The Yoruba in Transition

The Yoruba in Transition History, Values, and Modernity

edited by Toyin Falola and Ann Genova

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Yoruba in transition : history, values, and modernity / edited by Toyin Falola and Ann Genova. p. cm. Papers originally presented at an international conference, Perspectives on Yoruba History and Culture, held at the University of Texas at Austin, March 26-28, 2004. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-59460-134-8 1. Yoruba (African people)--History--Congresses. 2. Yoruba (African people)--Ethnic identity--Congresses. 3. Yoruba (African people)--Social con d i ti on s - - Con gre s s e s . 4 . Ni geri a - - Social con d i ti on s - - Con g re s s e s . 5 . Ni geri a-- Ethnic relations--Congresses. I. Falola, Toyin. II. Genova, Ann. III. Title.

DT515.45.Y67Y75 2005 966'.00496333--dc22 2005008085

Carolina Academic Press 700 Kent Street Durham, North Carolina 27701 Telephone (919) 489-7486 Fax (919) 493-5668 www.cap-press.com

Printed in the United States of America To Professor E. A. Ayandele for his contribution to Nigerian studies

Contents

List of Figures xi Acknowledgments xv Contributors xvii Introduction xxv

Part A Histories Reconstructed Chapter 1 Notes on Yorùbá Newspapers, 1859–2002 3 Táíwò Olúnládé Chapter 2 Ile Iwe Ofe: Socialist Epistemology in Awolowo’s Reconstruction of Yoruba Identity and Nationalism 13 ashimuneze heanacho Chapter 3 Urban Politics in a Yoruba Frontier: Mushin 75 Hakeem Ibikunle Tijani Chapter 4 The Metamorphosis of the Bamidele Movement 85 Lateef M. Adetona

Part B Identity at the Crossroads Chapter 5 Yoruba Ethnicity and the Pursuit of Western Education in Southwestern Nigeria 101 Ademola Babalola Chapter 6 Law Making in Pre-Colonial Yorubaland 111 Mojeed Olujinmi A. Alabi Chapter 7 Dispute Settlement under the Yoruba Culture: Lessons for the Criminal Justice System 125 Oluyemisi Bamgbose

vii viii CONTENTS

Chapter 8 The 419 Scam: Cybercrime and the Virtual World 151 Anne Webb Chapter 9 Motherhood as a Source of Empowerment of Women 171 Taiwo Makinde Chapter 10 Age Stratiﬁcation and Marital Relations among the Yoruba 183 Jacob A. Adetunji Chapter 11 Understanding Demographic and Health Events through Yoruba Proverbs 195 Jacob Oni Chapter 12 Abortion among the Yoruba 227 Ibigbolade Simon Aderibigbe Chapter 13 Jinxed: On Being White and Yoruba 247 Elaine Neil Orr Chapter 14 Confronting the Future: The Yoruba at a Crossroads 259 Jare Ajayi Chapter 15 Confronting the Future: An Advocacy Agenda and Program 281 John Babatunde Bamidele Ojo

Part C The Future of Modernity Chapter 16 Road Trafﬁc Accidents in Yoruba States 303 Bamidele Abiona Badejo Chapter 17 AIDS Explosion in Yorubaland 321 Oluwatosin Ige Alo Chapter 18 The Oodua Peoples Congress and Crime Control in Lagos 331 Adewole Akinyemi Atere Akeem Ayofe Akinwale Chapter 19 Storage of Grains: The Nigerian Perspective 343 B. O. Akintunde Chapter 20 Culture, Technology, and Gari Processing 353 T.Y. Tunde-Akintunde CONTENTS ix

Chapter 21 Agriculture in Yoruba Society and Culture 361 Adebayo A. Lawal Chapter 22 Yoruba Associations: Sources of Empowerment 377 Julius Adekunle Chapter 23 Crisis and the Restoration of Older Values 391 ‘Tunji Azeez Chapter 24 Dual Residence Patterns in a Yoruba Community 411 Jacob A. Adetunji Kefa M. Otiso Chapter 25 Women and Yoruba Culture 423 Mary E. Modupe Kolawole Chapter 26 Gender, Household Sex Roles, Work, and the Contemporary Yoruba Family 445 Asiyanbola R. Abidemi Chapter 27 Yoruba Cultural Inﬂuence on Junior and Senior Secondary Curriculum 463 Jamaine Abidogun Index 491

List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Yorùbá Newspapers 4 Fig. 2.1 Missionary Education, 1851–1931 27 Fig. 2.2 Education in Nigeria, 1900 and 1960 31 Fig. 2.3 School Attendance Fee-Paying Primary Schools in Western Nigeria, 1954–1961 31 Fig. 2.4 Secondary Schools in Southern Nigeria, 1859–1914 32 Fig. 2.5 Curricular Domains 55 Fig. 2.6 Primary School Enrollment in 1937–1966, 1970 by Region 59 Fig. 2.7 Roots of Teaching and Learning 60 Fig. 10.1 Age-Achievement Interactions 190 Fig. 11.1 Pers ons Who First No ti ced Ch i l d ’s Ill n e s s 203 Fig. 11.2 Pers ons Who First No ti ced Ch i l d ’s Illness by Ch i l d ’s Status I 204 Fig. 11.3 Pers ons Who First No ti ced Ch i l d ’s Illness by Ch i l d ’s Status II 205 Fig. 11.4 Mean Duration of Treatment Delay by Status of Child I 206 Fig. 11.5 Mean Duration of Treatment Delay by Status of Child II 207 Fig. 11.6 Persons Who Made Treatment Decision by the Status of the Child 208 Fig. 11.7 Child’s Status by Persons Who Made Treatment Decision 209 Fig. 11.8 Persons Who Made Treatment Decision by Mother’s Position in Polygynous Union 209 Fig. 11.9 Person Who Paid for Treatment by Status of the Child 210 Fig. 11.10 Person Who Paid for Treatment by Mother’s Position in Polygynous Union 211 Fig. 16.1 Epidemiological Model of Road Transport Accident 305 Fig. 16.2 Phases of Road Accidents 305 Fig. 16.3 Table of Reported Road Accident Cases in Nigeria, 1991–2002 309 Fig. 16.4 Graph of Reported Road Accident Cases in Nigeria, 1991–2002 310 Fig. 16.5 Reported Road Accident Casualties in Nigeria, 1991–1995 310

xi xii LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 16.6 States Analysis of Reported Road Accident Cases in Nigeria, 1995 313 Fig. 16.7 Table of Reported Road Accident Casualties, 1994–1995 314 Fig. 16.8 Table of Road Traffic Accident Analysis in Yoruba States, 1990–2002 315 Fig. 16.9 Geo-Political Structure of Road Traffic Accidents in Nigeria Analysis Summary, 1990–2002 315 Fig. 16.10 Graph of Road Traffic Accident Analysis in Yoruba States, 1990–2002 316 Fig. 16.11 Geo-Political Structure of Road Traffic Accidents in Nigeria Analysis Summary, 1990–2002 316 Fig. 19.1 Mud Rhumbus 348 Fig. 19.2 Mud Rhumbus 348 Fig. 19.3 Grain Storage Platform 348 Fig. 19.4 Inside of a Maize Crib 348 Fig. 19.5 Thatched Rhumbus 350 Fig. 19.6 Performances of Traditional Grain Storage Structures 351 Fig. 20.1 Flow Chart of Gari Processing Techniques of Localities in Nigeria 356 Fig. 21.1 Calendar of Agricultural and Social Events 364 Fig. 24.1 Percent of Respondents Who Were Farmers and the Average Number of Days Spent on the Farm Weekly, Efon Alaaye, 1991 413 Fig. 26.1 Socio-Economic Information of the Households 450 Fig. 26.2 Responsibilities of Women and Men 453 Fig. 26.3 Decision-Making with Respect to Residential House in High Density Areas 454 Fig. 26.4 Payment for Services in High Density Residential Areas 454 Fig. 26.5 Decision-Making with Respect to Residential House in Medium Density Areas 455 Fig. 26.6 Payment for Services in Medium Density Residential Areas 455 Fig. 26.7 Decision-Making with Respect to Residential House in Low Density Areas 456 Fig. 26.8 Payment for Services in Low Density Residential Areas 456 Fig. 26.9 Mode of Sharing Payment for Services 456 Fig. 26.10 Variation in Activity/Roles for Men and Women 457 Fig. 26.11 Result of Correlation Analysis between Wife’s Employment/Income and Husband’s Participation in Household Chores 457 LIST OF FIGURES xiii

