One of the More Important Events in African Archaeology During the Last Few Months Was Surely the Biennial Conference of The

NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

given issue was placed on the book review section in order to preclude evolving into a review periodical. In connection with book reviews, I would like to urge readers interested in reviewing to so inform me, One of the more important events in including a brief description of your range African archaeology during the last few of topical interests. months was surely the biennial conference of the Society of Africanist Archaeologists, As a postscript to the review of editorial held at the University of Florida, March 22- policy decisions that emanated from the 25,1990. The academic and business content SAfA conference, I would like to call your of the plenary sessions is extensively attention to the Forum section of this issue. reviewed in Clark's excellent summary of It has been introduced to accommodate the conference (see pages 401, but I would articles that are consistent with Nyame like to single out for special comment a few Akuma's mission, but do not pertain to any items from the business session that pertain specific country. While the new section directly to Nyame Akuma. First, as you have represents an ad hoc response to initiatives probably observed on the cover of this issue, by the authors whose papers appear in it, I it was decided to relabel the journal, from believe there is room for such material on a newsletter to bulletin. The new designation continuing basis and encourage all readers is not only more appropriate but also likely to consider submitting Forum contributions to be more palatable to libraries that may for future issues. wish to subscribe to Nyame Akuma. In concluding this editorial, I wish to Librarians tend to regard newsletters as call attention to the SAfA by-laws, included highly ephemeral pu,blications whose at the end of the report on the 1990 contents are limited to news of publications, conference (see page 49). Although the conferences, etc. and do not include research version of the by-laws printed here was articles. (This seems a suitable place to add generally accepted by those who attended that Nyame Akuma's subscription list suffers the business session, several people from a dearth of library subscriptions, which expressed particular reservations and urged are the "bread-and-butter" of most more extensive discussion of certain professional journals. If your library does provisions. However, because of the not subscribe, please encourage it to pressing need to establish SAfA as a legally consider adding Nyame Akuma to its constituted entity, such reservations were periodical catalogue. We are one of a very deferred until the next SAfA conference limited roster of journals dedicated (UCLA, 1992) when amendments to the by- exclusively to African archaeology.) laws can be considered. Meanwhile, It was also agreed in the business suggestions for revision may be sent to Dr. session that contributions to Nyame Akuma Steve Brandt, SAfA secretary (address should generally be limited in length to 2500 opposite). words-approximately ten typewritten, double-spaced pages of text, not counting John Bower author's address, illustrations, or references. While there is, of course, editorial leeway in applying this limitatidn, contributors to future issues are asked to make every effort to confine their articles to the 2500-word limit. Finally, it was agreed that Nyame Akuma should publish book reviews, rather than the summary descriptions of new publications that have previously been offered. However, a ceiling of 10% of a NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

d'une activitd ancienne de metallurgie de fer. I1 se compose de deux buttes: une butte A et une butte B. Elles sont &parks de 45 m. La structure spatiale des buttes se caracterise pour la butte A, par un diametre de 30 m et est entouree par trois habitats isolds. L161argissement de la piste a permis de faire apparaitre cette structure. La coloration des sediments est noire. Recherches Arch6ologiques L16paisseur de la couche anthropique est de Dans le Nord-Ouest 3 m. Les vestiges parsemes sur la butte sont (Cameroun): Le Site de trois natures: on distingue des centaines Metallurgique de BA de morceaux de tuykres circulaires, des scories et des tessons de tuykres casdes. La Jean-Paul Ossah-Mvondo hauteur de l'accumulation de vestige est de Assistant d 'Archdologie 3 m. La butte B qui semble la plus dcente a Departement dlHistoire-Gdographie une hauteur de pres de 3 m. Les vestiges se Universird de Yaoundd composent de centaines de tuyeres, de Cameroun BP 47 plusieurs scories et de quatre pipes en ceramique. La decouverte du site de BA a un grand inter& et ouvre des perspectives nouvelles. Dans le cadre des recherches sur la En effet elle vient renforcer les etudes d6ji ckramique par une approche ethno- commenc6es sur la metallurgie de fer dans archeologique, une prospection fut aussi le Nord-Ouest par Dr. Warnier et men& pour identifier si possible les anciens Dr. Asombang. Elle permet d'envisager sites lib i la fabrication de la cQamique. positivement des recherches et des etudes La mbthode de travail a kt6 de puis des fouilles sur le temin afin d'klairer prospecter tout autour du village par la la question de la metallurgie ancienne dam lecture des paysages, l'observation des le Nord-Ouest. Mais d6ji se pose des formations pedologiques et les enquetes problkmes: de la chronologie des deux orales auprks des anciens. La simple buttes, les kchantillons de charbon prkleves curiosite a aussi guide la detection des sites. peuvent donner des dates interessantes. De En effet, le paysage se caractQise par une plus quel etait le fonctionnement du systkme diffQence du couvert vegetal au niveau de de fonderie, et quel Ctait par condquent le la hauteur des vegktaux d'une part et sens de l'occupation du quartier de "BA" et d'autre part par la densite de sa rkpartition de l'espace? Aussi se pose le problkme du et la coloration pas toujours verte des ravitaillement en combustible et en eau feuilles. Ainsi le milieu deficient a fait compte tenu de leur rarete i proximite du l'objet d'une observation minutieuse. Les site. Les quarte pipes en ceramique formations pedologiques elles se relancent la question des pipes caract6risent par l'irregularit6 de la surface archeologiques dans l'histoire africaine. du sol i certains endroits du village. Ce qui Une etude devra &re faite dam ce sens. indiquait des formations anthropiques. Ces Plusieurs questions restent i soulever. Mais observations couplees par les informations les fouilles archeologiques doivent etre des anciens ont permis de repQer le site compl6t6es par des recherches et des archblogique de BA. enquentes ethnoarcht5ologiques sur la Ce site metallurgique se localise i mktallurgie traditionnelle que l'on pratique l'environnement immkdiat du quartier du encore aujourd'hui iBabungo, nonloin de 18. meme nom. I1 se situe sur la route Bamenda-Ndop, dans le village de Bamessing i 20 km de Bamenda, a l'est. C'est un site qui a des vestiges temoins NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

EGYPT bearing on the question of early pastoralism, including several new radiocarbon dates. Of the three late prehistoric cultural units identified in Dakhleh Oasis New Evidence from the Early (McDonald in press b; McDonald 19861, two, To Mid-Holocene in Dakhleh the Masara and the Bashendi units, are of Oasis, South-Central Egypt, concern here. The earliest or Masara unit Bearing on the Evolution of resembles Epipalaeolithic or Terminal Cattle Pastoralism Palaeolithic material elsewhere in North Africa. Blades and bladelets predominate in the chipped stone industry, while tools Mary M. A. McDonald include notches and denticulates, Ounan Department of Archaeology points, backed elements, and geometric University of Calgary microliths. A localized variant features a Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N IN4 high proportion of burins fashioned on reworked Middle Stone Age material. Some sites yield grinding material-slabs and One of the debates emerging from various handstones-or ostrich eggshell recent studies of the late prehistory of the beads. desert areas of Northeast Africa concerns In the younger or Bashendi unit, when cattle pastoralism began in the chipped stone tools are made largely on Western Desert of Egypt. Members of the flakes rather than blades, or on grey tabular Combined Rehistoric Expedition, working chert. Toolkits feature knives, foliates, drills, in Southern Egypt, argue for an early date side-blow flakes and a great variety of (Wendorf, Schild, and Close 1984). On the arrowheads, as well as notches, denticulates, basis of ecological evidence and some faunal and retouched pieces. Sites yield numerous material, they suggest cattle were being grinding slabs and handstones, various herded in the Nabta Playa and Bir Kiseiba small ground stone items, numerous ostrich areas between 8000 and 9000 b.p. A. B. eggshell beads, and, in some cases, a little Smith (19861, on the other hand, citing pottery. environmental considerations and concerns about sample sizes of the early osteological As for chronology, five radiocarbon material, argues for a later date, suggesting dates, all of ostrich eggshell from surface the switch to cattle herding may have scatters, are available for the Masara unit. occurred during a dry interval between 7000 Uncalibrated, they fall within the ninth and 6500 b.p. millennium, ranging from 8830 to 8110 b.p (Brookes 1989). For the Bashendi, eleven Dakhleh Oasis, the largest oasis in the dates have been published. These dates, Western Desert, might be expected to yield uncalibrated, range from 7690 to 5130 b.p. data to help settle the issue. There is, in fact, with eight of the eleven falling within the as yet no firm answer to the question from sixth millennium b.p. (Brookes 1989). Dakhleh. New evl'dence from the southeastern corner of the oasis is, however, The two units, Masara and Bashendi, shedding some light on the topic, and differ considerably in site distribution. promises to yield a clearer picture of the Masara sites describe quite a restricted domestication sequence for Dakhleh Oasis. pattern. A number have been found in Evidence includes site locations and site various locations atop the plateau to the types, artifact assemblages, associated rock north of Dakhleh. The few oasis floor sites art, faunal remains, and radiocarbon dates. located prior to 1989, however, aside from The Dakhleh Oasis Project's winter 1990 one workshop site, are all located within one field season has yielded important new area in East Central Dakhleh, well to the information, particularly concerning stone- south of the cultivation associated with the built structures and features. This article is a modern town of lsmant (McDonald 19861. review of the evidence from Dakhleh Bashendi sites, on the other hand, are distributed widely throughout the oasis, NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

atop the northern plateau, and far into the associated with hut circles and other stone- desert to the south (McDonald in press b). built features. In the 2.5-Ian-wide strip just An unusually rich area of Bashendi west of the main road, we recorded settlement, in fact, is the "Southeast Basin" numerous groups of hut circles-clusters of (McDonald in press a), a sprawling feature two or three huts nestled in shallow up to 10 Ian long, located several kilometers hollows, and, in several cases, much larger south of any modern cultivation, at the east groupings. Site 264, for example, boasted end of the oasis (Fig. 1). We began roughly 20 units in an area 50 x 25 m (Rg. 2). systematically exploring this locality within The circles themselves are not elaborate, the last two to three years, upon obtaining usually consisting of a single tier of vertical air photos for the area, and have recorded slabs, although these may stand three or several important Bashendi sites within the four slabs thick in places. Huts average 3 to basin. Then in 1989 and 1990, we found new 4 m in diameter, and are round, oval, or Masara sites as well, within the sometimes bilobed. occasionally a smaller southernmost branches of the basin, and on ring about 1 m in diameter occurs in a the higher ground just to the southeast of it. comer or the center of a hut. One feature The basin floor sites, like Masara sites (Site 267) was much larger-a ring elsewhere, are simply surface scatters; all measuring 47 x 37 m, open to the east. associated Early Holocene deposits have In all cases, associated artifacts are been completely scoured away. In the Masara. Two controlled lithic samples from uplands just to the east, however, we found Site 264 include trapezes and triangles, Masara material in better context-that is, microburins, small ounan points, drills and

Southeast Basin (c. 146 m.a.s.1.) A Hasara site Bashendi site 228 Site number 0

Fig. 1. The Southeast Basin, Dakhleh Oasis: location of some Masara and Bashendi sites.

4 NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

other piercers, and notches and denticulates. probable wild animals-hartebeest and Notable in the collections are numerous end gazelle (C. S. Churcher, personal com- scrapers fashioned on worn Middle Stone munication). To date we have conducted Age flakes. Otherwise, sites yield many only one small test excavation, but there grinding slabs, handstones and pounders, appears to be some material in situ, and so a some eggshell beads, and, in a few cases, chance of obtaining more definitive answers animal bone. to these questions. With the Bashendi Unit, we seem to be on firmer ground in postulating domesticated animals. All parties agree that pastoralism was practised in the Western Desert, at least in the latter part of the Bashendi sequence. Bovid bones, while not numerous, have been recovered from several Bashendi sites. It has been suggested (McDonald in press b) that the Bashendi were not full-time oasisdwellers, but rather the local version of nomadic pastoralists whose campsites have been found by Gabriel and others (e.g., Gabriel 1987) scattered across the Eastern Sahara. They would have ranged part of the year through the desert, which in the mid- Holocene would have been somewhat wetter than it is now, and then aggregated in Dakhleh, possibly during the dry season. A number of features on the Southeast Basin Bashendi sites suggest they might be aggregation sites: the "standardized," probably "curated" tools such as knives and side-blow flakes in exotic material (Binford 19791, odd stones that might be ritual paraphernalia, and evidence for the manufacture of ostrich eggshell beads and arrowheads, activities characteristic of the aggregation camps of the San of Southern Fig. 2. Massara Site # 264. Africa (Wadley 1987). Aggregation, where dispersed small groups come together The question at issue here then is regularly for feasting, ritual, courtship, and whether these are the sites of pastoralists. so on, is a process found commonly among While it is difficult to say on current hunter-gatherers, but also among herders. evidence, they may yet yield the answer. As S. E. Smith (19801, for example, records likely ninth-millennium sites, they are of the aggregation amongst the pastoral Kel right age according to members of the Tamasheq in the West African Sahel. Combined Prehistoric Expedition, but too Another kind of evidence bearing on the old according to Smith. Some of the hut question of domestication in Dakhleh is a circles could have served as animal corpus of incised rock art. Some of it, enclosures. The large ring, Site 267, might stylistically distinguishable from material of have served as a kraal for herds, or as a trap Old Kingdom date, shows cattle, giraffes, for wild animals. Toolkits likewise are antelope, and so on, often in conjunction equivocal on the question, featuring for with human stick figures (Winkler 1939). example both scrapers and arrowheads. The While such material is notoriously hard to few scraps of bone identified so far are of date, its frequent co-occurrence with NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Bashendi sites suggests some of it is at Sites 252 and 254, scatters are less dense attribuQble to that unit (McDonald in press and are clustered around hearth mounds. a). This material is being studied by The cultural material here is associated with L. Krzyzaniak of the Archaeological sand sheet deposits rather than silts. These Museum in Poznan, who is interested in be basin-edge scatters yield pottery, and evolution of man-animal relationships as numbers of knives, side-blow flakes, and revealed in the art (Krzyzaniak and Kroeper foliates, but lack the many, varied 1985). arrowheads and eggshell beads found on Finally, according to the radiocarbon the basin floor. dates, the Bashendi occupies a period of A new series of radiocarbon dates for over 2,500 years. Not surprisingly, there is material from both basin-floor and basin- evidence of cultural evolution within that edge sites has just been provided by the span, and this, in turn, may reflect changes Radiocarbon Laboratory, Institute of in adaptive patterns including pastoralism. Physics, Silesian Technical University, in These changes-in site location, artifact Gliwice, Poland. These dates, uncalibrated, assemblages, and so on-are evident at along with those for ostrich eggshell Site 228 and neighbouring sites in the unadjusted for isotopic fractionation, are western lobe of the Southeast Basin (Fig. 3). presented in Table 1. They suggest that the At Site 228, on the basin floor, there are basin-floor sites associated with the silts are heavy, dense artifact scatters such as that at a millennium older than the scattered Stake Hollow (S.H.), which measures hearth-mounds on the basin edge. approximately 90 x 70 m. Excavation shows Just at the end of the 1990 season, we that the cultural material at Stake Hollow discovered a new type of Bashendi site. As sandwiches a layer of silt up to 40 an thick. with the Masara, these new sites consist of Lithic toolkits here are dominated by clusters of hut circles and other stone-built arrowheads and drills. Eggshell beads at features. These Bashendi sites are located on various stages of m&ufadure are abundant, highlands just to the east, rather than the but no pottery has been found. south, of the southeast Basin. One large site, Up on the edges of the basin, however, 270, occupying a small bilobed basin,

Fig. 3. Sites 228,252, and 254, west lobe, Southeast Basin, Dakhleh Oasis.

6 NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

consists of at least 150,huts. There are site types, in artifact assemblages-which round, oval, and bilobed huts, as well as may in turn reflect changes in adaptive rectangular ones 5 m in length. In addition, patterns, including pastoral patterns, within there are larger rings. One, located 500 m a varying Mid-Holocene environment. from Site 270, measures 30 x 20 m, and One promising element in the pursuit of consists of thick stone walls with gaps on all these studies in Dakhleh, then, are the newly four sides. Another is an arc of stones built discovered hut circles and other stone-built against a hillslope, with internal measure- features. These, with their rich contextual ments of 11 x 4.5 m. While work on this information and probable in situ material, material is in its early stages, associated provide a welcome supplement to the artifact assemblages suggest these stone information available from the usual structures may fall toward the latter part of Western Desert, late prehistoric deflated the Bashendi sequence. surface scatters. Hut circles can be found in In short, there are changes within the various parts of the Western Desert (Hester Bashendi span--changes in site location, in and Hobler 19691, and probably date from

Table 1. Radiocarbon dates from Bashendi sites in Southeast Basin, Dakhleh. Site No. Sample No. Material, Context Lab No. Sample Age b.p.

228 89/5 A CH (wood charcoal) from S.H. Gd6169 7320 f 120 (Stake Hollow), K17b; cultural layer 40 cm below surface, sealed by silts CH from S.H., J18a; hearth just Gd-6170 under surface CH from S.H., M18b; hearth just Gd-5654 under surface CH from S.H., K17; hearth 35 an Gd4993 below surface, sealed by silts CH from Cluster f hearth Gd-6168 mound, just below surface OES (ostrich eggshell) surface Gd-5646 scatter around C1. f hearth mound of sample no. 89/3 above

CH from Cluster 1 hearth Gd-4495 mound, just below surface OES surface scatter around C1.l Gd-6545 hearth mound of sample no. 89/10 above

'Sample No. 89/1 is a charcoal sample from site 244, a rock shelter of the "Sheikh Muftah" cultural unit (McDonald in press a). Lab. No.: Gd-4492; Sample Age b.p. 4310rt80. 2~mallsample--undersized, diluted. 3Very small sample-undersized, diluted. No. 33, June 1990

many different periods. In Dakhleh, for Krzyzaniak, L, and Kroeper, K. instance, there are examples of hilltop hut 1985 Dakhleh Oasis Project: report on the circles of Old Kingdom age. Usually, reconnaissance season of the recording however, these circles yield little or no of petroglyphs, December 1985. Journal dating evidence (e.g., the "Libyan Culture" of the Society for the Study of Egyptian slab structures of Dungul Oasis reported in Antiquities 15(4): 138-39. Hester and Hobler 1969: 56-57). We are fortunate in Dakhleh to have clusters of hut McDonald, M M A. circles clearly dating to two crucial late 1986 Dakhleh Oasis Project: Holocene units. prehistoric cultural Prehistory: interim report on the 1987 season. ]ournaI of the Socretyfor the Study Acknowledgments of Egyptian Antiquities 16(34: 103-13. The author is supported in this research by a Canada Research Fellowship of the hpessa Dakhleh Oasis Project: Holocene Social Science and Humanities Research Prehistory: interim report on the 1988 Council of Canada (award # 455-88-0023), and 1989 seasons. Journal of the Society held in the Department of Archaeology, for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 17. University of Calgary. My thanks to Anthony J. Mills, Field Director of the Inpessb Neolithic cultural units and Dakhleh Oasis Project, who organized the adaptations in Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt. In 1990 field season, and to Daniel Tangri, A. J. Mills (ed.), The Dakhleh Oasis Gregory D. Mumford, Peter G. Sheldrick, Project: Interim Reports, Vol. I, Royal and other Dakhleh Oasis Project members Ontario Museum, Toronto. for their invaluable help with this fieldwork. My thanks also to Dr. M. F. Pazdur and the Smith, A. B. Gliwice Radiocarbon Laboratory for the care 1986 Review article: cattle domestication in and speed with which they produced the North Africa. The Afncan Archeological nine dates reported here. hiew4: 197-203.

