Indigenous Religious Traditions Robin M

Chapter 1 Indigenous Religious Traditions Robin M. Wright

chapter outline Introduction Beings and Their Relationships Common Elements of Indigenous Religious Creating the World and the Day: A Baniwa Account Traditions from the Northwest Amazon “We Are from the Forest, Earth, and Air”: Universal Study and Discussion Questions Knowledge Key Terms Maintaining Life and Health through Ritual For Further Reading Contact, Displacement, Prophecy: Indigenous Suggested Websites Religious Traditions over Time Notes Cosmogony: The Primordial Times of Creation Cosmology: Space, Time, and the Orderly Structures of the Universe

Introduction

The category “indigenous religions” of the Orthodoxy, and other so-called world religions world merits an encyclopedia all its own. For, that were complicit with colonialist expansion as many tribal peoples as there are in the world and its repression of the “other peoples” (indig- today, each has its own set of beliefs and rites enous), their rites and beliefs. For centuries, that relate humans and all other living beings colonial societies have denied that indigenous to the ultimate sources of life. Insofar as pos- peoples had “religions” at all; as the great pho- sible, this chapter will present a “tip-of-the- tographer of Native North American cultures iceberg” sort of perspective on the common Edward S. Curtis stated, “There seems to be a concerns expressed in these traditions. I prefer broadly prevalent idea that the Indians lacked to use the terms indigenous religious traditions a religion. . . . Rather than being without a and not indigenous religions because the term religion, every act of his life was according to religion by itself has a colonial connotation for divine prompting.” many indigenous peoples, which reflects their The difficulties in discussing “indigenous historical relations with Christianity, Russian religious traditions” also lie in the fact that,

31 religions of the world 32 each indigenous culture itsown haselaborated the sameway asnon-indigenous peoples, since understand the sarily “function” of “creating” in nous peoples, nordoindigenous peoples neces- beappliedtothecreatorcan deitiesofindige- collective ceremonies. No singlesetoffeatures remembering ofprimordialactsformative in through narratives orper - oral mitted mainly Those visions are communicated- andtrans followed byods oftotalcollapse regeneration. peoples’ behaviorsinlife,- undergo peri andcan intobeing,verse came isstructured, shapes “nation”) hasauniquevision ofhow theuni- recognizing thateach “people” (or “tribe” or by diversity becharacterized only ditions can refer, can laypeople indigenous religious- tra and both scholars texts to which theological fied politics, ameta-narrative, of andacorpus a multitudetraditions), oflocal arelatively uni- ter offaith, (with doctrine abodyoforthodox religions,”unlike the “world have which a cen- claims touniversalities.claims indigenous traditions, butwithoutmakingany of explore and practices in a variety the beliefs religions, world ences withtheso-called we will - anddiffer standing some oftheirsimilarities religious worldviews. For of under- the purpose indigenous all of uniquefeatures characterizing religions. oftheworld orthodoxy There isnoset by heterodoxycharacterized incontrastwiththe Indigenous religious traditions, inshort, are tions eachofthemisunderstood. intheways these notions,- there widevaria are nevertheless about someto speakingeneralterms aspectsof ofperspectives that,sity althoughitispossible enous religious traditions, there a diver is such - “soul,” the “afterlife,” “the person”—with indig- religion”of asingle “world notionsas for such agreement inmeaningamong thefollowers to betheultimatereality. of meanings regardingsystem believe what they Similarly, find can relative whilescholars photo by E by photo in singers and dancers (Kwakiutl) potlatch with 1.1Fig. . S Kwakwaka’wakw Kwakwaka’wakw . C urtiss. Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 33 Indigenous peoples have traditionally have peoples Indigenous religious The extent to which indigenous continuity of the order established in primor established continuity- the order of ritual the means bestowed through dial times, primordial past. humans in the on forge their wayssought to of life in consonance with all other forms of life their natural in sur- consequences for has profound This roundings. all of Firstly, spiritualities. understanding their in terms of innumerablelife short- is conceived from the shortand long-term cycles, cycles of and and the alternation of day plants flowering the cyclesnight to the longer of human life, cycle the longest to of all: life units, of social which—like life—ishuman born, cosmos, the and transforms to the spirit world, old, grows of human Concepts in a newregenerates cycle. life cycles other life thus modeled on cycles are cos- of the world them and the larger around the From mos in which their world is situated. of the aware begin to become time children taught to be mor- they are ways of the world, and maintaining ally for respecting responsible these cycles. developed calendric have traditions modes the cycles can sometimes be of time passage, the Maya extraordinarily long—for example, of Centraland Aztec America celebrated are “longfordevelopedhaving calendars” count starting that last tens of thousands of years, from- a fore to the calculated date of creation the regeneration by followed “end-time,” seen cultures indigenous how It is remarkable of life. the world celebrate over cosmos-generating rituals with such- calendric that the reli precision and transmit the times gious specialists guard of long-cycle generations many transitions over cel- of the Aztecs, the new ceremony fire (e.g., ebrated every or the fifty-twoSigi cer- years; which are Mali, of Dogon the among emony celebrated in cycles of sixty years). Some Common Elements in in Elements Common Some ReligiousIndigenous Traditions traditions native most general level, On the in of the following features or more one share real - ultimate to orientations or their worldviews, They attribute enormous importance (1) ity: and local geography, sacred to ancestral lands, portals seen as which are to the pri - sites, sacred which people can past through receive mordial the originalor deities life-force of their own is knowledge to sacred (2) Access ancestors. the trialsundergone those who have gained by apprentices or are and privations of initiation is value Great (3) specialists. religious the to - (consanguin kinship obligations in invested which eal and affinal) and their fulfillment, and of harmony to be the arena considered are peo- well as key in native as features conflict, The (4) orientations to ultimate reality. ples’ transmitted principally are traditions sacred nar- through oral and performativeby means, - communica when about priorratives worlds, humans and other-than-human between tions normal. deities) were spirits, beings (animals, Theygener- emphasize of demonstrations (5) for the gift giving thanks to the creators osity, humility showing and of life and abundance, and of displays of individual power rejection of “ways” the seeking to abide by arrogance, animals to respectful and being ancestors, the recognizeThey (6) beings. other nonhuman or of the spirits and deities and powers the sacred their material embodiment and emplacement can be These powers overwhelm- in this world. that impart blessings mixed ing—dangerously to humanity they can special knowledge—or be leadership strong caring, focused in benevolent, their life crises. through guides humans that responsibility in ensuringThey share the (7) religions of the world 34 1.2 Fig. belief that all beingspossessonebelief thatall ormore “souls” “cultures” similar. are tobevery believed The forces, or “souls,” andwhose oflife”“ways or kinds ofanimatebeings who share inlife- Secondly, humansare one among many stages intheritual. attention thedevelopment ofthedifferent enthusiastic butsolemn, withgreat watches the genesis oftheuniverse. The audience, ofthefundamentalmoments in evocation by deathisnow brought toanendby the and disorder thathasbeenbrought about of danger is happeningthat this period and animalspecies, andofthestars. What creation oftheworld, ofmen, ofvegetable a cosmictheater, aimingtore-create the Dogon maskdance. are They actors in D ogon masks, Mali, Africa. Mali, masks, ogon are in general highly transformational,are ingeneralhighly thatis, spirit, ofthedeities. andfly intotheother world intoanotherkindofbeing,transform a jaguar life-force, enablestheshaman’s which soulto the blood of adeity,” that is, its incorporating jaguar’s