Notes

Introduction: Backgrounds: Facts and Fictions of Multicultural

1. Conservative MP Aidan Burley, for instance, notoriously took to Twitter to denounce the ceremony as ‘leftist multicultural crap’ (quoted in Watt 2012, np). In the Daily Mail, Rick Dewsbury described the ceremony as a ‘bonanza of left-wing propaganda’ whose ‘multicultural equality agenda was so staged it was painful to watch’. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Dewsbury’s piece has subse- quently been removed from the website of the Daily Mail but can, at the time of writing, be viewed at www.freezepage.com/1343493744VDGIBPHPUW [accessed February 2014]. 2. All census data referred to is freely available online through government websites. See http://data.london.gov.uk [accessed February 2014]. 3. See ‘London migrants year of arrival’, http://data.london.gov.uk/taxonomy/ categories/demographics [accessed February 2014]. 4. See ‘Londoners born overseas data download’, available at http://data.london. gov.uk/census/themes/diversity [accessed February 2014]. 5. This data, from the Office for National Statistics, refers to the UK rather than to London specifically. See ‘Migration Statistics Quarterly Report, November 2013’, Figure 4.2: ‘Immigration from most common countries of last resi- dence for 2008–2012’. Available at www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_335330. pdf [accessed February 2014]. 6. All data relating to UK book sales has been obtained from Nielsen BookScan UK and is correct as of February 2014. Nielsen’s sales figures are estimated to cover over 90 per cent of the UK trade book market. Coverage varies over the years, starting at about 65 per cent in 1998 and increasing to over 90 per cent. Therefore, sales figures for novels published before this period – such as Kureishi’s The Buddha of Suburbia (1990) – are only partial, with no data available before 1998. Nielsen’s data shows that more than 824,000 copies of White Teeth have been sold, more than 860,000 copies of Brick Lane and more than 881,000 copies of . 7. The three major studies to date in this field are Sukhdev Sandhu’s London Calling: How Black and Asian Writers Imagined a City (2003), John Clement Ball’s Imagining London: Postcolonial Fiction and the Transnational Metropolis (2004) and John McLeod’s Postcolonial London: Rewriting the Metropolis (2004). Of these, McLeod’s study has had a particularly strong influence on the present volume. I have resisted describing post-imperial London as post- colonial London – I remain wary of the risk of conflating literature of the for- mer imperial centre with literature of former colonies – and have placed less emphasis on authorial ethnicity and on reading authors within theorised categories. However, Postcolonial London is an insightful, even groundbreak- ing account of literature written by migrants to London and their children from the 1950s to the millennium, and is highly recommended to readers.

202 Notes 203

Ball’s book, which covers some of the same material, is interesting in its attempt to give a sense of the different areas of London on which such lit- erature has focused. Sandhu’s book, which is more informal in tone, covers a much longer time span, from the eighteenth century to the millennium. 8. SV, pp. 3; 4; 31; 35; 38; 200; 249; 322; 356; 399; 425; 459; 532. 9. While both Rushdie himself and Kenan Malik perhaps rather overstate the role of ‘the Rushdie affair’ as a precursor for the attacks of 11 September 2001 (and, in the case of Malik, those of 7 July 2005), for comprehensive accounts of ‘the Rushdie affair’ see Rushdie’s Joseph Anton and Malik’s From Fatwa to Jihad: The Rushdie Affair and its Legacy.

1 Multiculturalism and the Work of Hanif Kureishi

1. Kureishi’s treatment of Riaz’s poems is the clearest example of the ways in which The Black Album pokes fun at the notion of religious texts representing divine will. 2. In 1998, Kureishi’s sister Yasmin wrote a letter to stating that she would not let her family’s past be ‘fabricated for the entertainment of the public or for Hanif’s profit’. Ten years later, after the publication of Something to Tell You, she published a list of family members that Kureishi had ‘exploited’ for the purposes of his work in . Quoted in Poets and Writers, 11 March 2008 www.pw.org/content/author039s_sister_writes_next_ chapter_kureishi_family_feud [accessed February 2014]. 3. ‘I loved being with my family, but I felt very alienated in Pakistan.’ Quoted in Kumar and Kureishi 2001, p. 121. 4. Given that Wachinger employs a hyphen in ‘post-ethnic’ while Stein does not, when referring to both I have chosen to bracket the hyphen. 5. Making a distinction between ‘postcolonialism’ and ‘postcoloniality’, Huggan describes the former as an academic discourse and the latter as being ‘largely a function of postmodernity: its own regime of value pertains to a system of symbolic, as well as material, exchange in which even the language of resist- ance may be manipulated and consumed’ (Huggan 2001, p. 6, italics original). 6. Since Stein tends to employ a hyphen in ‘post-colonial’ where I do not, when referring to his treatment of it (or when paraphrasing him) I have bracketed his hyphen accordingly. 7. ‘When this is done – and eighteen months, say, have passed, as they surely will – there may be another man in this house. He might be sitting where I am now. My sons, if they are having a nightmare, will go to him. Children, who have yet to learn our ways, are notoriously promiscuous in their affection. They’ll sit on anyone’s knee’ (I, p. 117).