References Smith, S. E. 1980 The environmental adaptation of Binford, L. R. nomads in the West African Sahel: a 1979 Organization and formation processes: key to understanding prehistoric looking at curated technologies. Journal pastoralists. In M. A. J. Williams and of Anthropological Research 35: 255-73. H. Faure (eds.), The Sahara and the Nile, pp. 467-87, Rotterdam: Balkema. Brookcs, I. A. 1989 Early Holocene basinal sediments of Wadley, L the Dakhleh Oasis Region, South 1987 Later Stone Age Hunters and Gatherers of Central Egypt. Quaternary Research 32: the Southern Tmnsvaal: Social and 139-52. Ecological Interpretation. Oxford: BAR InternationalSeries 380. Gabriel, B. 1987 Palaeoecological evidence from Wendorf, F., Schild, R., and Close, A. E. neolithic fireplaces in the Sahara. The 1984 Cattle Keepers of the Eastern Sahara: the Afncan Archaeological Review 5: 93-103. Nedithic of Bir Kiseiba. Dallas Southern Methodist University, Department of Hester, J. J., and Hobler, P. M. Anthropology. 1969 Prehistoric settlement patterns in the Libyan Desert. Uniwrsity of Utah Papers in Anthropology 92; Nubia series 4. NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Winkler, H. A. there has been a large amount of recent 1939 Rock-Drawings of Southern Egypt I1 archaeological research on the island. (Including 'Uwenat). London: Oxford Unfortunately, much of this research is university Press. presented in student theses or is as yet unpublished, and photocopying is very expensive in Madagascar. We have decided therefore to limit our citations to published articles and books. Second, there is a large, MADAGASCAR older literature on Madagascar much of which is either out of date or, sometimes, misleading. Given the rapid expansion in Recent Publications on the what is known, scholars are probably best Archaeology of Madagascar served by starting with more recent reviews, and the Comoros Islands which can serve as critical bibliographic tools. We have selected as an arbitrary starting date for our bibliography the year Robert Dewar 1975. This year saw the publication, albeit in Department of Anthropology, U-176 a sadly limited press run, of VCrin's Doctorat University of Connecticut d'ttat (19751, which in some ways marks the Storrs, CT 06269 U.S.A. beginning of the modem era in Malagasy archaeology. We have included some Victor Raharijaona references to recent environmental change Musde de I'Universitd, B.P. 564 on Madagascar, as well as some references 10 1 Antananarivo, Madagascar to recent, important research on the (Correspondence should be addressed to Comoros Islands, much of whose prehistory De war.) seems closely connected to the prehistory of northern Madagascar. A great deal of the literature on The island of Madagascar has a Madagascar is published in journals of prehistory and early history that fascinates limited distribution. These serials are many but that is also difficult for difficult though not impossible to obtain in archaeologists specializing in other areas to North America. The most important are the learn about. In part, this is because the following: scholarly literature on Madagascar's Taloha-Revue du MusCe d'Art et archaeology is scattered, in several dJArch6010gie, UniversitC de languages, and frequently in journals of Madagascar, Antananarivo, Mada- limited distribution. We have often been gascar. asked for guideposts to this literature, which Omaly sy Anio Wier et Aujourd'hui), certainly deserves to be better known. At Unit6 d'Enseignement et de the suggestion of David Killick and David Recherche drHistoire, UniversitC de Lubell, we have prepared the following Madagascar, Antananarivo, Mada- short bibliography as a tool for other gascar. archaeologists and historians who are looking for an introduction to this ~tudesOchn Indien-Institut des fascinating island. Langues et Civilisations Orientales, Paris, France. Any brief bibliography will be incomplete. We have limited our citations in In order to make this list as useful as two major ways. First, as a result of the possible, we have annotated those citations dynamic research progriyls of the Mus6e de whose titles do not make it obvious with l'Universit6 (formerly the Mus6e d'Art et some basic information about the time dfArch6010gie), and the Centre d'Arch6- period and the region with which they are ologie of the Universite dJAntananarivo concerned. Our chronological divisions are [formerly the Universit6 de Madagascar], simple: Early (pre-fourteenth century) and NYAME AKUM No. 33, June 1990

Late (fourteenth century and latter) or All 1986 Ecologie et extinctions des subfossiles Periods (not temporally limited). We de Madagascar (traduit par Pierre distinguish the following regions: Comoros Vbrin). Taloha 10: 25-41. [Early] Islands, and for Madagascar the North, East Coast, Central Highlands, West, and South. nd. The archaeology of the early colonization of Madagascar, in J. Reade (ed.), The Indian Ocean in References Antiquity, in press. Allibert, C., Argant, A., and Argant, J. 1983 Le site de Bagamoyo (Mayotte, Dewar, R, and Rakotovololona ,S. Archipel des Comores). Jhdes Ochn n.d.a La chasse aux subfossiles dans le Nod lndien 2: 5-40. [Early] TQmoinsfragmentaires du XIemesi&cle. Taloha 11, in press. [Early/North] Brown, M. 1978 Madagascar Rediscomred: A Historyfrom n.d.b Hunting camps in northern Early Times until Independence. London: Madagascar in the XIIth and XIIIth Damien Tunnacliffe and Hamden: centuries, in P. Sonndaar and Shoestring Press. M. Soares (eds.), Proceedings of the Conference Mnn In Island Environments, Burney, D. in press. 1987a Pre-settlement vegetation changes at Lake Tritrivakely, Madagascar. Paleoecology of Africa 18: 357-81. 1981 'La plus belle Qnigme du monde' ou [Early/Central Highlands] l'historiographie colo~aleen question Omaly sy Anio 13-14: 57-76. [All 1987% Late Quaternary stratigraphic charcoal periods/Madagascarl records from Madagascar. Quaternary Research 28: 274-80. Dome~chii-Ramiaramanana,B. 1988 Madagascar, in M. Elfasi and I. Hrbek 1987c Late Holocene vegetational change in (eda), General History of Africa, Vol. 111: central Madagascar. Quaternary Africa from the Seoenth to the Eleuenth Research 28: 130-43. Century, pp. 681-703, Paris: UNESCO.

Chanudet, C. Emphoux, 1.-P. 1986 Les styles de criramiques locales 1981 Archriologie de I'Androy: Deux sites de la pririode classique de Moheli importants-Andranosoa et le manda (xIv~~-XD(~~si&le)-premisre mn de Ramananga, Omaly sy Anio 13-14: naissance. TalohP 10: 181-91. [Comoms] 89-97. [Early/South]

Chanudet, C. and P. VQrin Fanony, F. 1983 Une reconnaissance archQologiquede 1986 A ~k~osdes Mikea, in C. Kottak, J. A. Moheli (Comores). hdes Ockan Indien Rakotoarisoa, A. Southall, and P. Vbrin 2: 41-58. [All periods] (eds.), Madagascar Society and History, pp. 133-42, Durham: Carolina Dewar, R. Academic Press. [Late/Westl 1984 Extinctions in Madagascar: the loss of the subfossil fauna, in P. Martin and Heurtebize, G. R. Klein (eds.), Quaternary Extinctions, 1986 Les anciennes cultures de 1'Androy pp. 574-93, Tucson: University of central. Taloha 10: 171-80. [Early/ Arizona Press. [Earlyl South1 NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Joussaume, R, and Raharijgona ,V. Radiilahy, C. 1985 Spultures dgalithiques Madagascar, 1981 Archkologie de YAndroy-Sud de Bulletin de la SociktC Prkhistorique Madagascar, Recherche, Pt?dagogie et Fran~aise,t. 82, pp. 534-51. Culture, IX, 55, AUDECAM, Paris. [All [LateKentral Highlands] Periods /South]

Kus, S. 1983 Prospection archkologique tie la dgion de 1982 Matters material and ideal, in Didy, Traoaux et Documents no 20 L Hodder (ed.), Symbolic and Structural (spkial), Mu& d'Art et d'Archhlogie, Archaeology, Cambridge: Cambridge Universit6 de Madagascar, University Press. [Late/Central Antananarivo. [All Periods/South] Highlands] 1988 L'ancienne mktallurgie du fer 12 1983 The social representation of space; Madagascar. Cambridge Monographs in dimensioning of the cosmological and African Archaeology 28, BAR the quotidian, in A. Keene and International, Series 422. J. Moore (eds.), Archaeological Hammers and Theories, New York: Academic Radimilahy, C., and Wright, H.T. Press. [Late/Central Highlands] 1986 Notes sur les industries de la pierre taill6e dans le Sud de Madagascar. # Kus, S., and Wright, H. T. Taloha 10: 163-70. [Late] 1986 Survey archkologique de la rigion de YAvaradrano (traduit par Pierre V6rin). Radimilahy, C., and Rafolo ,A. Taloha 10: 49-72. [Late/Central High 1985 Sur les traces des ancstres dans les lands] villages d6sert6s en Imerina ancien. Cahiers ethnologiques Anc&freset Sociktk Lejamble, G. Madagascar no 6, pp. 59-76, Universit6 1976 Quelques directions de recherche pour de Bordeaux 11, Bordeaux. [Late/ une arch6ologie des vazimba de Central Highlands] 1'Imerina. Taloha 7: 93-104. [Late/ Central Highlands] Rafolo, A. 1984 Premieres recherches sur le peuplement McBain, A.Y. du Vonizongo ancien. Nouoelles du 1988 Oriental artefacts discovered in Centre d'Art et d'Archhlogie 2, pp. 29- Madagascar. Arts of Asia, Sept.-Oct., 33, Universitk de Madagascar, Antana- pp. 161-68. [All periods] narivo. [Late/Central High-lands]

n.d. Les ckramiques chinoises &exportation 1986 Domestication et consommation de dans la collectiop du MusCe &Art et bovinks (Bos indicus) dans le Centre de d'Archhlogie. Taloha 11, in press. [All Madagascar: le cas des sites periods] d'Analamanitra et de Lohavohitra. Nouuelles du Centre &Art et d'Archkologie Ottino, P. N 20-29. 1976 Le moyen Age de YOcCan Indien et les 1986 Archhlogie et alimentation ancienne composantes du peuplement de Madagascar: les sites B boucherie du Madagascar. Asie Sud-est et le Monde Centre et du Sud. Bulletin de I'Academie Znsulindien 7(2-3): 3-8. [All periods] Mnlgache, Antananarivo. Poirier, J. 1986 Contribution B la connaissance de 1982 Glottochronologie et histoire culturelle Yhistoire du Sud Vonizongo. Taloha 10: Malgache. Taloha 9: 97-120. [Early] 133-44. [Late/Central Highlands] No. 33, June 7990

Raharijaona V. Alimentation et techniques anciennes Les villages fortifiPs de la Mnnandona dans le Sud Malgache P travers une (Madagascar), Conflits duns l'Ochn fosse B ordure du XIeme siicle, Zndien. Institut National des Langues et ~siokantimo-i%&s de I'Oc6pn Zndicn, Civilisations Orientales, Centre Man Paris, 4: 81-109. Indien Occidental, vol. 3, pp. 194-95, Paris. [Late/Central Highlands] Des techniques traditionnelles malgaches en dgression: la poterie et Reconnaissance archblogique dans la la metallurgie, Cahiers des Sciences Manandona (Vakinankaratra). Taloha Sociales 2, Universit6 de Madagascar, 10: 73-114. [Late/Central Highlands] Antananarivo, in press. [All periods]

Archaeology and oral traditions in the Observations sur la fabrication et Mitongoa/Andrainjato area (Betsileo l'usage des poteries malgaches. region of Madagascar), in R. Layton L'kvolution de la poterie malgache (ed.), Who needs the past?, pp. 189-94, durant le second millhnaire de notre London: Unwin Hyman. [Late/Central &re, Nouvelles du Centre d'Art et Highlands] d'Archkologie 34: 13-19.

Rakotoarisoa, J.-A. D'une archhologie coloniale ii une archblogie malgachisante (1895-1985), 1981 Essai d'inventaire des sites d'int6r6t Noudles du Centre #Art et d'Archedogie historique et arch6ologique du sud et 3-4: 7-12. [All periods] de l'ouest de Madagascar. OmPly sy Anio 13-14: 79-87. Southall, A. 1986 Principaux aspects des formes d'adap 1975 The problem of Malagasy origins, in tation de la soci6t6 traditionelle Mal- H. Neville Chittick and R. Rotberg gache, in C. Kottak, J. A. Rakotoarisoa, (eds.), East Africa and the Orient, A. Southall, and P. Venn (eds.), Mada- pp. 192-215, New York. gascar: Society and History, pp. 89-106, Durham Carolina Academic Press. Vhrin, P. 1975 La khelles anciennes du commerce sur les Ra kotovololona, S. c6tes nord de Madagascar. Service de 1986 Note sur la fouille d'une tombe Reproduction des thgses, Lille, 1028 pp. dhcouverte ii Ilafy. Taloha 10: 115-32. [All periods] (Late/Central Highlands] 1975 Austronesian contributions to the n.. Premiers r6sultats de la fouille culture of Madagascar: some d'Ankadivory. Taloha 12, in press. archaeological problems, in H. Neville [Late/Central Highlands] Chittick and R. Rotberg (eds.), East Africa and the Orient, pp. 164-91, New Ramikxmina York 1976 Angavo, ancien village des Bezano- 1976 The African element in Madagascar. zano. Taloha 7: 84-92. [Late/East] Amnia 2: 135-51. Rasamuel, D. 1979 Le probleme des origines Malagches. 1982 Une fouille ii Ambohitrikanjaka en Taloha 8: 41- 55. 1979. Taloha 9: 7-24. [Late/Central Highlands] 1980 Les apports culturels et la contribution africaine au peuplement de Mada- 1982 Les anciens sites d'habitat ii gascar, in Relations Histotiqurs d Tram Madagascar. hlysy anio 16: 125-39. lfOct?an Zndien. Histoire Gt?n&al de NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 7990

I'Afnque, lha2.s et Documents, 3,103-24, SOUTH AFRICA Paris: UNESCO.

1981 Madagascar, in G. Mokhtar (ed.), General Histoy of Africa, vol. 11: Ancient Driekoppen: A Middle Stone Civilivltions of Africa, pp. 693-717, Paris: Age Rockshelter UNESCO. Debbie Wallsmith 1986 The History of Civilization in North Department of Anthropology Mndngascar. Rotterdam: Balkema. [All Southern Methodist University periods] Dallas, Texas 75275 U.S.A. 1986 La glottochronologie malgache. Une mise au point. Taloh 10: 43-48. Driekoppen is located in the Seacow (or n.d. hats ou cites-hat dans le nord de Zeekoe) Valley in South Africa (Fig. 1). Madagascar. Taloha 11, in press. Situated on the north face of a dolerite dike, [Early] the rockshelter (DRI 2) looks out over the valley floor approximately 50 m below. It is Wright, H. T. the largest rockshelter in the region and 1979 Observations sur l'Cvolution de la contains numerous rock paintings. ceramique traditionelle en Imerina Smithfield artifacts litter the floor but only a centrale. Taloha 8: 7-28. [Late/Central small number of Middle Stone Age artifacts Highlands] can be found on the slope of the dike below the entrance to the shelter. However, a large 1984 Early seafarers of the Comoros Islands: Orangian surface site (DRI 1) is located at The Dembeni Phase of the IXth to X* the base of the dike. It covers an area of Centuries A.D. Avlnia 19: 13-59. approximately four hectares and is characterized by an unusually dense 1986 Early communities on the island of accumulation of lithics. Maore and the coasts of Madagascar, in The site was originally recorded by C. Kottak, J. A. Rakotoarisoa, members of the Zeekoe Valley A. Southall, and P. VCrin (eds.), Archaeol'ogical Project (ZVAP) under the Mndagascar: Society and History, pp. 53- direction of Garth Sampson (1985) and was 87, Durham: Carolina Academic Press. excavated in 1987 by a ZVAP team [Early /Comoros and Madagascar] investigating Smithfield rockshelters. The group was surprised not only by the n.d. Le nord de Madagascar et l'OcCan presence but by the extent of the Middle Indien (trans. V. Raharijaona). Taloh Stone Age deposit underlying the Smithfield 11, in press. [Early] levels. The break between the Later Stone Age Wright, H. T., and Kus, S. and Middle Stone Age occupation levels is 1976 Reconnaissances arch6ologiques dans easily distinguished. Middle Stone Age le centre de 1'Irnerina. Taloha 7: 1W5. artifacts begin appearing in a very hard, [Late/Central Highlands] dense pavement of sediment and artifacts. Many of the artifacts are found lying on 1979. An archaeological reconnaissance of their edges. This layer is so hard and so Ancient Imerina, in R. Kent (ed.), difficult to excavate that a geological Madagascar in History. Berkeley: hammer is needed to break off manageable Foundation for Malagasy Studies. chunks. Fortunately, the layer is relatively [Late/Central Highlands] thin (i.e., approximately 10 cm thick). Ten 1 x 1 m squares were dug in spits (levels) between 2 an and 5 cm thick. Each NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

square was subdivided into sixteen 25 cm2 Historii Kultury Materialnej PAN in blocks, and each block was dug as a discrete Warsaw for thermoluminescence dating. unit. The depth of each spit was measured The date from Square G (GdTl 204) is 39.7 using a dumpy level and a stadia rod. f 4.3 ka while the sample from Square CC Sixteen depth measurements were made (GdTl203) is 263 f 3.0 ka. Other sediment along the outside of the squareat 25 cm samples have been sent to Dr. T. Partridge intervals. These procedures provided three for chemical analysis. dimensional provenience of artifacts DRI 1 was surface collected using a accurate enough for statistical analysis of stratified random sample in the area of spatial patterning without point plotting (H. greatest artifact density. The twenty-five 1 x Hietala, personal communication). 1 m units produced approximately 50,000 Screening of the matrix using $-inch and pieces of lithic material. Several of these +-inch mesh resulted in the recovery of very artifacts have been submitted to the small pieces, including retouch flakes and University of California-Davis to test the platform preparation flakes. Approximately feasibility of magnetic dating. Research 25,000 lithic pieces were excavated. presently being undertaken by paleo- However, no bone or ostrich eggshell was magneticists at UC Davis has resulted in the located. Charcoal was present in very small refinement of magnetic dating of desert amounts, and enough closely associated varnish (Clayton et al. 1990). According to fragments were recovered to submit to the the report, the magnetic reading found Radiocarbon Laboratory at Southern within the centre of some rocks differs from Methodist University for dating. that in the varnish, and this difference can Two sediment samples taken from the be used to determine the age of the varnish. top of the MSA levels (one from the north The Driekoppen lithics are being analyzed to wall of Square G and one from the south determine if the material is suitable for wall of Square CC) were sent to the Instytut paleomagnetic dating.