pointofview, heisactually “drinking a psychoactive,drinking the shaman- butfrom side observer, itmay look likeheis “snuffing”or man’s intoajaguar, soultransforms totheout- order tocommunicate with them. asha- When knowledge andpowers ofthe “other peoples” in ofthe have inthemastery they beenschooled of the “worlds” thatconstitute thecosmossince means tohave amulti-perspectival pointofview withanabominable stench. tiful become ugly of humanbeings, makingwhatwasonce beau- beauty thecorporeal ruin the vulture can inturn whathumansseeasrot;as livingfood therot of of water. The vulture,from itsperspective, sees view,from apool live fish catching itisactually on theground, thevulture’s butfrom pointof arotten log from treacherous eatinggrubs tribe) ture people,” considered tobeapotentially stories, ahumanmay seeavulture (ofthe - “vul and relate toeachother. So, according tothe understand they shapetheways ated—in turn are biologically, historically, situ- andculturally of these “other peoples’ share patterns, similar cultural the perceptions thatdistinctkindsofbeingsmay peoples believe of timeandspace vary. many indigenous While tions tootherkindsofbeings, andtheirsenses spectives on, around thelife them, theirrela- Consequently, theirperceptions of, andper- from humansandamongst themselves. differ of nonhuman beings (birds, fish, trees, stones) ters, rituals); performing however, thebodies mate, exercise intention (hunting, makingshel- animism.is called beingsinnature All are- ani Thirdly, indigenous peoples’ worldviews areexamples ofwhatit prime Shamans

” own worlds—which Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 35 Such religious acts as worshiping a deity, a deity, Such as worshiping acts religious often narratives Sacred differences explain natural forms of symmetry and Fourthly, to Societiespeoples not considered with - mate external, Thus exchanged. being the item spiritual cover forms. “bodies,” on rial forms, external bodily often forms are Furthermore, indicating vital some and painted, adorned quality selves. of their inner changing one to from finding a lost soul, and intermixing of divine another form of life, and human worlds not only perfectly are - possi desired. also much but are ble in these traditions cannot fully person A become an with human until he or she has for example, identity, adult with the sacred face-to-face been introduced This in initiatory experiences. peoples” “other for- been the foundation the monu have may for cavemental found paintings at Lascaux, presented were initiates where places example, hidden “other” of the sacred to the full power within the depths of the earth. and non- of native the perspectives between of separations peoples to be the result native at the end of the primordial age. that occurred given peoples were non-native that time, At peoples certain and native kinds of knowledge their of instructed the knowledge in live to were which new of adults generations ancestors, should reproduce. asymmetryrep- in native prominently figure of life—fromresentations of tap- the weaving estries that recall with designs both natural and historical forms to the building of houses Social the structure of the cosmos. modeled on also ideally are symmetry— on based relations in trade relations in reciprocal for example, as, marriage—although asymmetric forms such fromas social inequalities emerge differential power. of sacred and ownership to access be fully other societies (generally human by ineteenth-century face mask from an island in trait, Australia. trait, N orres S orres the T the Fig. 1.3 one type one transform may of being into another and to spirit, human or human (animal into transfor these - times, In primordial vice versa). very occurred mations frequently because the were and other self, space, of time, “boundaries” pri- Today, indistinguishable. and porous as yet especially) marily specialists (shamans, religious normal while at soul transformation, adept are believed to undergo souls are human beings’ transformation mainly during of moments Only in certain ritually defined life passage. spirit beings actually cancontexts nonhuman, the vast majoritytransform of the into humans; visible, their unique, other spirit beings retain covering material form or animals), (as plants to shamans) forms (except or their invisible beings occurs between If an exchange selves. transformation a in occurs worlds, of different religions of the world 36 life to havelife come into existence through the pets.ers totheirdomesticated model ofparental relations tochildren, orown- plementarity, authority, andobedienceon the refer rather torelationscan ofsymbiosis, com- of theworld, therelations ofmasterorowner indigenous societies mented inmany historical beendocu- and submission have certainly relationsAlthough hierarchical ofdominance asunderstoodby the West. slavery of chattel thekind imply doesnotnecessarily inequality orlaborers. asdomestic servants captors This intothesocietiesoftheir times incorporated riors.” Captives ofwar, example, for were some- in exchange relations their ortolaborfor “supe- beenused ofwar)havebut alsocaptives often andcreation narratives,based on cosmology Fig. 1.4 Fig. Anthropology, Vancouver, Canada. U the at display Fifthly, indigenous all peoples believe S hipibo bowl from Peru, on permanent permanent on Peru, from bowl hipibo niversity of B of niversity ritish C ritish olumbia's Museum of of Museum olumbia's become hegemonic initspower. toworship,all wheregovernance has spiritual founders’historical for acts enshrined original religious authority, andconstant renewalofthe structures, tohierarchical alty of centralization religions,major world by contrast, require loy- and minister tothe sacred in this world. The people, orshamans—continue toguard, keep, the knowledgeable elders,cially priests, holy aslong life ashumans—espe- in contemporary present andeverywhere is insome way always ated withthebodiesofdeities. The sacred that prominently feature sacred associ- symbols ing primordialacts through andevents rituals decay? way is The mostimportant re-member- its limitations, ofdeathand thetrials transcend order humanlife, withchaos?How can withall times despite constant changes that threaten all for awaybeperpetuated How oflife can dition of infinite space time. and unchanging a primordial con- from stant change developed there inwhich isconthought ishow- aworld the divinities. remember andrenewtheirconnections with humanstouseinceremoniesfor inorder to bodies in the earth, along with sacred symbols representations material oftheirdeities left ing whattheprimordialbeingshad made. The for, ofcaring sibility preserving, andrespect- space; withtherespon humansare entrusted - of thesecreations hasitsown sacred timeand manyfor native peoples of the Plains). Each Hills,Black considered tobeasacred place example, (for this world Devil’s Tower inthe ofcreation forms of ence inthemarvelous of theirpres evidence - primordial beingsleft ister totheircreations. anotherway, Stated the andmin- humanstocarefor themfor and left the features madeof this world, or transformed actions ofprimordialbeingsanddeitieswho One ofthegreat dilemmasinnative Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 37 orge, orge, reamtime, Aboriginal Fig. 1.5 Art of the D G Carnarval Australia. Centuries ago, all of Centuries ago, 1 - Ama of the Northwest cultures the indigenous and upper Orinocozon region traditions had After several here. presented similar to the one the reduction centuries of historical contact, diseases, due to populations indigenous in the with along and rubber-gathering, enslavement, missionary Catholic and Protestant repression the basis of a false associa- on of the tradition that meant has Christianthe with tion devil, “We Are from the Forest, Earth, Are from the Forest, “We and Air”: Universal Knowledge by a The following speech was presented indig- Tukanoan-speaking Barasanashaman, enous people from Amazon the Northwest - the film “Tradi accompany to in Colombia, of the Jaguar-Shamans Knowledge of tional This tradition was Tradition.” the Yuruparí in its officially included by UNESCO in 2011 List of the Intangible Cultural “Representative Heritage of Humanity.” Sixthly, native religious thought can thought be religious native Sixthly, profoundly dualistic. All of existence can be profoundly dualistic. - comple divided into a series of interlocking, a whole (simi- producing mentary oppositions, lar to the principles of yin and yang in Chinese har- female and male, Life death, and Taoism). self and other produce and disharmony, mony dynamics themselves the stage that play out on In as they culture. do in any of life in history, tradi- religious