Biodiversity Mapping Survey/Study in Kaziranga National Park (KNP)

Insects Chapter

Final Report

Prepared by

Mr. Rahul Khot

Entomologist

1. Introduction

In terrestrial ecosystems, insects play a vital function as herbivores, pollinators, predators and parasites (Seimann and Weisser 2004). Insects are considered to pollinate nearly 70% of crop plants worldwide and over 98% of trees (Klein et al. 2006). Insects inhabit every terrestrial habitat on the planet and play a major role in the evolution and maintenance of biotic communities. They are the primary pollinators of flowering plants; they are important consumers and recyclers of decaying organic matter; and they are integral components in the food-webs of vertebrates and other invertebrates. For these reasons, and many others, the study of insects and their relatives is of increasing importance as society faces increased challenges to preserve and enhance environmental quality, reduce pesticide usage, increase crop productivity, control food costs, and increase trade in the global community.

The damage cause by pest species is far outweighed by the positive effects of beneficial species. Pollinators ensure the production of fruit, parasitoids and predators help control pest species, some species contain chemicals of pharmaceutical value, and a large number of species contribute to the decomposition and recycling of dead and decaying matter.

The Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Northeast Ecoregion states that 3,624 species of insects are recorded from the region (Tripathi and Barik 2003). Butterflies and moths are by far the best-studied invertebrate organisms in Northeast India, and the region contributes the maximum number of species for the group in the country.

Knowledge of the fauna of the Eastern Himalayas Region is poor. Most of the information available is on the larger vertebrates that are easily observed and inventoried. The smaller mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes have been neglected and the most abundant taxonomic group, the insects, have been virtually ignored. With the exception of a few studies that have documented the Himalayas lepidoptera (Haribal 1992, Mani 1986, Yonzon 1991), little else is available on the insect fauna of the region.

The information on insect diversity of Kaziranga NP is meagre as only a few studies have been conducted so far (Singh and Varatharajan, 2013; Gogoi, 2013 and Senthilkumar 2010).

2. Objectives

The main objectives of the KNP biodiversity mapping survey/study include but are not limited to the following: 1. Establish baseline data and survey protocols for future biodiversity monitoring; 2. Establish sound, repeatable field methods appropriate for local conditions; 3. Establish rigorous methods for collection and management of data and specimens, including the production of high quality photographic documentation with use of camera traps, analysis thereon and on-site field reconnaissance missions; 4. To bring out management planning by defining habitat preferences and distribution of a range of fauna/flora/assemblages and threats to them; 5. Identify habitats with rare, endemic and ecologically/culturally important species, guilds and assemblages; 6. Identify natural assemblages of plants/animals; 7. Provide natural history information on a range of species; 8. Capture broad season-specific behavioral pattern of species. 9. Documentation of management practices and identification of management zones, based on 5- 7 above; 10. Prepare information, data bank, especially on the importance of KNP, available for education outreach. 11. Share detailed data and information of KNP and develop stronger coordination among the Forestry Department, KNP, and FREMAA through organizing workshops.

3. Methods

Study area: Kaziranga is located between latitudes 26°30' N and 26°45' N, and longitudes 93°08' E to 93°36' E within two districts in the Indian state of Assam—the Kaliabor subdivision of Nagaon district and the Bokakhat subdivision of Golaghat district. The park is approximately 40 km in length from east to west, and 13 km in breadth from north to south. Kaziranga covers an area of 378 km2, with approximately 51.14 km2 lost to erosion in recent years. A total addition of 429 km2 along the present boundary of the park has been made and designated with separate national park status to provide extended habitat for increasing the population of wildlife or, as a corridor for safe movement of animals to Karbi Anglong Hills. Elevation ranges from 40 m to 80 m. The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River, which forms the northern and eastern boundaries, and the Mora Diphlu, which forms the southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.

Kaziranga has flat expanses of fertile, alluvial soil, formed by erosion and silt deposition by the River Brahmaputra. The landscape consists of exposed sandbars, riverine flood-formed lakes known as, beels, and elevated regions known as, chapories, which provide retreats and shelter for animals during floods. Many artificial chapories have been built with the help of the Indian Army to ensure the safety of the animals. Kaziranga is one of the largest tracts of protected land in the sub-Himalayan belt. The park is located in the Indomalaya ecozone, and the dominant biomes of the region are Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome and a frequently flooded variant of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands of the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Average temperature ranges from 5 to 370 C and average humidity ranges between 65% and 95%. Rainy season is May to October, and the annual rainfall is about 2500 mm.

