to the Religions HINDUISM BUDDHISM CONFUCIANISM D A O I S M SHINTO C. Scott Littleton, General Editor The East has long been regarded as a source of profound and universal ideas about mind and body and the world around us. Increasingly, its traditions are being embraced by the West as a way of making order out of life’s contrasts and confusions. This book is a lavishly illustrated and uniquely accessible guide to the compelling systems of belief that have shaped the East and challenged the West. Eastern Wisdom illuminates the main philosophies and religions of Asia and explores the Hindu traditions of India, the richly varied Buddhist faith, the Confucian and Daoist beliefs of China and the Shinto religion of Japan. Clearly written and lavishly illustrated with striking full-colour images, the book traces these ancient and enduring beliefs from their historical or mythical origins to the forms in which they exist today. Each chapter focuses on a single tradition, examining its central ideas and placing them in the social and historical contexts from which they emerged. Theories of the individual and society, of nature and of the universe are clearly presented, illuminating such concepts as karma, reincarnation and immortality. The chapters also explore the wide-ranging forms in which these traditions are manifested, from the energetic festivals of the Shinto faith to the serene monasticism of the Zen Buddhists and the philosophical discipline of the Confucians. Through words and pictures that vividly capture the variety and intensity of the Asian world, Eastern Wisdom offers a vibrant collage of the beliefs and rituals of the East. y « /i* ’SK.' _ . - j V* 'A-yL^ * ■ &$&: lJ&& &£&&$& Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation https://archive.org/details/easternwisdomhinOOOOunse EASTERN WISDOM EASTERN WISDOM HINDUISM . BUDDHISM . CONFUCIANISM . DAOISM . SHINTO C. SCOTT LITTLETON, GENERAL EDITOR DBF DUNCAN BAIRD PUBLISHERS LONDON Contents Eastern Wisdom _INTRODUCTION 6 Professor C. Scott Littleton First published in Great Britain in 1996 by Macmillan an imprint of Macmillan General Books Conceived, created and designed by HINDUISM BUDDHISM Duncan Baird Publishers, This edition published by Professor Mary McGee Dr Oman Rotem Duncan Baird Publishers Sixth Floor Castle House 75-76 Wells Street London W1P3RE. A CIP catalogue record (Macmillan) for this book is available from the British Library Introduction 14 Introduction 54 The Self and the Absolute 18 The Buddha’s Previous Lives and ISBN 1 900131 30 7 Sacred Texts 20 his Final Birth 58 Copyright © 1996 Duncan Baird The Ramayana 22 Princely Life and the Great Publishers. Text © 1996 Duncan Baird Publishers. The Mahabharata and the Renunciation 60 Commissioned artwork/maps Bhagavad Gita 23 Enlightenment: the Struggle © 1996 Duncan Baird Publishers. For copyright of photographs see Cycles of Time and Creation 24 and its Reward 63 page 176. Dharma and Karma 26 The Buddha’s Teachings 66 All rights reserved. No part of this The Four Stages of Life 27 The Buddhist World: book may be reproduced or utilized in The Four Aims of Life 29 "All is Duhkha" 68 any form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, Paths to Salvation 30 Rebirth and Karma 72 recording or by any information stor¬ Manifestations of the Divine 32 The Four Noble Truths 74 age and retrieval system now known or hereafter invented, without the prior Vishnu and his Avatars 34 The Path Leading to the Cessation written permission of the publishers. Krishna 36 of Duhkha 76 1098765432 1 Rama and Sita 37 Different Visions of the Path 78 Shiva 38 The Buddhist Community 80 F.ditor: Daphne Bien Tebbe Assistant editor: Lucy Rix Ganesha 41 Canons and Sutras 82 Designer: Sue Bush The Goddess 42 Arhats, Bodhisattvas and other Picture research: Cecilia Weston-Baker Temples and Shrines 44 Great Teachers 84 Map illustration and decorative Pilgrimage and Religious Zen and Japanese Buddhism 86 borders: Lorraine Harrison Commissioned calligraphy: Devotion 46 Buddhism in Tibet 90 Yukki Yaura Festivals and Holy Days 50 Typeset in Times NR MT Saints and Sages 52 and Rotis Sans Serif. Colour reproduction by Bright Arts, Hong Kong. Printed in Singapore by Imago Publishing Limited. CONFUCIANISM PAPISM SHINTO Dr John Chinnery Dr John Chinnery Professor C. Scott Littleton Introduction 92 Introduction 116 Introduction 144 Confucius, the Great Master 96 Lao Zi and the Dao De Jing 120 The Principal Kami 148 The Sages of Antiquity 99 The Way and its Power 121 Shrines and Sacred Places 151 Heaven and the Spirits 100 Zhuang Zi and Lie Zi 123 Ritual and Ceremony 157 The Qualities of a Gentleman 102 The Seven Sages of the Bamboo A Neighbourhood Matsuri 159 Confucian Ritual 106 Grove 126 Shinto and Buddhism: Mencius and Xun Zi 108 Alchemy and the Pursuit of 1500 Years of Coexistence 160 The State Cult 110 Immortality 127 Neo-Confucianism 112 The Five Bushels of Rice Confucianism Today 114 