indigenous non-christianized, are “evil” and “good” of notions however, tions, not understood in termsof a struggle from will which finallyrather, there a victor; emerge is actually seen as necessary other” “enemy the Sor- for self-identity. the existence of collective is as much while discouraged and feared, cery, a part of tribal spiritual life as the harmonious own celebrating of and dancing with one’s joy sorcery Further, kin and allies from other tribes. as a necessary be seen may societal mechanism or to redress for limiting the abuses of power wrongs. perceived religions of the world 38 ituality (seefigures 1.6–9below):ituality habitat, andisanembodiedemplaced spir- linkswiththeentire andspiritual continuity Yuruparí tradition speakstoissuesofcultural uar-shamans’ knowledge of Yuruparí. gained internationalrecognition theirjag- for have languageneighbors oftheArawak family recognition asavitalheritage. Similarly, their altogether bydisappearing seekingUNESCO people soughttoprotect thetraditions from communities.few For thatreason, theBarasana in thecosmos—remains among alive a only understanding of the sources of energy”“vital this tradition—whichisbasedon aprofound We are themany different ethnicgroups untilreach- thePira-paraná And entering Going totheheadwaters oftheApaporis theCaquetá River,Entering thencrossing thelower part from ancestorstravelled Our Territory oftheJaguars Yuruparí We River, thePira-paraná are from we have protected theenvi- Historically We theAncestralAnaconda, come from We theforest, are from theearth, the from translation by theauthor) of theNorthwest Amazon, Colombia; (spoken by MaximilianoGarcia, Makuna of Yuruparí” Shamans “Traditional KnowledgeoftheJaguar- statement shows,As thefollowing the living there withdifferent languages. ing itsheadwaters. River, River.over theApaporis River,of theApaporis universal knowledge! Protectors of Nature. We are owners of ronment. We are likeGuardians, the air itself; Fig. 1.6 Fig. Coca is a very valuable element for thecon valuableelementfor - isavery Coca There andtobacco, isalsococa According totheseasons oftheecological And isthecenterofknowledge taking for the eachofitsdivisions symbolizing With [longhouse]isa And which theMaloca The plumage Yuruparí astheyajévine. Such Knowledge ismadeandspir- upofphysical . taking But we sharefor all thesamesystem outhealing, Its own way ofcarrying tinuity ofknowledge; tinuity calendar.and cultural care oftheterritory, sitesoftheterritory most important representationphysical ofthecosmos; enable thoughttocontinue, itual elements. There are elementsthat care oftheworld. care oftheworld. Each group hasitsown way oftaking Yurupari jaguar shamans. Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 39 thought of nature. lifewhich to the rest gives daily of the women, activities millennia for food. preparing family. knowledge It is here that the systemIt is here of organized concentrated. are self-governance And energy sites where They are and flows in the is reflected knowledge Traditional over acquired they have It is a knowledge forcaring carrying forthe For rituals, out health and for transfer the of this For Our is a holistic system knowledge onlyThat is not concentrated in the shaman. Or in specific people. . . . want to conserve this knowledge We Because it is our life. of the forest. It is the knowledge ance of the Panpipes, northwest Amazon. D enables learning. things better. systemhealthy of human behavior. human body. things with wisdom. accept our bodies, of tioning For the continuation of knowledge that of knowledge the continuation For “thought,” Because coca is understand to us enables that means a is It and appropriate an have That enables us to is the very essence of life, Tobacco It is like the sensitivity that exists within a to Which enables us to understand better, vital organs forthe func- have Just as we So the territory has its vital organs. sites the sacred Its vital organs are or stones. lakes, hills, in rivers, Found is knowledge. there In these places, is wisdom, There is understanding and power. There Fig. 1.7 religions of the world 40 uar-shamans of Yuruparí represent the cultural make upthetraditional knowledge ofthejag- that structures andcosmological The mythical through Ritual Maintaining LifeandHealth 1.8 Fig. For theglobalenvironmental solving crisis. intercultural tools,With help It isamodelthatcan And thisiswhatwe wanttopreserve. tousby ourancestors It isthemodelleft That we havefor along maintainedtime. for living This isthemodel oftheknowledge,The continuity of And with this we for life want to guarantee territory, “thought,” thepower the tocarefor peopleonall thisearth. H ipana, the sacred waterfalls that mark the place of origin of indigenous peoples of northwest Amazon. northwest of peoples indigenous of origin of place the mark that waterfalls sacred the ipana, together, heal, prevent sickness, andrevitalize ditional knowledge, the community to draw ceremonial rituals, basedon theirsacred- tra world. living beingsinthe all thatnurtures tual energy other words, thesacred- sitescontain vital spiri force (blood)flow throughout thesystem. In its own “sources” thatmakethelife ofenergy “sources” ofenergy, just asthehumanbodyhas stand thatthecosmosisalivingbeingwith ancient knowledge ofthecosmos. under- They and knowledgeable specialists who guard the uar-shamans, trained anelitegroup ofhighly jaguars of Yuruparí,” the “jaguars” beingthejag- ofthe ofalargethe areaheart called “territory wisdom,ancestral Paraná thePirá the forms bia, of inthedepartment Vaupés. According to Paranáthe Pirá River Colom insoutheastern - ofthemanyheritage ethnicgroups livingalong The jaguar-shamans follow a calendar of follow a The jaguar-shamans Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 41 daho, late ative Americans from southeastern I N

Among the Kogi peoples, a priestly society the Kogi peoples, Among mama priests- likewise a deep knowl have Fig. 1.10 centuries. twentieth early to nineteenth created at sacred places, which are conceived of conceived which are places, at sacred created organs of the founding as the vital - ances today tradition. tor of the of the Sierra of northern Nevada Colombia, the - in the univer of the dynamicsedge of nature or the “law as the of Aluma known ,” sal sense, - in the environmen Changes Mother.” “Great tal cycles due to global warming prompted Kogi priests to issue a in 1995 and 2012 in the form Brother” Younger to the “Warning the ways how of explaining films, BBC of two are brothers” “younger life white man of the The bringing the destruction on of the planet. be done that something urges message priests’ immediatelyworldthe before completely is destroyed. horrera culture, east coast of ). bce Jaguarmortar, C cuador (1500–300 (1500–300 cuador Fig. 1.9 E nature. The and dances songs rituals feature nature. vital The the healing process. that constitute energy of the sha- knowledge and traditional believed to be inheritedmans are from- a pow mythical“Yuruparí,” called demiurge erful, anaconda was an Barasana, the among which, embodied in and is today as a person that lived very from trumpets made that are sacred a palm which make up the body parts altogether tree, Each ethnic group Ancestor. of the Anaconda which trumpets, conservesYuruparí its own form Hee the centerpiece in the most sacred During ritual. Biki (Grandfather Anaconda) guidelines for traditional maintain- this ritual, territorying the health of the people and the transmitted as a part to male children are of traditional The adulthood. into passage their - preg children, of care concerning knowledge is transmit- and food preparation nant women, in the Northwest In short, women. ted among heritages are peoples’ indigenous Amazon, which are instruments, embodied in the sacred the vehicle initiates to that enables the young a and to live world, and understand the grow Tukanoan tradition, in were, They life. healthy religions of the world 42 all wereall successful, a andthesechangescaused ofguardingalternative ways thetraditions. Not many oftheelderreligious specialists to seek ples’ andreligious traditions, lifeways forcing changedNative peo- dramatically ing schools orboard- government-designated reservations landsandrelocation ancestral to removal from the UnitedStates, offorced where thepolicy as such in countries has beenmostdramatic lands, ofancestral importance change historical ago. orfivefour centuries With regard tothe same religious traditions astheirancestorsof besaidtolivingthe enous peoplescan ofcontact, centuries After any—indig- few—if Traditions overTime Prophecy: IndigenousReligious Contact, Displacement, 1.11Fig. E arly twentieth-century C arly