Fig. 26.12 Result of Paired Sample “T” Test Statistics of Women Physical Well-Being and Men Physical Well-Being 458 Fig. 27.1 Main Building at Abadina College 470 Fig. 27.2 Courtyard at International School - University of Ibadan 470 Fig. 27.3 Student Demographics of Abadina and International School 471

Acknowledgments

This vo lume is com pri s ed of p a pers that were ori gi n a lly pre s en ted at the i n tern a ti onal con feren ce Pers pe ctives on Yo ru ba Hi s to ry and Cu l tu re, wh i ch was h eld at the Un ivers i ty of Texas at Au s tin from Ma rch 26 to Ma rch 28, 2 0 0 4 . E n t husiasm for the con feren ce bro u ght toget h er sch o l a rs of Yoruba stu d i e s f rom all over the worl d . Du ring the three - d ay peri od , p a n elists and parti c i- pants discussed important issues within the field of Yoruba studies. The goal of the con feren ce inclu ded revi ewing the current state of the litera tu re and methodology as well as identifying new areas worthy of study. Within the rich discussions during the conference on Yoruba culture, several themes stood out . S ch o l a rs passion a tely discussed the el a s tic natu re of Yoruba culture by praising some aspects and criticizing others. Of particular interest was the role of women, the use of customary law, and the role of the Yoruba in national politics. The conclusions reached called for the preserva- ti on of a s p ects su ch as language , with a particular em phasis on Yoru b a proverbs, and the change of others such as the treatment of women. Partici- pants con clu ded that edu c a ti on within the family as well as the cl a s s room was the best place to instill traditional and modern Yoruba values. A mu l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y con feren ce of this magn i tu de could not have been po s- sible without the contributions of many. We would like to thank first all the p a rticipants that travel ed great distances to be with us in Au s ti n , Tex a s . We are grateful to the graduate students that helped us run the conference (José Ba rra g á n , E l i z a beth Day, Roy Doron , Tyl er Flem i n g, Ma t t h ew He a ton , An d re Jo h n s on , Bra n don Ma rs h , As h l ey Ro t h rock , and Anne Tu r n bu ll) as well as Sam Saverance and Laura Flack. We would like to extend a special thanks to Aina Olomo and the Egungun of Ile Olokun Sanya Awopeju and the Univer- s i ty of Tex a s’ Af rican Stu dent As s oc i a ti o n for bri n ging to life the ri chness of Yoruba cultu re du ring the con feren ce . The dep a r tm ents and or ga n i z a ti ons that su p ported us financially inclu de the Dep a r tm ents of Hi s tor y, G overn m en t , English, and Theatre and Dance. Also, to the Center for African and African Am erican Stu d i e s , the Office of the Vi ce Pre s i den t , the Un ivers i ty Co - Op, t h e School of Music, College of Fine Arts, Office of the Dean of Students, Office

xv xvi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of Graduate Studies, Department of Technology, Literacy, and Culture, and the Texas Cowboys Lectureship, we would like to extend our gratitude.

Toyin Falola and Ann Genova, University of Texas at Austin Contributors

Jamaine Abidogun holds a PhD in Curriculum and Instruction with an em- phasis in Af rican and Af ri c a n - Am erican studies from the Un ivers i ty of Ka n s a s . She has studied and conducted social science research in Ghana, Nigeria, and the Un i tes State s . She is curren t ly the Program Coord i n a tor for So ut hwe s t Mi s s o u ri State Un ivers i ty ’s BSED Secon d a r y Social Studies program in the De- p a rtm ent of Hi s tory at Spri n gﬁel d , MO and head advi s or for their MSED programs in history and in social science. Abidogun has taught in both second- a r y and high er edu c a ti on . She form erly held the po s i ti on of E du c a ti on Program Con sultant for the Kansas Af r i c a n - Am erican Advi s ory Com m i s s i on , Dep a rtm ent of Human Re s o u rces for the State of Ka n s a s . She has an inter- disciplinary background that incorporates African Diaspora studies with social studies education. Ju l ius O. Ade k u n l e holds a PhD in Af rican Hi s tor y from Dalhousie Un iver- s i ty, Ha l i f a x , Ca n ad a . He is an As s oc i a te Profe s s or of Af rican Hi s tory at the Dep a rtm ent of Hi s tory and An t h ropo l ogy, Mon m o uth Un ivers i ty, West Lon g Bra n ch , New Jers ey. He has form erly held te aching po s i ti ons at Dalhousie and St. Mary’s University in Halifax, and at Tennessee State University, Nashville. He teaches Western Civilization, African and Caribbean history. He has pub- l i s h ed several book ch a pters and re s e a rch publ i c a ti ons in journ a l s . His re- s e a rch interests inclu de et h n o - rel i gious po l i tics in Ni geria and his recent pub- l i c a ti on is Pol i ti cs and Soci ety in Ni geri a’s Mi d dle Belt: Bo rgu and the Em ergen ce of a Political Identity (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004). Lateef M. Adetona studied at the Lagos State University and the multi-disciplinary department of Religions at the University of Ilorin. He is currently a Lectu rer Grade One of Islamic Con tem pora r y Studies in the Dep a rtm ent of Rel i gi ons at Lagos State Un ivers i ty in Ni geri a . He has over a score of ac adem i c contributions in reputable local and international journals. He is the elected editor of Religions, the Journal of the Nigerian Association for the Study of Re - ligions (2004-2005). He is also a member of the editorial board and serves as business manager of the Lagos State University Journal of Arabic and Islamic

xvii xviii CONTRIBUTORS

S tu d i e s , Al - Ha d a ra h. He also has aut h ored a nu m ber of books and mon o- graphs including The Abuse of Islamic Rites and Ceremonies in the Contempo - ra ry Ni ger ian Soci ety ( L a go s : Al - Basit Produ cti on s , 1 9 9 5 ) , The Holy Prop h et Muhammad: His Life and Sayings (Al-Haqq and OACE Publishers,2000), and The Hei n ous Sins in Islam (al-Ka ba’ir fil Is l a m ) ( Free Enterprise Pu bl i s h ers , 2 0 0 4 , fort h com i n g ) . He is curren t ly wri tin g his doctoral thesis on Is l a m i c “Propagation in the Southwest of Nigeria.”

Ibigbolade Simon Aderibigbe is a Senior Lecturer of the Philosophy of Reli- gion at the Lagos State University in Nigeria. He is the author of Fundamen - tals of Philosophy of Religion and Aquinas’ Five Ways Proof of God’s Existence: A Contemporary Perspective. He has also published many journal articles and chapters in books. He served for many years as the Editor of Religions’ Edu - cator, the Journal of Nigerian Association for the Study of Religions and Educa - tion. He is currently ﬁnishing book projects on religious belief and abortion and medical ethics. His areas of research and teaching include the philosophy of religion and African religion. He is married with children.

Jacob A. Adetunji, PhD, was trained as a Demographer at the Australian Na- ti onal Un ivers i t y, Ca n berra . He had po s t - doctoral re s e a rch ex peri en ce at Ha r- vard University and the Population Studies Center of the University of Penn- sylvania. He was formerly Assistant Professor of Sociology at Bowling Green S t a te Un ivers i ty, but curren t ly works as Sen i or Technical Advi s or at the Bu- reau for Global He a l t h , US Agency for In tern a ti onal Devel opm en t . His re- s e a rch interests inclu de pop u l a t i on and devel opm en t , m a ternal and ch i l d h e a l t h , f a m i ly planning and reprodu ctive health, and HIV/AIDS. He has pub- l i s h ed several re s e a rch papers on these topics in intern a ti onal peer- refereed journals. He has also conducted some research studies among the Yoruba of southwest Nigeria.