Fig. 1. Maps showing location of Driekoppen sites.

14 NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

The lithics from two squares, A and B, we might be able to develop a relative have been analyzed. All of the artifacts are chronology of MSA surface sites in the made exclusively from locally abundant vicinity and look at settlement patterns on a hornfels. Only about 1% of the pieces are modest scale. If the desert varnish dating retouched with most pieces classified as technique can be used on hornfels and endscrapers or sidescrapers. Blades make produces reasonable dates for the surface up approximately 10% of the total sites, we may be able to provide even more assemblage. Only a small number of solid data on MSA settlement patterns in the exhausted cores have been identified; they Seacow Valley. Presently, however, this is are unusually small and all but one come all conjecture and we will have to wait for from the lower levels of the site. Very few of further results. the artifacts retain traces of cortex and, when compared to the materials known from the Acknowledgements Orange River (Sampson 1968, 1974), are relatively small. This project has been funded by an NSF Dissertation Improvement Grant (BNS Replicative work by Bruce Bradley of 8807981), an Institute for the Study of Earth the Crow Canyon Archaeological Center has and Man (SMU) seed grant and a Gany A. provided some insight into possible reasons Webber Anthropology Department Fellow- for some of the characteristics mentioned ship. Dr. Romuald Schild and the Instytut above. It appears that a large percentage of Historii Kultury Materialnej PAN must be nodules found in any given quarry in the thanked for TL dating of the sediment area are unacceptable for flaking-most samples, Dr. T. Partridge for the sediment have major flaws and many of the "good" analysis, and Dr. K. Verosub for the offer to nodules are relatively small. Furthermore, look at the magnetism in the artifacts. I the texture of the raw material varies greatly would also like to thank Dr. G. Sampson for even within a single quarry. These factors providing the initial opportunity to go into suggest that nodule selection was a the field and my husband, John Congleton, relatively lengthy process involving the for moral support and editorial comments. initial reduction of numerous pieces prior to Last, but definitely not least, to the farmers transport to the rockshelter. It is also likely of the Seacow Valley who were very that when a high quality nodule was hospitable and even more helpful, I am located, it was used until nothing more eternally grateful. could be flaked from it. This would explain the relative absence of cortex pieces in the site, the size of the flakes and blades found References in the deposit and the small size and "used Clayton, J. A., Verosub, K. L., and up" condition of the recovered cores. Harrington, C. D. Preliminary results of the analysis 1990 Magnetic techniques applied to the suggest that the assemblage is made up of study of rock varnish. Geophysical two distinct components. A plot of the Research Mters (in press). average length of flakes or blades in each spit against the depth of the spit indicates Sampson, C. Garth that the assemblage can be easily divided 1968 The Middle Stone Age Industries of the into "early and late" phases. This agrees Orange River Scheme Area. Memoirs van with Sampson's (1974: 165) observations on die Nasionale Museum ~loemfontth, the Orangian. no. 4. It is hoped that, as the analysis progresses, more diachronic changes in the 1974 The Stone Age Archaeology of Southern assemblage will become apparent and that Africa. New York: Academic Press. these changes will be distinct enough to be recognizable in the surface collection. If we are able to distinguish between "early and late" stages in the Driekoppen assemblage, NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

1985 Atlas of Stone Age Settlement in the Sorghum sp. while Late Kassala Phase Central and Upper Seacow Valley. pottery revealed remains of a cf. Echinochloa Memoirs van die Nasionale Museum sp. and a Gramineae sp. (grass). We are Bloemfontein, No. 20. now examining reference specimens of wild and domesticated African millets and sorghum in an attempt to further refine these identifications. SUDAN Acknowledgements Ceramic samples were provided by Plant Remains Preserved in A. E. Marks (Southern Methodist University, Kassala Phase Ceramics, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.). Laboratory support Eastern Sudan was provided by M. Yoshizaki (University of Hokkaido, Sapporo, Japan). Support from the Japan Foundation in the form of a A. C. D'Andrea Dissertation Fellowship to A. C. WAndrea is Department of Anthropology gratefully acknowledged. University of Toronto Toronto, Canada

Y. Tsubakisaka Gash Delta Archaeological Salvage Archaeology Laboratory University of Hokkaido Project: 1988-89 Field Sapporo, Japan Seasons

Rodolfo Fattovich This research note reports on the Dipartimento di Studi e Ricerche preliminary identification of plant remains su Africa e Paesi Arabi preserved in pottery excavated from three lstituto Universitario Orientale Kassala Phase (3350-1000 B .C.) Napoli, ltalia archaeological sites located in the southern Atbai region of eastern Sudan. Sites KG-23C and KG-7A (Butana Group) date to the Early The Italian Archaeological Mission to Kassala Phase (2800-2500 B.C.) and Site KG- the Sudan (Kassala) of the Istituto 96A dates to the Late Kassala Phase (f1,000 Universitario Orientale, Naples, has carried B.C.). out the ninth and tenth field seasons in the The remains of carbonised caryopses Gash Delta (Kassala Province, Sudan) and silicified lemma and palea fragments respectively in January-February 1988 and were extracted by gently breaking down the January-February 1989, as part of the Gash potsherds with pliers. The preservation of Delta Archaeological Project in progress these remains in the matrix of the ceramics since 1980. may be the result of low temperature firing In these seasons the mission has in antiquity and a very dry depositional continued the systematic excavation of the envjronment. Samples were initially protohistorical site at Mahal Teglinos, near selected under a binocular microscope and Kassala. The mission was supported by then studied with an SEM (Scanning funds from the National Research Council Electron Microscope) at the Salvage (CNR), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archaeology Laboratory, University of (MAE), and the Ministry of Education (MPI) Hokkaido, Sapporo, Japan. (research funds 40% and 60%), Rome. In Early Kassala Phase ceramics produced both seasons the field work has been carried the remains of a large cf. Echinochloa sp., out under the direction of the author of this Setaria sp. (two types of millet) and a cf. report. NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

In 1988, the only other member of the deeper level in the central squares of the research team in the field was Mahmud El investigated area to make evident the spatial Sheik el Tayeb, Inspector for Archaeology, organization of the features over a quite Sudanese Antiquities Services (S.A.S.), wide surface, as well as their stratigraphic Kartoum, as surface surveyor and assistant relationships. archaeologist. In 1989, the research team in the field Stratigraphy included: Mauro Cremaschi, geomor- phologist; Livio Gescezi, surface surveyor; The following strata of soil have been Cinzia Perlingieri, assistant archaeologist, identified in the area investigated in these ceramic analyst and illustrator; Maria Teresa seasons: Preziosi, assistant archaeologist; Donatella Very hard brown soil (compact Usai, assistant archaeologist and lithic soil A)-superficial stratum; analyst; Abdallah Mohamed Abdallah, average thickness, ca. 0.15 m (not Inspector for Archaeology, S.A.S., assistant completely excavated). archaeologist. Very soft light brown soil of eolian origin, covering most of the Excavations surface of the site, very rich in artefacts; superficial stratum; In the 1988 and 1989 seasons the mission average thickness 0.25-0.30 m. has continued to investigate the area between the settlement made evident in Harder light brown soil with soft 1981,1984, and 1987 and the cemetery with texture; .superficial stratum, stone structures and megalithic stelae squares BSPT, BSPY, BSQK, BSQP, discovered in 1985 in the central sector of BSQU; underlying S 2, squares the site. The purpose of the excavation was BSPE, BSPN, BSPO, BSQL, BSQM, to link these different functional areas in the BSPS, BSPW, BSPX, BSQW, BSUE, stratigraphical sequence and to clarify their BSVA, BSVC; average thickness 0.20-0.25 m. correlation. On the whole, 31 squares, 2 x 2 m in size, have been opened, covering a Harder light brown soil with surface of 124 m2, between the southern granular texture; superficial edge of the 1987 trench in the settlement and stratum, square BSQF; underlying the northern one of the funerary area S 3', squares BSPN, BSQK, BSQL, excavated in 1985. BSI'T, BSQP, BSPY, BSQU, BSQV, The excavation has been carried out in BSUE, BSVA; average thickness conformity with the AAAA grid system, 0.30 m. adopted by the mission in 1985. The site has Very soft reddish sand, very rich been divided into a grid of squares with in artefacts; superficial stratum; decreasing size of 250 m, 50 m, 10 m and 2 average thickness 0.15 m. m. Each square has been marked with a Hard light reddish brown soil, letter from A to Y, following the order from with granular texture; underlying west to east and from north to south. The S 3', squares BSPO, BSPS, BSQM; following squares have been opened in these underlying S 3", squares BSPN, seasons: BSPC, BSPD, BSPH, BSPI, BSPJ, BSQK, BSQL, BSm, BSQP, BSQQ, BSPM, BSPN, BSPO, BSPR, BSPS, BSPT, BSPY, BSQU, BSUE; average BSPW, BSPX, BSPY; BSQA, BSQF, BSQK, thickness 0.15-0.20 m. BSQL, BSQM, BSQP, BSQQ, BSQR, BSQU, Reddish yellow burnt soil, BSQV, BSQW; BSUD, BSUE; BSVB, BSVC. forming circular spots, with The squares have been excavated average diameter of 1.50-2.00 m; following natural strata in order to define as included in S 3", S 3"/S 5 and S 5 best as possible stratification of the site. in the area of the stelae; thickness Moreover, the excavation has been carried ranging between 0.04 and 0.28 m. out with a step pattern, going down to a NYAME AKUW No. 33, June 1990

S7: Hard dark brown soil with fill and/or cover the stone cairns over the uniform texture; underlying S 5, burials. average thickness 0.41 m (not Funerary Monuments and Burials completely excavated). In the 1988 and 1989 seasons 14 stone S8: Very hard light brown soil structures, 78 stelae and 30 burials have (compact soil B); underlying S 5 been discovered in the funerary area. and S 7 (only observed at the base of the excavation). Stone Structures On the whole, the strata 2, 3', and 3" show a general slope from SW to NW with a Five different stone structures have been difference in height of about 0.25 m. identified: (i) circles, (ii) square structures, Stratum 5 shows a slope from NW to SE (iii) round arrangements of stones, (iv) with a difference in height of 0.10 m and irregul&cairns, and (v) tumuli. They were stratum 7 shows a slope from E to W with a mostly connected with burials. The circles difference in height of about 0.15 m. are round or oval arrangement of big stones, The analysis of the absolute quantity of sometimes filled with pebbles and/or artefacts in the various strata and in each fragments of lower and upper grinding stratum in the different squares point to: stones. These structures range between 0.90 x 0.50 m and 1.50 x 1.10 m in size. The + a progressive decrease of the square structures are small cairns made with artefacts from the surface to the base slabs fixed in the ground and filled or of each square, as it was observed in covered with small pebbles or fragments of the previous seasons; grinding stones. They range between 0.60 x + a major concentration of artefacts in 0.60 m and 0.90 x 0.90 m in size. Three small the strata S 2 and S 3, containing round arrangements of stones have been 60% of the materials, with a clear found. They are formed by stones arranged decrease in the stratum S 3 and a concentrically. Two irregular cairns, major decrease in the lower strata; covering very badly distributed burials, + a nonuniform distribution of were found in the superficial layers of two artefacts in most individual strata. squares. A few other cairns, associated with In particular, we can observe: the stelae, were found at a deeper level. A tumulus, about 2 m in diameter, was found a major concentration of materials + on the surface of two squares. It covered a from strata 2 and 3' in the central late burial. squares (namely BSPS and BSPQ) of the excavated area, corresponding to the cemetery; Stelae + a major concentration of materials in The stelae belong to the same types the southern squares for the stratum describes in 1985: (i)flat stones; (ii) pointed 3", progressively deaeasing to the stones; and (iii) small pillars. They have an north; average height of 100 cm. + a uniform distribution of materials Most stelae are directly fixed in the soil in stratum 5. or exhibit a stone circle as a reinforcement of As regards the relative concentrations of the base. Only stela 94 was fixed in a stone artifacts among strata, strata 1 and 2 have a cairn covering a pit without any evidence of high density of materials, strata 3' and 3" burial. have a middle density of materials, and strata 5, 5', and 7 have a low density of Burials materials. The ground stones, in particular, have a very high density in the squares Burials 25 through 54 have been found in the 1988 and 1989 seasons. So far, six corresponding to the funerary area. This levels of funerary monuments and burials situation, most likely, reflects their re-use to NYAME AKUW No. 33, June 1990

can be described in the cemetery excavated + the stratum 3" seems to be a in 1988 and 1989: transitional archaeological level Level I (superficial): turnulus, burial (level 2); 43. + the strata 5, 5', and 7 might be Level 11 (S 2,3'): stone circles, square regarded as another archaeological structures, circular cairns, level (level 3). irregular cairns; burials 38, On the basis of the pottery evidence, we 39, 44, 45, 27, 41, 26, 25, 46, can safely state that the whole assemblage 47. belongs to the Gash Group cultural unit, as Level 111 (S 3"): stone circles, circular was recognized in previous seasons. or irregular stone cairns; stelae 43,44,45,46,47,48,49, Chronology 52, 53, 54, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, The three archaeological levels observed 73,74,75,76,77,90,111,112, in the assemblage excavated in 1988 and 113,114; burials 30,31,34,52, 1989 are directly comparable with the 54. archaeological levels I, 11, 111, in the 1987 Level IV (S 5): stelae 71,83,84,85,86, BSKP/BSKQ trench, representing the 98,99,100, 107,108,109,110; reference sequence in the settlement area. burials 28,32,42,53. The levels in the 1987 trench are presently Level V (S 5'): stelae 105, 106 (?); dated on the basis of pottery cross-dating burial 37, two unexcavated and some C14 dates, as follows: 1500-1800 graves in BSPJ, BSPO (burials B.C. (Level I), 1800-1900 B.C. (Level II), and not directly associated with 1900-2300 B.C. (Level III). Therefore, we can the stelae). quite safely date the 1989 evidence to the Level VI (S 7): no evidence of funer- late third-early second millennium B.C. ary remains. Conclusions Cultural Sequence The present evidence enables us to The detailed analysis of the artefacts distinguish four phases in the development collected in the 1988 and 1989 field seasons of the Gash Group burial habits. is still in progress. The earliest phase documented in the At present, the preliminary study of the excavated area is characterized by burials in pottery by Miss Cinzia Perlingieri has made simple pits, not associated with any kind of evident 44 basic decorative patterns and 31 funerary monument (stratum 5'). Up to combined patterns, which have been now, all excavated bodies from this phase provisionally used as diagnostic indicators were buried in a straight posture. to outline the cultural sequence of the strata Moreover, it seems that in this phase the and monuments with burials, so far burials-at least in some cases-were observed in the investigated area. located within the settlement area, maybe close to the huts. The stratigraphic sequence of these decorative patterns suggests that The second phase is characterized by burials associated only with the stelae all strata belong to the same cultural (stratum 5). In this phase, the bodies were horizon; still usually buried in a straight posture on each stratum can be regarded as an the back or on the side. independent culture stratigraphic The third phase can be regarded as unit, being characterized by specific transitional, the burials being associated sets of decorative patterns on the with stelae and/or stone cairns (stratum 3). pottery; The bodies were usually buried lying on the strata 2 and 3' might represent their backs with the legs flexed. one archaeological level (level 1); NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

The fourth phase is characterized by associated with Middle Stone Age burials associated only with stone cairns of assemblages, and anatomically modem different type (strata 2, 3'). The bodies are humans with the Later Stone Age toolkit usually lying in a contracted posture on the (Clark 1970). Recent studies suggest that the side. situation is more complex, with archaic Interestingly, such phases of burial Homo sapiens associated with Middle Stone rituals basically correspond to the archae- Age andlor Acheulian tools, and anatom- ological levels recognized in the area. ically modem humans associated with Middle Stone Age andlor Later Stone Age assemblages (Clark 1988). This means that the behavioral patterns of individual W TANZANIA hominid species are much more difficult to decipher. This in part stems from the relatively few sites that contain both hominid Preliminary Report on an and archaeological remains that can be Archaeological Survey of the chronometrically dated with precision. Ndutu Beds, Olduvai Gorge, Olduvai Gorge, in Tanzania, is one of Tanzania the few known sites in Africa with the potential of providing a range of data needed for a more precise assessment of Audax Z. P. Mabulla where, when, and how anatomically Department of Anthropology modem humans evolved in Africa. This University of Florida report presents the results of an 1350 Turlington Hall archaeological survey of the Ndutu Beds, at Gainesville, FL 326 1 1 USA. Olduvai Gorge, and deposits 6 to 7 km south of Kelogi Hills. The survey was conducted during July and August 1989. The main In recent years, scientific interest has objective was to locate archaeological sites in focused on Africa as the continent where context with faunal and stone artifact anatomically modem humans (Homo sapiens remains that could contribute to a better sapiens) may have first evolved (see Brauer understanding of the patterns of biocultural 1984a, 1984b,1989; Clark 1989; Gould 1987; change during the late Middle to Upper Klcin 1989; Mehlrnan 1988; Rightmire 1984, Pleistocene. Although only a fraction of the 1986,1988,1989; Simons 1989). Research on Gorge could be examined over the 20 days both nuclear and mitochondria1 DNA also of survey, we located five Middle Stone Age points to an exclusively African individual (MSA) sites; three in the main Gorge and or population(s) as being ancestral to all two in the Side Gorge (Map 1). These sites, modern humans (Cann et al. 1987; when completely excavated, will provide Wainscoat et al. 1986; see also Gould 1987). more evidence to support or refute the Although this has major implications for interpretation of an African center of origin understanding the worldwide origins of for anatomically modern humans from the humanity, the fossil, archaeological, and fossil and molecular data. They will also chronological evidence necessary for testing provide a range of data necessary to confirm various hypotheses conceming late Quater- the general composition and variability of nary biocultural evolution in Africa remains MSA industries, the possible beginning of fragmentary and inconclusive. regional identity in sub-Saharan Africa (Clark 19881, and the relationship between In the 1970s many archaeologists biological change and cultural change. thought that there was a simple correlation between African cultural stages and From July 10th to July 25th we hominid groups, contending that Hom o concentrated our efforts on surveying habilis was the maker of the Oldowan, Homo Ndutu exposures within the Main Gorge. eredus was the maker of the Acheulian Three sites were located. From July 31st we techno-complex, archaic Homo sapiens were shifted our efforts to examine Ndutu NYAME AKUMIA No. 33, June 1990

