly Review of Film and Video, the American Imagination: Political Philo­ University Press, 1990. Katherine Singer Kovacs Prize in Film, sophy in Novel Form. Lanham: Rowman ■ Gustavus Myers Center for the Study of TV, and Video Studies, 1990 and Littlefield, 1990. Human Rights in the United States, out­ Harpole, Charles, ed. History of the Amer­ ■ Association for Asian Studies, Joseph standing book on human rights in the ican Cinema. Vol. 1, The Emergence of Levenson Prize, 1991, for outstanding United States, 1991 Cinema: The American Screen to 1907, by work on pre-twentieth-century China Foner, Eric, and Olivia Mahoney. A Charles Musser. Vol. 2, The Transformation Wu Hung. The Wu Liong Shrine: The House Divided: America in the Age of of Cinema, 1907-1915. by Eileen Bowser. Ideology of Early Chinese Pictorial Art. Lincoln (museum catalogue). New York: Vol. 3, An Evening's Entertainment: The Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989. Chicago Historical Society and W.W. Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915-1928, ■ Bancroft Prize, 1990; Mississippi Historical Norton and Company, 1990. by Richard Koszarski. New York: Charles Association, McLemore Prize, 1991; and ■ History of Science Society, Pfizer Award, Scribner's Sons, 1990. Gustavus Meyers Center for the Study of 1991, for best history of science book pub­ ■ Society for Cinema Studies, Jay Leyda Human Rights in the United States, Award lished in the past three years Prize in Cinema Studies, 1990, and Theatre for Distinguished Writing in Race Rela­ Desmond, Adrian. The Politics of Evolution: Library Association, Best Book of the tions, 1991 Morphology. Medicine, and Reform in Radi­ Year in Film and Broadcasting, 1990 McMillen, Neil R. Dark Journey: Black cal London. Chicago: University of Chicago Musser, Charles. The Emergence of Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. Press. 1989. Cinema: The American Screen to 1907. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1989. ■ Library Association, (UK), Besterman History of the American Cinema, vol. 1. ■ Bancroft Prize, 1991 Medal, 1989, for outstanding bibliography Charles Harpole, general editor. New York: Cohen, Lizabeth. Making a New Deal: or guide published in the United Kingdom Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1990. Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939. Ringler, William A., Jr. Bibliography and ■ Society for History in the Federal Govern­ New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Index of English Verse, Printed 1476-1558. ment, Thomas Jefferson Prize ■ Before Columbus Foundation, American London: Mansell Publishing Limited, 1988 Berlin, Ira; Thavolia Glymph; Steven F. Book Award, 1991 ■ Mississippi Institute of Arts and Letters, Miller; Joseph P. Reidy; Leslie S. Rowland; Dauenhauer, Nora Marks, and Richard Special Achievement Award, 1990, and and Julie Saville, eds. Freedom: A Docu­ Dauenhauer, eds. Haa Tuwunaagu Yis, for Society for the Study of Southern Litera­ mentary History of Emancipation, 1861- Healing Our Spirit: Tlingit Oratory. Classics ture, C. Hugh Holman Award 1867. 1st ser. Vol. 3, The Wartime Genesis of Free Labor: The Lower South. New York: of Tlingit Oral Literature, 2. Seattle: Wilson, Charles R., and William Ferris, Cambridge University Press, 1990. University of Washington Press; Juneau: eds. The Encyclopedia of Southern Sealaska Heritage Foundation, 1990. Culture. Chapel Hill: University of North Sonneck Society, Irving Lowens Award, for outstanding American music scholarship ■ Centro Internazionale di Etnostoria, Premio Carolina Press, 1989.