Ja re Ajayi is the Exec utive Di rector of the Af rican Agency for an en h a n ced Soc i o - Ethic and Trad i ti ona l Order (ASETO ) . He is an assoc i a te mem ber of the Institute of African Studies at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria and had served as a one time assistant general secretary of the Association of Nigerian Aut h ors (ANA ) . He is also a litera ry figure of n o te whose work s , i n clu d i n g poetry and pro s e , h ave won local and intern a ti onal accl a i m . He is a Poet of Merit since 1994. Th ro u g h his works and the agency he head s , he has been an advocate of synthesizing the positive ideals of the past with a view toward re- shaping the pre s ent to be able to have a more de s i ra ble futu re . A veteran jour- nalist, Ajayi lectures part-time at the Nigerian Institute of Journalists (Ibadan Campus) and edits a bilingual community newspaper in Nigeria. CONTRIBUTORS xix

B. O. Ak i n t u n de, is an agri c u l tu ral en gi n eer specializing in crop proce s s i n g. He is currently pursuing a doctoral degree at the Department of Agricultural E n gi n eering at the Un ivers i ty of Ib ad a n . He is a Sen i or Lectu rer at the Fed- eral College of Agriculture and has published a number of papers on the de- s i gn and con s tru cti on of a gri c u l tu r al processing mach i n e s , su r vey of po s t - h a r- vest losses, and stora ge stru ctu res of s ome fru i t s , veget a bles and cere a l s . Ot h er publications include papers on the effect of tillage methods on planting cow- pea and the safety and causes of tractor-related accidents. Akeem Ayofe Akinwale is at Lagos State University. His research interests include the social response to criminal activity in Nigeria. Moj eed Olujinmi A . Al a bi, L L B, P h D, is a Ba rri s ter and So l i c i tor of t h e Supreme Court of Nigeria. He taught Political Science at Obafemi Awolowo Un ivers i ty in Il e - Ife , Ni geria (1990–1998) before he ven tu red into practi c a l politics for four years (1990–2003). He is now a Senior Lecturer in Compar- a tive Po l i tics and In tern a ti onal Rel a ti ons at Ba bcock Un ivers i t y in Il i s h a n - Remo, Nigeria. He is the author of The Supreme Court in the Nigerian Politi - cal System, and has articles in scholarly books and learned journals. Oluwatosin Ige Alo (MSc), is a Graduate Assistant at the Department of So- ciology and Anthropoloy at Obafemi Awolowo University in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. As iya n bola R. Abi demi B S c , M U R P, was tra i n ed at the Ob a femi Awo l owo University in Ile-Ife, Nigeria and the University of Ibadan in Ibadan, Nigeria. He is curren t ly com p l eting his doctoral dissert a t i on at the Un ivers i ty of Ib ad a n . He is a past rec i p i ent of CODESRIA aw a rd , a small grant for thesis writing. He is also a Lecturer in the Department of Geography and Regional Planning at Olabisi Onabanjo University in Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria. His research i n terests are in gen der, u rban geogra phy / p l a n n i n g, h o u s i n g, and envi ron m en t and population studies. Adewole Ak i nyemi Atere, P h D, is a Sen i or Lectu rer in Cri m i n o l ogy and Pen o l- ogy at the Lagos State University in Lagos, Nigeria. He is a Co-editor of Cap - tives Captor and Soci ety: A Soci ol o g ical An a lysis of Ad j u s tm ent Me c hanism of Prisoners in Nigeria. He recently co-edited Crime Management in Nigeria. He has several publications in scholarly journals. He is currently working on The Treatment of the Elderly in Prisons. ‘Tunji Azee z, t h e a ter arti s t , s ch o l a r, and poet has a BA (Hon ors) in Dra m a ti c Arts and an MA in Th e a ter Arts from the Ob a femi Awo l owo Un ivers i ty in Il e - Ife , Ni geria and the Un ivers i ty of Ib adan in Ib ad a n , Ni geria re s pectively. A on e - time Sec ret a ry - G en eral of the As s oc i a ti on of Ni gerian Aut h ors , Ife Ch a pter xx CONTRIBUTORS

( 1 9 9 2 – 1 9 9 4 ) , he is pre s en t ly a lectu rer in both the Dep a rtm ent of E n glish Stu d- ies and the Dep a rtm ent of Th e a ter Arts & Music at Lagos State Un ivers i ty and the Arti s tic Di rector of a Lago s - b a s ed theater- ori en ted non - govern m ental or- ga n i z a ti on call ed Opti m om Arts Kon s o ti om (OA K ) . He has publ i s h ed a boo k , Pra ctical Hints on Pl ay wri ting (2003) as well as sch o l a rly essays in journals and boo k s . His cre a tive works aw a i ting publ i c a ti on are the plays , T h ree Devel op - m ental Pl ays, Te c h . Ni te Revel a t i o n and Ka biyesi Ga l a ga l a (an ad a pt a ti on of Al- bert Ca mu s’ C a ll i g u l a) and a co ll ecti on of poem s , Arrival: Songs of Ho m a ge. He is curren t ly a doctoral stu dent at the Un ivers i ty of Ib ad a n .

Ademola Ba b a l o l a, P h D, is a Sen i or Lectu rer in the Dep a rtm ent of Soc i o l ogy and An t h ropo l ogy at Ob a femi Awo l owo Un ivers i ty in Il e - Ife , Ni geri a . He te aches co u rses in the areas of s ocial ch a n ge and devel opm en t , Ni g erian soc i- eties and cultu re s , and com p a ra tive social insti tuti on s . Babalola has publ i s h ed ex ten s ively on how the introdu cti on and adopti on of com m ercial ﬂu e - c u red tob acco produ cti on in the Oyo north divi s i on , u n der the auspices of the Bri ti s h Am erican Tob acco (BAT) , a f fected the soc i o - econ omic lives of the peop l e . Ba- balola also has publ i s h ed works on how soc i o - econ omic devel opm ent in Ni geri a , f rom pre - co l onial times until the pre s ent day, a f fects the lives of Ni geri a n s .

Ba m i dele Abi ona Badej o, is a Sen i or Lectu rer and He ad of the Geogra phy and Planning Department at Lagos State University in Lagos, Nigeria. He is also an Assistant Director at the School of Part-Time Studies at the university and the Exec utive Di rector at the Af rican Re s e a rch In s ti tute of Tra n s port and Com- mu n i c a ti on Devel opm en t , wh i ch is a non - govern m ental or ga n i z a ti on based in Lago s . He also served as the Acting Di rector for the Cen tre for Planning Studies at the University. Badejo is widely published with ﬁve books, several articles in reputable journals, and chapters in books. He has attended many conferences with paper presentations locally and internationally. He has over twenty years of research, teaching, and administrative experience in the academic/university system.