Study organisms: Butterflies are suitable for biodiversity studies, as the taxonomy, geographic distribution and status of many species are relatively well known. Further, butterflies are good biological indicators of habitat quality as well as general environmental health (Larsen1988; Kocher and Williams 2000; Sawchik et al. 2005), as many species are strictly seasonal and prefer only particular set of habitats (Kunte 1997). Butterflies may react to disturbance and change in habitat and act as an ecological indicator (MacNallyand Fleishman 2004). They may get severely affected by the environmental variations and changes in the forest structure, as they are closely dependent on plants (Pollard 1991; Blair 1999). Thus minor changes in their habitat may lead to either migration or local extinction (Blair 1999; Kunte 1997; Mennechez et al 2003).

Literature review: Scientific study and documentation of Indian butterflies can be traced to the arrival of a Danish medical doctor Johann Gerhard Koenig in southern India, as early as in 1767. W.H.Evans (1932) provides an excellent scientific documentation of about 962 species/subspecies of butterflies belonging to five taxonomic families from the Assam region alone. Doubleday (1845) seems to be thefirst person to work on butterflies in the state when he worked in northern Assam covering the areas of Sadia, Jorhat and Cachar followed by Moore (1857) who worked in Abor Hills and Mishmi Hills, including Sadia.The celebrated work of Bingham 1905-1907) is also remarkable. There is renewed interest in butterflies of the Indian Region due to increased awareness among Indian citizens about butterflies, their biology and conservation issues. During recent years following workers have studies butterflies in different areas of Assam state, Bhuyan et al., 2002 (Regional Research Laboratory Campus, Jorhat, Assam); Ali et al., 2000 (Zoo-Cum- Botanicalgarden, Guwahati) Gogoi,2011 (Jeypore-Dehing forest, eastern Assam); Gogoi 2013 (Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper Assam, India); Gogoi 2015 (Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper Assam, India) Survey methods:

During the initial plan we provided different methodologies for insect sampling as follows

AREA SELECTION Study area will be divided in various strata based on natural vegetation and human disturbance. Grids will be selected randomly and number of grids selected will depend on proportion of each stratum (same as for vegetation survey). The entire grid will be sampled if it is small and accessible or random points will be selected in a grid for sampling.

DOCUMENTATION During the field work insects will be photographed by using SLR camera and macro-lenses for documentation and identification. SAMPLING Sampling is necessary for the qualitative and quantitative estimations of insects. It will be done by using following methods.

DIRECT SEARCHING (For all insects) The insects will be searched in all suitable habitats like vegetation, leaf litter, under logs, stones, grasses as each insect needs a specific microhabitat for survival. The active search will be carried out in those microhabitats.

INSECT NET (For winged insects) More active insects require more active search; particularly butterflies, moths, dragonflies and damselflies. To capture flying insect nets will be used on field. Insects are easy to catch in the early morning or cloudy conditions because their activity decreases during such conditions.

SWEEP NETS (for insects present in low vegetation) Many insects like beetles, flies, grasshoppers and ants can be found on grasses. To collect these insects sweep net method is followed. This method involves passing a sweep net through the vegetation using alternative backhand and forehand strokes. After completing a series of the sweeps, insects caught in the net can be encouraged to move to the closed top of the net by holding this end towards the light. The collected insets will be removed and identified.

PITFALL TRAPS (For active, surface living insects in low vegetation and bare ground) Insects like beetles, ants, cockroaches, earwigs, termites, and bugs generally spend much of their time on ground for foraging. These insects can be trapped by using pitfall trap method. Pitfall trap consist of a straight sided container sunk level with the surface of the ground into which insects inadvertently fall. Pitfall traps are set in a line with two meter distance in each pitfall trap. Pitfall traps will be left for overnight and in the next day all insects will be collected for further identification.

LIGHT TRAPS: (for night flying insects) Many night-flying insects are attracted towards light. Standard light traps of different wavelengths will be used according to the purpose of the study. Insects trapped in the traps will be collected for further identification.

QUANTIFICATION METHOD Stripe transects of 10 m width and 500 m lengths will laid in randomly in each habitat to study butterflies. Each transect will be intensively searched for direct sightings. All individuals seen with in the transect limit will be recorded. Transects will be walked in two phases, morning phase from 7 a.m. to 11 a.m. and evening phase from 4.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. when butterflies are most active. Pace will be slow but constant covering the transect in about an hour. Analysis of density, species richness and diversity:

The communities were analysed on the basis of density, species richness and diversity indices. Density is expressed as the number of individuals of a species per unit area and is calculated as follows:

Density (number of plants per sample unit) Total number of individuals of a species in all the sample units = Total number of sample units studied

The analysis of biodiversity was carried out by calculating Shannon Diversity Index (H′), Simpson Dominance Index (D) and Pielou Evenness Index (E). These indices were adopted for their low sensitivity to the sample size (Magurran 1988).