2 ‘Fold the paper and pass it on’: Andrea Levy’s London Fiction

1. See, for example, Fischer 2004a. 2. Although her third, Fruit of the Lemon, does disrupt this rather neat correla- tion in employing a single narrator, in a further coincidence that narrator does record a series of (hi)stories ‘as told’ to her by three of her relatives. 204 Notes

3. For a comprehensive account of Every Light in the House Burnin’ see Perfect 2014. 4. See Toplu, who suggests that it is Faith’s own ‘self-denial of her blackness [that] reaches a climax’ (Toplu 2005, np). For a more detailed analysis of the ways in which a pattern of silencing and erasure throughout Faith’s life brings about her breakdown, see Saez 2006. 5. For a comprehensive discussion of the roles of Small Island’s Gilbert and White Teeth’s Samad as colonial subjects who fight for Britain during the war and who subsequently migrate to London, see Perfect forthcoming a.

3 Multicultural London in Zadie Smith’s White Teeth (2000): A Celebration of Unpredictability and Uncertainty?

1. Interviewing Smith in 2000, Gretchen Holbrook Gerzina stated ‘People have compared you to Rushdie, and I can think of lots of reasons for that ...’, to which Smith replied ‘Can you? I can’t. [...] I hadn’t read any Rushdie until I’d finished the book [White Teeth].’ In Nasta 2004, p. 273. 2. For a discussion of the roles of White Teeth’s Samad and Small Island’s Gilbert as colonial subjects who fight for Britain during the war and who subse- quently migrate to London, see Perfect forthcoming a. 3. Interestingly, in Smith’s third novel, On Beauty – a campus novel set primar- ily in the United States – racism surfaces in a rather similar manner. During a brief visit to London, protagonist Howard Belsey – a white, English, middle- aged university lecturer who is married to, and has three children with, black American Kiki – goes to see his elderly father Harold in his North London neighbourhood of Cricklewood. The two have not met since the whole family visited Harold four years earlier, an occasion which, we are told, ‘did not go well’ (Smith 2005, p. 292). Smith gives a lengthy account of the interior of Harold’s somewhat outdated living room, describing the lighting, the wall- paper, the carpet, the furniture, various ornaments and so on in great detail (pp. 293–4). Conversation between the two is tense, and it becomes increas- ingly clear that they have little in common and that their relationship has always been strained at best. Harold manages, in a relatively short period of time, to insult feminists, homosexuals and the obese, and it quickly becomes clear that he is something of a stereotype of prejudice, chauvinism and bigotry. It turns out that, during the family visit four years previously, he managed to ‘tell his only son that you can’t expect black people to develop mentally like white people do’ (p. 296). As Howard tells his father of his marital problems, Harold attempts sympathy by telling him ‘She [Kiki] found a black fella, I spose. It was always going to happen, though. It’s in their nature’ (p. 301). Unsurprisingly, the visit ends with Howard angrily cursing his father before leaving. Harold does not surface again in the novel, and neither does the kind of racism that he represents. As with White Teeth, On Beauty’s only real account of overt racism occurs in the form of an elderly white man in his home – a domestic, familial setting – with such racism again being portrayed as an anachronism. Notes 205

4 Permanence and Transience: Monica Ali’s Brick Lane (2003) and In the Kitchen (2009)

1. Metro (no author given), Review of In the Kitchen, 5 May 2009 (available online). 2. In 2011, Ali published her fourth novel, Untold Story. Set in a small town in the US, it focuses on a protagonist who closely resembles Princess Diana, and who faked her own death in order to escape the media limelight.