40 MAY/JUNE 1992 Cockrell, Dale. Excelsior! Journals o f the Guest, Ann Hutchinson, ed. Nijinsky’s “Faune" Hutchinson Family Singers, 1842-1846. • • • Restored. Language of Dance Series, no. 3. Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon Press, 1989. Philadelphia: Gordon and Breach, 1991. ■ Spanish Ministry of Culture, “Spain and Highfill, Philip; Kalman A. Burnim; and Edward America in the Quincentennial of the Archaeology & A. Langhans, comps. A Biographical Dictio­ Discovery” 1990 Second Prize nary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Kessell, John L., ed. Remote Beyond Anthropology Managers and Other Stage Personnel in London, Compare: Letters of Don Diego de Vargas 1660-1800. Vols. 13 and 14 Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991 to His Family from New Spain and New Barber, E. J. W. Prehistoric Textiles: The Devel­ Mexico, 1675-1706. Albuquerque: University opment of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Husband, Timothy B., ed. Stained Glass before of New Mexico Press, 1989. Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean. 1700 in American Collections: Silver-Stained Roundels and Unipartite Panels (Corpus ■ Stanford University, Wayne Vucinich Prize Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. Vitrearum Checklist). Studies in the History of for Best Book in Slavic Studies, 1989 Dahlberg, Bruce T., and Kevin G. O’Connell, Art, 1st ser. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery Stites, Richard. Revolutionary Dreams: eds. Tell el-Hesi: The Site and the Expedition. of Art; Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the The Joint Archaeological Expedition to Tell el- England, 1991. Russian Revolution. New York: Oxford Hesi, 4. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1989. Johns, Elizabeth. American Genre Painting: University Press, 1989. Emmons, George Thornton. The Tlingit Indians. The Politics o f Everyday Life. New Haven: Edited by Frederica de Laguna. Seattle: Uni­ Yale University Press. 1991. versity of Washington Press, 1991. Kagan, Richard L., ed Spanish Cities of the • • • Fienup-Riordan, Ann. The Real People and Golden Age: The Views of Anton van den the Children of Thunder: The Yup'ik Eskimo Wyngaerde. Berkeley: University of California Encounter with Moravian Missionaries John Press, 1989. and Edith Kilbuck. Norman: University of Koszarski, Richard. An Evening's Entertain­ NEH-Funded Oklahoma Press, 1991. ment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, Museum Catalogues Gutierrez, Ramon A. When Jesus Came the 1915-1928. History of the American Cinema, Corn Mother Went Away: Marriage. Sexuality, vol. 3. Charles Harpole. general editor. New and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846. Stanford: York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990. Anderson, Nancy, and Linda Ferber. Albert Stanford University Press, 1991. Bierstadt: Art and Enterprise. New York: Martynov, Anatoly. The Ancient Art of Northern Jacobson, Anna W. Elnguq. Fairbanks: Univer­ Hudson Hills Press, Inc., 1990. Asia. Translated by Demitri B. and Edith M. sity of Alaska, Alaska Native Language Center, Shimkin. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991 Barron, Stephanie. Degenerate Art: The Fate of 1990. Mattusch, Carol C. Greek Bronze Statuary: the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany. Los Angeles: Keeling, Richard. A Guide to Early Field From the Beginnings through Fifth Century B.C. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991. Recordings (1900-1949) at the Lowie Museum Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1988. Blair, Sheila S., and Jonathan M. Bloom. The of Anthropology. Berkeley: University of Cali­ Musser, Charles. The Emergence of Cinema: Here and the Hereafter: Images of Paradise in fornia Press, 1991. The American Screen to 1907. History of the Islamic Art. Hanover, N.H.: Hood Museum of Laderman, Carol. Taming the Wind of Desire: American Cinema, vol. 1. Charles Harpole, Art, 1991. Psychology. Medicine, and Aesthetics in Malay general editor. New York: Charles Scribner's Cornog, Evan, W. Come All You Gallant Heroes: Shamanistic Performance. Berkeley: University Sons. 1990. The World of the Revolutionary Soldier. New of California Press, 1990. Partch, Harry. Bitter Music: Collected Journals, York: Fraunces Tavern Museum, T991. Powers, William K. Voices from the Spirit World. Essays, Introductions and Librettos. Urbana: de Caro, Frank. Folklife in Louisiana Photogra­ Kendall Park: Lakota Books, 1990 University of Illinois Press. 