twentieth-century atholic mission station in N auru, Micronesia. enous, invading societieshasbeenthelatter’s ofcontact over centuries withexog- confronted haveenous peoplesthroughout theworld tions. thatindig- Byfarthegreatest struggle of maintainingtheirceremonies andtradi- putinquestion theviability and consequently peoples’ relations homelands totheirancestral changednative of thesefactors have radically thousandsofyears.for exceptions, few With all havepredecessors lived actually on thoselands populations ofhumansandnonhumans whose futureterm ofenvironmental effects onthe thelong- recently—to attention—until very “unoccupied”supposedly lands, have paidlittle ing anunrelenting tosettleanddevelop drive andexhibit- expandingfrontier a constantly and theirculture. great totheindigenous dealofharm peoples Those non-indigenous societies, assuming Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 43 Prophets have fulfilled numerous other fulfilled numerous have Prophets prophet to been common that have Features Africa, and Melanesia), the phenomenon of phenomenon the Africa, and Melanesia), characterized early- con movements” “prophet - in which visionaries and reli histories, tact proclaimedgious savants a imminence of the following a periodin of transition new order, be either societies would which the invading - assume a subordi to forced eliminated or be orders utopian These prophesied nate position. often regime of a religious celebrate the coming negating the reality “worldof transcendence,” as the militarywell as of death of the power outsiders. has been these among Prominent functions. colo- against rebellions in leadership their utilizing ideologies grounded nial oppression, in mythological themes of world destruction They initiate what in many cases and renewal. eventually became historical- of reli traditions cannot their movements with gious resistance; as passing reactions justice be considered any Their views of the coming to domination. end-times offer distinctly spiritual solutions of transformationthat cannot be understood “explanations” solely social-scientific through or economic, in political, of such phenomena military terms. frommovements early times to the colonial include day present political economic and an imminent of the expectation displacement; of a para- and the reinstallation catastrophe the awaiting of a salvific figure, disiacal state; destructionof the path of out helps people who from of normal the total suspension the whites; of acceptance or eager rejection living routines; ceaseless danc- or foods; goods, clothes, foreign festival performancesing and unbroken as signs dreams utopia; into the envisioned of admission the miraculous abundance of food; and visions; incarnationmaterialin gods form; human of or aniwa prophet. ooden statues of nineteenth-century native W Among indigenous societies in many many in societies indigenous Among savant, Kamiko, a B a Kamiko, savant, Fig. 1.12 regions of the world (especially the Americas, of the world (especiallyregions the Americas, drive to homogenize land and people, against drivehomogenize to and people, land principlesthe fundamental of cultural diversity for millennia. cultures native defined that have - with the increas years, in recent Nevertheless, cultural peoples’ indigenous of ing recognition native many institutions, international rights by welcome a as moment this seen have peoples opportunity guaran- protective to establish traditions. religious and tees for cultures their these so-called sometimes By the same token, been politicallyrevitalization have movements which is external funding, drivento acquire ultimately and update tradi- to re-signify used culture. tional religions of the world 44 to two kindsofissuesfaced by native societies: assolutions beinterpreted sion movements can havethey followed prophetic leaders. Conver- times withthesameenthusiasmwhich to thereligions have they introduced—some- nativewhich peopleshave converted enmasse by themannerin beensurprised have often ference. missionaries, Christian theirpart, for inter- ofany kind ofmissionary independently tices, andrepresentations ofauthority, often symbols,ples have appropriatedChristian prac- been marked by native inwhich peo- theways invulnerable, beings. immortal or even ofthebelievers’formation bodiesintohealthy, arduous restrictions on believers;- andthetrans tonative control; earth sion ofthetransformed the prominence ofcelestialpowers; therever- Fig. 1.13Fig. Historical prophet movements haveHistorical often E ngraving of a nineteenth-century N anineteenth-century of ngraving ew E ew ngland missionary preaching in a kukui grove in H in grove akukui in preaching missionary ngland harnessing dangerousharnessing shamanicpower the for guineal or descent kin groups; of the challenges perceived threat of consan- to the continuity (in-law, “outsider,” “other”) groups andtheir example,for status of affinal theontological primordial times; from mologies and inherited having todowithdilemmasinherent tocos- à-vis intruders. The otherproblem isinternal, vis- and regain their integrity the witchcraft reform, enablesnative which peoplestocontrol itbrings.formations Conversion moral offers advance of Western- andthetrans civilization and thethreats by totraditionaloflife ways the andsorcery,craft demonstratingtheunease in accusations- itself asa rise of witch manifests tive societies. frequently disorganization Such ofcontacts effects withnonna- de-structuring one, external, tothedisorganizingand referring awaii. Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 45 - In other cases, creation occurs through the occurs through creation In other cases, text of the sacred in the Quiche Thus, primorthe imagine peoples - Native ), later withdraw later from future leaving creation ), of relating how they made the world ready for world the they made how ready of relating term sense of the peo the broadest peoples (in ple new care of the to take generations world. self- and self-generated beings are The divine principlesgenerating in set the universe that They hold within themselves the dual- motion. manifesting them- ity of being and becoming, beings (the sun, selvesphenomenal as specific they in so doing, although, etc.), animals, moon, original of constant do not lose their nature or intentionality. becoming beings primordial transformationsby initiated from to a state or condition preexisting some whichthen transmittedis radically other state, Countless narratives for generations. all future worldsaffirm the existence of other pre- that each is imperfect and one; existed the current fire, by flood, suffers destruction catastrophic petrifac or - putrefaction, naturalother disasters, a variety of symbols this destruction, From tion. which then serve as vehicles through appear, and can created be reproduced which the order new worlds into being. brought the of Counsel), (Book Vuh called Popol Maya, no pos- who had “mudmen” were first humans sibility simply life—they of sustaining dis- were was a of beings made The second race solved. which gods again did not satisfy the of wood, of a race third, A flood. a by destroyed was and humans was excessively vain and also did not because gods see could the satisfy humans the So the and triedlike the gods to be like them. them and made dust in their eyes threw gods were women these first men and short-sighted; the dei- thanks to to praise then made and give as to populate the earth.ties as well epochsas times dial allwhen possible, was uinea. ew G ew nitiation ritual tableau in a ceremonial house in I Cosmogony: The Primordial Cosmogony: The of Creation Times is an enormous diversityThere in the scenar- peoples have that indigenous ios of creation Sacred stories affirm sometimes the elaborated. “intention,” divine origin as an of the universe floating in an infinite a self-germinating seed, The primordial state of nothingness. of space gradually or transformations, being undergoes may Creation epochs. multiple over abruptly, of or intentions dream, unfold as the thought, after episodes numerous who, divine being(s), purposes of social reproduction; and so forth. and so forth. purposes social reproduction; of draw may equally explanations both on Clearly, hypotheses. Fig. 1.14 village Apangai, of N Papua, religions of the world 46 Fig. 1.15Fig. GUINEA-BISSAU SIERRA LEONE IVOR AT SENEGAL Y COAST GAMBIA OCEAN LIBERIA L WESTERN SAHARA MAURIT ICELAND Map of indigenous religious traditions in the world. ANTIC SAO TOME&PRINCIPE POR EQUA IRELAND MOROCCO TUGAL TORIAL GUINEA ANIA GHANA CAMEROON KINGDOM UNITED SP TOGO FRANCE BURK. BENIN MALI ALGERIA AIN GABON BEL. CONGO NETH. SWITZ. L. ZAMBIA NIGERIA NIGER DEN. NAMIBIA GER.