5 Mis-marketing Multiculturalism? Gautam Malkani’s Londonstani (2006)

1. Zadie Smith, White Teeth (2000; St Ives: Penguin, 2002). Monica Ali, Brick Lane (2003; London: Black Swan, 2007). Andrea Levy, Small Island (2004; London: Headline Review, 2009). 2. Malkani nd, np. 3. Melanie Phillips 2006. 4. ‘I first heard it [the term Londonstani] back in 1995 in a context that had nothing to do with Islamic fundamentalism. Instead, it was a much more positive term – a celebration of London’s multiculturalism rather than a criticism of it. [...] I briefly considered changing the title just after the July 7th bombings in 2005 because I saw the media latching on to a more negative definition of the word. But then I thought, bollocks to that – these people don’t understand the reality of racial integration on the ground, they just see the tiny minority of psychopaths and nutters on TV and in newspapers. I figured the word started out as a positive, constructive term about a reality that still exists today if you bother to look properly, and so we shouldn’t let terrorists or right-wing reactionaries hijack these things for their more destructive aims.’ Malkani nd, np. 5. See Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin 2002, pp. 37–76.

6 London as a Safe Haven? Asylum, Immigration and Missing Fingers in Chris Cleave’s The Other Hand (2008) and Brian Chikwava’s Harare North (2009)

1. Source: Nielsen BookScan. 2. Data available online through the Best Sellers section of website www.nytimes.com/best-sellers-books/2010-03-28/trade-fiction- paperback/list.html [accessed February 2014]. 3. Source: Nielsen BookScan. 4. When the police arrive at Sarah’s office to inform her that her husband has committed suicide, she notices one of the officers staring at the small stump where her left middle finger once was and tells him ‘you get used to doing without the finger. At first you think it’s a big deal and then you learn to use the other hand’ (OH, p. 56). 206 Notes

5. Ed Lake wrote that ‘Bee’s arch reasonableness and implausibly picturesque speech mean she often comes off as a too-cute cipher.’ Lake 2008, np. Margot Kaminski complained that ‘Sometimes she’s not convincing, and sometimes she tries too hard to convince. It’s too often apparent that Little Bee is not real.’ Kaminski 2009, np. 6. See, for example, Brandon Robshaw’s review, which called the plot ‘thin’ (Robshaw 2010, np).

7 London as a ‘Brutal’, ‘Hutious’ City: Stephen Kelman’s Pigeon English (2011)

1. See, for example, Self 2011, np. 2. See, for example, Ojikutu 2011, np. 3. See Aspden 2011, np. 4. In particular, they were seeking medical treatment for their daughter Olugbemisola’s severe epilepsy. See Hopkins 2000, np. 5. See Hopkins 2000, np. 6. Quoted in Hill 2000, np. Bibliography

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11 September 2001, attacks of, 24, British Empire, 2–3, 5–6, 15, 67–8, 70, 94 74, 75, 181 7 July 2005, attacks of, 7, 24, 50–1, Brown, Gordon, 158 94, 137, 142–3 Cameron, David, 158 Alderman, Naomi, 6 Canepari Labib, Michela, 119, 123 Ali, Monica Caribbean Voices (BBC radio Alentejo Blue, 129 programme), 13 Brick Lane, 6–7, 20, 25, 26, 115–29, Chéreau, Patrice, 49 130, 131–5, 137, 138, 139–40, Chikwava, Brian, Harare North, 20, 26, 141, 142, 146, 150, 152–3, 154, 157–8, 171–9, 198, 201 156, 157–8, 178–9, 199, 200 Childs, Peter, 77–8 In the Kitchen, 116, 129–37 Cleave, Chris, The Other Hand, 7, 9, Untold Story, 205 10, 20, 26, 157–71, 172, 176, 177, asylum seekers/UK asylum system, 178–9, 195, 198, 200–1 7, 10, 71–2, 157–73, 177–9, colonialism, see British Empire; 201 postcolonial(ism) see also Home Office, The; (im)- Cormack, Alistair, 115, 119, 124 migration: illegal Austen, Jane, 53–4 Degabriele, Maria, 30 DeLillo, Don, 81 Ball, John Clement, 202 Berlin Wall, 86 Emecheta, Buchi, 14–15 Bhabha, Homi K., 153 Empire Windrush, 2–3, 11, 52, 55, 66, see also hybridity 73, 75, 82 Bildungsroman, 41–2, 115–16, 124, see also (im)migration 128, 149–50 ethnicity/ethnic identities, 26 black British literature/experience/ authorial, 8–11, 28–9, 50, 200–1 identity, 10, 28, 53 see also black British literature/ see also ethnicity, authorial; experience/identity; British Asian multiculturalism literature/experience/identity; Blair, Tony, 7, 50, 140 multiculturalism; post(-)ethnic(ity) (Man) Booker Prize, 7, 13, 52, 73, 76, Evaristo, Bernadine, 4 97, 180 Boudica, 4 Forster, E. M., 81 Bowie, David, 44, 49 Frears, Stephen, 49, 130 Boyle, Danny, see London: 2012 fundamentalism, 43, 78, 79–80, Olympics 88–95, 96, 142–3 British Asian literature/experience/ see also 11 September 2001, attacks identity, 28, 95, 138, 144–6, 150, of; 7 July 2005, attacks of 178 see also ethnicity: authorial; Graham, James, 140–1 multiculturalism Greer, Germaine, 115