1991. phy: Images of Tradition. Baton Rouge: Salomon, Frank, and George L. Urioste. The Paulson, Ronald. Breaking and Remaking: Louisiana State University Press, 1990. Huarochiri Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient Aesthetic Practice in England, 1700-1820. New Fane, Diane G., Ira Jackins, and Lisa Breen. and Colonial Andean Religion. Austin: Univer­ Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1989. Objects of Myth and Memory: American Indian sity of Texas Press, 1991. Reps, John W. Washington on View: The Art at the Brooklyn Museum. New York: Brooklyn Waselkov, Gregory A. Archaeology at the Nation's Capital since 1790. Chapel Hill: Uni­ Museum, 1991. French Colonial Site of Old Mobile (Phase I: versity of North Carolina Press, 1991. Galloway, Patricia K., ed Native, European, 1989-1991). Rosand, Ellen. Opera in Seventeenth Century and African Cultures in Mississippi, 1500-1800 Weiner, Annette B. The Trobrianders of Papua Venice: The Creation of a Genre. Berkeley: Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives New Guinea. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and University of California Press, 1991. and History, 1991. Winston, Inc., 1988. Schimmelman, Janice. American Imprints on Hyer, Sally. One House, One Voice. One Heart: Art through 1985: Books and Pamphlets on Native American Education at the Santa Fe Drawing, Painting and Sculpture. Aesthetics, Indian School. Santa Fe: Museum of New • • • Art Criticism, and Instruction. Boston: G. K. Mexico Press, 1990. Hall, 1990. Janzen, Reinhild K., and John M. Janzen. Men- Southern, Eileen, and Josephine Wright, nonite Furniture: A Migrant Tradition (1766-1910). Arts—History & Criticism comps. African-American Traditions in Song, Intercourse, Pa.: Good Books, 1991. Sermon, Tale, and Dance, 1600s-1920: An Annotated Bibliography of Literature, Collections, Bowser, Eileen. The Transformation of Cinema, Jonaitis, Aldona. Chiefly Feasts: The Enduring and Artworks. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of 1907-1915. History of the American Cinema, Kwakiutt Potlatch. New York: American Museum Black Music. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990. of Natural History, 1991. vol. 2. Charles Harpole, general editor. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1990. Sutton, R. Anderson Traditions of Gamelan Mansbach, S. A. Standing in the Tempest: Music in Java: Musical Pluralism and Regional Byrd, William. The Byrd Edition, Volume 6a: Painters of the Hungarian Avant-Garde 1908- Identity. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge Univer­ Gradualia I (1605), All Saints and Corpus Christi. 1930. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Santa Barbara sity Press. 1991. Museum of Art. 1991. Edited by Philip Brett. London: Stainer & Bell, 1991. Tatham, David. Winslow Homer and the Illus­ Rhie, Marylin M., and Robert A. F. Thurman. trated Book. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse Univer­ Chafe, Eric Thomas. Tonal Allegory in the Wisdom & Compassion: The Sacred Art of Tibet. sity Press, 1992. San Francisco: Asian Art Museum of San Fran­ Music of J. S. Bach. Berkeley: University of Verdon, Timothy, and John Henderson, eds. cisco; Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1991. California Press, 1991 Christianity and the Renaissance: Image and Thomas, T.; J. Josephy; and J. A-Elder. Citron, Marcia J. Cecile Chaminade: A Bio- Religious Imagination in the Quattrocento. Syra­ Wounded Knee: Lest We Forget. Cody, Wyo.: Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988. cuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1990. Buffalo Bill Historical Center. 1990. Clapp, Anne De Coursey The Painting of Tang Weidner, Marsha, ed. Flowering in the Shadows. Yin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. Vogel, Susan M. Africa Explores: 20th Century Women in the History of Chinese and Japanese African Art. New York: Center for African Art, 1991. Cortest, Luis. Arte Para Servir A Dios. Coleccion Painting. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Nova Scholar. Madrid: Editorial Playor, 1989. 1990. Wroth, William. Images of Penance, Images of Mercy: Southwestern Santos in the Late Nine­ Dodds, Jerrilynn D. Architecture and Ideology Zaimont, Judith Lang. The Musical Woman: An teenth Century. Oklahoma: University of Okla­ in Early Medieval Spain. University Park: Penn­ International Perspective. Vol. 3, 1986-1990. homa Press; Colorado Springs Fine Arts, 1991. sylvania State University Press, 1990. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.