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CZECH. AUS. O IT N TUNISIA GER. NAMIBIA DEN. NIGER NIGERIA ZAMBIA L. SWITZ. NETH. CONGO BEL. GABON AIN ALGERIA MALI BENIN BURK. FRANCE TOGO SP UNITED KINGDOM CAMEROON GHANA ANIA TORIAL GUINEA TUGAL MOROCCO IRELAND EQUA POR SAO TOME & PRINCIPE ANTIC ICELAND MAURIT SAHARA WESTERN L LIBERIA OCEAN GAMBIA Y COAST SENEGAL AT IVOR SIERRA LEONE GUINEA-BISSAU religions of the world 48 was given maintaining theresponsibilityfor future all for generations. Although humanity instruments,cal andsacred rituals, leavingthese namely, sacred plants, sacred sounds andmusi- transmission— andcultural biological for theessentialmeans introduced intotheworld that destroyed whatwascreated, andsoon. despite theperennial existenceofanti-order the humancondition, soughttocreate order mitted errors of thatwould laterbecome part warredand spirits among themselves, com- humans, inwhich world in aperilous animals, gle creator beingoragroup ofcreators lived of thingshad notbecome fixed. Eitherasin- undifferentiated, simultaneous, forms whenthe O 1.16Fig. ceania, 1846. Another phase in the history of creation Another phase inthehistory T attooed indigenous man from N from man indigenous attooed ew C ew aledonia, aledonia, old ways. remain and faithful to thewatchful to always counsel, preparingthesoulsoftheirfollowers butalsogive no moreorsuffering sickness dangers autopiawhere oroffer there be will theirdeities,from ofcoming notonly warn it, through prophets whosemessages, received for when conditions call inhistory intervene ent world. Also, divineorder may occasionally livesforever orstill somewhere inthepres- wentof whetherthecreator away really ever leave thequestionthe stories unanswered eternity, lastfor primordial timeswill often for whathappenedinthe inwhich circle closed abuses ofpower, take. they form inwhatever harmony controlling butalsothemeans for order,seek tomaintainnotonly beauty, and humans inwhich struggles elements ofeternal predation versus reciprocal relations are the less violence. Harmony versus disharmony, and norms, theoriginal from departure andsense- manner of disorganization,been subjectto all transmission,this orderly order the original has circular andboundedby water. traditions Some intheuniverse asrelatively flat planes,worlds ally, native peoplesthinkofeachthe multiple broad afew generalizations.to makeonly Usu - us ofthecosmospermit with thedifferent parts ofvalues associated mologies and theplethora The complex ofindigenous constructions cos - beingsand deities. ofspirit of different worlds sists ofcontinuous, arrangements straight-line structure: andvertical. horizontal Neither con- There aretwo of mainorientations of theUniverse and theOrderlyStructures Space,Time, Cosmology: For many native peoples, creation isnota spatial Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 49

The middle world, the center of the universe, of the universe, the center The middleworld, or Horizontal highlight the center, spaces - cosmologies illustrateIndigenous a remark the dead into animals who return to earth to return who animals into and dead the food forprovide and family descendants their need. in times of all life-forms where know is the place we as Tropical- including life. human began, them, earthly peoples imagine the forest plane as the consideringinner- the concentric rings of a tree, most circle of the earthly the most ancient, plane the outer rings while live “true people” the where associated in time, moments different represent they peoples” “other and places with different - the out of; experienced aware have or become is the border of the tree, the bark ermost layer, another’s. and universe people’s one between of being in and places kinds of space Different systematicallythe horizontal are layers to related that delin- the narratives another through one “worlds.” eate the extent of each people’s a wide variety associated with centers, multiple waterfalls, mountains, trees, (cosmic images of of energy vines) symbolizing sources in ladders, These form part- con larger of the the cosmos. of consisting of the universe-as-body, ception together. organs and energies that work multiple on the outer margins, or spaces The peripheries, often in inverted form spirits, express (demonic the key of the values “outsiders”) enemy others, These enemy others constantly seek ways center. on to predate universe of penetrating a people’s its food supplyrealize other form or to some of A variety of intermediary elements, exchange. inner and and penetrations connect openings, that upper and in the same way outer realms South In native interrelated. are realms lower sacred where the places American cosmologies, oftenfirst appeared beings models for become innumerable spatial constructs. able qualityflexibility of construction. in their The verticalThe vary structures of the universe the upper worlds associ- are In general, underworldsThe with associated are widely in composition, from three-layer simple widely in composition, middle world, arrangements (upper world, - composi multilayer underworld) to massive, variety a great inhabited by of beings. tions mul- is a the between There clear correlation idea and the structures of tilayered-cosmos as in society, or knowledge spiritualpower of the the arrangement homologously, as, well umbili- body (heart, a person’s vital points on with the the person which connect crown), cus, and knowledge. spiritual of power sources and life-renewing forces ated with the creative and liquids (rain), lightness, of light (the sun), soul transformawith important where places - of the as dwellings as well takes place, tion often as worlds featured of order, ancestors, They be associated may and happiness. beauty, the primordial beings with the highest deities, and its for all of creation responsible who were imperfections. netherworlds of the bodily darkness, of places - and mon animal souls, of the dead, remains inverted beings who can cause sickness strous, Or they of worlds the consist where to humans. of animals transformprogenitors the souls of represent islands of earth of a islands of top on up piled represent oth- water animal suchprimordial turtle, as the in endless of rock floating ers as pieces space, worlds with other various connected by yet and tubes runningkinds of holes their through Horizontal structures include markers centers. as lakes), (mountains, of the main directions comprising a sacred centers, or more as one well importantof around situated places geography which is a seriesThe universe of layers, a center. can be arranged either vertically or horizontally, in which different “worlds” different which are kinds of beings live. religions of the world 50 sistence practicesofindigenous societies. is more inkeepingwiththe land-extensive sub- and ofecosystems approach totheconservation religious considerations provides anintegrated conceptionstural with political, economic, and knowledge.and ecological Linking these cul- combining detailedethnographic, historical, modelentails into anindigenous territorial use practices, andconceptions ofsacred space indigenous environmental knowledge, land- ofecosystems.the conservation To incorporate peoples’ attemptstohave apositive upon effect inmodern delineation ofindigenous territories determination ofland-tenure policiesandthe areconceptions fundamentaltothe ofidentity environmental andland-useknowledge, these of indigenous peoples. Along withindigenous identity,to thecultural health, andcontinuity economic life. andpolitical areThey integral substantial and changes in social organization conceptions ofspace have persisteddespite ofone grouporigin oranother.” These symbolic of inthemyths hassomethe river significance landmark intheforest oralong every “Virtually indigenous peoples. As one ethnographer notes, cartography” conceptions of oftheterritorial ties ofcosmicchange. andoccurrencesevents inrelation topossibili- the “artisans” of the cosmos, interpret they for gious specialistsare the “guardians,” as well as one stateofbeingtoanother.from The reli- mark major moments of transitionandgrowth ture to ofexpandingandcontracting worlds display- narratives ofthecreationthisfea often their “openness” world). totheexternal Mythic expand and contract, (that is, their permeability oftheirplasticity,terms to theircapacities tured,” cosmologiesarein betterdescribed there” or “models- ofhow theuniverse isstruc beingfixed andstaticFar “thingsout from The creation stories often provide aThe creation often stories “cultural tical union withdivinities,tical combat with ritual thanksgiving, andsupplication, sacrifice,- mys of interactionsworship, take the form prayers of ers, religious artists, andotherspecialists. These mediatedbyare priests, often shamans, divin - unfolds. Humans’ relationships tothedivine through life into thecosmicsystem which bolism ofthehumanbody, humanity integrate - sym inmultiple soulsandarich quent beliefs that order the universe, owned, parent/children, in-laws, andsoon. predator/prey, ally/enemy, master/pet, owner/ of types relations—for example, defined turally of beingisrelated tomostothersthrough cul- characteristics. andspiritual physical Eachkind each havingdistinctpointsofview, attributes, of beings,multiple types each in its own spaces, human-centered place to live but consists of of theirdeceasedancestors. connectedliving are withthesouls intimately inanimate, subjectsandobjects, andthatthe moves through things,spirit all animateand by aconvictionpeoples are that characterized andpracticesofindigenousreligious beliefs relatedness todifferent kindsofbeings. The alities, sentiments, bodies, along withongoing ness, faculties, mentalandphysical intention- consists of several “souls,” modes ofconscious- (ancestors and their descendants)? The person self, theperson, ofperson-in-time categories constitutes,What indigenous for peoples, the Interrelationality andwithwhom native peoplesinteract. world other-than-human beingswhopopulatethe This section discussesthe nature ofhumansand Beings andTheir Relationships The elaborate structures ofspace structures andtime The elaborate nota The universe ismostdefinitely - coupled with the fre Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 51 hief, sixteenth upinamba C Quoniambec, T .