218 Index 219

Head, Dominic, 77, 88, 91 My Ear at His Heart, 41, 47, 49 Hiddleston, Jane, 122–4 Sammy and Rosie Get Laid, 32, 49 Holmes, Frederick M., 30 Something to Tell You, 29, 30–1, 36, Home Office, The, 158, 161, 169–70 41, 47–8, 50–1 Huggan, Graham, 33, 35, 203 Venus, 29, 41, 49 hybridity, 22, 35, 58, 61, 117, 152–6 see also (im)migration; integration; Lamming, George, 12, 13, 14 multiculturalism Lanchester, John, 6 Levy, Andrea, 9, 10, 52–75, 199 (im)migration Every Light in the House Burnin’, and British legislation, 2 52–3, 55–7, 72 illegal, 131, 133–5, 187, 194–6; Fruit of the Lemon, 52–3, 54, 61–5, see also asylum seekers/UK asylum 73 system; Home Office, The Long Song, The, 52, 53, 73–5 political debates over, 158 ‘Loose Change’, 70–2, 73 see also Empire Windrush; Never Far from Nowhere, 52–3, integration; multiculturalism 56–61, 72, 75, 158 integration, 72, 116, 118, 125, 142, Small Island, 6–7, 52, 53, 54, 65–70, 144–6, 150, 197 73, 75, 82, 140–1, 200 see also hybridity; (im)migration; London multiculturalism 2012 Olympics, 1–2, 202 Ishiguro, Kazuo, 15 bombings of 7 July 2005, see 7 July 2005, attacks of Kabeer, Naila, Power to Choose, The, celebration of, 6, 7, 22–3, 78, 128, 125–8 137, 140, 146, 166–8 Kelman, Stephen, Pigeon English, 7, 9, ethnic minority population of, 20, 180–98, 200–1 see multiculturalism: in Kincaid, Jamaica, 74 contemporary London King, Bruce, 77 as geographical, literary and Kipling, Rudyard, 30 symbolic city, 26 Kureishi, Hanif, 10, 20, 27–51, 94, history of, 3–4 199 and relationship with England/ Black Album, The, 29–30, 35, 36, 37, Britain, 26 42–3, 44, 49 subjugation/division/racism in, Body, The & Seven Stories, 40–1, 17–18, 22–3, 40–1, 58, 59, 60, 44–6, 47 61, 63, 64, 66–8, 69–70, 85, 86–8, Buddha of Suburbia, The, 6–7, 28, 97–101, 127–8, 133–5, 137, 140, 29, 31–2, 35, 36, 37, 41–2, 44, 142, 146, 168, 178–9, 193–4, 47, 49 196–8, 204 Gabriel’s Gift, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 43–4, 49 MacInnes, Colin, 12 Intimacy, 28–9, 32, 35–6, 37–9, 41, magic(al) realism, see postmodernism/ 43, 44–5, 46, 49 postmodernity Last Word, The, 27, 29, 33, 41, 49 Malik, Kenan, 8, 24, 28–9 Le Week-End, 27, 29, 33, 41, 49 Malkani, Gautam, Londonstani, 7, 26, London Kills Me, 49 138–56, 180–1, 200 Love in a Blue Time, 33–4, 36 Mantel, Hilary, 9–10 Mother, The, 29, 41, 46, 49 McCrum, Robert, 137–8 My Beautiful Laundrette, 28, 32, 35 McLeod, John, 14, 26, 53, 70, 202 220 Index