Map 1. Outline Map of the Olduvai Main and Side Gorges showing faults, nearby topographic features, and 1989 archeological sites. (Extracted from R. L. Hay, Geology of Olduvai Gorge, 1976) NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

exposures south of Kelogi Hills within the Main Gorge Side Gorge. Here we located two sites. All sites were numbered according to the standardized site enumeration system for the continent of Africa (S.A.S.E.S. Nelson 1971). Extensive exposures of the Ndutu Beds are found at the southern end of the Main krn Field Methods and Site Description Gorge, and about 1 east of the Second Fault, on the south side of the gorge. The My survey team was composed of six Ndutu Beds, which overlie the Masek Beds crew members: B. J. Kimati and H. M. in the Olduvai sequence, are divided into Hamza, archaeology students from the two stratigraphic units (Hay 1976). The University of Dar es Salaam; S. 0. Minazi, Upper unit is a single massive horizontal Conservation Assistant from the Antiquities bed of eolian tuff probably of Upper Department; Magige, archaeologist Pleistocene age and beyond the range of graduated in April 1988 from the University radiocarbon. The Lower unit is largely of Dar es Salaam; S. M. Uvuruge, driver; and conglomerates and sandstones, probably of myself. Our survey strategies depended on late Middle to Upper Pleistocene age. A the overall exposure of the Ndutu Beds. vitric marker tuff in the Lower unit has been Since time was a factor, we surveyed only correlated with the Ngaloba Bed claystone at those areas that were easily accessible. Laetoli estimated to be 120,000 f 30,000 b.p., Walk-overs were done in parallel transects which has yielded a nearly complete fossil at 3-meter intervals. Within each of these skdof a "late archaic Homo supiens" (LH 18: areas, we undertook a 100%reconnaissance. Brauer 1989; Day et al. 1980). Any locality that yielded stone artifacts was At this site, the two units are clearly defined as an archaeological site. Sites were visible. The Lower Ndutu with numbered in series starting with 1, the first conglomerates lies above the Masek Beds, site to be found (e.g., HdJel). We completed while the Upper Ndutu lies above the a total collection of surface artifacts at all marker tuff. Two areas within the Lower sites except site 5. In order to map the unit have concentrations of MSA artifacts surface patterns and distribution of stone and bone fragments in direct association. artifacts and bone remains, we established The artifacts were eroding into the gorge. north-south base lines by using a compass We collected all surface artifacts. The (hand-held) at sites 1, 2 and 3. A 30 m dominant raw material here is quartz and fiberglass tape was then extended in a quartzite. north-south direction to cover the entire site. A datum point was defined either at the northern or southern end of the base line. Hue2 Artifacts were then collected in reference to This site is also within the Main Gorge the datum point, and two distance about 500 meters southeast of HdJe 1. We measurements of each artifact (north-south found good exposures of the Ndutu Beds and east or west, depending on the position with stone artifacts and bone remains in of the artifact relative to the base line) were direct association. All of the stone artifacts taken before the artifacts were collected. lying on the surface are of MSA affinity. A Artifacts were catalogued in series starting sample of artifacts was collected from the with number 1, the first artifact to be surface. After an examination by Dr. collected for each site. At sites 4 and 5a Richard Hay, this site was determined to be transit was employed to plot surface locality 26 where he recovered MSA artifacts. The distance, angle, and the material in 1969. elevation of each artifact were taken in reference to the datum point. HdJe 3 This site is located in the northern part of the Main Gorge, west of the second fault. Most of the stone artifacts and bone remains NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

collected from this site were found in slope present depth (R. Hay personal com- wash and it was difficult toestablish their munication; Leakey et al. 1972). Microlithic context. Many of the artifacts exhibit tools are eroding from this upper layer. adhering matrix from the Ma&k Beds. The Below this wind-deposited layer is a Ndutu Beds here are very hard limestone clay layer that appears to be the Ngaloba and it is unlikely that the MSA stone arti- Beds (R. Hay, P. Manega, and B. Walter, facts are coming from these beds. personal communication). This is a layer of fluvial sediments interstratified with tuffs Later Stone Age site and biotite. It is probably of the same age as the Ndutu Beds (R. Hay personal This occurrence was not officially communication). Typical MSA stone recorded as a site, but deserves mention in artifacts are eroding from this lower layer. this report. This is survey area number 9 Most of them are shaped tools. The deposits and is located west of the fifth fault, 273 at HdJe 5, with microlithic implements degrees southwest of the shifting sand, and eroding from the upper layer and MSA 37 meters from the northern edge of the assemblages eroding from the lower layer, Main Gorge. The area has a surface most likely marks the transition from MSA concentration of obsidian, chert, and quartz to Later Stone Age. If this is the case, then miaoliths in direct association with pottery. this is a very significant finding because the The context of these artifacts is in emergence of an entity known as "Proto- unconsolidated sand, which is expectable for LSA" is not well documented in sub- Later Stone Age materials. The area is a Saharan Africa. In almost all of the South Later Stone Age/Pastoral Neolithic site and African sites where both MSA and LSA warrants further investigation. assemblages are represented, there is a marked skatigraphic hiatus between them Side Gorge (Klein 1977; Deacon and Brooker 1976). In Eastern Africa, Post-MSA or "Proto-LSA" HdJe 4 assemblages have been found at both Nasera and Mumba, but also with Site HdJe 4 is located 6 km south of the stratigraphic breaks (Mehlman 1989). Kelogi Hills, within the Side Gorge. The site Unlike sites in the Main Gorge, where has two localities, Loc. 1 and Loc. 2, which the dominant raw materials are quartz and are about 100 meters apart. The exposures quartzite coming from Naibor Soit Hills in are on the east side of the Side Gorge, and the north, the dominant raw material at sites MSA artifacts were scattered throughout the in the Side Gorge is basalt from the nearby site. Typical Levallois cores and flakes, as Lemagrut Hills. The preservation of bone in well as disc cores, were collected from the the upper layer is good, and many fossilized surface. No cultural materials were found bones were exposed in the lower layer. All in situ. Paul Manega (University of bone remains were left undisturbed, and a Colorado) and B. Walter (Institute of Human sample of stone artifacts was collected from Origins) have tentatively correlated the the surface. One sample of ostrich egg shell deposits from which the artifacts are eroding was collected by B. Walter and P. Manega with the Ngaloba Beds at Laetoli. from the upper layer for racemization dating of protein amino acids. HdJe 5 Clearly, the Ndutu Beds hold great HdJe 5 is a series of sites located 1 km promise for making important contributions south of HdJe 4. The exposures here are to the better understanding of biocultural very extensive. A large concentration of change of modern humans. The deposits bone remains was found in situ in the upper span the crucial period of ca. 300,~,000 soft layers. This upper layer is likely the years and encompass archaeological sites Naisiusiu Beds. The Naisiusiu Beds were with MSA artifacts and fossil bone in deposited by wind after faulting had stratigraphic context. Even more stopped and the gorge eroded to nearly its importantly, the sites have the potential of NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

being tied into a detailed absolute the Department of Anthropology, chronology by using the new Potassium/ University of Florida. Argon laser techniques of obtaining ages from samples of relatively recent volcanic layers such as those stratified throughout A craniological approach to the origin the late Middle to Upper Pleistocene of anatomically modem Homo sapiens in deposits at Olduvai Gorge, and racernization Africa and implications for the dating of ostrich eggshell protein amino appearance of modem Europeans. In acids. (B. Walter personal communication). F. H. Smith and F. Spencer (eds.), The Steven Brandt of the University of Florida Origins of Modern Humans: A World has submitted a research proposal to the Surwy of the Fossil Evidence. New York: University for funding so that we can return Alan R Liss, pp. 327410. to Olduvai Gorge in the summer of 1990 to conduct test excavations at the sites The "Afro-European sapiens hypoth- discovered during the 1989 survey. Our esis" and hominid evolution in Asia objectives are to determine the precise during the Middle and Upper geological and archaeological context of the Pleistocene. Courier Forschungsinstitut sites; to determine their dimensions, how Senckenberg 69: 145-65. the sites were formed, the quantity, quality and variety of fossil animal (and hopefully The evolution of modem humans: a human) bones, the degree of stone artifact comparison of the African and non- variability, and so forth (Brandt and African evidence. In P. Mellars, and Mabulla 1989). We will also conduct an C. Stringer (eds.), The Human additional site survey of the late Middle to Revolution: Behavioral and Biological Upper Pleistocene deposits within the Side Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Gorge from Kelogi Hills to near Laetoli. Humans. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 123-54. Acknowledgements Cann, R. L., Stoneking, M., and Wilson, A. C. This research was funded by the Foundation for African Prehistory and 1987 Mitochondria1 DNA and human Archaeology (FAPA). I appreciate the evolution. Nature 325: 31-36 assistance and cooperation of the Antiquities Department in Dar es Salaam, the History Clark, J. D. Department, University of Dar es Salaam, 1970 The Prehistory of Africa. New York: and the Department of Anthropology, Praeger. University of Florida. My special thanks go to Steven A. Brandt, Peter Schmidt, Mary D. 1988 The Middle Stone Age of East Africa Leakey, Jim Ebert, Paul Manega, R. Hay, B. and the beginning of regional identity. Walter, K. Tambila, J. N. Karoma, W. B. Journal of World Prehistory 2: 235-305. Fawcett, Curtis Marean, and F. T. Masao for their help and support. Last but not least, 1989 The origins and spread of modem my special thanks go to Peter Lauwo, Amani humans: a broad perspective on the J. Kasinya, my survey crew members and African evidence. In P. Mellars, and Melanie Brandt for drawing figure 1. This C. Stringer (eds.), The Human report benefitted greatly from the advice Revolution: Behavioral and Biological and discussion of S. A. Brandt, Jim Ebert, Perspectives on the Origins of Modern and Curtis Marean. Humans. Princeton: Princeton 565-88. References University Press, pp. Brandt, S. A., and Mabulla, A. Day, H. M., et aL 1989 Toward the Origin of Modern Humans: 1980 A new hominid fossil skull (LH 18) Excavation and Survey at Olduvai from the Ngaloba Beds, Laetoli, Gorge, Tanzania. Proposal submitted to Northern Tanzania. Nature 284: 5556. NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Deacon, H. J., and Brooker, M. Suroey of the Fossil Evidence. New York: 1976 The Holocene and Upper Pleistocene Alan R Liss, pp. 295-325. sequence in the Southern Cape. Annals of the South Afican Museum 71: 203-14. 1986 Africa and the origins of modern humans. In R. Singer and J. K Lundy Gould, S. J. (eds.), Variation, Culture and Evolution in African Populations. Johannesburg: 1987 Bushes all the way down. Natural Witwatersrand University Press, History. 6: 12-17. pp. 209-20. Klein, R. G. 1988 Homo erectus and later Middle 1977 The ecology of early man in southern Pleistocene humans. Annual Review of Africa. Science 197: 115-26. Anthropology 17: 239-59.

1989 Biological and behavioral perspectives 1989 Middle Stone Age humans from on modern human origins in southern Eastern and Southern Africa. In P. Africa. In P. Mellars and C. Stringer Mellars and C. Stringer (eds.), The (eds.), The Human Revolution: Behavioral Human Revolution: Behavioral and and Biological Perspectives on the Origins Biological Perspectives on the Origins of of Modern Humans. Princeton: Modern Humans. Princeton: Princeton Princeton University Press, pp. 52946. University Press, pp. 109-22.

Leakey, M. D., et al. Simons, E. L. 1972 Stratigraphy, archaeology and age of 1989 Human origins. Science 245: 1343-50. the Ndutu and Naisiusiu Beds, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. World Archaeology 3: Wainscoat, J. S., et al. 328-41. 1986 Evolutionary relationships of human populations from an analysis of nuclear Mehlrnan, M. J. DNA polymorphisms. Nature 319: 1988 Context for the emergence of Modem 491-93. man in Eastern Africa: some new Tanzanian evidence. Proceedings of the Xlth WSPP Congress. Mainz, 1987.

1989 Later Quaternary Archaeology Sequences in Northern Tanzania. P h . D . dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

Nelson, C. M. 1971 A standardized site enumeration system for the continent of Africa. Bulletin of the Commission on Nomenclature and Terminology no. 4: 6-12. Pan African Congress on Prehistory and the Study of the Quaternary.

Rightmire, G. P. ' 1984 Homo sapiens in sub-Saharan Africa. In F. Smith, and F. Spencer (eds.), The Origins of Modern Humans: A World NYAME AKUM4 No. 33, June 1990

H UGANDA within their setting in the overall archae ological record. The survey was also essential to the examination of the pastoral element in the area. An exclusive, stratified Ntusi and Its Hinterland: pastoralist society has been the most Further Investigations of popular explanation for the presence of the The Later Iron Age and large earthwork sites, but attempts to prove Pastoral Ecology in the existence of either a separate pastoralist Southern Uganda community or social stratification have met with little success. This consideration of pastoralism in the survey is complemented Andrew Reid by the work being conducted on present Department of Archaeology pastoralist practice in Mawogola by University of Cambridge Ephrairn Kamuhangire of the Department of Downing Street Antiquities and Museums, Kampala. Cambridge, U.K. Important information has been gained on the herd structures and herd management currently employed in the area. The background to the new initiative Over 50 sites were located in the survey. investigating the interlacustrine Later Iron The sites are generally between 50 m and Age, principally in Uganda, was described 200 m in diameter. They are usually located by Dr. J. E. G. Sutton (NA 29). This previous near the top of the slope on which they are report also described the first season of situated and in close proximity to major excavation at the site of Ntusi. Sub- valleys with perennial water resources. Low sequently, two more excavation seasons mounds, characteristically present towards have been conducted at Ntusi under the the lower end of these sites, are comparable direction of the author. to the orubungo (dungheap) found in Bahima Previous work in Uganda was kraals, suggesting deposition episodes characterised by the recording of isolated consistent with pastoralism. The compo- sites recognised by colonial administrators sition and location of these sites thus and local enthusiasts. Naturally this suggests that most of them were occupied produced a dispersed pattern of sites by pastoralists. No evidence was discovered scattered across central Uganda. These were for occupation of the area earlier than the recognised because of their high visibility, as Later Iron Age. Excavation at three sites they usually involved some form of located in the survey, Kakinga, earthwork. Thus the two most significant Kasebwongera, and Buteraniro, revealed an works on site recognition in the later Iron overwelming dominance of cattle amongst Age are those by Wayland (1934) and the faunal remains. Occasional evidence for Laming (1953). In recent decades, few new iron working was found on the surface of sites have been recorded. some sites. In addition to the two seasons of The faunal assemblage from the 1987 excavation mentioned above, an added excavations at Ntusi indicates a similar dimension to the examination of the Later pattern. It would appear that the ancient Iron Age was the successful completion of a occupants of the region were as dependant survey of the Ntusi area (roughly cor- upon cattle as are the present inhabitants. responding to the present Ntusi sub- Among the features excavated in 1987 was county), conveniently including the sites of one of two mounds, that known as "Ntusi Bigo, Kagago (known locally as Bigaga) and female." In 1988 excavation at the other, the Kasonko. A systematic, controlled survey "male" mound, sought to compare the had not previously been attempted in archaeological record in a different part of Uganda though the potential of such work the site. This mound is around 50 m in had been recognised. For the first time it length and up to 30 m across. The proved possible to view these large sites excavation revealed that the mound was NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 7990