ce Multiple souls gained throughout a life- throughout Multiple souls gained Fig. 1.17 century life-principle of the person. All throughout Allthroughout life-principleof the person. struggle must to maintain person the life, one’s of the spiritual the name-soul over the strength of or emotions physical and desires appetites singing the does this by One soul. the animal from in inspiration that come “beautiful words” the ancestors. - or her con and his the person time constitute companion (e.g., with other beings nections the body at of these souls leaves Each spirits). to the place returns of death and the moment in the cosmos from which it originally came. par- are interpretation dream Dream-souls and ticularly important in identifying the souls of Sonic sorcerers. and enemies, peoples, other music sacred imagery—in naming ceremonies, flutes and trum - sacred drumming, and song, of the pets—is fundamental to the production has distinguished two systematictwo distinguished has 2 In some cultures, the most important of the cultures, In some the GuaraniAmong South of peoples Sullivan souls are linked in a network extending back linked in a network souls are the stronger in others, to the primordial times; be with ceremonial attachment of the soul may or types of residence, names, based on groups ritual performance. is one kinds of souls: two are there America, linked to the animal appetites of the per- to be more while the other—considered son, important because from it comes the ances- on which is bestowed “name-soul,” tors—is the a shaman shortlythe child by after the child’s reincarnation is the of the The name-soul birth. the name-soul is the sacred ancestor into life; tendencies with regard to beliefs regarding the to beliefs regarding tendencies with regard soul in South America apply but that may to is a There (1) of the globe as well: other areas which affirmsthat the physiological element, cotermi- parts, body specific in situated is soul of the bodilynous with the functioning organs sex). (food, appetites “animal” by and defined such to animals who are souls extend Often, the doubles of their counterpart human soul- is also an epistemological There (2) elements. in which spiritual asso- elements are element, (thought, ciated with specific human faculties the human being is affirmed Here, memory). being set and autonomous as a self-contained These apartfrom perceptions. its of object the categories not necessarily broad that are are separable but rather manifest themselves in synaesthetically intertwined of beauty images or fear powers. of unknown and sensual delight, Bodies and Souls Bodies L. spirits, or the celebration of divinely of the celebration or instituted spirits, preferably as nearly to the as possible festivals, “in the beginning.” done they were way religions of the world 52 etched in exquisitely symmetrical patterns, symmetrical inexquisitely etched as properties, andmoral of metaphysical ety are Body paintingortattoos, representing- avari kneebands, featherwork, hairstyles. elaborate ornamented,is fully with earrings, beadwork, thefirsttimeto thesacred.exposed for knowledge that initiates acquire are whenthey formations; themostimportant thisisperhaps provokemaintained separate catastrophic- trans between beingsthatoughttobe boundaries humanbeing,cultural whiletransgressions of by fasting, example—isthe mark for of afully In many cultures, control over bodyorifices— human.that are fundamentaltobecoming fully stitute themaspersons. cognitive and emotional qualities, con which - (birth, initiation, anddeath), persons acquire self, society, andthecosmos. ofpassage Inrites manifestations mediatebetween theinterior gained through passages. life These external orpower thattheperson quality has spiritual beings, whilehighlightingaspecificcognitive, interior, ofcultural essential to thesocialization of both asways “domesticating” ananimal ments, understood andalterationsare often hairstyles. These kindsof “clothing,” - adorn robes, loincloths, bodypainting, tattooing, and ing, mantles of jaguar pelts, bird feathers, bear body ornaments, masks, “coverings”- orcloth Traditionally, thishasbeenexpressed through “selves” constructed. are complex andsocially belief andpracticeisthathumanbodies notion of “transformation” inindigenous of humanlife. fundamental valuesdefiningspaces constitutive this symbolism, indigenous cultures express nected tothenotion of the person. Through person. iscon - ofcorporality symbolism Arich A beautifully decorated bodyisone decorated that A beautifully issues The bodyisalsothelocusofmoral Among tothe themeaningsattributed ies, andahost ofotherirregularities. sense), as obesity, such sicknesses - diabetes car in a negative (often in notions of corporality aboutfundamentalchanges bring Christianity diet regime, taboos, or food orconversion to contact—for example,to historical achangein thusbelinked notions ofselfandothercan orextendedfamilies,(nuclear siblings, clans). common tomembersofthesamesocial group, cord–soul,cal acollective body-soul, oreven tions asacollective umbili- toancestorssuch fluids asinsexual relations, connec- orspiritual consubstantiality, thatis, ofbody thesharing the Marquesas Islanders. or among peoplesofNewZealand theMaori Fig. 1.18Fig. W Body painting is intimately connected with Body paintingisintimately Being amemberofcommunityimplies rangell, Alaska. rangell, T otem on an I an on otem ndian ( ndian T lingit) grave, grave, lingit) Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 53 it should be Generally speaking, whereas the shamans whereas Generally speaking, symbols of religious culture, expressing change, change, expressing culture, symbols of religious and time, over culturalsocial and reproduction the very creation. of acts Religious specialists dancers, ceremonial diviners, priests, Shamans, - respon are and prophets artisans, sorcerers, inter- sible formanaging these interrelations, of the external worlds the realities of preting to people of enemies spirits, other peoples, ritual relations coordinating society, own their ensuring the that spiritsamong and humans, principlesmost fundamental universe of the of moral- as the guardians acting observed, are possible attacks holding at bay from spirit ity, determining whether the newly arrived beings, Religious and so on. human, were Europeans specialists differontologically“normal” from and plants may (Animals beings of a species. their shamans or medicine people too.) have fromderivepower their and knowledge direct experience of the cos- and places of the deities is based power or holy the priest’s person’s mos, the accurate recallon of canonical and esoteric which is essential for rites of pas- knowledge, the of society, for the reproduction is, sage—that and the ontological cate- renewal of the world, While the of being. gories that define the nature - “dem egalitarian or more relatively shamans are in their internal organization—that is, ocratic” can the a shaman who accepts become anyone training and perilous arduous of experiyears - ences—the priests from come lineage a specific or class chosen- at birth trained through and are Priestly functions, out their lives. also may such as chanting rites, at passage noted, elderlythe by theof women or exercised be men society being a recognized class without there of priests with political functions. and religious Ritual life feasts impor- at held by highlighted are Rituals or by of the agriculturaltant moments cycle, ritesthe spectacular for of passage moments the throughout death and initiation, of birth, renewThese the links of world. indigenous powers. humanityprimordial creative with the great and chants are songs, Ritual music, Ancestors and descendants and Ancestors The importance the ances- that tie of bonds living human descendants deeds to their tors’ in world: the indigenous found throughout are the on emphasis is the there North America, - repercus having acts importance of a person’s South In generation.” “seventh for the sions for the Northwest the peoples of America, their “for a world the deities created Amazon, ties the ancestors’ that a bond descendants,” or gifts) errors to liv- were deeds (whether these that abide by who must humans, ing and future that for reproducing responsible and are order Simi- “end-of-the-world.” another until order, relationship of a continuing the concept larly, the living and dependence between of mutual their ancestors is central Mapuche to (Chile) society. their of moralthe and order religion the GuaraniAmong of the southern Indians of the bones to cults of South Cone America, have “big men”) , ancestral holy (karai people and In Africa, Siberia, documented. been well families maintain ancestral shrines elsewhere, - Austra In localof assistance the with shamans. South and highland