HUMANITIES 41

J Kazhdan, Alexander P., ed. The Oxford Diction­ • • • ary of Byzantium. 3vols. New York: Oxford • • • University Press. 1991. Kertzer, David I., and Richard P. Sailer, eds. Classics The Family in Italy: From Antiquity to the Pre­ History— U.S. sent. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991. Alexander of Aphrodisias. On Aristotle Prior Adler, Jeffrey S. Yankee Merchants and the Khotin, Leonid, ed. Abstracts of Soviet and Analytics 1. 1-7. Translated by Jonathan Barnes, Making of the Urban West: The Rise and Fall East European Emigre Periodical Literature Susanne Bobzien, Kevin Flannery, S.J., and o f Antebellum St. Louis. Cambridge. Eng.: (ASEEPL). Vol. 8, nos. 2 and 4. Berkeley, Calif.: Katerina lerodiakonou. Ancient Commentators Cambridge University Press, 1991. ASEEPL, 1990 on Aristotle. Richard Sorabji, general editor. Allen, Robert C. Horrible Prettiness: Burlesque London: Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1991. Lincoln, W. Bruce. The Great Reforms: Auto­ and American Culture. Chapel Hill: University Alexander of Aphrodisias. Ethical Problems. cracy. Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change of North Carolina Press, 1991. in Imperial Russia. DeKalb: Northern Illinois Translated by R. W. Sharpies. Ancient Com­ Bowling, Kenneth R. The Creation of Washing­ University Press. 1990. mentators on Aristotle. Richard Sorabji, general ton, D.C.: The Idea and Location of the Ameri­ editor. London: Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1990. Lincoln, W. Bruce. Red Victory: A History of can Capital. Fairfax, Va.: George Mason Uni­ Dexippus. On Aristotle Categories. Translated the Russian Civil War. New York: Simon and versity Press, 1991. by John Dillon. Ancient Commentators on Schuster, 1990. Bromberg, Joan Lisa. The Laser in America. Aristotle. Richard Sorabji, general editor. London: Macomber, William F., and S. Kent Brown, eds. 1950-1970. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1991. Duckworth & Co., Ltd., 1990. Preliminary Inventory: Microfilmed Manuscripts Buechler, Steven M. Women s Movements in Philoponus. On Aristotle on the Intellect. Trans­ of Coptic Museum, Old Cairo, Egypt, Rolls A 1 - the United States. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers lated by William Charlton. Ancient Commenta­ 20. B1-6, B7-11. and B 12-17. Provo, Utah: University Press, 1990. tors on Aristotle. Richard Sorabji, general Brigham Young University, 1990. Burk, Robert F. The Corporate State and the editor. London: Duckworth & Co. Ltd., 1991. Pantzer, Katharine F. The Short-Title Catalogue Broker State: The DuPonts and American Philoponus. Corollaries on Place and Void of Books Printed in England, Scotland, & Ireland, National Politics, 1925-1940. Cambridge: with Simplicius, Against Philoponus on the and of English Books Printed Abroad, 1475-1640. Harvard University Press, 1990. Eternity o f the World. Translated by David Vol. 3. London: Bibliographical Society, 1991. Calhoun, John C. The Papers of John C. Furley and Christian Wildberg. Ancient Com­ Peck, Linda Levy. 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Carbondale: Southern Illinois Warnausa: Jewish Life in Seventeenth-Century Wesleyan University Press, 1979. University Press, 1991. Worms. Jerusalem: Magness Press, 1991. Verner, Andrew M. The Crisis of Russian Auto­ Guarneri, Carl J. The Utopian Alternative. Fourierism in Nineteeth-Century America. Freedman, Paul. The Origins of Peasant cracy, Nicholas II and the 1905 Revolution. Servitude in Medieval Catalonia. Cambridge, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991. Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Handbook of Victoria County. Austin: Texas Viola, Lynne. The Best Sons o f the Fatherland: State Historical Association, 1990. Hauser, William B. The Bakufu in Japanese His­ Workers in the Vanguard of Soviet Collectiviza­ tory. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985. tion Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1987. Horle, Craig W., and Marianne S. Wokeck, eds. Lawmaking and Legislators in Pennsylvania: A Hill, Robert M. Colonial Cakchiquels: Highland Von Hagen, Mark. Soldiers in the Proletarian Maya Adaptation to Spanish Rule, 1600-1700. Biographical Dictionary. Vol. 1, 1682-1709. Phila­ Dictatorship. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, delphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991. Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990. 1990. Jackson, Andrew. The Papers of Andrew Yarshater, Ehsan, ed. The History o f at- Tabari. Jackson. Vol. 3, 1814-1815. Edited by Harold Huang, Philip C. The Peasant Family and Rural Vol. 3, The Children of Israel, trans. William M. D. Moser. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Development in the Yangzi Delta, 1350-1988. Brinner. Vol. 33, Storm and Stress along the Press, 1991. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990. Northern Frontiers oi the Abbasid Caliphate. Johnson, Andrew. The Papers of Andrew Inoue, Kyoko. MacArthurs Japanese Constitu­ trans. C. E. Bosworth. Vol 36, the Revolt of the Johnson. 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Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 1991. Albany: State University of New York Press, de Troyes, Chretien Arthurian Romances. • • • 1990. Translated by William W. Kibler. London: Penguin Books, 1991 Breal, Michel. The Beginnings of Semantics: Essays, Lectures, and Reviews. Stanford: Dostoevsky, Fyodor. The Brothers Karamazov. Interdisciplinary Stanford University Press, 1991. Translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Cassidy, Frederic G., ed Dictionary of Volokhonsky San Francisco: North Point Press. 1990 Achinstein, Peter. Particles and Waves: Ameri-can Regional English. Vol. 2. D-H Eckhardt, Caroline D., ed. Chaucer's General Historical Essays in the Philosophy of Science. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard Prologue to the Canterbury Tales: An Anno­ New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. University, 1991. tated Bibliography. Toronto: University of Ernst, Juliette. L'Annee Philologique, LIX Bannister, Robert C. Jessie Bernard: The Toronto Press. 1990. Making of a Feminist. New Brunswick, N.J.: Paris: Societe d'Edition, 1990. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. The Complete Ser­ Rutgers University Press, 1991. Gunn, Edward. Rewriting Chinese: Style and mons of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Vol. 2. eds. Innovation in Twentieth-Century Chinese Prose. Billington, David P. Robert Maillart and the Art Teresa Toulouse and Andrew Delbanco. Vol. 3, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991 of Reinforced Concrete. Cambridge, Mass.: ed. Ronald A. Bosco. Albert J. von Frank, gen­ MIT Press, 1990. Lewis, Robert E., ed. Middle English Dictionary. eral editor. Columbia: University of Missouri Parts S.15 and S.16. Ann Arbor: University of Blake, Susan Letters from Togo. Iowa City: Press, 1990-91. Michigan Press, 1991. University of Iowa Press, 1991. Finkelpearl, Philip J. Court and County Politics Mannheim, Bruce. The Language of the Inka Blumenfeld-Kosinski, Renate. Not of Woman in the Plays of Beaumont and Fletcher Prince­ since the European Invasion. 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HUMANITIES 43