over 4 m in depth and that it had undergone confirms the problem of locating structures several changes in shape. in the archaeology of this region, these test A series of radiocarbon tests, run on excavations do reveal that area excavation charcoal samples collected at intervals in the can provide informative results. "male" mound, date the total accumulation Excavation at Ntusi has now fairly to between the eleventh and thirteenth thoroughly examined mounds and their role centuries a.d. (uncalibrated). This is close to in the site. Future work will have to address the dating of the "female" mound (see far more directly the actual nature of its Robertshaw, NA 301, and suggests that these occupation. On a site of this size, there are two big mounds belong at the earlier phase several different functions that may have of the activity both at Ntusi itself and in the been fulfilled (town, dispersed, or shifting district. village, capital, etc.). It has been shown that The most immediately interesting finds there is an important pastoralist from the mound were several small contribution at Ntusi and its surrounds. ornaments including glass and cowrie shell There is also, however, evidence for the beads from the upper layers. These indicate existence of agriculture in the regular a limited form of contact between the occurrence of quernstones aaoss the site. interlacustrine region and coastal trade by The scale and the nature of the interplay around the thirteenth century. Ostrich between these two economic activities are eggshell beads and pieces of largely likely to be debated for a long time. Several unworked ivory were also discovered. contrasting archaeological patterns through- Much pottery and bone and occasional iron out the site may also become apparent. It is were recovered. Once again most of the still uncertain how much of the vast area bones were cattle, with occasional sheep/ (over 100 ha) was occupied at any one time goat and a few varied bird bones. and how dense this occupation was. Closer dating is obviously needed. Radiocarbon Both the "male" and "female" mounds dates are being sought to check the contem- are highly visible features but are currently poraneity of the various different areas most surrounded by cultivation, which makes recently excavated at Ntusi. investigation of the surrounding areas difficult. In 1989 a new area was examined The problems associated with on the hillside to the north of the main hill radiocarbon dating, particularly the margin occupied at Ntusi. This hillside includes of error, become exaggerated with the short several low mounds. One of these was time scale involved in considering the Later excavated whilst a series of test squares was Iron Age. A possible alternative strategy to dug in the surrounding area. The mound define broad chronological differentiation is produced the usual large quantities of through the study of pottery assemblages. pottery and bone, the latter again Detailed analysis of the recently excavated predominantly that of cattle. Most material from Mubende and Ntusi by interesting amongst the small finds was a Jeremy Meredith recognises the broadly quantity of ivory, ranging from unworked unified tradition of the local Later Iron Age. pieces through to finished beads, indicating Within this, however, there are subtle that this was an ivory-working site. In the changes and variations with which it may immediate vicinity of the mound several well be possible to identify a ceramic circular slots, 3-5 m in diameter and 0.2 m seriation. The local Later Iron Age tradition, deep, were recorded which may be the as so far examined, suggests some techno- foundations of huts. Also in this location logical and stylistic continuity from the two glass beads were recovered. Early Iron Age. Further up the slope one more slot was This work at Ntusi, along with that of noted in association with a number of Dr. Peter Robertshaw at Mubende Hill and possible postholes. Several large pits were Munsa and Professor Graham Connah at found in this area, measuring up to 2 m in Kibiro and other sites, will hopefully width and depth and frequently containing establish the study of the archaeology of the large broken pots. Although this work Later Iron Age in Uganda. Thus provided NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

with a more solid archaeological base, ZAIRE archaeologists and historians will be able to return to the problems of attempting to correlate information from archaeology and from oral traditions. The archaeological Preliminary Report on evidence will be able to offer fresh insight Research into Traditional into the changes that took place in society lronworking at Lopanzo, before the emergence of the later Equateur Province, =ire interlacustrine kingdoms. Further work in and around Ntusi will be designed to investigate the relationship between Ntusi, Eugenia W. Herbert Bigo, and their surrounding small sites. Department of History Mount Holyoke College South Hadley, MA 0 1075 U.S.A. Acknowledgements This work is a continuation of the Kanimba Misago project initiated and supported by the Section d 'Arch6ologie British Institute in Eastern Africa, in Instirut des Musees Nationaux du Zaire conjunction with, and with the assistance of, B.P. 4249 the Department of Antiquities and Kinshasa, Zaire Museums, in Kampala. The work was financially made possible by support from the B.I.E.A., grants from the Smuts In the early decades of this century the Memorial Fund, the Tweedie Exploration large village of Lopanzo, situated to the Fellowship, the Bartle Frere Exhibition, and southeast of Lac Tumba in the Zaire Basin, by the Antony Wilkin Fund scholarship, was the scene of an active iron smelting and smithing industry. The purpose of our References mission was to document that industry as fully as possible and to carry out a Lanning, E. C. reconstruction of the smelting process if that 1953 Ancient earthworks in western was still possible, given that sixty years had Uganda. Uganda journal 17: 51-62. elapsed since it was regularly carried out. In fact, although much about the technology Wayland, E. J. had clearly been forgotten, local artisans 1934 Notes on the Bigo bya Mugenyi. were able to produce what appears to be a Uganda Jouml2:21-32. small amount of bloom which, together with other samples, will be analysed by David Killick, Harvard University. The present site of Lopanzo was chosen because of the abundance of easily exploited iron ores. Pits are still visible near the town as are slags from sites of earlier smelting, but archaeological prospection of the area is difficult because of the forest growth. Nevertheless, there seems little doubt that ironworking has long been established in the region and that iron goods played a central role in bridewealth transactions and in status systems, as well as in the more utilitarian sphere. Work and ritual roles in iron smelting reflect the close symbiosis of Baoto and Batoa in the forest region. Formerly Batoa NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

appear to have provided much of the and a half hours into the smelt, the manual labor, and they are still entrusted temperature skyrocketed to 1320°C but fell with the preparation of the charcoal used in back to 125040" where it stayed until the smelting. Ore is dug in shallow pits and smelt was halted about a half hour later carried to the foundry site where it is when it seemed unlikely that anything more roasted over a wood fire, then pounded into would be produced. Our own observation small bits and sorted. Contrary to Cdlis' led us to believe that the high temperatures account (1987), the ore was only roasted a had resulted simply from an enormous single time in this reconstruction. concentration of charcoal, whereas very little The smelting furnace was constructed of the prepared ore was actually used and on the very day of the smelt. It consisted of may not have been arranged to take a shallow bowl, connected by a small tunnel advantage of the heat in a properly reducing to a much larger and deeper observation pit. atmosphere. The tuykre was also modelled just before the However, the fkticheur was convinced smelt, using clay mixed with fronds and the that iron had been reduced, and, indeed, fiber of palm kernels and spread over a identified a small bloom in the bowl which lattice basket-like frame. The two- he left to cool until the next morning. While chambered bellows were hollowed out of we must await a full analysis, the bloom wood, with covers fashioned of leaves that certainly showed a strong concentration of were operated with wooden sticks. These iron to judge by the attraction of a magnet. are the same types of bellows used in This unexpected turn pleased all of us. smithing. Initially, two pairs were active; While this report summarizes primarily then a third was added during the smelt. the technology used, we also conducted What was curious, however, was the interviews to reconstruct genealogies of manner in which the bellows were inserted smelting and smithing families in the area, into the tuyire: a large air gap surrounded the role of iron in the economy, and the their nozzles, which made it surprising that rela tion of rituals and beliefs associated with they could produce the blast necessary. ironworking to those affecting reproduction, The smelt itself was preceded by hunting, and other primary activities. These sacrifices of a goat, dog, and cock, and there will be dealt with at more length in future was a liberal use of medicines before and publications. We hope also to edit the video during the process. In this case both the documentation of the process eventually technical and ritual operations were super- and to make it available to other researchers. vised by a fe'ticheur from a neighboring village. His participation caused consid- Acknowledgements erable grumbling among local people, but was accepted, probably because of doubts This research was assisted by a grant whether they could carry it off without him. from the Joint Committee on African Studies of the Social Science Research Council and The bowl of the furnace was filled with the American Council of Learned Societies charcoal. Ore was piled on top of it, on with funds provided by the National either side of the tuy2re opening, and only Endowment for the Humanities and the gradually covered with charcoal. It was Ford Foundation. The co-authors were difficult to monitor temperatures by means assisted by Boilo Mbula of the IMNZ and of thermocouples set at fixed points because Carlyn Saltrnan, who filmed the project. In the smelter periodically used wooden addition, Colleen Kriger, York University, paddles to mound up the charge and Toronto, carried on parallel research into redistribute it in the bowl. Nevertheless, we forging traditions, technology and objects. were able to follow a very rapid rise in temperature during the firsthou; and a half of the smelt. It reached about 1125°C before Reference the tuyire became blocked. Once it was Celis, G. unblocked it took some time to regain the 1987 Fondeurs et forgerons ekonda former levels. Then, approximately four (Equateur, Zaire). Anthropos 82. NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

ZAMBIA the characteristics of LIA sites in this region that make their precise chronology difficult to determine. A full report on the Luano survey and excavations is in preparation. Later Iron Age Ceramics From the Western Study Area. Site Characteristics. Dating Copperbelt, Zambia Intensive reconnaissance along the Luano Stream (12 32'S, 27 SS'E), a small Michael S. Bisson tributary of the Kafue River east of Department of Anthropology Chingola, Zambia, revealed the presence of McGill University Early, Middle, and Later IA villages, with 855 Sherbrooke St. W. the greatest concentration of occupation Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2l7 being found at the south end of a large dambo and hot spring (Fig. 1). The largest site ("Luano Main") was multi-component Archaeological reports on the Zambian and periodically occupied during the entire Iron Age have, with the notable exception of LA period. The nearby "Spring Site" was a Southern and Central Provinces, tended to large EIA village overlain by what is concentrate on the Early Iron Age (EIA), probably a recent LIA hamlet. Directly with assemblages dating to later than south of the Main Site, across the Kapisha 1000 A.D. being infrequently described or tributary to the Luano is a small LIA hamlet, illustrated. This is particularly true of the the "South Site," with no other evidence of Zambian Copperbelt, where research has IA presence. Because there is no chance of had an almost exclusively EIA focus mixing with earlier materials, the South Site (Phillipson 1972). This report illustrates ceramics will be described in detail and samples of Later Iron Age (LIA) ceramics compared to the stratified LIA sequence of from the vicinity of the Luano Hot Spring, the Main Site. Chingola, Zambia, and discusses some of

500 METERS B'--.

Fig. 1. Map of the central portion of the Luano Stream showing sites mentioned in the text.

30 NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Early Iron Age (ca. fourth-ninth predominantly variations on pendant loops, centuries A.D.) sites are infrequent and which become reduced, simplified, and variable in size, ranging from small hamlets more angular through time. As summarized with low artifact densities, to spatially in an earlier report, LIA Phase 1 ceramics at extensive villages with higher artifact the Luano Main Site are decorated with densities. Middle (ca. 1050 A.D.) and first narrow rim bands, with the most frequent phase LIA (ca. 1200 A.D.) villages are motifs being diagonal, cross-hatched, and likewise rare and concentrate near the hot herringbone lines (Bisson 1989). spring, but are larger and marked by much Fig. 2 illustrates a sample of the LIA higher densities of sherds. This trend Phase 1 sherds with thickened rims that are toward increasing village size appears to decorated with vertical, diagonal, and cross- end abruptly in more recent parts of the hatched motifs. These were selected to LIA, during which a total of 16 different show the links with later assemblages at small hamlets were established, many of Luano and, although common, they are not them along the stream rather than on the the most frequent rim and decoration forms dambo inlet and outlet locations favored by in Phase 1. earlier villagers. These "LIA Phase 2" In the Main Site LIA Phase 2 sample of villages invariably have lower surface 41 diagnostic sherds, the trend toward thin- densities of pottery than the earlier sites, walled pots with narrow designs reverses and as a result both excavations and surface itself. Wall thicknesses, which had steadily collections tended to produce very small decreased from an average of 8.5 mm in the samples of diagnostic sherds. EIA Phase 1 to 6.8 mm in the LIA Phase 1, Dating the final phase of the LIA at increase to 7.6 mm. Luano has proved to be a problem. All of Narrow band designs, which were the 16 sites identified with this period were found on less than 20% of decorated sherds surface occurrences and had been entirely at the beginning of the sequence and grew to disturbed by cultivation. Land clearance over 75% of the LIA Phase I, drop to 63%, along the stream was associated with the with a corresponding increase in multiple growth of Chingola, and the natural mixed and particularly wide band designs. Rim Miombo woodland was cut by charcoal forms are primarily undifferentiated (32.4%) burners. . or tapered (24.3%))both a carry over from Production of charcoal has been so Phase 1, but external thickening (21.6%) is ubiquitous in this area, that no samples more common in this assemblage than any taken from surface or cultivated contexts can other from the Main Site. Decoration occurs be trusted. A date of 1440 + 170 A.D. was as a rim band on nearly 60% of Phase 2 obtaincd from the upper levels of the Luano sherds. Rock Shelter, which contained a few sherds One of the features that sets the LIA similar to those described hcre, but the only Phase 2 pottery apart from earlier materials secure Zambian radiocarbon date associated is a pronounced reduction in the number of with similar ceramics is a fourteenth century techniques employed in decoration. A.D. date from a prehistoric copper slag Whereas ten different techniques are found dump linked to Kipushi mine near in Phase 1, only four occur in Phase 2. Lubumbashi, Zaire (Bisson 1987). Narrow incision is by far the most common It is thus probable that all the second (85.7%), with comb stamping, large cord phase LIA ceramics described here post-date impression, and oval impressions also the fifteenth century A.D. present. Decoration generally appears crudely executed, monotonous and lacking Later Iron Age Ceramics in variation when compared to earlier assemblages. Counting only the widest The IA sequence at Luano provides designs on each sherd, bands or panels of evidence of a single evolving ceramic cross-hatched incision dominate this tradition in which decoration begins as assemblage (60%), followed by diagonal complex wide bands of curvilinear motifs, lines of incision or large cord impressions NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

(25.7%), zigzag lines (5.7%), and other One specimen from this site is simple linear forms. noteworthy in that it is obviously exotic (Fig. 3: El. It is a fragment of a very well Luano South Site made shouldered bowl of non-local clay, with a wide band of fine comb-stamped The Luano South Site consists of two decoration bordered by carefully made discrete clusters of highly similar pottery, horizontal lines. It is identical in form and each distributed around the remains of a design to recent Lunda-Lovale pottery of the single hut, that are separated by about 70 m. Lungwebungu Tradition of northwestern Although one hut was excavated and a Zambia and Angola (Phillipson 1974). The thorough surface collection made, this presence of this pot, combined with the locality, which is typical of most of the absence of any artifacts of European origin, single component LIA sites at Luano, suggests that this site was occupied some yielded only 103 sherds of which only 13 time during the past 200-300 years, but were diagnostic. In this collection (Fig. 31, predates the arrival of European miners on wall thickness averages 7.9 mm, and rim the Copperbelt at the turn of the century. thickness 8.9 mm. Rim forms are highly variable, but nearly half (46%)are thickened. Conclusions Decoration is extremely stereotyped, with 10 of 11 cases bearing often crudely Given the trends evident in the Luano executed cross-hatched incision. Large cord ceramic sequence it is clear that even though impression occurs as a bordering technique recent sites are difficult to date absolutely, on two specimens, but on some other recent the frequency of cross-hatched incised or LIA sites at Luano is used to make similarly large cord impressed decoration may be crude cross-hatched designs (Fig. 3: F). used to arrive at a reliable relative

Fig. 2. Later Iron Age pottery from the Luano Main Site. A - G, LIA Phase 1. H - K LIA Phase 2.

32 NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 7990

chronology, with the most recent collections References having the highest proportions of these Bisson, M.S. designs. 1987 The radiocarbon chronology of Luano, Although ethnographic collections of Zambia. Nyame Akum 28: 49-51. Zambian Copperbelt pottery are not presently available for study, it is most 1989 Continuity and discontinuity in likely that this cross-hatched material was Copperbelt and North-Western produced by the Lamba people who are Province ceramic sequences. Nyame the indigenous to area. Akum 31: 43-6.

Ac knowiedgements Phillipson, D. W. Support for this research by the 1972 Early Iron Age Sites on the Zambian SSHRCC, McGill Faculty of Graduate Copperbelt. Azania W: 93-128. Studies, the N.C.C.M. mining company, and the Zambia National Monuments 1974 Iron Age history and archaeology in Commission is gratefully acknowledged. Zambia. Journal of African Histoy 15: 1-25.

Fig. 3. Later Iron Age pottery from other Luano Stream sites. A-E, South Site. F, Site I. NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

PCs and the floppy disk, these practical limitations on data transfer no longer apply. I therefore hope that the members of SAfA make use of these opportunities to exchange more detailed information than can be done in conventional publication format. These Sharing Computerized exchanges would, of course, be subject to the Databases usual rights of first publication and citation that apply to other kinds of informally circulated information. Michael S. Bisson Department of Anthropology An additional point also needs mention McGill University here. We are routinely required to leave 855 Sherbrooke St. W. copies of field records with our collections Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 277 when they are returned to African institutions for permanent storage. Data- bases generated by the subsequent analysis of artifacts are certainly as important as the Personal computers are now available to provenance information and basic des- almost all North American and European criptions that make up the bulk of field archaeologists, and are increasing in records. Analytical data can now be sent to frequency in many African universities and the appropriate institution on a few antiquities departments. Many of us diskettes that take up virtually no storage routinely store raw data derived from the space, and can be easily accessed by anyone laboratory analysis of ceramics, lithics, and who is granted permission to work with the other kinds of artifacts on PC files. collection (particularly new African Publication of the analysis of these data scholars). usually requires some form of synthesis in To get the ball rolling, I would like to which parts of the database or relationships offer copies of my computerized files on within it that were not essential to the study ceramics from five Iron Age components at hand are necessarily omitted. These from Luano, Zambia, and on the Early and hidden relationships (perhaps attribute or Later Iron Age components from Kansanshi spatial associations) may be useful to other and Kipushi to anyone interested in the researchers. south-central African Iron Age. The files The cooperative sharing of both will include a brief description of the published and unpublished data has been provenance, coding system, and attribute an important feature of African archaeology, list, all in Wordperfect 4.1 (IBM or IBM and is particularly vital given the small compatible) format, and the data set or sets number of scholars in the discipline, as ASCII text files. Exchange of information increasing publication costs, and resistance in this manner should not replace by editors to the lengthy appendices that are conventional publication, but might be a a normal part of many archaeological useful intermediate step in cases like mine, monographs. Informal discussions with where publication has been delayed or colleagues at the recent SAfA meetings in appeared in sources that are not widely Gainesville indicated that there is significant available. interest in finding ways to increase the sharing of raw data that might be useful in quantitative comparisons of assemblages. In the past, exchange of databases was difficult because of cumbersome paperwork or, in the case of computerized files, due to the fact that file storage was on tape or hard disks that could only be accessed by a mainframe. With the advent of networked NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