as in Africa, Amazonia, lia, the physical landscape is seen as a America, portals where to the sacred geography, sacred found everywhereare the traces and marks in leftthe ancestors for their descendants to by their deeds and as guides forthe remember future. religions of the world 54 tions generally attribute enormous importance importance enormous attribute tions generally the universe ingeneral. the world,” andregeneration thedestruction of cosmic senseoftheend-timesas “end of dead. alsorefers tothebroader Eschatology ing communication between thelivingand reincarnation insome otherform, oranongo- interactions,out meaningful andothertimesas existencewith- inaseparate ing andenclosure oftheliv- theworld process ofalienation from wide rangeofpotentialforms, sometimes asa ofanindividualisimagined ina The afterlife reintegrated intoongoing cosmicprocesses. may hisorherlifetime becomeperson during and material, thathave beenbestowed on that an individual, of the components, all spiritual demise of the cosmos itself. At the death of that bethedeathofaspecificindividualor oftheendtimes,refers toviews whether in indigenous traditions is eschatology, which dimension of A final important religious life Eschatology well as diviners and political leaders.well asdivinersandpolitical couldatthe same time be shamans as priests In someasinancientMongolia, societiessuch situation.position toanew oftheentire society souls,of ancestral inthecom- shifts imply all gration ofthedeceasedintocommunities group ofadults, oranatalfamily, ortheinte- tion rites, andpostdeathrites, postbirth anew theirknowledgethem for andpower. At initia- large networks ofcommunities whodependon clientele,local thepriests’over influenceextends toretain a andcapacity his orherperformance the shaman’s influenceandprestige depends on maydistinct functionsperform. priests While into hierarchiesandsacred societies, linkedtothe As we have seenabove, indigenous tradi- Traditionally, societiesare organized priestly 3 that sense it can beconsideredthat senseitcan apiacular rite. andraiding, offeuds loss ofkinbecause andin awaya waytheburdenat ofcasting ofgrief young man’s becoming awarrior, butitwasalso ademonstrationtaking heads ofa wasnotonly Philippines,ples ofthenorthern thepracticeof kin. close or “consuminggrief,” more related toassuagingtheintensesuffering, in war. practiceThe firsthasbeenshown tobe consumption ofthefleshenemykilled or theashesofacremated kinsperson orthe forms: theconsumption oftheflesh remains other areas oftheworld. took two Itgenerally America,South ofPapua and NewGuinea peoplesoflowlanda practiceamong various behind. whom thedeceasedhave left processes ofhealingthesentimentskin intotheother, andincorporation in thisworld the passage ofthedeceasedbetween existence tions. These involve processes of administering native themeinall tradi- occupying acritical processes of all the most elaborate of passage, rituals associatedwithdeathareThe among a fatalchoice, signal. orgivinganinopportune to passatestorundergo anordeal, making failure inthecontext ofatrial—the the world explainthatdeathentered often Sacred stories ephemeral life, one ofconstant metamorphoses. impliesatransitory,the condition ofmortality ofhumanexistence. part gral For many cultures, andpower ofdeathasaninte- to themystery did withreproducing the social foundations of that had asmuch todowith vengeance asthey one’s enemyrepresentedtransition acritical captives, the sacrificing and eating the flesh of related rituals towarfare,rate takingcaptives, tic coastalregionAmerica, ofSouth theelabo- For the Tupian-speaking peoplesoftheAtlan- Among indigenous the hill-dwelling peo- Anthropophagy, example, for was once 4 atthemoment ofloss 5

Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 55 rinoco Petroglyphs near the west bank of the O aicara, Venezuela. aicara, In the Americasof the and other areas the entrance of eschatologies, In numerous iver at C at iver Fig. 1.20 R to “honor the dead,” the most important most the chiefs “honor dead,” the to and aristocracy tribes. of the theme of immor- to find the it is common globe, tality in the that existed in myth as a condition the of death, at the moment world: primordial be secluded would person for a period time, of reemerge at the end of which he or she would This cyclereturn was of eternal rejuvenated. and so mor- of a person, interrupted the error by Shamans tality into the world. was introduced “never believed to are however, and prophets, living their counsel to give to and continue die” direct see we this, In burial their at kin places. of immortality notions links between among of peoples of the highlands and lowlands native South America. worldthe soul of the deceased into the other his or her moral on behav- is conditioned for those who kill, ior and virtues in this life: the do not succeed in completing example, falling or into an abyss souls, of the dead way swarms of bees (as among being attacked by the Makiritare of the Orinoco of South region peoples have different The notions America). fromabout life after death vary a deal, a great an inverted image completely other existence, transformationthe to the of world, this of ermany. erlin, G erlin, ncacult figurine, located in the I nthnological Museum, B Museum, nthnological Spectacular dilemma of to the solutions Fig. 1.19 E ceremony is regularly ceremony held as a pan- Kwarup tribal occasion, lasting several weeks, explicitly lasting several weeks, tribal occasion, what to do with the deceased of the noble what to do with the deceased of societies classes indigenous complex in more can practices of mummification be seen in the All efforts that death seemed to deny the Inca. the rather, away; taken the deceased royalty had to hold a privileged deceased continued royal and politically in their ritually, socially, position where society after long in tombs, placed being speciallyfoodthem gave persons designated In societies such and drink and cared for them. of central Brazil, as those of the Xingu region the time and memory. Shamanic and vengeance time and memory. for at the other means retribution warfare were loss of kin and the grief death brings. religions of the world 56 for theregenerationfor oftheworld. condition as anecessary the violentdestruction ofthesignstimes,interpreters foreseeing ofthedeities—have actedets—emissaries as cosmogonies themselves. cases, Inall proph- dilemmas andprocesses tothenative internal as pondered guidedsolutions for anddivinely sures, many asthey timeshave been, butrather result presthem astheexclusive ofexternal - not consider themovements associatedwith of regenerative hope, andtherefore we should tures contain throughout theseeds theworld The cosmogonies ofmany indigenous cul- regeneration, ofthis world. the destruction after ofafuture times butalsotothepossibility intimesofneed. thelivingasfood serve deceased intospeciesofgameanimalthatmay them, ofthesouls orthetransmigration beingdevoured bydeceased intothegods after and is followed by an interpretation of the story. 1998, theoldest living shamanthenalive) from regionNorthwest Amazon (tapedin inBrazil oftheBaniwaIndians the creation story following selectionThe isthefirstepisodeof Amazon Northwest A BaniwaAccountfromthe Creating theWorld andtheDay: Eschatologies not only refer totheend- notonly Eschatologies So the [Creator] So “child of the Universe” There wasnoland, nopeople, justthelittle Nothing elsearound. Avastexpanseof In thebeginningthere alittle wasonly Tsutsuwafor him, tofindearth looked earth. for Hesentthegreat dove ofstone.ball nothing around thelittleball. Hekwapistone called ball universe it. Inone sense, theUniverse meansthe child little stone ball, andthevastemptinessaround There isnoanswer; was, italways along withthe self-generation. How diditcome intobeing? The Universechild embodiestheidea of For day. itwasthebeginningofanew thesky sawthesunentering they When He andthebirds ittoreturn. waitedfor for thesunto The Universe-child waited Then darkness burstout, On hiswayhome, back atits hemarveled On receiving thebasketofnight, itsspirit- Then helookedfornight, heobtained another,came out one after They andhe He heard peoplecoming outofthehole, He went to theUniverse-navel atHipana, The alone, Universe-child was all so he He made the Sun rise upthenabovethe rise He made theSun The nameofthe“Universechild” wasHek over thelittleball.and putitall Hemade to sing— door,vault at the eastern the birds began return, outthewestern door.and thesunfell withthefirstnight, world little bit, weight and opened the basket up just a when hereached home. him to openitonly owner instructed sealed basket. was inside a night little,which tightly- sent eachone totheirpieceoftheearth. came. singing theirnamesasthey the navel of thesky. went tolookpeople. for called called earth,new above theholeinearth wapi ienipe. that stonebecome ball the earth. as child, throws which light on a new Hipana, the navel of the Universe. covering the covering - Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 57 assiquiare assiquiare Petroglyph Petroglyph