Society 132 Glossary 162 Buddhism and Daoism 134 Further Reading 166 Priesthood and Ritual 136 Index 168 The Daoist Pantheon 138 Picture Credits 176 The Immortals 140 Daoist Sects 143 INTRODUCTION Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism and Shinto together command the devotion of well over half of the human race, and the range and variation within each of these religious and philosophical traditions is vast. In this book we have therefore chosen to emphasize key themes and ideas rather than to provide a plethora of details about specific beliefs and practices. We have also have attempted to ground these five traditions in the cultural and historical milieux that produced them, and to comment, where relevant, on the impact they have had on the societies that have subsequently adopted them. Indeed, without at least some understanding of these five traditions, it is impossible to comprehend fully the course of civilization in India, China and Japan, as well as in a host of other east and Southeast Asian countries. Yet above and beyond their immediate historical and cultural significance, the religious and philosophical beliefs we shall shortly explore - that is, those which comprise what may be called “Eastern wisdom” - have something important to say to all of us, no matter what portion of the globe we call home; and it is hoped that the reader will come away from this book with new insights into the myriad ways in which human beings have come to grips with what the eminent Protestant theologian Paul Tillich (1886-1965) called matters of “ultimate concern”. For essentially, Hinduism. Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto - like all religious and philosophical systems. Eastern or Western attempt to provide answers to the fundamental questions that 6 INTRODUCTION This 18th-century Chinese painting shows Confucius (right) holding the baby Buddha, while the Daoist sage Lao Zi looks on. Each of these figures has had an immeasurable influence on the religious, philosophical and cultural life of east Asia. 7 INTRODUCTION have confronted human beings everywhere from time immemorial: Where do we come from? What is our purpose? What is virtue? Why do we suffer pain and death? And, perhaps most important of all, how can we achieve salvation? We begin with Hinduism, which, directly or indirectly, has profoundly influenced the religious and philosophical traditions of almost every civilization in Asia. It is, in many respects, the primary font of “Eastern wisdom”, and has been such since the late 18th century, when Sir William Jones (1746-1794), the father of modern historical linguistics, first attempted to make sense out of the Indian epic known as the Mahabharata. This recognition The Hindu gocl Vishnu, was furthered by 19th-century orientalists such as Friedrich the protector of the universe, was incarnated Max Muller (1823-1900), a distinguished Sanskrit scholar and in a series of ten avatars, or divine forerunners. This historian of religion who edited a monumental, fifty-volume series 18th-century statue called The Sacred Books of the East (1876-1911). depicts the avatar Matsya, the fish, who The roots of the Hindu tradition lie deep in the soil of northern protected humankind from a great flood that came India. They reflect a synthesis of the beliefs and practices of the about soon after creation. indigenous population of the Indian subcontinent and those that were introduced some 3500 years ago by the Indo-European¬ speaking Aryans, whose religious beliefs, as reflected in the Rig Veda (c. 1200 bce) and other ancient Indian texts, were not all that dissimilar to those of the ancient Greeks. Shortly after the beginning of the Common Era, Hinduism spread into Southeast Asia travelling as far east as the island of Bali in Indonesia. While few parts of that region (Bali being one of them) still practise the faith, its impact remains profound; indeed, it is no accident that the Thai and other Southeast Asian aesthetic traditions, which are expressed in dance, theatre and so on, are based on the other great Hindu epic, the Ramayana. No human belief system is more complex or variegated than Hinduism; indeed, it has been said that there are perhaps as many “little” Hindu traditions as there are villages in India (around 8 INTRODUCTION 3.2 million). Nevertheless, underlying this vast array of local cults and rituals is a “great tradition”, which includes a tremendous body of sacred Sanskrit literature ranging from philosophical disquisitions (such as the Bhagavad Gita, or “Song of the Lord”) to epic tales of lost kingdoms regained and lost brides recovered (such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana). Contained in this literature are the fundamental theological tenets that have shaped Hindu thought for millennia: the transmigration of souls, the wheel of karma and the concept of nirvana - the ultimate release from the pain of death and rebirth.