Oluyemisi Ba m g bo s e, L L M , B L , is an As s oc i a te Profe s s or of Criminal Law and Criminology in the Faculty of Law at the University of Ibadan in Ibadan, Ni geri a . She is the aut h or of s everal arti cles and ch a pters in boo k s . She is particularly interested in the human rights of women and adolescents. Her articles on these issues inclu de “Vi o l en ce against Wom en : A Reocc u rring In ter- n a ti ona l and Cri m i n o l ogical Probl em ,” “ Human Ri g hts and Health Is su e s a rising from Street Trading Practi ces among Young Girls in Ni geri a ,”“Teen a ge Prostitution: The Future of Female Adolescents in Nigeria,” and “Customary Law Practices and Violence against Women.” She is a co-editor of a book on CONTRIBUTORS xxi contemporary challenges of adolescents in Nigeria. She was a visiting professor in criminal procedure at Marquette University Law School in Milwaukee, Wi s con s i n . She is curren t ly the ch a i rpers on of the Federal Govern m ent Stu dy Group on the Death Penalty in Nigeria. a s h i mu n e ze heanach o, P h D, is an As s oc i a te Profe s s or of P h i l o s ophy and Edu- c a ti onal Th eory at Cen tral Mi ch i gan Un ivers i ty. He is the aut h or of s everal papers , i n cluding “ Forms of Kn owl ed ge Th eory,” Revi ew Jou rnal of Ph i l o sop hy and S o cial Sci en ce (RJPSS) 3 8 , 2 (2002):42–8 8 . He is also the 2004/2005 Series Edi- tor of the R J P S S’s i s sue “ Mi n d , Cu l tu re , and Edu c a ti on” and a founding ed i tor of the fort h coming journal of Af ri co l ogy, Ep i s tem e. h e a n acho is com p l eting a book manu s c ri pt , Optimal Edu c a ti o n, a stu dy of d i s tri butive ju s ti ce , due in 2005. Ma r y E. Modu pe Ko l awo l e, P h D, is Profe s s or and Chair of E n glish and Wom en’s S tudies at Ob a femi Awo l owo Un ivers i ty in Il e - Ife , Ni geri a . She is the aut h or of m a ny intern a ti onal arti cles and books including Womanism and Af rican Co n - sci ou s n e s s (Tren ton , N J : Af r ica World Pre s s , 1 9 9 7 ) , Gen d er Perception and De - vel opm ent in Af ri c a ( L a go s : Arra bon , 1998) and Zulu Sofola: Her Li fe and Her Wo rk s ( Ib ad a n : Ca l top, 1 9 9 9 ) . She has been a rec i p i ent of the Na ti onal Endow- m ent for the Hu m a n i ties and As s oc i a ti on of Com m onwealth Un ivers i ti e s . S h e was a Rockefell er Fell ow at Corn el Un ivers i ty, a guest re s e a rch er at the Nord i c Af r ica In s ti tute in Sweden , DAAD Fell ow at Hu m boldt Un ivers i ty in Germ a ny, and an As s oc i a te of the Af rica Gen der In s ti tute in So uth Af r ica among others . She is the Na ti onal Coord i n a tor of Wom en Wri ting Af r ica and a con sultant to a gencies su ch as Ford and the Un i ted Na ti ons Un ivers i ty. She is curren t ly interroga ting gen der theories from a cro s s - c u l tu ral and tra n s - n a ti onal pers pective . Adebayo A. Lawal, PhD, is a Professor of History at the University of Lagos. He co - ed i ted Fu n d a m entals of Economic Hi s to ry ( Ikeja : F i rst Ac ademic Pu b- l i s h ers , 2003) and is the aut h or of s everal arti cles and book ch a pters on the economic history of Nigeria, West Africa and Africa. He is a founding member and has been the acting sec ret a ry of Am erican Studies As s oc i a t i on of Ni geria (ASAN).He was a Fu l bri ght and Rockefell er scholar in the 1990s. Cu r ren t ly he is the head of the Hi s tory Dep a rtm ent and Stra tegic Studies wh ere he is re- searching on Ila’s relations with the Igbomina up to 1900. Ta iwo Ma k i n de is in the Dep a r tm ent of Pu blic Ad m i n i s tra t i on at Ob a fem i Awo l owo Un ivers i ty. Her re s e a rch interests inclu de the vi ews of wom en in Nigeria. John Ba b a t u n de Ba m i dele Oj o received his PhD at How a rd Un ivers i ty in Washington, D.C. xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Táíwò Ol ú n l á d é, M A , P G D J, PhD (in vi ew ) , is a Sen i or Lectu rer in Yoru b a and Com mu n i c a ti on Arts at Lagos State Un ivers i ty in Lago s , Ni geri a . He is the aut h or of Ewi Ig ba l od e and several sch o l a rly arti cles and book ch a pters . He has co-authored Ijinle Ede ati Litireso Yoruba books (Ibadan: Evans Broth- ers Ni g eria Pu bl i s h ers , 1 9 8 6 ) . He has also ed i ted Yo ru ba Gbod e, Na tional Jou r - nal of the Association of Teachers of the Yoruba Languages and Culture of Nige - ri a ( 1 9 9 6 - 2 0 0 0 ) . He is also the ed i tor - i n - ch i ef of Yo r u b a Id e a s ( L a go s : G l en dora In tern a ti onal Ni geria Pu bl i s h ers) and is curren t ly working on Yoru b a newspapers for his PhD thesis. Jacob Oni, PhD, currently teaches Sociology at Roxbury Community College as an Ad ju n c t Profe s s or and does su b s ti tute te aching for the Bo s ton publ i c s ch ool sys tem . He is a re s e a rch e r, co u n s el or and minister. He is the curren t New England Region Coordinator of Programs for the Deeper Christian Life Ministry. Elaine Neil Orr holds a PhD in Litera tu re and Th eo l ogy from Emory Un i- vers i ty. She te aches cre a tive non - f i cti on , Am erican litera tu re , and con tem - pora r y litera tu re at North Ca rolina State Un ivers i ty in Ra l ei gh , North Ca r- o l i n a . She also te aches in the short - re s i dency MFA in wri t ing program at Spalding Un ivers i t y. She is the aut h or of Gods of Noo n d ay: A W h i t e Girl ’s Af r ican Li fe ( Ch a rl o t te s vi l l e : Un ivers i t y of Vi r gin ia Pre s s , 2 0 0 3 ) , Su bje ct to Negoti a tion: Reading Feminist Cri t i c ism and Am erican Wo m en’s Fi cti o n s ( Ch a rl o t te s vi l l e : Un ivers i ty of Vi r g inia Pre s s , 1 9 9 7 ) , and Ti llie Olsen and a Feminist Sp i ri tual Vi s i o n (Jack s onvi ll e : Un ivers i ty Press of Mi s s i s s i pp i , 1 9 8 7 ) . She has publ i s h ed essays , revi ews , and poems in Si gn s, Am erican Li tera tu re, The Mi s sou ri Revi e w, S o u t h ern Cu l tu re s, Ka ll i ope, Obsidian II, Mod ern La n - g u a ge Quarterly, and Jouvert: A Jou rnal of Po s tcolonial Stu d i e s, a m ong other p l ace s . Kefa M. Oti s o is an urban and econ omic geogra ph er with a PhD in Geog- ra phy from the Un ivers i ty of Mi n n e s o t a . He is curren t ly an assistant profe s s or of G eogra phy at Bowling Green State Un ivers i ty. His work has ap- pe a red in refereed journals su ch as the Si n ga p o re Jou rnal of Trop i c a l Ge o gra p hy and Ci ti e s and in ed i ted vo lum es su ch as a Co n tem po ra r y Af r i c a, Af r ica Volume 5, ed i ted by Toyin Falola (Du r h a m , N C : Ca rolina Ac adem i c Pre s s , 2 0 0 3 ) , and C l othing and Footwear in Af r ican In du s tri a l i s a ti o n, ed i ted by Doro t hy Mc Corm i ck and Ch ri s tian Rogers on (Pretori a : Af rican In s ti tut e of So uth Af ri c a , 2 0 0 4 ) . Ha keem Ibikunle Tija n i, is an Assistant Profe s s or of Hi s tory at Hen ders on S t a te Un ivers i ty. His te aching interests are Af rican Hi s tor y, Bl ack / Di a s pora CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

History, History of Islam, and Modern Middle East. His areas of research inclu de Econ om i c , Po l i ti c a l , and Urban Hi s tory of Su b - Sa h a ran Af ri c a ; Na- ti onalism and An ti - Com munism in West Af ri c a ; Im perialism and Co l on i a l- ism in Af ri c a ; and post-1945 An gl o - Am erican interest in West Af ri c a . He recently received grants from the McMath Endowment, Ellis Faculty, and the Un ivers i ty Devel opm ent Fund at Hen ders on State Un ivers i ty. He had previ- o u s ly received aw a rds from UK Com m onwealth Un ivers i tie s As s oc i a ti on , Ha rry S. Truman In s ti tute , and a nati onal defense medal from the Un i ted State Army. T. Y. Tunde-Akintinde, is a Lecturer in the Department of Food Science and Engineering at Ladoke University of Technology in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. She specializes in the optimization of food processes. Her current area of study is on the processing of f ruits and veget a ble s to redu ce po s t - h a rvest losses. S h e has publ i s h ed a nu m ber of p a pers , wh i ch inclu de the opti m i z a ti on o f the produ cti on process of s oym i l k , s oybean oi l , ga ri , and some sor g hum produ ct s . Other papers involved the design and construction of some agricultural processing machines, and post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables. Anne Webb is a Ma s ter ’s Ca n d i d a te of L i n g u i s tics at the Un ivers i ty of Texas at Au s ti n . She is curren t ly con du cting re s e a rch on regi onal dialects of E n g l i s h . Her re s e a rch interests inclu de dialecto l ogy, border cultu re s , s t yle and iden ti ty.