This is particularly the case in Africa where Videography There and Back the combination of bright sky, black faces, Again: Notes for the and white robes can result in major Uninitiated fluctuations in the behaviour of the iris (diaphragm) and sequences with wild variations in lighting that render them Nicholas David unusable. Department of Archaeology Other disadvantages include the no less University of Calgary than twenty-one different tape formats Calgary Alberta, Canada T2N I N4 (VHS, Beta, Super VHS, Video 8, etc.) mostly requiring their own dedicated equipment, and the incompatible international standard These notes are intended for the ethno- coding systems that register pictures archaeologist, ethnographer, or archae- magnetically on the tapes. The PAL ologist who is going into the field to conduct standard, the best, is used in the UK and research and only secondarily to make video Germany; there is SECAM in France and the recordings. In other words I assume that the USSR, and NTSC, the worst, in North reader will be working on a shoestring, may America. This reduces one's ability to well be accompanied in the field by a single communicate materials from one part of the locally hired assistant, has no significant world to another since digital transfer experience in movie making, but does have coding between standards is an expensive time and the commitment to communicate process that can still result in loss of picture what she or he sees in a way that is probably quality. Perhaps new digital formats will do impossible for a professional videographer away with this stupid incompatability lacking anthropological background and in- besides raising quality all around-but will depth experience of the particular field we be able to afford it? situation. You are now in the field grasping your camcorder in one hot little hand. By the Video Advantages and Disadvantages way, these are machines that require to be carefully protected from physical shocks, Under such circumstances video and as best one can from dust, but which are recording has great advantages over film not bothered by temperatures up to and these are becoming greater. An 40°C/105"F if reasonable care is taken to adaptive radiation of video equipment is protect them as much as possible from the taking place characterized by new video direct rays of the sun. At higher temper- formats, smaller camcorders and compact atures we have had on occasion to wrap cassettes able to hold two hours or more of damp towelling around the viewfinder to tape. Furthermore equipment and expend- retain its imaging capability. ables for quality field recording of materials that can later be used to make programmes worth marketing are relatively cheap. There Prerequisites is also the advantage of instant playback in What are the prerequisites for getting the field. You know pretty much what you good material? First, you need to know are getting. what you are about to see, preferably There are disadvantages too. Video is, because you have seen it before, or because for the moment at least, much less able to you have discussed it in detail with discriminate between different shades of informants beforehand, or if the worst dark and light than film, and far less than comes to the worst because your informant the human eye. This lack of sensitivity can keep you alerted as to what is about to results in picture quality that is significantly happen. Opportunity too often only does lower than on film, and technical problems knock once. Even if the possibility exists of in the field that have to be bypassed in one having the action repeated, this is a solution way or another by the camera operator. of last resort and often no solution at all- No. 33, June 1990

skilled and naturally graceful human beings All camcorders have automatic focus are instantaneously transformed into a and iris, but it should be possible to override bunch of awkward, grinning incompetents. them. I much regret that I can't hold the iris I shot a funeral among the Hide last year constant on mine, an otherwise excellent that I had stumbled upon without warning, JVC Videomovie. As I zoom out of a tight and thanks to two excellent informantscame shot of a pot or whatever, the sky tends to back with good footage and even a few flood the picture with light turning the stills-but negligible field notes. intended focus of attention into a black Second, you should have a theme in smudge. Pan shots across count~ysidesare mind, and if not actually a "storyboard," hard to do without jerks unless you have a tha; is to say a planned sequence of shots, tripod, and even then it has to be one with a then at least a checklist of scenes needed to pan and tilt head. Similarly, it is just about treat the theme. Although one may shoot impossible to hand hold a long distance shot the odd serendipitous sequence, it requires at maximum magnification. On the other careful planning if one is not to return from hand, tripods are heavy, expensive if any the field with a terrific documentaryless good, and it takes time to fit the camcorder three critical shots! Third-as in all onto them. So I use a monopod with a quick ethnographic work, you must have the release some of the time, though not for confidence of the people, achieved through panning, and have found it effective. Much an agreement acceptable to all. Amongst of what I do is handheld. other things, I regularly take stills back into the field, with small albums for the main Costs protagonists, and as a more generalized form of reciprocity have shown my and Getting into the field is expensive, but Yves Le B16is1s first video Dokwaza: Last of you are there anyway on your research budget. The cost of your camcorder and the Afican Iron Masters to audiences in three north Cameroonian towns-at two of which accessories, including the monopod and showings Dokwaza was himself present and sufficient heavy duty batteries for a couple vigorously participated in the question and of days shooting without recharging, plus answer session that followed. the blank tapes, need not be much-perhaps less than US$2000. But can you afford to go into the field with only one camcorder? Requirements Probably not, as no one will be able to repair Camcorders are changing rapidly and I it till you get home. So add another $1500 or will not try to be specific here. Go for a so; and then another $500 for a colour good quality compact model; you may be monitor or small TV, and there's a total of holding it for hours or walking around the $4000. You will need the monitor for countryside with it at the ready. Don't go working with your informants. for frills, fade in, built-in character It's once you get home that expenses generator, and so on. They are for the 'take off; to do a good job in what is known amateur; you will do such things in the in the trade as "post-production" you will studio. I don't know about slow motion. need access to studios and editing suites and You do want a machine able to film in poor to technicians who, even in a university light, preferably well below 15 lux, that is to environment, are charged out at $50 or so an say by candlelight. Last year I used a Bluet hour. Dokwaza ran about US$12,000 in gas lamp, aluminium foil stuck onto post-production costs even though I ended cardboard behind it, for shooting scenes in up doing the main, though not the technical, an unlighted kitchen. Results were quite editing and for that price we were able to good although the viewfinder was produce both French and English versions. continuously flashing light! light! light! and The solution is, I think, not to be the hiss of gas is evident on the sound track. discouraged but to go out and get the raw A powerful flashlight used in the same way material, and if it is good enough then use might have been better. I don't know. its promise to raise the money for post- No. 33, June 7990

production. The United Steelworkers of plenty. Don't squeeze the maximum onto America, Canadian National Office, your tapes; for technical reasons it may be generously gave me all I needed in return impossible to use the first and last few for sole sponsorship. seconds in the editing suite. Perhaps start and end each tape with shots of scenery; Camerawork they may come in useful. Particularly at close range or in poor light the automatic I will assume that you are your own focus may find itself struggling, the shot camera operator. There are courses that are going infuriatingly in and out of focus. I surely worth taking, but you can learn by know I must practice switching to manual practice and above all by the experience of focus whenever changing range during a editing your or others' footage, a humbling shot is not required. Count to five after you process during which you become only too think each shot is finished before stopping aware of what works and what doesn't, and filming. Make many more cutaways than of the various kinds of shots needed to make you think you will ever need. Vary the a well-rounded programme. It is also lengths of your shots. Cutaways may in the worthwhile going slowly and analytically end show for three seconds or even less, but through a film on video, in order to learn you want some long lazy shots to let the from its editors. viewer catch his breath, for sound (see Acting as camera operator is a full time below), and ultimately for running under job, requiring continuous planning and titles and credits. Zooms are tempting, but anticipation. You cannot at the same time don't unless there are real reasons for it. take good notes or hope to record in any And if you do, always make sure that there other way what you are observing. are three to five seconds before and after Remembering that your unobtrusiveness is each zoom. You can only rarely break into proportional to your duration on site and one during editing. Practice panning and do that a perfect shot can happen at any time, it at different rates. If you can't put the iris you must be ever ready. You have to be on manual, don't suppose that you will get thinking all the time about the final product. acceptable results with a built-in back light Sequences, if they are not to be boring, compensator. require a variety of different shots: middle Even though you cannot take good distance ones to set the scene, closeups of notes while operating the camera, it is the main action, and, in part for atmosphere important to keep an up-to-date catalogue of and in part for technical reasons, cutaways your tapes and (if at this stage general) that show, for example, participant and records of what is on them. This is even audience reaction to the main sequence of more essential with sound recordings. events. And so on, including scenery and portraits. It is also important if you are accompanied by nonnatives to decide before Audio starting filming whether or not you want to It is obviously important that clean include them in your shots. A video on sound be recorded in the field, and this can metallurgy in the field and lab will, for be obtained even with a directional, carnera- example, need shots of the metallurgist and mounted microphone, although wind noise other team members engaged in fieldwork. (the same as you get by blowing into an Dokwaza, on the other hand, excludes open mike) is an often insoluble problem. whites except for one shot that has Ian Remember also that when you are "stop- Robertson's knee in the background (no one start" recording, the audio as well as the to my knowledge has ever noticed it). picture sequence will be discontinuous, with Camera skills are best learned by clicks on the sound track that will have later practice. Here are a few tips. Keep a neutral to be edited out even if your storyboard filter on your camcorder to protect the lens. keeps sequential shots in sequence. The Fast forward and rewind all tapes before use camcorder is just that, twinned camera and to get even tension. Tape is cheap, so shoot sound recorders, and it is easy to forget that even when you don't use all or even part of NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

the sequence of visual images, you may still watching video with Dokwaza, his wife need the sound. It is common in editing to Demagay, and his children. In the next carry audio over from one shot onto the field season I plan to explore with them next, a smooth flow of sound to the ear through video what happened in a second counteracting the choppiness experienced smelt when things went badly wrong before by the eye. To that end, you should record being wrenched more or less back on track some longer and continuous sequences of at the last minute. sound, either by letting the camcorder run on for minutes at a time, or by recording on After Return from the Field a separate reel-to-reel or cassette recorder, a process known as "wild-track" recording. Once you get back from the field, nervous about passing through strong Another aspect is "audio perspective"- magnetic fields and with tapes clutched to having the appropriate sound with the your chest, the work really begins. picture. A wide angle landscape shot with Assuming that you have enough to make distant people will jar the viewer's the programme you intended, your original sensibilities if accompanied by laughter of tapes will be copied, probably onto one inch nearby but unseen children. Similarly, if the tape, and a time code attached on a separate camera is some distance from the object in track. They will then be recopied in view and zoomed in to maximum whatever format you prefer with the time magnification, the sound picked up by the code rendered visible. Your first and time- camcorder microphone will be inappro- consuming task is then to log every shot on priately faint. While it is nearly always every tape, cataloguing it by: better to record the appropriate sound in the first instance, in the editorial phase such a sequential shot number; problems can be remedied by relaying a brief description of the action; sound from "wild-track" recording, or the starting time code (hour: layering several sound recordings. Thus, minute:second-but don't bother before you leave the field seek out with frame); recordings from other sources, especially any notes, eg., "good sound" or local music that can, with the copyright "OK after zoom"; and holder's permission, be used in your final product. by a rating of its visual quality. This you can do at home on a normal Use of Rushes in the Field VCR, although it is much quicker with more sophisticated equipment. The log, with By using the monitor you have taken frequent reference to the actual tapes, is the with you and that can be run if necessary raw material you will work with to make up from your car battery, you can actually the storyboard, the sequence of shots that show what you have shot to the people will be assembled to form the programme. portrayed. This is not only gratifying to At first this will contain lots of eitherlors and them, but of methodological importance as notes of spare shots that can be added, if, for it allows you to ask questions, to go back example, an extra cutaway is necessary. and forth over a sequence until you Your aim is to minimize the costly time thoroughly understand what is going on, spent in the editing suite. who all the actors are, and so on, in a way What about the script? This must exist that is rarely if ever possible during the in embryo in order to produce the events themselves, especially if the actors storyboard, and it evolves together with the are engaged in a demanding technological visual element. In the video Vessels of the or social process, potting or smithing for Spirits that I am presently completing, the example, or during a ritual. Our first draft of the script was written in one appreciation of the Mafa physiological mammoth session almost immediately after model of metallurgy and of how processes the first assembly of shots into a rough draft are initiated and controlled by the iron known as the offline edit. It will be master come largely from hours spent No. 33, June 1990

progressively refined in interaction with the sequential. I find this difficult since you visual and the other sound components of don't know whether what you are "laying the programme. I take a minimalist view of down" is correctly paced, nor, as changes what a good script should be. Above all it are constantly being made as you progress, should not condescend or insult the even how long it all is until you reach the audience by telling them what they can see end. In the offline edit of Vessels of the clear as day in the picture. A really good Spirits, there are several too abrupt changes programme is one that communicates of subject, more than one place where a shot effectively over the full range of the two is too long, breaking a building tension, and channels available. These are the visual and others where a viewer unfamiliar with the the aural, the latter usually divisible into peoples and techniques really needs a few three tracks-ambience (what was picked seconds more for the significance of what up by the mike at the time of shooting), they are seeing to sink in. And the awful narration, and a third with music, sound thing is that as you work longer and longer effects and so on-that will be mixed in the with your own material, you become final product. Clever editing cunningly progressively less able to criticize it blends the visual and the aural, using one to objectively. This is when you need both emphasize or provide continuity in the technical advice from the professionals and other, and to indicate, for example by a some straight criticism from friends, change in music, a new phase in the action. colleagues and, perhaps above all, the students and gentle viewers who, together Editing with a rapidly increasing African and Third World viewing public, are your intended Editing is entry into electronic audience. wonderland where you can dis- and Although there is much more that could reassociate sound and image, carry sound be said about editing, I will add only a word from one shot over another, and where you of advice regarding titles and credits, have access to all sorts of tricks, to change especially the latter since they are a the colour of a shot (within limits), fade in temptation to allow pride to get the upper and fade out, do "quad splits," introduce hand. Titles should be big, legible and in a still photographs (better I am told than still typeface suitable for the subject matter. frames of video) and so on. It is also true Tacky typefaces really turn me off. Credits that these electronic marvels sometimes too should be legible and above all bmf. subject one to unlooked for constraints, and that to overcome these may be as difficult as to make the best use of their potential. I Conclusion passionately enjoy editing, which is after all I have nothing of significance to say no more than telling the story as best it can about marketing, and am a complete be told, creating the right pace and moods to beginner in that field. The production of go with it. This may involve subjecting your accompanying study guides, leaflets with audience at first to a mild form of culture blurbs by distinguished colleagues, and shock-what are those wierdos doing?-in reviews in the American Anthropologist and scenes whose full meaning will only later be other top journals, will all help, as will revealed and appreciated, or perhaps receiving favourable notice in competitions. keeping two themes running parallel for a But the real solution is to find a distributor while and then bringing them together. I who is both efficient and doesn't demand have, on the other hand, no pretentions to too high a proportion of the income from mastery of the sophisticated equipment what after all will be a specialized, low involved, and defer to the professionals volume product. whose ability to improve or see a better way I hope that I have said enough to of relating a series of shots to achieve the convince you that becoming a field effectdesired never ceases to impress. videographer is worthwhile from many Unlike film editing where you can cut points of view: the creation of an archive, and paste, video editing is electronic and NYAME AKUM No. 33, June 1990

the development of an effective tool for interested in. As a matter of self- ethnographic fieldwork, a means of preservation, I began documenting the communicating with a larger public, and last location of specific volumes of all of the but by no means least making some kind of serial publications I requested through return to the peoples whose lives or history interlibrary loan. So far this has been you are studying. And further that although extremely helpful in cutting down the it is intense, hard intellectual labour, it is interlibrary loan process because I have been also immense fun--and certainly the nearest able to go to the librarian and give her the I will ever get to creating a work of art. exact location of a specific volume. However, this list is nowhere near being Acknowledgments complete. Eventually, I would like to have a relatively extensive inventory of the rarer My thanks to Henri Aug, cameraman on African journal/serials and their locations Dokwaza, for allowing me to learn from his but to do this I need assistance from people many successes and fewer failures, to Paul at other institutions. If you are interested in Morris, Production Supervisor of the helping out with this project or have University of Calgary Communications questions, please contact me. I think that the Media Department who initiated me into final product will be very useful to graduate editing and has been a constant source of students collecting bibliographical infor- advice and encouragrnent (including writing mation for dissertations and theses, to the first draft of the Audio section above), researchers beginning work in a new area, and to Jack Filuk, Lawrie Edison, Dave and to Africanists in general. Jaeger, and Mike Mattson, the wizards of For further information, please write to me at the above address or contact me through one of the following means of telecommunication: Accelerating Interlibrary Phone: 214-692-2926 Loans FAX: 214-692-4289 BITNE'R hlddOOO6 Debbie Wallsmith Department of Anthropology Southern Methodist University Dallas, TX 75275 U.S.A.

I am presently collecting titles of African journals and serial publications and Biennial Conference of the compiling a list of libraries in North Society of Af ricanist America which carry these publications. Archaeologists, This project began as a result of my March 22-25, 1990 frustration with the interlibrary loan system present in most university libraries. I became tired of waiting for publications to J. D. Clark arrive from other libraries and found that, in Department of Anthropology may cases, I had forgotten the purpose of University of California-Berkeley the request when it finally arrived. Berkeley, CA 94720 U.S.A. When it came time to collect the background information for my dissertation I quickly learned that libraries listed by the The Biennial Conference of the Society Library of Congress as owning a specific was held at the University of Florida, title often did not own the volume I was Gainesville, in the mid-semester break and NYAME AKUlMA No. 33, June 1990