s Harvard Library of Early Ukrainian Literature. Vol. 1, Book 1: Remedies for Prosperity (trans­ De Wodeham, Adam. Lectura Secunda. Vol. 4, The Life of Paisij Velyckovs’kyj, trans. J. lation); Vol. 2, Book 1: Remedies for Prosperity Vols. 1-3. Saint Bonaventure, N.Y.: Saint Bona- M. E. Featherstone. Vol. 5, Sermons and (commentary); Vol. 3, Book 2: Remedies for venture University, 1990. Rhetoric of Kievan Rus’, trans. Simon Franklin. Adversity (translation); Vol. 4, Book 2: Remedies Dewey, John. John Dewey: The Collected Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989-91. for Adversity (commentary); Vol. 5, References. Works, 1882-1953. Index. Jo Ann Boydston, Hauke, Kathleen A. The Dark Side of Hopkins­ Translated by Conrad H. Rawski. Bloomington: general editor. Carbondale: Southern Illinois ville. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991. Indiana University Press, 1991. University Press, 1991. Pfanner, Helmut F. Quintessenz Meines Hewitt, Leah D. Autobiographical Tightropes. Dewey, John. John Dewey: The Later Works. Lebens: Herausgegeben und mit einem Vorwort. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990. Vol. 17, 1925-1953. Edited by Jo Ann Boydston. Mainz: v. Hase and Koehler, Hughes, Linda K., and Michael Lund. The 1990. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, Victorian Serial. Charlottesville: University Pollack, Sheldon I., trans. The Ramayana of 1990. Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India. Vol. 3, Press of Virginia, 1991. Gibbard, Allan. Wise Choices, Apt Feelings: Aranyakanda. Princeton: Princeton University Johnston, Dillon. Irish Poetry After Joyce. Notre A Theory of Normative Judgment. Cambridge: Press, 1991. Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame, 1985. Harvard University Press, 1990. Price, Richard, and Sally Price. Two Evenings Klausner, David N. Records of Early English Grosholz, Emily R. Cartesian Method and the Drama: Herefordshire/Worcestershire. Toronto: in Saramaka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. Problem of Reduction. Oxford: Clarendon University of Toronto Press, 1990. Press, 1991. Knapp, Bettina L. Exile and the Writer: Exoteric Proust, Marcel. Correspondence de Marcel Hardin, Russell, ed. Ethics: An International and Esoteric Experiences, A Jungian Approach. Proust. Tome 14. Edited by Philip Kolb. Journal of Social, Political, and Legal Philoso­ University Park: Pennsylvania State University Paris: Plon, 1991. phy. Vol. 100. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991. Reiman, Donald H., ed. The Manuscripts of Press, 1990. Krier, Theresa M. Gazing on Secret Sights: the Younger Romantics. Vol. 5, Percy Bysshe Kierkegaard, Soren. Practice in Christianity. Spenser, Classical, Imitation, and the Decorums Shelley. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., Edited and translated by Howard V. and Edna of Vision. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. 1991. Ringler, William A., Jr. Bibliography and Index H. Hong. Kierkegaard’s Writings, 20. Princeton: Laucirica, Julio C., ed. Cuentos Tradicionales Princeton University Press, 1991 de Leon I. Madrid: Seminario Menedez Pidal, of English Verse, Printed 1476-1558. London: 1989. Mansell Publishing Limited, 1988. Kitcher, Philip, and Wesley C. Salmon, eds. Scientific Explanation. Minneapolis: University Levine, Joseph M. The Battle of the Books: Sherberg, Michael. Rinaldo. Ravenna: Longo of Minnesota Press, 1990. History and Literature in the Augustan Age. Editore, 1990. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991. Taylor, J. Golden, ed. A Literary History o f the Lipton, Peter. Inference to the Best Explanation. Limon, John K. The Place of Fiction in the Time American West. Fort Worth: Texas Christian New York: Routledge, 1991. of Science: A Disciplinary History of American University Press, 1987. Mclnerney, Peter K. Time and Experience. Writing. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge Univer­ Thackeray, William Makepeace. The History of Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991. sity Press, 1990. Pendennis: His Fortunes and Misfortunes, His Michalson, Gordon E. Fallen Freedom: Kant on Long, Burke O., ed. Hittite Myths. Translated Friends and His Greatest Enemy. Vol. 1. Edited Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration. Cambridge, by Harry A. Hoffner, Jr. Society of Biblical by Peter L. Shillingsburg. New York: Garland Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Publishing, 1991. Literature, Writings from the Ancient World. Rosenthal, Sandra B., and Patrick L. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990. Thoreau, Henry D. Journal. Vol. 3, 1848-1851. Bourgeois. Mead and Merleau-Ponty: Toward May, Steven W. The Elizabethan Courtier Poets: Edited by Robert Sattelmeyer, Mark R. Patterson, a Common Vision. Albany: State University of and William Rossi. The Writings of Henry D. The Poems and Their Contexts. Columbia: New York Press, 1991. University of Missouri Press,'1991. Thoreau. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. Salkever, Stephen G. Finding the Mean: Theory McAlpine, Monica E., ed. Chaucer’s “Knight’s and Practice in Aristotelian Political Philosophy. Troide, Lars E. The Early Journals and Letters Tale": An Annotated Bibliography. Toronto: Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990. University of Toronto Press, 1991. of Fanny Burney: 1774-1777. Vol. 2. Oxford, Savage, C. Wade, ed. Scientific Theories. Minn­ Melville, Herman. Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrim­ Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1990. eapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990. age in the Holy Land. Edited by Harrison Vander Meulen, D. L. Pope’s Dunciad of 1728: Hayford. Chicago: Northwestern University A History and Facsimile. Charlottesville: Uni­ Schaefer, David L. The Political Philosophy of Press and the Newberry Library, 1991. versity Press of Virginia, 1991. Montaigne. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. Middlebrook, Diane W. Anne Sexton: A Wainscott, Ronald H. Staging O ’Neill: The Biography. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991. Experimental Years, 1920-1934. New Haven: Tilghman, B. R. Wittgenstein, Ethics and Aes­ Miller, Thomas, ed. The Selected Writings of Yale University Press, 1988. thetics. Albany: State University of New York John Witherspoon. Carbondale: Southern Weinbrot, Howard D. Eighteenth-Century Satire: Press, 1991. Illinois University Press, 1990. Essays on Text and Context from Dryden to Van Inwagen, Peter. Material Beings. Ithaca: Mitchell, Stephen A. Heroic Sagas and Ballads. Peter Pindar. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge Cornell University Press, 1990. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991. University Press, 1988. Walsh, David. After Ideology: Recovering the Molinero, Rita V. Jose Lezama Lima O El West, James L. W. American Authors and the Spiritual Foundations of Freedom. San Fran­ Hechizo De La Busqueda. Madrid: Editorial Literary Marketplace since 1900. Philadelphia: cisco: Harper, 1990. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988. Playor, 1989. Yolton, John W. Locke and French Materialism. Morellet, Andre. Lettres d’Andre Morellet. Wilson, Diana D. Allegories o f Love: Cervantes' Oxford, Eng.: Clarendon Press, 1991. Tom el. Edited by Dorothy M. Medlin. Oxford: Persiles and Sigismunda. Princeton: Princeton Voltaire Foundation, Taylor Institution, 1991. University Press, 1991. Wolfgang, Lenora D. Le Lai de I'Oiselet: An Old Morson, Gary Saul, and Caryl Emerson. • • • M ikhail Bakhtin: Creation o f a Prosaics. Stanford: French Poem of the Thirteenth Century. Phila­ Stanford University Press, 1990. delphia: American Philosophical Society, 1990. Neruda, Pablo. Canto General. Translated by Yeazell, Ruth B. Fictions of Modesty: Women Jack Schmitt. Berkeley: University of California and Courtship in the English Novel. Chicago: Religion Press, 1991. University of Chicago Press, 1991. Oriard, Michael. Sporting With the Gods: The Atiya, Aziz S. The Coptic Encyclopedia. Vol. 8. Rhetoric of Play and Game in American Culture. New York: Macmillian Publishing Company, 1991. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, • • • Berlin, Adele. Biblical Poetry through Medieval 1991. Jewish Eyes. Bloomington: Indiana University Owomoyela, Oyeken. A Kii: Yoruba Proscrip­ Press, 1991. tive and Prescriptive Proverbs. New York: Philosophy Bosworth, C. E.; E. van Donzel; W. P. Heinrichs; University Press of America, 1988. and Ch. Pellat, eds. The Encyclopaedia of Payne, James R. Joseph Seamon Cotter, Jr.- Breazeale, Daniel., trans. and ed. Fichte: Early Islam. Vol. 6, fasc. 113-114 and 114A; Vol. 7, Complete Poems. Athens: University of Philosophical Writings. Ithaca: Cornell Univer­ fasc. 115-119 and 121-122. Index to vols. 1-6 Georgia Press, 1990. sity Press, 1988. and to the supplement, fasc. 1-6. Leiden, Pessoa, Fernando. The Book of Disquietude. Creath, Richard. The Quine-Carnap Corre­ Holland: E. J. Brill, 1991. Translated by Richard Zenith. Manchester, spondence and Related Work: W. V. Quine Brown, Frank Burch. Religious Aesthetics: A Eng.: Carcanet Press Limited, 1991. and Rudolf Carnap. Berkeley: University of Theological Study of Making and Meaning. Petrarch. Remedies for Fortune Fair and Foul. California Press, 1990. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989.