Introduction

Toyin Falola Ann Genova

Elitism and Liberal Agenda The emergence of elite history is one of the deﬁning moments of the histori ogra phy of the Yoru b a . Du ring the nineteenth cen tu r y, a pion eer el i te em er ged , thanks to We s ter n edu c a ti on and Ch ri s ti a n i t y. This el i te played a prominent role in creating the idea of the Yoruba, both as a people and as a n a ti on . So su ccessful were they that one of t h em , Sa mu el Jo h n s on , com p l e ted the longest history ever written on them, in the last decade of the nineteenth cen tu r y.1 Sa mu el Jo h n s on’s work dem on s tra tes the power of l i terac y. Th e power was manife s ted in the establ i s h m ent of n ews p a pers , a devel opm ent an- alyzed in this volume in the chapter by Táíwò Olúnládé. While not telling us mu ch new inform a ti on , Ol ú n l á d é ’s em phasis on the su rvival of Yoruba news- p a pers should be noted . It dem on s tra tes the con ti nu i ty of the stra tegy of tu rn- ing literacy into power, via the med ium of the pre s s . As he points out , Yoru b a n ews p a pers rise and fall , but there is never a vac u u m , and the circ u l a ti on number keeps rising. Of course, the impact of those published in English is mu ch stron ger. The diminishing role of the print media is not peculiar to Ni geri a ; in the era of In tern et , no media out l et can be faster than moving a mouse aro u n d . One po s s i bi l i ty of ex p a n s i on may lie in the Yoruba news p a- pers being made available via Internet services. Education has always been the key to the empowerment of the Yoruba and the con s tru cti on of el i ti s m . Af ter 1940, the agenda of l i beral reforms inclu ded a massive ex p a n s i on of the edu c a ti on sys tem . The dominant pers on a l i ty in

1 . Sa mu el Jo h n s on , The Hi s to ry of the Yo r u bas: From the Ea rliest Times to the Begi n n i n g of the British Protectorate (London: CMS Bookshop, 1921).

xxv xxvi INTRODUCTION this enterprise was the leading hero of the twentieth century, Chief Obafemi Awo l owo . He was a strong advoc a te of f ree edu c a ti on , an issue that ashimuneze heanacho explores in his chapter. heanacho gives us the compre- h en s ive road map to understand the devel opm ent of We s tern edu c a ti on a m ong the Yoru b a . This new era began in 1955 with the introdu cti on of We s t- ern education, an initiative that took elementary education to towns and vil- lages. While that decision made Awolowo very famous, his larger agenda was to empower the Yoruba, making them competitive in Nigerian economy and politics. The Yoruba have always constructed their identity in the context of inter- group relations within the region known as Yorubaland, as well as within the l a r ger geogra phical regi ons of the Yoruba in Ni geria wh i ch even tu a lly ex- p a n ded from sout hwe s tern Ni geria to nort h ern Ni geria and el s ewh ere . Nort h- ern ers , too, i n term i n gl ed with them , f a s h i oning establ i s h ed stra n gers’ communities that generated conflicts and competitions.2 Hakeem Ibikunle Tijani retu rns to this issu e , by high l i gh ting ten s i ons in intra - group rel a ti ons in Lago s in ways somewhat different from Sandra Barnes’ study on the same subject.3 To Tija n i , the grip of a few patrons on thousands of cl i ents has we a ken ed , a n d the con du ct of po l i tics has become far more com p l i c a ted . In Ju l ius O. Ade k u n l e’s essay, we see how people com bine to attain po l i tical and econ om i c obj ective s . Ma n i fe s tin g as assoc i a ti on s , def i n ed ei t h er narrowly or broadly, they show the attempts to pull resources for development purposes. Also focusing on Lagos, Lateef M. Adetona shows how an Islamic organi- zation, the Bamidele movement, rooted in traditionalism, projected itself on the larger com mu n i ty and went abo ut rec ru i ting new converts and ex p a n d i n g its mem bers h i p. The stra tegy of the Ba m i dele movem ent was to rej ect the ch a n ges perceived as We s tern and corro s ive . As the ben efits of We s tern form a l edu c a ti on became cl e a rer, the Ba m i dele began to ad ju s t , a ll owing the cre a ti on of We s tern - s tyle sch ools while sti l l running Quranic on e s . While this bl en d con t i nu e s , it is clear that tod ay that the majori ty of Yoruba sti ll opt for the route of Western education, although many have argued that Western education draws pupils toward the usage of European languages, dress, and culture and away from those of their traditional ethnic groups. The issue of identity has emerged from this conflict.

2 . See , for instance , Abn er Co h e n , Cu s tom s and Pol i ti c s in Urban Af r ica: A Stu dy of Hausa Migrants in Yoruba Towns (London: Rutledge and Kegan Paul, 1969). 3 . Sa n d ra Ba rn e s , Pa t rons and Power: Cre a ting a Pol i tical Co m mu n i ty in Metropol i t a n Lagos (London: Manchester University Press, 1986). INTRODUCTION xxvii

Identity and Negotiations The Yoruba el i te as well as the rest are con f ron ted with issues of i n teracti on and ch a n ge . Never simple, these issues en compass daily acts of su rviva l , household management, and mobility within economic and political spaces. Va rious essays ad d ress the com p l ex i ty of i den ti t y and how human bei n gs see k to com mu n i c a te their va lu e s , proj ect an image , and live their live s . E du c a ti on remains the key, with Demola Babalola reminding us of the con n ecti on be- t ween et h n i c i ty and the devel opm ent of We s ter n edu c a ti on . To Ba b a l o l a , et h- n i c i ty has its po s i tive el em en t s , and the consciousness of it en a bles the idea of Western education to be connected to an ethnic-cum-political calculation. L i ke el s ewh ere , the Yoruba re s pond to the ex i gencies of l aw, and the ten- s i ons bet ween order and disorder. As to law, t h ere is nothing new in the for- mu l a ti o n of l egal codes to deal with human rel a t i on s . Before the on s et of co l oni al ru l e , the Yoruba had their own form of l aw ad m i n i s tered by the king. Al s o, t h ere was a cultu ral ex pect a ti on that anyone wi tne ssing a dispute , is ex- pected to settle the dispute . Al t h o u gh they were not wri t ten or cod i fied , t h e l aws were wi dely accepted . We see the example of l aw making among the Yoruba before the era of the Bri tish in the essay by Moj eed Olujinmi A . Al a bi , wh i ch ch a racteri zes that sys tem as cen tra l i zed , h i era rch i c a l , and rep u bl i c a n . Al a bi wants us to note the limits they impo s ed on the exercise of power, a n d to treat them as an important legacy to ad a pt for the pre s en t . For dem oc rac y to work tod ay, the trad i ti on of ch ecks and balances that worked in the past must be em braced anew. Some of the older elements have been reworked into what we may call, for want of a bet ter term , the ambi g u i ty of m odern laws . Si n ce indepen den ce Nigeria has witnessed its political and, as a consequence, its judicial systems breaking down . Its govern m ent has been unable to ef fectively curb corru pti on and halt the downw a rd spiral of its econ omy. In gra ppling with this issu e , scholars have turned to issues of law. In debates on how to best reform them, the most preva l ent soluti on has been a retu rn to trad i ti ona l forms of l aw. Oluyemisi Bamgbose supports this idea by suggesting that Nigeria reforms its criminal system with ideas from Yoruba culture, particularly with respect to laws relating to disputes. Her work builds on that of Alabi because the issues she raises have relevance for the present. However, the present society is not a parti c u l a rly happy on e , s i n ce it is under going profound moral dec aden ce . The most notable example of this is the recent wave of e-fraud connected to the Yoruba. Al t h o u gh the ori gin has not been con f i rm ed , Ni gerians are all eged to be the ori gin of the “ 4 1 9 ” s c a m s . More spec i fic a lly, the Yoru b a , who are the dom- xxviii INTRODUCTION inant ethnic group in Lagos, have been accused of this because the authors of the letters use Yoruba names and Lagos addresses. The notorious 419 crimes h ave intern a ti on a l i zed the level of c r i m i n a l i t y among edu c a ted men and wom en who use their talents for du bious means in ways ex p l a i n ed by An n e Webb in her chapter. Thanks to the Internet, 419 scams are global operations that link the Yoruba to wider international networks of e-fraud. Anne Webb even con n e cts the tra n s acti ons with issues of ethnic iden ti t y, for their capa- bility to destroy a culture and its image. But areas of positive activity are more numerous than those of criminality wh i ch reveal the need to revisit history to bring out the best in Yoruba cultu re . Three essays explore issues around family and lineage units. Motherhood as an agency of empowering women is explored in Taiwo Makinde’s essay. The s tu dy of wom en in Af rica has ch a n ged over ti m e . Wh en looking at the history of Yoruba wom en since pre - co l onial ti m e s , s ch o l a rs have foc u s ed pri m a ri ly on those working as po l i tical activists or within the upper cl a s s . However, wi t h i n the past ten years, scholars are focusing on ordinary women who work in the markets or in their homes.4 Makinde joins this latter group with her progres- s ive ch a racteri z a ti ons of Yoruba wom en as wive s , pri e s te s s e s , d a u g h ters , wi tch e s , and mothers . She high l i ghts the idea that each gen era tes va rious po s- i tive and nega tive re s pon s e s . Con cluding with a policy statem en t , Ma k i n de wants society to give women more power and resources to play their roles as mothers. In ternal power stru ctu res in households remain import a n t , as we are re- minded in the chapter on age stratification by Jacob A. Adetunji. While age is important to the Yoruba, and most especially within the household, Adetunji shows how achievement, urbanization, and Western education are now erod- ing its sign i fic a n ce . His re s e a rch focuses on a Yoruba com mu n i ty in Ekiti , wi t h which he conducted his research studies in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In E k i ti , Adetunji ex p l ored the level of male and female parti c i p a ti on in the com- mercial production of rice. And he expanded his analysis to look at the con- sequences of this work on marital relationships. L i ke Adetu n j i , Jacob Oni focuses on the state of E k i t i , one of the Yoru b a states in southwestern Nigeria that formed out of the creation of 36 states in 1996.One of the nort h ernmost states in Yoru b a l a n d , it is pri m a ri ly ru ra l , wi t h mountains and fertile land. The regi on is loc a ted at the bend of the Ni ger River, wh ere agri c u l tu re is the dominant econ omy activi ty. Within farm i n g