was sponsored by the Center for African by S. McBrearty; and "Archaeology, Art and Studies and the Department of Anthro- the Art Market," organised by H. J. Drewal pology, University of Florida. The and to which was attached a workshop with Conference was most ably organised by the audience participation, organised by K. President and Secretary of SAfA, Drs. Peter Ezra. In addition, there were two general Schmidt and Steve Brandt, respectively, and sessions on "Prehistoric Archaeology and their graduate students. This was probably Archaeological Methodology," and a the best attended yet of these conferences Conference Theme Session, 'What Is the with more than 120 participants giving Future of Archaeology in Africa?" organised papers, the reason being in part the by P. R. Schmidt. Participants came not only efficiency of the organisation and, in part, from the United States and Canada but also the reorganisation of the society, which is from Belgium, Norway, Sweden, the United now international and attracts researchers Kingdom, and the West Indies. Among from overseas. African countries Ethiopia, Benin, Kenya, The three days of formal sessions for the Niger, Tanzania, and Zambia were presentation of the large number of papers represented by delegates or by graduate were fd,particularly as it had been decided students working at universities in the to hold only one session each day which all United States: some twelve of these last participants could attend. This was felt to be attended. There was also a Chinese student necessary in order that all who wanted to from Indiana University. could hear every paper and not only those in Lack of space does not permit any their own particular speciality, thereby detailed discussion of the sessions and a emphasising the common interests irnpor- brief report cannot attempt to cover the tant to the work of research into Africa's range of time, space, and topics presented. past. In general, most papers and themes related The sessions were held in the spacious to East, Central, and Southern Africa Reitz Union Auditorium of the University of although M. A. McDonald's survey of the Florida, within walking and busing distance mid-Holocene evidence for pastoral nomads of the conference hotels and with seating, in Dakleh Oasis in the Western Desert of acoustics, and projection facilities that were Egypt demonstrated the great possibilities excellent. Because of the large number of for landscape archaeology in desert regions. papers speakers were restricted-ar should The emphasis this year appears to have been have been restricted-to 15 minutes each on the Earlier to Middle Palaeolithic and but, even so, sessions began at 8:00 A.M., related studies rather than on the Iron Age, with breaks for coffee and lunch, resumed at as has in recent years been more often the 1:45 P.M. and finished at 7:00 P.M. Three case. Some very exciting new research was days of programs such as this is about all reported in the pastoralism symposium that most people can cope with but the amongst which was T. Huffman's paper on sessions were, nevertheless, very well the way in which plant phytoliths are now attended and packed with interesting and believed to demonstrate the extent to which important presentations on current field cattle were kept by early Iron Age farmers research and thinking. even though cattle bones are under- Papers were presented in symposia and represented in the faunal assemblages. A. B. general sessions. There were five symposia: Smith's report on the first identifiable Khoi "The Evolution of African Pastoralism," pastoral settlement in the Western Cape orgapised by A. B. Smith; "Archaeology and showed the difference between these arid Adualistic Studies Bearing on the Behaviour hunter/gatherer occupation sites and of Early Hominids," organised by J. W. K. resulted in interesting discussion and dis- Harris and J. D. Clark; "Ecology, Archae- agreement on distinguishing changes that ology and Actualistic Studies in Central may be seasonal from those that are of Africa," organised by A. S. Brooks and J. W. longer temporal duration. K. Harris; "Archaeology and Environmental Perhaps the most important new Contexts of Early Homo sapiens," organised regional research is that being undertaken in NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Equatorial Africa: in Cameroon by Turkana of changing patterns of early P. de Maret and N. David together with hominid landuse and ranging behaviour. their associates; in Zaire by J. Denbow; and This and the Western Rift symposia in Gabon by B. Clist and colleagues. De emphasised the need for and the use of Maret spoke of the Later Stone Age actualistic-"middle range," if you like- sequence at two important sites in central studies as databases for using artifacts and Cameroon and Denbow of his work along bone refuse in sealed contexts to reconstruct the Congo coast. Until now, the later early hominid behaviour. Some examples prehistory of this vast region was almost presented were J. Sept's study of unknown but the work now being chimpanzee plant foods; C. Sussman's concentrated there and in eastern Zaire studies of using quartz and chert artifacts among the Efe Pygmy groups is resulting in for working wood and for butchery at a better understanding and in more reliable Olduvai Gorge; R. V. Bellamo's control dating. There is now no doubt of the studies of fire and their implications for presence of stone- and ceramics-using, hominid behaviour; recognition by cultivating, and herding societies occupying C. W. Marean and C. L. Ehrhardt of the these regions prior to the introduction of modification of bone by sabre-toothed cats. metallurgy. These are crucial data for those H. T. Bunn described the archaeological concerned with the spread of Bantu- and implications leading from his studies of eastern Sudanic-speakers into Equatoria. hunting, scavenging, and carcass-processing The symposia on Early Hominid activities by the Hadza of the Lake Eyasi Behaviour and on the Ecology and Rift. A valuable new assessment of the FLK Archaeology of the Western Rift comprised Zinj fauna from Bed I at Olduvai Gorge by papers given by both faculty and students C. Saanane and R. J. Blumenschine, the on fieldwork in East and Central Africa. result of their own study and comparison New discoveries, such as those of several with those of other investigators, reaffirmed later Pliocene assemblages, as from the belief in the hominid origin of this now Semliki at the Sango 5A site, Zaire, by team famous concentration. Actualistic studies of members; from West Turkana by bone-fracturing patterns by M. M. Selvaggio M. Kibunjia and H. Roche; and from Hadar using experiments with captive hyaenas and by S. Semaw, described new Oldowan by S. D. Capaldo distinguishing the results assemblages and their contexts. Empha- of scavenging by carnivores on hominid sising the need for further field research also simulated fractured bone assemblages was B. Asfaw's report on the Ethiopian provide new ways of understanding government's survey of Plio-Pleistocene sequences of results and agencies sites in the southeastern Afar and the represented at Plio-Pleistocene concen- Ethiopian Rifts where significant new trations. Another new method for discoveries of fossiliferous and cultural identifying Holocene and earlier habitat localities have been made. Three papers changes was provided by N. E. Sikes and S. covered the new approach to earlier H. Ambrose looking at carbon isotopes in Pleistocene studies generally known as soils in the Kenya Rift Valley that provide "landscape archaeology." R. J. the means of distinguishing between forest Blumenschine 2nd F. T. Masao discussed and savanna soils in the past. Other their initial survey work of tracing a horizon actualistic studies that have important in Bed I at Olduvai Gorge over some 2 km implications were by M. J. Tappan on and its implications for distinguishing excavation of a carnivore bone accumulation natural accumulations from hominid in the Parc National des Virungu, Zaire, and activity places. K. Schick described fluvial by G. Haynes on elephant behaviour in reporting of an Acheulian assemblage on a Zimbabwe's Hwankie National Park. temporary horizon at Kalambo Falls and J. Several partiapants reviewed the findings of W. K. Harris, J. Maiers and 0. Orao spoke of the Sernliki and Lake Edward research team continuing the work started by Glynn Isaac in the Western Rift symposium providing on the study at Koobi Fora in northeast the geological (J. de Heinzelin) and No. 33, June 1990 palaeoenvironmental base U. Verniers et al.; organisational units seeking funding by N. Boaz and P. Paviakis; P. G. Williamson means of blocked funds and debt swaps and P. J. Morris). The Pliocene artifact (P. R. Schmidt). assemblage from Senga 5A was described by It is clear that lack of funding is the T. W. Spang and R. V. Bellamo, while the major obstacle to progressive archaeological Middle and Later Pleistocene sites and research in Africa today. For the most part, contents were described by A. S. Brooks, J. funding for field research and training Keating and C. C. Smith. An intriguing comes from overseas universities, foun- assemblage from Katanga 9, seemingly dations, and individuals since local funds Middle Stone Age but also containing bone are barely adequate to maintain the various harpoons, was described by J. E. Yellen. internal institutes and organisations The Middle Paleolithic attracted a good (Museums and Antiquities Services). While deal more attention than in the past in view training, equipment, and collaborative field of the molecular evidence indicating an and laboratory research continue to be origin for anatomically modern humans in provided from overseas sources, there is Africa. It seems likely that more will be need for the local professionals themselves learned about "Sangoan" behaviour from to persuade their own governments that, if the new site at Simbi in the Lake Victoria they are given the financial means of basin in Western Kenya where picks and carrying out adequately their duties and core-axes occur with fauna (S. McBrearty). public relations, then their activities will be Perhaps the longest Late Pleistocene of greatly increased benefit to their own sequence in eastern Africa in the Lake Eyasi people. Positive results of this kind were Rift was described by M. J. Mehlman, presented by M. Posnansky who showed the clarified by his excavations in Murnba Cave way in which a local community in Ghana and correlated with the hominid and early could expand its activities and influence by Middle Stone Age horizon with core-axes using the results of the long-term and Levallois flakes in the adjacent Eyasi archaeological field programme at Begho. Beds. New evidence for Middle Stone Age The University of Dar-es-Salaam's archae- mining activities was described by P. M. ology programme of the last two years has Vermeersch and E. Paulisson from near Esna greatly increased the numbers of trained in Upper Egypt. The flint cobbles mined archaeologists in Tanzania, but opportu- from open-cast pits in conglomerates were nities for research are limited. worked into bifacial, ax-like forms which the B. Mapunda discussed what can be done to age of 33,000 b.p. indicates belong with the develop locally funded projects by reaching Middle Stone Age. out to gain the interest of the peoples of A variety of topics was discussed in the Tanzania. session on the future of African archaeology. The symposium on Archaeology, Art These ranged from descriptions of projected and the Art Market and the ensuing regional research (e.g., S. Mudenda) and workshop focussed on conservation of new perspectives for this (C. M. Kushimba); architectural and other archaeological to possible ways of making archaeology monuments (A. LaViolette; R. J. McIntosh); more relevant in African countries today; on the need for closer relationships among the need for archaeological surveys in archaeologists antiquities services and connection with large hydro-electric museums in the matter of preservation, schemes in Africa 6. Brandt); and the restoration, and presentation of material interpretation of African regional (M.Posnansky; S. T. Childs; P. Ravenhill) populations through the analysis of and the urgent need to prevent further biological and cultural changes related to deterioration and looting of sites, in the shift from foraging to food-production particular those with archaeological art on the Upper Nile (G. Armelagos). Others objects (P. Ravenhill; B. Gado). There is emphasised the need for more trained clearly urgency to put a stop to looting of professionals (N. J. Karoma) and the need ceramic figurines and other art works that for planning of research programmes by then appear on the art market, and a NYAME AKUIMA No. 33, June 1990

resolution was passed that will, it is hoped, Society of Africanist Arcbaeologirtt reduce further depredations of this kind. Biennial Conference At the general meeting of SAfA which March 22-25,1990 was well attended, the new President University of Florida (M. Posnansky) and the Executive Board were elected; the proposed By-Laws (see Reitz Union Auditorium page 491, which had previously been circulated, were approved with minor amendments and the wish was expressed PROGRAM that the 1994 SAfA meeting should be in Ames, Iowa (the 1992 meeting already having been scheduled for the University of Thursday, March 22 California at Los Angeles), and that the 7:15 A.M. Registration Desk opens archaeological authorities in Gabon should &00 A.M. Opening Address: P. R. be asked if they would be able to host the Schmidt, SAfA President and long overdue 10th Pan African Congress on Director of the Center for Prehistory and Related Studies in Libreville. African Studies, University of Participants were entertained on an Florida enjoyable evening at a reception, dinner, and guided tour at the Florida Museum of [I]Symposium: Natural History, University of Florida, The Evolution of African displaying a special exhibition of African art Pastoralism and, on the last night, at the house of Peter and Jane Schmidt-a most delightful way to Organized by A. B. Smith end the meetings. Chairperson: A. B. Smith The sincerest thanks of all must go to the Participants: organisers who helped to ensure that the &15 A.M. M.A. McDonald; Adaptations of new, revitalised SAfA should get away to Mid-Holocene Pastwalists in such an excellent start and especially was it Dakhleh Oasis, South Central good to see so many graduate students, particularly a number from Africa, as well as Esypt archaeologists from overseas. It augurs well 8:30 A.M. R. Haaland; Specialized Pas- for the meeting at UCLA in 1992. toralism and the Use of Secondary Products in the Neolithic Sudan -J. Desmond Clark &45 A.M. P. Robertshaw; Power in Prehistoric Pastoral Societies in East Africa 900 A.M. S. H. Arnbrose; Hunter- GathererlHerder Interactions in Highland East Afrrca 915 A.M. T.Huffman; Broderstroom and the Origins of Cattle-Keeping in Southern Afrtca 930 A.M. A. B. Smith; The Origin and Development of Pastora2ism in the Cape, South Africa 945 A.M. Discussion 10:OO A.M. Coffee Break NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

[21 General Session: 245 P.M. C. Saanane and R J. Protohistoric and Historic Blumenschine; Reevaluation of Archaeology the FLK Zinj Fauna from Bed I Olduvai Gorge and Its Implications Chairperson: A. B. Stahl for Early Hominid Behavior Participants: 300 P.M. J. A. J. Gowlett; Acheulian Sites in 10:3 AM. A. B. Stahl; The Protohistoric the Central Rift Valley: Questions Archaeology of Banda, Ghana of Paleogeography, Artifact 10:45 AM. K. W. Wesler; The Introduction of Transport, and Occupation Imported Ceramics in Nigeria Density 11:oo AM. A. Broberg; New Aspects on 315 P.M. K. Schick; Site Context and Medieval Mogadishu Con tent in the Acheulian 11~15A.M. A. LaViolette; Archaeology at 330 P.M. J. W.K. Harris, J. Maiers, and Pujini: A Swahili Fortification, 0.Orao; Changing Patterns of Pemba Island, Tanzania Early Hominid Land Use and 11:30 AM. J.Silsbee; Voyaging in a Favorable Ranging Patterns in the Kwbi Fora Season Sedimentary Basin 11:45 AM. C. Schrire; Excavations at 345 P.M. S. Kamenya; Community Ecology Oudepost I, a Dutch East Indies and Early Hominid Behavior Company Outpost, Cape, South 400 P.M. Discussion Africa 415 P.M. CoffeeBreak 1200 P.M. Discussion 1215 P.M. Lunch 131 Symposium: Archaeology and Actualistic [31 Symposium: Studies Bearing on the Behavior Archaealogy and Actualistic of Early Hominids (continued) Studies Bearing on the Behavior Chairperson: J. D. Clark of Early Hominids Participants: Organized by J. W. K. Harris 430 P.M. J. Sept; Chimpanzee Studies and and J. D. Clark Their Implications for Chairperson: J. W. K. Hams Understanding Early Hominid Participan ts: Ranging Behavior 1:45 P.M. S. Semaw; Pliocene Archaeology at 4:45 P.M. C. Sussman; Actualistic Studies Hadar Using Quartz and Chert from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania 200 P.M. M. Kibunjia and H. Roche; Pliocene Archaeology West of Lake 5:OO P.M. R. V. Bellomo; Actualistic Studies Turkana, Kenya of Fire and Their Implications for Reconstructing Early Hominid 215 P.M. M. Tappen, P. Morris, Behavior P. Williamson, G. Laden, R. Bellomo, T. Spang, and 5:15 P.M. K. Stewart; Fish as Paleoewlogical J. W. K. Harris; A Reassessment of Indicators and Their Application to Site Form tion Processes at the Paleoewlogical Reconstruction in Senga 5a Site, Zaire the Western Rift 2%) P.M. R J. Blurnenschine and F. T. 5:30 P.M. C. W. Marean and C. L. Masao; Littered Landscapes: Ehrhardt; Paleoewlogy of Extinct Preliminary Observations on the Carnivores and Implications for Distribution of Hominid Activities Actualistic Models Within the Basal Bed II Marshland 545 P.M. N. Isaacson; The Construction of of Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania Gender in Human Origins: A Critical Appraisal NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 7990

6:OO P.M. H. T. Bunn; Archaeological [51 Conferenw Theme: Implications of Hadza Hunting, What is the Future of Scavenging, and Carcass Archaeology in Africa? Processing Chairperson: P.R. Schmidt P.M. M. M. Selvaggio; Scavenging 6:15 Participants: from Carnivores on the Serengeti: Implications for Early Hominid 945 AM. S. Mudenda; Archaeological Behavior Resaarch in the Kafue Basin of Zambia: Its Potential and 6:30 P.M. S. D. Capaldo; Differential Problems of Development Treatment of Axial and Appendicular Elements by 10:00 AM. J. Bower; Tourism, Aftwan Scavenging Carnivores at Archaeology, and Development Simulated Archaeological Sites 10:15 AM. S. T. Childs; Do Archaeological 6:45 P.M. Discussion Sciences Have a Future in Africa? 7:15- 10:% AM. N. J. Karoma; Alternative Strategies for Training 930 P.M. Reception, dinner, and self- Archaeologists in Eastern Afmz guided tour of exhibits at the Florida Museum of Natural 10:45 AM. G. J.Armelagos; Bioarchaeology History, University of Florida and African Prehistory 11:00 AM. D. Whitley; Conmation and Friday, March 23 Management of Southern African Rock Art 11:15 AM. S. Brandt; African Resovoir 141 General Session: Archaeological Projects and Cultural Resource Methodology and Science Management Chairperson: D. P. Gifford- 11:% A.U C. M. Kusimba; DemystiMng the Gonzales Swahili Participants: 11:45 AM. P. R. Schmidt; Ideology and the 8:00 AM. C. Bollong; Intensive Surface Practice of Archaeology: the Case Collection of Ruchera Cave: of Funding for Archaeology in Implications for Cave Taphonomy Africa and the Detection of Cultural 1200 P.M. M. Posnansky; The Archaeologist Behavior Utilizing Computer- and the Afman Community Aided Analysis 12:15 P.M. E. N. Wilmsen; Subjective 8:15 AM. B. Asfaw; Paleoanthropological Politics, Political Realities: The Survey in Ethiopia Practice of Ethnoarchaeology in the 8:% AM. S. Whitney; A Data Base for the filahari Analysis of Pottery Use in Somalia 12% P.M. B. Mapunda; Archaeology is in 845 AM. N. E. Sikes and S. H. Ambrose; Our Hands Now: Can We Do It Soil Carbon Isotope Evidence for Better? Holocene Habitat Change in the 12:45 P.M. A. B. A. Adande and 0.0. Kenya Rip Valley Bagodo; Urgenced'une 900 AM. T. S. Dalbey; Digitizing as an Archhlogie de Sauvetage dans le Analytical Tool for Prehistory Golfe du Benin: Cas de la 9:15 AM. Discussion prospection dans les vallh du Mono et de lf0ueme 930 AM. Coffee Break 1:oo P.M. Discussion 1:15 P.M. Lunch NYAME AKUW No. 33, June 7990

161 Symposium: 5:OO P.M. J. D. Clark; Approaches to Ecology, Archaeology, and IdentiMng Behavioral Patterns in Actualistic Studies in Central Later Quaternay Central African Africa Cultural Assemblages Organized by A. S. Brooks and 515 P.M. M. J. Tappen; Excavation of a J. W. K. Harris I Bone Accumulation under a Large Shade Tree in Parc National des Chairperson: A. S. Brooks Virunga, Zaire Participants: 530 P.M. G. T. Laden; Land-Use and 245: P.M. J. Verniers (Vrije Universiteit Ecology of the Efe of the Ituri Brussel, Belgium), R. Wood Forest, Zaire (Cambridge University), 545 P.M. G. Haynes; Actualistic Studies of C. Landuyt, C. de Goytor, and Elephants in Zimbabwe G. Stoops (University of Gent, Belgium); State of Research on the 6:OO P.M. Discussion Palaeoenvironment of the Lusso 6: 15- Beds, Upper Semliki Area, Zaire 215 P.M. SAfA Business Meeting 300 P.M. J. de Heinzelin; NmData on the Dinner at local restaurants Geological History of Lake Edward and Upper Semliki Basin Saturday, March 24 315 P.M. N. T. Boaz and P. Pavlakis; Paleoecology of the Western Rift 171 Symposium: and Implications for Hominid Archaeology and Environmental Evolution Contexts of Early Homo Sapiens 330 P.M. P. G. Williamson and P. J. Morris; Molluscan Paleoecology of Organized by S. McBrearty the Plw-Pleistocene Edward-Albert Chairperson: S. McBrearty Rift Participants: 345 P.M. T. W.Spang and R. V.Bellorno; 8:m AM. A. Kelly; A Comparison of land- The Nature of the Artifact Use and Paleoenvironments in the Assemblages from the Lusso Beds Upper Acheuliun and Early Middle 400 P.M. A. S. Brooks, J. Keating, and Stone Age of Eastern Afrrca C. C. Smith; Survey and 8:15 AM. S. McBrearty; Sangoan Excavation of Middle and Later Environment and Technology at Pleistocene Sites in the Semliki Simbi, Western Kenya Valley (Zaire) 8:30 AM. M. J. Mehlman; "Sangoan" and 415 P.M. J. E. Yellen; The Archaeology of Later Assemblages at Lake Eyasi: Katanda 9: A Middle Stone Age Some implications of Their Site in the Semliki Valley, Zaire Contexts 430 P.M. Coffee Break 8:45 AM. T. P. Volman; Origins of Modern Humans: The View from Southern I61 Symposium: Africa Ecology, Archaeology and 900 A.M. P. R. Willoughby; The Acheulian- Actualistic Studies in Central Middle Stone Age Transition in Africa (continued) East Africa and the Question of Chairperson: J. Yellen Modern Human Origins Participants: 915 A.M. A. Z. P. Mabulla; An Archaeological Sumy of the 445 P.M. N. Toth and K. Schick; Recent Ndutu Beds, Olduvai George, Paleolithic Investigatwns in Tanzania Zambia NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 7990