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National Heritage Preservation Program • Richard Rose 786-0570...... November 2, 1992 July 1993 Library and Archival Preservation Projects • George F. Farr, Jr. 786-0570...... June 1, 1992 January 1993

Library and Archival Preservation/Access Projects • Barbara Paulson 786-0570 ...... June 1, 1992 January 1993 U. S. Newspaper Program • Jeffrey Field 786-0570...... June 1, 1992 January 1993

To receive guidelines for any NEH program, contact the Office of Publications and Public Affairs at 202/786-0438. Guidelines are available at least two months in advance of application deadlines. Telecommunications device for the deaf: 202/786-0282.

46 MAY/JUNE 1992 DEADLINES • DEADLINES • DEADLINES

DIVISION OF PUBLIC PROGRAMS Donald Gibson, Director • 786-0267

Area code for all telephone numbers is 202. Deadline Projects beginning

Humanities Projects in Media • James Dougherty 786-0278...... September 11, 1992 April 1, 1993

Humanities Projects in Museums and Historical Organizations • Marsha Semmel 786-0284 .June 5, 1992 January 1, 1993 Public Humanities Projects • Wilsonia Cherry 786-0271...... September 11, 1992 April 1, 1993 Humanities Projects in Libraries • Thomas Phelps 786-0271

P lanning...... August 7, 1992 January 1, 1993

Implementation...... September 11, 1992 April 1, 1993 Challenge Grants • Abbie Cutter 786-0361 ...... May 1, 1993 December 1, 1992

DIVISION OF RESEARCH PROGRAMS Guinevere L. Griest, Director • 786-0200 Deadline Projects beginning

Editions and Translations • Margot Backas 786-0207

Editions • Douglas Arnold 786-0207...... June 1, 1992 April 1, 1993

Translations • Martha Chomiak 786-0207...... June 1, 1992 April 1, 1993 Publication Subvention • Gordon McKinney 786-0207...... April 1, 1993 October 1, 1993 Reference Materials • Jane Rosenberg 786-0358

Tools • Helen AgOera 786-0358 ...... September 1, 1992 July 1. 1993

Guides • Michael Poliakoff 786-0358...... September 1. 1992 April 1, 1993

Challenge Grants • Bonnie Gould 786-0358...... M ay 1, 1993 December 1, 1992 Interpretive Research • George Lucas 786-0210

Collaborative Projects • David Wise 786-0210...... October 15, 1992 July 1, 1993

Archaeology Projects • Rhys Townsend 786-0210...... October 15. 1992 April 1, 1993

Humanities, Science, and Technology • Daniel Jones 786-0210 ...... October 15, 1992 July 1, 1993

Conferences • David Coder 786-0204...... January 15, 1993 October 1, 1993 Centers • Christine Kalke 786-0204 ...... October 1, 1992 July 1, 1993

International Research • Christine Kalke 786-0204...... April 1, 1993 January 1, 1994

DIVISION OF STATE PROGRAMS Carole Watson, Director • 786-0254

Each state humanities council establishes its own grant guidelines and application deadlines, Addresses and telephone numbers of these state programs may be obtained from the division.

OFFICE OF CHALLENGE GRANTS Harold cannon, Director • 786-0361

Deadline Projects beginning

May 1, 1993 December 1, 1992

HUMANITIES 47 SECOND CLASS MAIL NATIONAL ENDOWMENT POSTAGE & FEES PAID FOR THE HUMANITIES NATIONAL ENDOWMENT 1100 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW FOR THE HUMANITIES PUB. NO. 187526 Washington, D.C. 20506 Official Business Penalty for Private Use, $300.00 ISSN 0018-7526