4. LaRay Denzer, “Yoruba Women: A Historiographical Study,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 27 no. 1 (1994): 2. INTRODUCTION xxix communities such as this, the family plays an important role in the success of t h eir livel i h o od . The inhabitants of E k i ti are patrilineal and practi ce ei t h er m on oga my or po lyga my. From his work in the regi on , Oni iden ti fies casu a l s t a tem ents and profound proverbs that captu re aspects of f a m i ly life . With examples of expressions that explain health and demographic issues, he focuses on the issue of po lyga my. The stu dy of po lygamous marri a ges in Af rica has been a major topic of research. While scholars in the West have tended in the past to focus more on women’s responses and why modern African societies continue the practice, scholars are beginning to focus, instead, on the impact this practice has on the family unit as a whole. To Oni, polygamous marriage is a scene of rivalry between co-wives based on child welfare. His work shows us a happy marri a ge of c u l tu re and met h odo l ogy in ways that su ggest new ap- proaches to these issues. Social bel i efs are of ten su s t a i n ed and com p l em en ted by rel i gious on e s . Ibi g- bo l ade Si m on Aderi bi g be cre a tes this kind of l i n k a ge bet ween rel i gi on and tra- d i ti onal medical practi ce s , with a focus on aborti on . Trad i ti on a lly, ch i l d ren were the main re a s on for marri a ge . A wom a n’s barrenness was seen as a curs e , and the husband was justified in taking another wife. Traditional Yoruba belief rejected the practice of abortion, but it did not stop women from seeking them. Referring to the Ifa oracle (the unwritten scripture of this indigenous rel i gi on wh i ch guides almost every aspect of a practi on er ’s life ) , Aderi bi g be cites passages that reject abortion. It is said to be derived from the Ifa’s oppo- s i ti on to adu l ter y and its denu n c i a ti on of k i lling human bei n gs . 5 Overa ll , Aderibigbe’s work asserts Yoruba beliefs into the wider global debate regard- ing aborti on . 6 In Yoru b a l a n d , we find the same con ten ti on that if a b orti on was legalized it could be regulated and more safe for women. Aderibigbe sees the debate over abortion as not only a cultural struggle, but also a political one. Societies all over the world are grappling with this issue, and the Yoruba are no excepti on . The issue of a borti on high l i gh t s , a l s o, the interp l ay bet ween traditional medicine and Western medicine. Th ro u gh o ut modern Ni geri a , trad i ti onal medicine con ti nues to play an important ro l e . Al t h o u gh We s tern medicine is wi dely practi ced , m a ny Ni geri a n s rely on these traditional remedies. Elaine Neil Orr, the daughter of a medical missionary who was stationed in Ogbomoso, Nigeria, understands the paral-

5 . Com p a ri s ons can be drawn with We s t ern cultu res and Ch ri s ti a n i t y. See Jon a t h a n Kell ey et al, “ Moral Re a s oning and Po l i tical Con fli ct : The Aborti on Con trovers y,” B r i t i s h Journal of Sociology 44 no. 4 (December 1993): 589-612. 6 . See , for instance , Wo l f Bl ee k , “ I n du ced Aborti on in a Ghanaian Fa m i ly,” Af r i c a n Studies Review 21 no. 1 (April 1978): 103-120. xxx INTRODUCTION l el role of Yoruba trad i ti ona l medicine and We s tern med i c i n e . Du ring her yo ut h , she fell ill and sought help from trad i ti ona l healers . She wro te that, “ [ my] parents had taken medicine to Ni geri a , but paradox i c a l ly, I would need Yoruba medicine in order to be healed .”7 As a citi zen from another co u n try, she looks at the Yoruba both as an insider and out s i der . Her mem oi r, b a s ed on wh en she lived among the Yoruba in the 1950s and 1960s, revisits the place , telling us fascinating stories of engagement. She shows how practical experi- ences can be the roots of social activism. In defining herself, she is also defining the Yoruba. Two chapters look ahead into the future. Many Yoruba warn about the future, painting pictures of doom and gloom, seeing the legacy of colonialism still alive and corrupting Nigeria. The most important rift within Nigeria exists bet ween the predom i n a n t ly Muslim north and the Ch ri s tian south on bo t h religious and political grounds. Since independence, more and more northern states have implemented Islamic, or sharia law, which has distanced these states from those of southern Nigeria.8 Politically, the history of this political tension between the north and south in Nigeria goes back to British colonialism. After almost a hundred years of colonial rule, the British began the han- dover of the co l ony to a Ni gerian govern m en t . Bri tish favori tism tow a rd n ort h ern Ni geria was evi den t , p a r ti c u l a rly du ring the 1959 el ecti on , wh en the British allegedly manipulated the situation for a northern win. Jare Ajayi and John Ba b a tu n de Ba m i dele Ojo both ad d ress this issu e , but in very differen t styles. Both Ajayi and Ojo present the Yoruba as victims of both British rule and northerners. They use the fall of Obafemi Awolowo in the early 1960s as the p ivotal point at wh i ch Yoruba solidari t y and po l i tical strength in the nati on began to decl i n e . To the Yoru b a , Awo l owo repre s en ted the voi ce of the Yoru b a people thro u gh his uncom promising activism and sch o l a rs h i p. From Awolowo’s decline in power, Ajayi and Ojo build their analysis on the present state of the Yoruba in politics. Ajayi regards the members of the Yoruba’s political class as divided and not always committed to their people. A bright future, according to Ajayi, can only come if economic and political paradigms a re altered . John Ojo wri tes in a more com b a tive ton e , p l e ading to the Yoru b a not to be shy of fighting, and never to expect good to come from the rule of the military and other non - dem oc ra tic sys tem s . In Ojo’s essay, we find the

7. Elaine Orr, “Jinxed: On Being White and Yoruba.” 8 . For more on the implem en t a ti on of the shari a , s ee Tij jani Mu h a m m ad Na n iya , “ Hi s- tory of the Shari’a in Some States of Nort h ern Ni geria to Ci rca 2000,” Jo u rnal of Is l a m i c Studies [Great Britain] 13 no. 1 (2002): 14-31. INTRODUCTION xxxi m er ger of c u l tu ral and po l i tical nati onalism and the fru s tra ti on of an el i te wh o wants its people to do better in a federal Nigeria.