9:30 A.M. P. M. Verrneersch and [lo] General Session: E. Paulissen; Middle Paleolithic Ethnoarchaeology and Visual Chert Quarrying and Upper Anthropology Paleolithic Chert Mining in Egypt Chairperson: S. A. Brandt 9:45 AM. D. Wallsmith; Driekoppen: A Participants: Middle Stone Age Rockshelter 2:15 P.M. N. David; Videography as a Field 10:OO AM. Discussants: A. Brooks and Ethnoarchaeological Technique J. Yellen 2:45 P.M. A. S. MacEachern; 10:15 AM. Discussion Ethnoarchaeology by Argument: 10:30 AM. Coffee Break The Mandara Archaeological Project [81 Symposium: 300 P.M. J. Sterner; "Montage," Sacred Archaeology, Art, and the Art Pots, and "Symbolic Resemirs" in Market the Mandara Highlands of North Organized by H. J. Drewal Cameroon Chairperson: H. J. Drewal 315 P.M. T. Belkin; The Potters of Buur Heybe, Somalia (video) Participants: 345 P.M. J. G. Ellison; An 10:45 AM. P. Ravenhill; Surfaced Finds: The Ethnoarchaeological International Art Trade and West Reconnaissance at Xawal Dheri, African Archaeology Somalia 11:OO A.M. B. Gado; Archaeology, Protection 4:00 P.M. N. B. Mbae; Pastoral Masai Site of Cultural Heritage, Tourism, and Types, Function, and Refuse Development in Niger Organization 11:15 A.M. R. J. McIntosh; This Way Out of 415 P.M. S. Kent; Seasonal Changes in a Chaos: Prehistorians and Art Recen tly Sedentary Kalahari Historians Look at Each Other Community and Implications for Anew Archaeology 11:30 A.M. Discussion 4:30 P.M. E. K. Agorsah; Objectivity in the Ethnoarchaeology of Afrrca [91 Workshop: 4:45 P.M. Discussion Archaeology, Art, and the Art Market 5:00 P.M. Coffee Break Organized by Ezra K. [IllGeneral Session: Chairperson: K. Ezra The Later Stone Age, Pre- 11:45 AM. Audience Participation and Dynastic, and Iron Age Roundtable Discussion by: Chairperson: M. Posnansky M. Posnansky; Archaeology, Museums, and Conservation In Participants: Tropical Africa; S. T. Childs; A 5:15 P.M. L. Robbins; 1989 Fieldwork at the Cooperative Project in African Art White Paintings Rockshelter, History and Archaeology; Tsodilo Hills, Botswana A. LaViolette; Archaeological 5:30 P.M. J. 0.Mills; Predynastic Conservation Efforts in Zanzibar Astronomy at Hierakonpolis and the Tanzanian Mainland; 5:45 P.M. C. L. Awasom; The State and P. Ravenhill; The West African Future of Archaeology in the Ndop Museums Project (WAMP) and Plain of the Cameroon Grassfields Archaeology 6:00 P.M. M. S. Bisson; A Reevaluation of 12:45 P.M. Lunch the Origins of Pottery Found in NYAME AKUNlA No. 33, June 1990

Late Stone Age Sites on the To advocate and to aid in the Zambian Copperbelt conservation of archaeological 6:15 P.M. P. de Maret and 0. Goddelain resources. (University of Brussels) Later To encourage public access to and Stone Age in West Central Africa: appreciation of the aims, An Overview of the Latest Research accomplishments, and limitations of 630 P.M. J.Denbow; The Early Iron Age archaeological research. along the Congo Coast: New Data To serve as a bond among those from Reconnaissances and interested in African Archaeology, both Excavations professionals and non-professionals, 6:45 P.M. D. A. Kuevi; Recherches and to aid in directing their efforts into Archhlogiques Rkentes duns le scientific activities. Sud-Ouest de la Ripublique To publish and to encourage the Togolaise publication of archaeological research. 7:00 P.M. Discussion To discourage commercialism in 7:15 P.M. Closing Conference Remarks archaeology and to work for its elimination. 7:30 P.M. Dinner and dance at the home of Peter and Jane Schmidt In the pursuit of its objectives, the Society (Transport provided) shall promote and support all legislative, regulatory, and voluntary programs that forbid and discourage activities that Sunday, March 25 all result in the loss of scientific knowledge and 8:00 AM.- of access to sites and artifacts. Such 400 P.M. Optional excursion to St. activities include, but are not limited to, the Augustine irresponsible excavation, collecting, hoarding, exchanging, buying, or selling of archaeological materials. Conduct that results in such losses is declared contrary to the ideals and objectives of the Society.

By-Laws of the Society of Article Ill-Structure Africanist Archaeologists The Society shall be composed of members. It shall have: (1) an Executive Board which, in addition to such duties as may be Article I-Name and Location prescribed in these By-Laws, shall adas the policy-making and administrative body; (2) Section 1-Name. The name of this organi- Committees of the Society; and (3) Such zation shall be the Society of Africanist officers and employees as are necessary to Archaeologists, a nonprofit corporation. accomplish its purposes. Section 2--Offices. Offices of the Society The Executive , Board may approve shall be located in a locality as may be establishing relationships with other determined by the Executive Board. archaeological societies and associations.

Article ILObjectives Article IV-Membership The objectives of this Society shall be: Section I-Membership Basis. Membership 1. To promote and to stimulate interest is open to any person who subscribes to the and research in the archaeology of the objectives of the Society, without regard to African continent. sex, race, religion, or nationality. NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Section 2-Classes of Members. The restricted to a specific class of member membership shall consist of the following in these By-Laws. classes: b. Joint Members and their spouses shall a. Member be eligible to receive one copy of all b. Student Member Society mailings, which is sent to the member, except for election material, c. Retired Member which is sent to both. d. JointMember Section 10-Membership Application. The e. Affiliate Member following membership procedures shall be f. LifeMember followed: Section &Member. Any person who is a. Applications for membership shall be engaged in archaeology or any related submitted to the Executive Board in aspect thereof or any other person who such form and accompanied by such supports the objectives of the Society shall supporting documents as the Executive be eligible to become a Member. Board may determine. Section $-Student Member. Any person b. The Executive Board may assign a matriculating in an educational institution committee and/or staff to assist the pursuing candidacy for a degree (Associate Executive Board in the processing of or higher) in a field of study related to some membership applications, and in the aspect of archaeology shall be eligible for overall appraisal, ruling or membership as a Student Member interpretation of questions and inquiries (1/2 Dues). relating to membership. Section %Retired Member. Any Member Section I 1-Suspension for Non-Payment of who has retired from professional life in a Dues. Any member whose dues are 90 days remunerative capacity and is age 65 or over past due shall be suspended and all shall be eligible for Retirement membership. privileges of membership discontinued. Individuals in a Retired status shall retain all Members suspended for non-payment of rights and privileges previously held dues may be reinstated at any time upon (1/2 Dues). payment of the current year's dues. Section &Joint Member. Any person who Section 12-Termination of Membership is a spouse of a Member and who supports a. The Executive Board may, by three- the objectives of the Society shall be eligible quarters vote of the members present to become a Joint Member. and voting, remove from the Section 7-Affiliate Member. Any Member membership rolls any member whose who resides in a country where foreign acts are contrary to the ideals, objectives, exchange restrictions prevent payment of and accepted standards of the Society as membership fees. Such membership must set forth in these By-Laws or who be renewed annually by special petition to otherwise makes improper use of the Treasurer. Voting rights will be membership in the Society. The action conferred to those who have renewed their of the Executive Board may be subject to affiliate status for two or more successive any appeal to the Society at its Business years. Meeting. Section &Life Member. An amount to be b. The membership of those members who set by the Executive Board for life are under suspension for nonpayment of membership; funds will be invested in an dues at the close of a membership year endowment, the proceeds of which will be shall be terminated. used to support the Society's activities. Section +Privileges a. All classes of members shall enjoy the privileges of the Society except where certain privileges are specifically NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

Article V-Dues and Charges At any meeting of the Executive Board, a majority of the voting members of the Section I-Annual Dues. Board shall constitute a quorum for the The annual dues, payable in United transaction of the business of the States funds, shall be fixed annually by Society. the Executive Board. Unless otherwise specifically provided The rates for annual dues may differ by by these By-Laws, a majority vote shall membership class and/or by other govern. No member shall vote by criteria determined by the Executive proxy. Board. The President may request action by the The annual dues for members shall Executive Board between meetings of include a subscription to one or more the Board by the mail ballot or publications of the Society as telephone vote. Action taken by mail determined by the Executive Board. ballot or telephone by a majority of all voting members of the Executive Board Article VL-Executive Board shall constitute a ballot action and shall be reported at the next meeting of the Section 1-Authority and Responsibility. Executive Board. The governing body of this Society shall be the Executive Board. The Executive Board Section 5-Vacancies. Vacancies on the shall have supervision, control, and Executive Board that occur between the direction of the affairs of the Society, its biennial Business Meeting of the Society committees, and publications; shall shall be filled by appointment by the determine its policies or changes therein; Executive Board. Such appointment shall be shall actively pursue its objectives and effective only until the next Meeting of the supervise the disbursement of its funds. The Society, at which time the vacancy shall be Executive Board may adopt such rules and filled by the newly elected member. regulations for the conduct of its business as shall be deemed advisable. Article VIE-Off icers Section 2--Composition. The Executive Section I-Elected Officers. The elected Board shall be composed of a President, officers of the Society shall be President, a Treasurer, Secretary, and two Executive Secretary, and a Treasurer. All officers are Board members at large. The Editor of the elected by the membership of the Society. bulletin shall be an ex-officio member of the The officers shall automatically succeed to Executive Board. The Executive Board may their designated offices at the completion of appoint other ex-officio members of the the incumbents' term of office. board without voting rights. Section 2-Qualification for Officer. Any Section &Duration of Office. individual who is a voting member of the The two Executive Board members at Society in good standing shall be eligible for large shall serve for a term of two years. nomination and election as an officer. The term of the Executive Board Section %Term of Office. Each elected members at large shall begin at the close officer shall take office immediately upon of the Business Meeting of the Society the conclusion of the Business Meeting of following their election. the Society and shall serve for a term of two A member of the Executive Board may years from the close of one Biennial Business resign upon presenting a written Meeting to the close of the next Biennial resignation to the President of the Business meeting. Society, and the resignation shall Section 4-Removal. Any officer of the become effective upon acceptance by the Society may be removed by a three-quarters Executive Board. vote of the Executive Board present and Section 4-Quorum and Voting. voting whenever in its judgment the best NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 1990

interests of the Society would be served business shall be transacted except as thereby. specified in a notice to members. Written Section 5-Vacancies. If there is a vacancy notice of such meeting shall be given to all for any reason in any office which cannot be members not less than 60 days prior to the filled by the provisions for succession to date thereof. office, the Executive Board may appoint Section +Joint or Regional Meetings. Joint from its own membership an officer pro or regional meetings for the purpose of tempore to perform the duties of the vacated discussing archaeological problems, office until the office is filled by an election symposia, and matters of mutual interest by the membership. among members and/or other related Section &President. The Resident shall be parties may be called by the President upon the presiding officer of the Society and approval of the Executive Board. Chairperson of the Executive Board. The Section 4--Voting. At any meeting of the President shall also serve as an ex-officio Society, only voting members shall have the member of all committees. right to vote, which vote shall be cast in Section 7-Seaetary. The Secretary shall person only at the Biennual Business oversee the proper recording of proceedings Meeting. Voting by proxy shall not be of meetings of the Society and the Executive permitted. Board, shall insure that accurate records are Section 5--Quorum of Members. Upon the kept of the corporation and all members, convening of any Business Meeting or that appropriate archival procedures are special meeting of members, a quorum shall used, and such other duties as from time to consist of 50 percent of those voting time may be assigned to the office by the members registered for said meeting, President or the Executive Board. provided that no fewer than 20 voting Section &Treasurer. The Treasurer shall members are present. oversee the Society's funds and records; the Section 6-Rules of Order. The rules collection of members' dues; the estab- contained in the current edition of Robert's lishment of proper accounting procedures Rules of Order shall govern the conduct of for the handling of the Society's funds; the meetings of the Society in all cases to which performance of an annual audit by a they are applicable and in which they are Certified Public Accountant; and, further, not inconsistent with these By-Laws and any shall report on the financial condition of the special rules the Society or the Executive Society at all meetings of the Executive Board may adopt. Board, at the Business Meeting, and at other times as called upon by the President. Article IX-Publications Section 1-Journal and Other Commu- Article VIII-Meetings and Voting nications. Section I-Business Meeting of the Society. a. The Society shall publish a Bulletin to be The Business meeting of the Society shall be known as Nyame Akuma and other held at such a time and place as the publications approved by the Executive Executive Board shall determine. Notice of Board. said meeting shall be given to all members b. Each class of member shall receive such not less than 60 days prior to the date publications as the Executive Board may thereof. designate. Section 2-Special Meetings. Special Section 2-Editorial responsibilities. meetings of the Society may be called by the Executive Board at any time, or shall be a. The Editor of each publication of the called by the President upon receipt of a Society shall be appointed by the written request by ten percent of the paid Executive Board for a term to be voting membership as listed in the current determined by the Executive Board, and membership list, specifying the purpose of shall be subject to such editorial policy such meeting. At such special meeting, no NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 7990

as may be adopted by the Executive Section 4--Annual Budget. The Treasurer Board. shall present a budget to the Executive b. Each Editor may, subject to review by Board to approve. the Executive Board, appoint such Section 5-Non-Compensa tion. No member associate and assistant editors as may be of the Executive Board acting in the capacity required, in addition to clerical and as an officer or Executive Board member-at- editorial assistance subject to large shall receive compensation for services authorization and budget approval by rendered. Travel expenses personally the Executive Board. incurred by the Executive Board members attending to the business of the Wety shall Article X-Committees be paid by the Society in accordance with rules and procedures adopted by the Section 1-Committee Formation and Executive Board. Operation. The Executive Board shall create Section 6-Annual Financial Report and and dissolve each committee, designate Audit. charges, and establish policy with regard to budget, size, type of membership, and term. a. The Treasurer shall provide to the The President, with approval by the Executive Board at each regular meeting Executive Board, shall appoint members to a report of all receipts and disburse- the committees of the Society except where ments of Society funds. the By-Laws specifically state the formation b. The Executive Board shall appoint an and operation of a committee. independent Certified Public Accoun- a. The President, to the extent possible, tant to audit the financial records of the shall assign a member of the Executive Society and submit an annual audit Board to provide liaison with each report. committee. Section 7-Legal Counsel. The Executive b. Each committee shall submit written Board may appoint legal counsel to act as reports of its activities and recom- general legal counsel and to advise in the mendations to each regular meeting of legal affairs of the Society. the Executive Board. Section 8-Indemnifica tion. Every officer, Executive Board member, employee of the Article XI-Fiscal and Legal Procedures Society, and such others as specified from time to time by the Executive Board, shall be Section I-Fiscal Year. The fiscal year of the indemnified by the Society against all Society shall be set by the Executive Board. expenses and liabilities, including counsel Section 2-Fiscal Authority. The Executive fees, reasonably incurred or imposed upon Board may receive by devise, bequests, them in connection with any proceeding to donations, or otherwise, either real or which they may be made a party or in which personal property or both, and hold the they may become involved, by reason of same absolutely or in trust, and invest, being or having been an officer, Executive reinvest, and manage the same, and apply member, or employee of the Society, or any said property and the income arising settlement thereof, whether the person is an therefrom to the purposes of the Society officer, Executive Board member, or except where restricted by these By-Laws. employee at the time such expenses are Section &Working fund. The income from incurred, except in such cases wherein the annual dues and from investment and other officer, Executive Board member, or sources shall constitute the Working Fund, employee is adjudged guilty of willful available for operating, publications, and misfeasance or malfeasance in the other current expenses consistent with the performance of duties. The foregoing right objectives of ht Society as the Executive of indemnification shall be in addition to, Board may direct. and not exclusive of, all other rights to which the indemnified may be entitled. NYAME AKUMA No. 33, June 7990

Article XII-Affiliated Units Article XIV-Amendments Section I-Authorization. There shall be Section I-Originating Proposed Amend- affiliated units of the Society when, in the ments. Amendments to these By-Laws may opinion of the Executive Board, such be proposed by the Executive Board on its affiliations are in the best interests of African own initiative or upon petition by any 30 archaeology, the Society, and the affiliated voting members of the Society. Such units involved as a means of encouraging amendments shall be submitted to the and promoting more effective cooperation Executive Board for review and for and coordination of activity between the preparation of a recommendation to the Society and such organizations. Such Membership. affiliated units shall be and remain Section 2-Approval of By-Laws. Amend- completely autonomous and independent of ments to these By-Laws shall be approved the Society. by a two thirds affirmative vote of the members present and voting at any Business Article XllCDissolution Meeting or special meeting of the Society duly called, provided written notice of The Society shall use its funds only to proposed changes have been sent to the accomplish the objectives specified in these members 60 days before such meetings or by By-Laws, and no part of said funds shall a 60 day mail ballot. inure, or be distributed, to the members of the Society. On dissolution of the Society, any funds remaining shall be distributed to one or more regularly organized and qualified charitable, educational, scientific, or philanthropic organizations to be selected by the Executive Board.