Menezes, Jean Charles de, 182, 194 Phillips, Melanie, 142–3 Michell, Roger, 46, 49 Phillips, Trevor, 7–8 millennium postcolonial(ism), 10, 15, 28, 29–30, British literary scene during the 33–5, 36, 39, 41, 50, 53–5, 65, early twenty-first century, 6–7 69–70, 75, 79, 83, 95–6, 121, and new generation of Britishness, 153–4, 198 82, 95–6 see also hybridity; Said, Edward (W.) Milton, John, 2 post(-)ethnic(ity), 28, 35–41, 50 Mo, Timothy, 15–16 postmodernism/postmodernity, Sour Sweet, 16–20, 116–18 20, 24–5, 30–1, 81, 122–5, 129, Modood, Tariq, 8, 26, 146 199–200 Moore-Gilbert, Bart, 30 Prasad, Udayan, 49 Morrison, Toni, 74 Pynchon, Thomas, 81 Mugabe, Robert, 172, 173, 175, 177 multiculturalism racism, 15, 17–18, 22–3, 40–1, 58, 59, in contemporary London, 4–6, 26, 60, 61, 63, 64, 66–8, 69–70, 73, 95–6, 99, 137, 140, 142, 146, 85, 86–8, 127–8, 142, 146, 168, 166–8, 178–9, 193–4, 196–8, 178–9, 193–4, 204 200–1, 204; see also London: see also London: subjugation/ celebration of; London: division/racism in subjugation/division/racism in Ranasinha, Ruvani, 31, 36 definitions/perspectives of, 5–6, Riley, Joan, 15 26 Rushdie, Salman, 15, 33, 76–7 ‘failure’ or ‘death’ of, 7–8, 200 fatwa/‘Rushdie Affair’, 23–5, 29, in Hanif Kureishi’s work, 27–8, 85–6, 115 50–1; see also entries for particular Joseph Anton, 23–4 texts under Kureishi, Hanif Satanic Verses, The, 20–5, 29–30, and imagination, 10 77–8, 84, 85, 115, 116, 118 in Londonstani, 145–52; see also Malkani, Gautam, Londonstani Said, Edward (W.), 53–4, 64, 65, in Monica Ali’s work, 137; see also 69–70, 75 entries for particular texts under Ali, Salkey, Andrew, 12–13, 14 Monica Sandhu, Sukhdev, 28, 77, 202 political, 7–8, 140, 142–3, 200 Second World War, 2, 65–8, 73, 87, in Zadie Smith’s work, 77–9, 81–3, 92 95–6, 101; see also entries for Selvon, Sam(uel), 11, 13 particular texts under Smith, Zadie Lonely Londoners, The, 11–12, 14, 66 see also ethnicity/ethnic Sesay, Kadija, 53 identities; hybridity; Smith, Anna Marie, 3 (im)migration; integration Smith, Zadie, 76–101 Autograph Man, The, 97 Naipaul, V. S., 13–14, 15, 29 NW, 97–101 National Front, 63 On Beauty, 97, 204 North, Sam, 6 White Teeth, 6–7, 9, 10, 20, 25, 26, 76–96, 97, 98–9, 101, 138, Parekh, Bhikhu, 5 139–40, 141, 142, 146, 152–3, Phillips, Caryl, 15–16 154, 155, 156, 157–8, 179, Final Passage, The, 16–20, 66, 117 199–200 Nature of Blood, The, 9–10 Spice, Nicholas, 30–1 Index 221

Squires, Claire, 77 Verma, Jatinder, 49 Stein, Mark, 35, 36–41 stereotypes, 32, 78–9, 81, 83–4, 95–6, Wachinger, Tobias, 33, 35–7 115, 116, 118–22, 123, 125, White, Jerry, 201 127–9, 133, 136–7, 144, 152, Williams, Raymond, 140–1 199–200 Windrush/Windrush generation, see Empire Windrush Taylor, Damilola, 7, 181–3, 198 Wood, James, 81 Thatcher, Margaret/Thatcherism, 15, World War II, see Second World War 38, 147 Thomas, Susie, 188, 192 xenophobia, see racism; London: Tremain, Rose, 6 subjugation/division/racism in