Fashioning the Future The el i te proj ect since the nineteenth cen tu ry is alw ays abo ut the futu re of m odern i z a ti on , deﬁn ed in terms of We s tern edu c a ti on , j ob s , devel opm en t , a n d power to con trol Ni geri a . In the last segm ent of this boo k , we pre s ent som e e s s ays that look at the ob s t acles to a su ccessful proj ect of m odern i z a ti on . Mu ch of t h eir con cern cen ters on the ex p a n s i on of c i ties and towns wi t h o ut an in- f ra s tru c tu re to su pport them . This is parti c u l a rly the probl em in sout hwe s tern Ni geri a , in the heart of Yoru b a l a n d , the most den s ely pop u l a ted regi on of Ni geri a . For anyone that has travel ed along the major roads in this regi on , it is no su r prise that these roads are con s i dered among the most dangerous in the worl d . The highw ay that ex tends northeast from Lagos to Ib ad a n , for ex a m- p l e , is one of the worst because of the com bi n a ti on of poor road and veh i cl e con d i t i ons mixed with rampant criminal activi ty occ u rring along them . To Ba m i dele Abi ona Badej o, the ra te of acc i dents is too high on roads in Yoru b a- l a n d , and he makes a nu m ber of recom m en d a ti ons to redu ce the nu m ber of tra n s port a ti on - rel a ted casu a l ti e s . In ad d i ti on to the risks of travel , Ni geria has also stru ggl ed to redu ce the nu m ber deaths of rel a ted to disease. In Africa, AIDS represents the most deadly disease. It emerged in the late 1970s in Africa and has silently spread, becoming pandemic by the 1980s. Es- ti m a tes by the Un i ted Na ti ons place the nu m b er of people living with A I D S in Ni geria at almost 4 mill i on .9 For Oluw a tosin Ige Al o, AIDS and HIV are problems in Nigeria which require creative solutions drawn from traditional and modern medical practi ce s . He em ph a s i zes that, in Ni geri a , n ew dru gs and m edical assistance are not wi dely ava i l a ble or are too ex pen s ive . Because of this, the death rate from AIDS is extremely high. What is crucial to the pre- vention of HIV/AIDS is an understanding of how it is contracted and how to prevent it. The spre ad of HIV/AIDS hits hard at the cultu ral standards and taboos. Many view the invasion of HIV/AIDS on their community as the result in a breakdown of moral codes. A belief exists in Nigeria that modernity and urbanization have encouraged the breakdown of social values. This idea also applies to an increase in criminal activity.

9 . Un i ted Na ti ons Programme on HIV/AIDS, “ Ep i dem i o l ogical Fact Sheets on HIV/AIDS and Sex u a l ly Tra n s m i t ted Di s e a s e s : Ni geri a ,” G en eva : U NA I D S , 2 0 0 4 , 2 . Re- trieved from http://www.who.int.html. xxxii INTRODUCTION

To Adewole Ak i nyemi Atere and Akeem Ayofe Ak i nw a l e , a rising crime wave is making the cities ri s ky to live in, and the use of vi gi l a n te groups is de s i r- a bl e . He high l i ghts the Oodua Peop l e’s Con gress (OPC) as a com mu n i ty - b a s ed body that en forced laws in Lago s . The or ga n i z a ti on has ri s en in pop u l a ri ty since its formation in the 1990s due to rampant problems of corruption and i n epti tu de . Atere and Ak i nw a l e’s ch a pter high l i ghts one of the examples of t h e failure of the formal sector in solving many problems. A set of other essays look at ways to create a better future, making use of d ivers i ﬁed natu r al re s o u rces drawn from indigenous Yoruba and We s tern tech- n o l ogi cal innova ti on s . The regi on tod ay call ed Ni geria has a long history wi t h an agri c u l tu re - b a s ed econ omy. The on s et of co l onial rule en co u ra ged the mass production of agriculture for export, which placed a strain on food available for dom e s tic con su m pti on . Un til the oil indu s try bega n , a gri c u l tu re was Ni geri a’s main source of forei gn exch a n ge . The discovery of com m ercial qu a n ti- ties of oil in the late 1950s caused a dramatic drop in agriculture as the country inve s ted in oil produ cti on and not in expanding its agri c u l tu ra l productivity. Farmers received little or no support from the government, and m a ny left their farms for urban em p l oym en t . Those who rem a i n ed in the bu s i- ness used outdated, non-mechanized equipment, and switched to cash crop produ cti on . Within a short peri od , a g ri c u l tu ral produ cti on for dom e s tic consumption nearly crumbled. During the oil boom years of the 1970s, attempts were made to revitalize Ni geri a’s ailing agri c u l tu ral sector. For ex a m p l e , du ring the Th i rd Devel op- ment Plan (1975-1980) Nigeria invested millions on irrigation projects, road con s tru cti on , and incre a s ed use of ferti l i zers and insecti c i de s . But , a few ye a rs i n to the plan, it became clear that it was nei t h er helping the small scale farm er nor the quality of food produced for domestic consumption.10 Several chapters ad d ress this issue of Ni geri a’s weak agri c u l tu r al sector and con n ect the import a n ce of its revival to the mainten a n ce of Yoruba cultu re . By ex a m i n i n g the link bet ween agri c u l tu re and Yoruba cultu re , we are introdu ced to the important crops of the Yoruba to produce and consume, as well as unique har- vesting techniques based on traditional Yoruba practices. Bayo Lawal has written an overview of the centrality of agriculture among the Yoruba. Lawal presents a society grounded in agriculture, but witnessing a decline due to ch a n ging econ omies and urb a n i z a ti on . His work ex a m i n e s Yoruba trad i t i onal met h ods and inti m a te knowl ed ge of c u l tiva ting food wh i ch ,

1 0 . Tina Wa l l ace , “The Ch a ll en ge of Food : Ni geri a’s Approach to Agri c u l tu re 1975- 1980,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 15 no. 2 (1981): 239-258. INTRODUCTION xxxiii even today, are used throughout Yorubaland. Among these basic methods of p l a n ti n g, h a r ve s ti n g, and storing thro u gh a land tenu re sys tem , the Yoru b a add the use of spiritual forces, traditional calendars, rainmaking, and much m ore . Th e y vi ew the worship of certain dei ties as essen tial to the su ccess of t h eir crop s . Fe s tivals are also an integral part of t h eir farm i n g. In this way, religion and agricultural production become intertwined as representations of Yoruba culture. For the Yoru b a , what a gri c u l tu re they produ ce not on ly repre s ents a crucial part of their economy, but also acts as a symbol of Yoruba culture. Diet among the different ethnic groups in Nigeria varies. The Yoruba diet is based on solid foods less than the Ig bo or those in the Mi d dle Belt regi on . Th ey consume large amounts of gari (a granular, starchy food), which separates them from the Hausa, for example, who consume no gari. To discuss gari, then, is to discuss a long-standing dietary tradition among the Yoruba. The necessity of food is covered in two chapters, one by B. O. Akintunde on how to store gra i n s , and the other by T. Y. Tu n de - Ak i n tu n de on how to improve the production of gari. Cassava, from which gari is made, is one of the most important crops in Nigeria, and is consumed in various forms. Gari is formed from gelatinized flakes of cassava and is the most common product obtained from cassava. Nigeria accounts for forty percent of all cassava produced in Africa. Its popularity throughout the country stems from its ability to grow high yi elds in poor soi l . In low income are a s , c a s s ava is useful in that, a f ter it has matu red , it can remain in the gro u n d . T. Y. Tu n de - Ak i n tu n de’s goa l in her ch a pter is to su ggest ways to improve the produ cti on of the cassava into ga ri in order to increase its nutri ti onal va lu e , dec rease the natu ral cya n i de con- tent, and reduce the particle size and swelling capacity. B. O. Ak i n tu n de examines the types of on - f a rm stora ge stru ctu res amon g the Yoru b a . Because the Yoruba live in a more humid cl i m a te of s o ut hwe s t- ern Ni geri a , t h ey deal with a high percen t a ge of grain loss. Hu m i d i t y ra i s e s the moi s tu re level in stora ge stru ctu re s , wh i ch all ows grains to become damp and moldy qu i ck ly. For this re a s on , f a rm ers have devel oped bet ter met h od s in storing their gra i n s ; and thro u gh the stu dy of s tor a ge tech n o l ogy, re- s e a rch ers have devi s ed more ways to redu ce the spoiling of gra i n s . However, Yoruba stora ge units are made from mud and thatch roofs , wh i ch Ak i n tu n de con tends yi elds a low level of u s e a ble gra i n . Fu rt h erm ore , the use of pepper and ash as natu r al insecti c i des is not en o u gh . Ak i n tu n de con clu des by say- ing that, within this regi o n of Ni geri a , tech n o l ogical improvem ents are a must in order to prevent loss. An o t h er set of e s s ays tu rns to the broader issues of va lues and cultu re s . ‘Tunji Azeez thinks that indigenous va lues can combat the co llapse of con- xxxiv INTRODUCTION temporary morality. His essay focuses on aspects of morality that are encour- a ged out s i de the rel i gious re a l m , but within the com mu n i ty. One way that young people learn these va lu e s , he says , is thro u gh son gs wh i ch are short and sung in traditional styles. These songs, and their message, are passed within the community for generations, expressing the moral values of the community and complaints against any injustice such as government corruption. Th ree essays look at the zone of s oc i a l i z a ti on wh ere the family plays a cru c i a l ro l e . The habit of dual re s i den ce rem a i n s , as ex p l a i n ed by Jacob A . Adetunji and Kefa Oti s o, as people travel bet ween the cities and vi ll a ge s , working as farm ers and fulfilling their soc i o - econ omic functi ons in the citi e s . So, the image of Ja nu s - h e aded migrants em er ge s , s i n ce the Yoruba see their journ eys as tem pora ry, and loya l ty to their host com mu n i ties is seen as unnece s s a r y if t h e y inten d to retu r n to their Yoruba hom el a n d . Those who typ i c a lly live this dual life are f a rm ers , traders , and cra f t s m en . An d , t h ey maintained this life s t yle even before the arrival of the Eu ropeans in the fif teenth cen tu ry. Adetunji and Otiso ex a m- ine how many urban dwell ers work as ru ral farm ers wi t h o ut com promising thei r s ocial and econ omic activi ty in ei t h er loc a ti on . So, these people are con s i dered to be living a tru ly dual life . O n ce aga i n , a town within the state of E k i ti is used as a case stu dy. The town , E fon Al a aye , and its su r rounding areas are ri ch wi t h fertile lands. What Adetunji and Otiso found in this town was a coex i s ten ce of trad i ti onal va lues mixed with urban modern i ty. Un derstanding the import a n ce of wom en in agri c u l tu ral produ cti on among the Yoruba did not go unnoti ced in Adetunji and Oti s o’s work . As part of t h eir re s e a rch , t h ey intervi ewed and a n a ly zed the parti c i p a ti on of wom en in ri ce produ c ti on . Th eir work on ce aga i n h i gh l i ght s that wom en are crucial to Yoruba cultu re and devel opm en t . With regard to the importance of women, Mary E. Modupe Kolawole ar- gues in her chapter that the production of culture moves not in a progressive decline away from tradition, but more toward the incorporation of both tra- d i ti on and modern i ty. She wri tes that trad i ti onal Yoruba cultu re has shown great re s i l i en ce . And this cultu ral pre s erva t i on provi des insight into gen der re- l a ti on s . Using the palace poetry on wom en regen t s , she shows the powerf u l side of women in real life and in literature. To Kolawole, this form of poetry shows the power of culture in sustaining an old institution. Kolawole’s work con tri butes to the life - s tor y approach that ga i n ed pop u l a ri ty in the 1980s, looking at gender in Africa, which is where scholars take the life of a historical figure and placing it within the context of culture.11 Using women’s auto-