apihuara, C anal, Venezuela.anal, Fig. 1.21 C of C Indigenous religious traditions, as we have have as we traditions, religious Indigenous grounded in the concept of descent, here in here descent, of the concept in grounded centralthe as generates that axis male line, the to the traditions, according That axis, all life. becamechildin the deity, sun embodied the of the first to rites of initiation who introduced sounds made powerful the Through humanity. the world- opened up to its pres this being, by on engraved are sounds These powerful ent size. as an everlast- rapids, sacred the boulders of the of origin. ing reminder of the same focus many on seen in this chapter, see in all other we that and concerns issues complementarityThe of traditions. religious dark and evil, good opposites—for example, is sorcerer—however, and shaman light, and in Chrisas senses same understood in the not - religious Indigenous tianityZoroastrianism. or characteristicallytraditions embed their meta- and artphysical in a language questions of the mate- that is embedded in the natural, sacred religious That is, rial world in which they live. , considered to be the center of to be the considered , Hipana There is a deep hole located at the place, is a deep hole located at the place, There the universe, the connection to the other worldother the to connection the universe, the a spiritual that onlythrough pathway - the sha the opening souls canmans and dead follow, which ancestral fromthrough beings emerged virtualworld. existence into the first their prior, Umbili- “Universe This opening is called the an idea that is the primal of birth, cord cus,” traditions commonly associated with religious called the nature of the first being. The universe was The universe being. the first of the nature being but rather human was more not like any spirit the great “illuminated intention,” like an which whose externalsun, shape was the body later underwent various bodily transformations rather than imagin- In other words, time. over “human-likedeityperson,” creator the a ing as of a self-generated and it is better to think principlegenerating brings that the light into beings and generation of living the first of day of land all the over distributes parcels them on which time still was at that miniature. earth, religions of the world 58 people die, humanslive inwhich theworld return ofa “long, dark night” many inwhich oftime,cycles withitscorrelated ofthe fear tions exhibitagreat theendoflong concernfor “map” oftheworld. a andmattercomprising tion between spirit lations) points of intersec- and atgeographical (e.g., constel- ofcertain theannualappearance celestialmoments intime significant mically and acts are remembered atcos- andcelebrated the divinitieswhoonce were living, whoselives nature is imbued with the power of the sacred, rhythms, cycles, in nature. and forms of All withthe cycles theirlife harmonize they which religious traditions arein theways notablefor images. ofmaterial bolic attributes Indigenous understand thesequestion through- thesym awaycan insuch thattheinterpreter twined images questions andmetaphysical are inter- 1.22 Fig. While many indigenous religious tradi- While Petroglyphs in S in Petroglyphs outh Mountain Park, Phoenix, Arizona. Phoenix, Park, Mountain outh end, theenemyoutsidersdidnot “defeat them.” enous societies “conquered theIndians,” inthe peoples andthe West, althoughexog- because the disastrous relations between theindigenous the indigenous world; andfinally, tocritique come todominate, of meaning the destruction tions, withoutthese, for the “enemy” culture will tradi- oftheancestral maintain theimportance thewhiteman);Nevada inColombia call orto brother” (astheKogiIndiansofSierra andgreedthe destructiveness ofthe “younger catastrophes duetocosmic imbalancefrom non-indigenousto warn societies of natural multiple functions:gious traditions have served oftimetocome. long cycle is the endpoint beginning but of rather another is destroyed. Acycle, therefore, isnotjustan come will intobeingiftheoldone world new promise holdsacomforting thata nevertheless The prophecies inmany indigenous reli- Chapter 1: Indigenous Religious Traditions 59 ew York: New York: ew York: New York: tanford: tanford: thnologica uralica 3. uralica thnologica alifornia Press, 2004. Press, alifornia ulcrum, 2006. aveland, 1998. aveland, The World We Used to Live In. Live Used to We World The W Icanchu’s Drum: An Orientation to . Icanchu’s . A Study Ilongot Headhunting enato. niversity of University Austin: Grief. eth. Consuming ife of Life ree T : F olden, CO erkeley: of C University outledge, 2007. outledge, niversity Press, 1980. Press, University tanford exas, 2002. exas, . Prospect . Prospect Centers and Ceremonial Cosmovision IL: Heights, T G R Religions and Shamanism. E Budapest: Akadémiai 1992. Kiadó, New Guinea Society. in a Papua Torment Moral B S Meaning in South Religions. American Macmillan, 1988. in Society and History 1883–1974. S oria, Vine, Jr. oria, Vine, Jr. or Further Reading Further for orld ogon Kanaga masks eL Religions of Mesoamerica: Religions of Mesoamerica: David. arrasco, onsanguineal kinonsanguineal osmogony osmology onklin, B eligious specialists eligious Becoming Sinners: Christianity Becoming and Joel. obbins, osaldo, R osaldo, nterrelationality C C C D Eschatology theoryGuarani of souls I Perspectivism Vuh Popol Prophetism R Sun dance W YAJÉ tradition Yuruparí ◆ C C D . Primitivism Beyond ed. Olupona, Jacob, Northern Juha, and Mihály eds. Pentikäinen, Hoppál, R L. E Sullivan, R n ompare ompare hat are are hat W ions Quest hy do you think the Yuruparí tradition tradition Yuruparí the think do you hy W hat do they have in common? in common? do they have hat hat are some of the issues indigenous are hat n the religious tradition of the so-called tradition n the religious Yuruparí, what are some of the key symbols of the key symbols some are what Yuruparí, key ideas they represent think do you and how discourse does native How of the tradition? with an compare tradition about their religious perspective on the same? C outsider’s tradition Yuruparí the the Makuna of version version Arawakan with the (as seen in the film) the end of this text. at presented of creation W the key questions each tradition focuses focuses tradition the key questions each on? was declared a “nonmaterial patrimony of patrimony “nonmaterial a declared was humanity”? traditions: themes in indigenous religious symmetry complementary and asymmetry, anomalous beings, reciprocity, opposites, and spirit, matter and the cross, the circle other exogenous or Christianity, to conversion religions. the to with regard face peoples worldwide How traditions? of their religious continuity can humanitarian agencies assist indigenous I their traditions? peoples in continuing what ways have non-indigenous societies have ways what traditions indigenous religious incorporated has this practices? How religious their into seen by been religiosity of native appropriation themselves? peoples native ion Discuss and study KEY TERMS ◆ 1. i 2. discuss the importance of the following 3. w ◆ relations Affinal Animism Apapaatai dreamtime aboriginal Australian religions of the world 60 W oftheJaguar . Mysteries Shamans:Ancient W W K. . The ReligiousSpiritoftheNavajo. ambagu, N right, R right, R T urner. AR ebraska Press,University ofNebraska forthcoming. oftheBaniwaKnowledge Maliiri.Omaha: T Religion: For ThoseAustin: Unborn. University of Theology 11,no. 1(S Churches.” ofAfrican Journal Instituted Church A Perspective from theAfrican I 3–10. Shamanism Annual, issue24,D Philadelphia: ChelseaHouse, 2002. D andWitchcraft Sorcery inAmazonia. Assault of The Anthropology andSecrecy: Darkness exas Press, 1998. urham: D urham: obin M.,andNeilL.W inBaniwaobin M.Cosmos, andHistory Self jeru, andJohnPadwick. “ evival of Mongolian Shamanism. evival of Mongolian uke University Press, 2004. eptember 2006). hitehead, eds. In ecember 2011, ndependent Globalization: 1. ◆ http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/RL/00574 http://afrikaworld.net/afrel/ www.sacredland.org/in-the-light-of-reverence/ http://scholar.harvard.edu/olupona/contact_owner spirituality/ http://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/ www.indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com ◆ r 5. c 4. 3. sullivan, 1988,chap. 5 2. Notes suggested Websites K. T K. http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/RL/00574 osaldo, 1980. onklin, 2002. onklin, urner,in Shamanism Annual, 2011.