1 1 . Susan Gei ger, “Wom en’s Life Hi s tori e s : Met h o d and Con ten t ,” Si g n s 11 no. 1 (1986): 334-351. INTRODUCTION xxxv bi ogra phies and oral histories and com bining cultu re and history, s ch o l a rs are able to draw new understandings of women in Africa. In her examination of female regents within well known kingdoms su ch as the Oyo, she illu s tra te s n ew domains in wh i ch Yoruba wom en display their power. Th ro u g h thei r songs, they emphasize the importance of family. Similarly, Asiyanbola R. Abidemi views women as important in sustaining the family. In spite of the We s tern inﬂu en ce s , Abi demi notes the su rvival of traditional stereotypes in the division of labor. Irrespective of their work and i n come level , wom en con ti nue to do more work than men in ch i l dc a re and house chores. Abidemi writes that the division of labor within the household appears constant. The role of women in the home has resisted change despite that an increasing number of Yoruba women work outside the home. The result has been that wom en work essen ti a lly two job s , and find them s elve s stressed and overworked. In order to initiate change, Abidemi tells us, there is a need for edu c a ti on and con s c i o u s n e s s - r aising among men . Th i s , he be- l i eve s , could be ach i eved thro u g h sem i n a rs and work s h ops for men . E du c a- ti on serves as the key not on ly to ch a n ge outd a ted social va lu e s , but also to preserve those considered too valuable to forget. The edu c a ti ona l sys tem must be anch ored on core cultu ral va lu e s , con- clu des Jamaine Abi dog u n , who sees a link bet ween moral and ethical code s and the school curriculum. To Abidogun, education should inculcate respect for divers i ty as well as te ach high moral code s . She wri tes that the sch ools ten d to blur lines of culture and ethnicity, and that these actually need to be pre- served within the formal education system. She believes that within the context of an equ i t a ble edu c a ti ona l sys tem , the uniqu eness of e ach et h n o - l i n- g u i s tic group should be apprec i a ted . The driving force of h om ogen ei ty com e s from a capitalist economy that overshadows the value of human distinctive- ness with a drive for market uniform i ty. Abi dogun draws these con clu s i on s t h ro u g h her re s e a rch on the curri c u lum of t wo ju n i or / s en i or secon d a ry schools located in Ibadan. She used the curriculum to measure the degree to wh i ch it was “Af ri c a n i zed ,” or inclu ded indigenous cultu ral referen ce s . Her chapter concludes with a call for the teaching of more indigenous languages and a greater use of cultural references in the social studies textbooks. Abido- gun touches on the reoccurring concern among scholars that the moral and cultural fabric that makes up the Yoruba is changing. Many call for its preser- vation. At the same time, however, these authors recognize the need for pos- i tive ch a n ge , p a rti c u l a r ly in rega rd to wom en . What makes Yoruba cultu re unique, they agree, is its resilience and adaptability to change. Over time, the Yoruba wi ll con ti nue to settle into a com f ort a ble balance of trad i ti onal and modern values. xxxvi INTRODUCTION

The chapters in the final section enable us to see the search for some kind of ethical va lues to sustain modern i ty and move to the futu re with con fiden ce . In many ways , this reflects the ten s i on bet ween a disappe a ring past and an un- folding futu re . In the search for a moral order to or ga n i ze the pre s en t , t h e Yoruba keep seeking answers in the past, as Azeez and Atere have done. Reli- gion and the family are tasked with the burden of supplying answers to deca- dence and shepherding the society in a direction that many can tolerate. In breaking the Yoruba notion of morality, the stress is always on the con- cept of iwa (character), a positive set of individual habits linked to sanctions from God. E. Bolaji Idowu calls iwa the “very stuff which makes life a job because it is pleasing to God .”1 2 The linkage bet ween habits and mora l i ty, a n d m ora l i ty and God remains a probl em in modern soc i ety. Nevert h el e s s , m ora l- i ty con ti nues to be def i n ed in its trad i ti onal essen ce of the va lu ed habits of c a l m n e s s , m i l d n e s s , and hon e s ty. In one com m on citati on drawn from the If a Odu corpus, iwa is regarded as the only thing worth possessing: Iwa nikan lo soro o Iwa nikan lo sore Ori kan kii buru lore Ife Iwa nikan lo soro. Character is all that is requisite Character is all that is necessary There is no bad destiny in the city of Ife Character is all that is requisite. In the modern met a - n a r ra tive of iwa, it is set against the declining eco- n omic and po l i tical fortunes in the po s t - oil boom era since We s tern edu c a- ti on arrived , and since the beginning of oil produ cti on . As Yoruba soc i ety face s myriad problems, moralizing intensifies, calling on people to keep the ethics of ch a s ti t y, h on e s ty, h o s p i t a l i ty, and kindness. As if a ppealing to the perpe- tra tors of 4 1 9 , the Yoruba are call ed upon to avoid ch e a ti n g, wi cked n e s s , s te a l- i n g, and hypoc ri s y. The cultu re of an agra rian soc i ety is being interroga ted to deal with a con tem pora ry formal econ omy, as indivi duals are asked to re s pect el ders , va lue hard work , prom o te family toget h ern e s s , and be con ten ded . Th e conflicts and competition in modern politics and economics make the com- mitments to the elements of iwa harder for many to sustain. To those who vi o l a te the ex pect a ti ons of iwa the sancti ons of old no lon ger work to curtail or discipline them . The anonym i ty of i n d ivi duals in large citi e s

12. E. B. Idowu, Olodumare: God in Yoruba Beliefs (London: Longman, 1962), 154. INTRODUCTION xxxvii l i ke Lagos means that the shame that can come with certain tra n sgre s s i ons wi ll not expose them to societal ridicule. Even the good person lacking in money in Lagos may appear like a madman. The promoters of 419 crime are pursuing reckless sel f - i n tere s t , u n ch ecked by any rec i t a ti on of the old rules and sanctions of iwa. Even the fear of suffering in the after-life cannot stop a cocaine dealer from doing business. Contemporary Yoruba have to seek fresh answers to many of the problems identiﬁed in this volume.