Shannon Diversity Index (H’) = ‐ Σ pi ln pi i.e. = ‐ Σ ni/N [ln (ni/N)] Where, ni = importance value of the ith species N = Importance value of all the species

Simpson’s Dominance Index (D) = Σ pi2 i.e. = Σ (ni/N)2 Where, ni = importance value of the ith species N = Importance value of all the species

Pielou Evenness Index (E) = H’/ ln S Where, H’ = Shannon Diversity Index S = Total number of species

Species richness (D) was calculated according to Whittaker (1960) D = S/ log N Where, S = Total number of species in the sample

N= Total number of individuals in the sample

After conducting the pilot visit we found that it is not possible to perform all above methods and it virtually impossible to study insects other than butterflies do to following reasons

1. We found that do to presence of large herbivours in great number it is not possible to lay the trassects for butterflies on foot. 2. Night sampling was not allowes and advisable. 3. To confirm the identification of many insect spacies require collection and examination undr microscope, it was not done as we were not allowed to collected any insects from the Kaziranga NP

4. Results and discussions: Literature based Only three studies on insects have been carried out so far within the boundary of KNP 1. Butterflies (Gogoi 2009) A total of 493 butterfly species have been recorded from hilly area of Kaziranga, Assam, India based on field work carried during 2007-2009. These include 186 species of Hesperiidae family, 144 species of Lycaenidae,119 species of Nymphalidae, 19 species of Papilionidae,23 species of Pieridae and 2 species of Riodinidae. Please refer Annexure 1 for checklist. 2. Orthopteroids (Short horned grasshoppers, ckickets, longhorn grasshoppers, praying mantis) (Senthilkumar 2010) Thirty-six species of orthopteroids belonging to 30 genera, and four families were recorded in different habitats viz., forestlands, savannahs and grasslands of the Kaziranga National Park (KNP) at Assam. The observations were recorded during the period of three years from January 2007 to December 2009, by periodical monthly visits to Kohora range (central range), Baguri range (western range) and Agoratoli range (eastern range) based on the habitat types selected. The family Acrididae had the largest species representation (19 species) followed by Tettigoniidae (nine species) and Mantidae (five species) while Gryllidae was represented by three species only. None of the species found in the study area are known to be threatened under any category of IUCN. Please refer Annexure 2for checklist. 3. Trips (Singh and Varatharajan 2013) The survey undertaken at KNP revealedthe occurrence of 96 species of thripsin 55 genera under two major families, viz. Thripidae and Phlaeothripidae of thetwo respective suborders, namely Terebrantiaand Tubulifera. Of the 53 speciesof phlaeothripids of the latter suborder, the subfamily Phlaeothripinae had a representationof 44 species in 21 generaand the fungal spore feeding Idolothripinaewith 9 species in 4 genera. On theother hand, among the 43 species ofterebrantians, 33 were represented bymembers of the subfamily Thripinae in21 genera and the rest 10 species under 9genera by Panchaetothripines. It is significantto note that of the 96 thrips collectedin the present

study, 32 areendemic. Further, the collection recordhas also indicated the occurrence of 22species of free-living foliage feeders, 19anthophilous forms, 17 gall makers, 14mycophagous thrips, 8 pests, 7 each ofweed and grass inhabitors, besides 2 predatory thrips (Table 1). Thus the fieldsurvey has not only reflected the diversefeeding habits and habitats of thysanopterans but also signifies the faunal similarityto some extent with that of theWestern Ghats of South India (60%), theGreat Himalayan ranges of North India (35%) and also with Southeast Asia(20%) at varying levels, besides havingfauna of its own along with a few cosmopolitanspecies. with SE Asia owing to proximity. Therefore, thrips of KNP can be consideredas a mixed composition of diverse speciesfrom different geographic regions.Please refer Annexure 3 for checklist.

Survey Based: During this study we found 105 numbers of butterflies in the Kaziranga NP belonging to six families (17 Hesperiidae; 21 Lycaenidae; 50 Nymphalidae; 2 Riodinidae; 8 Papilionidae and 7 Pieridae). Please refer Annexure 4 for the checklist.

Familywise butterfly species richness

7% 7% 16% 2%

20%

48%

Hesperiidae Lycaenidae Nymphalidae Riodinidae Papilionidae Pieridae

Maximum number of butterfly species were observed in Karbi Anglong area of Kaziranga NP. This could be due to availability of hostplants and nectorplants as this area is reach in plant species.

5. Future research recommemdations: 1. It is necessary to do long term monitoring of insects especially butterflies of Kaziranga NP. 2. Care should be taken to device methods based on field situations. As during this study, we observed that it is not possible to do execute all necessary field methods due to various resons including presence of large herbiours and local climatic conditions.

6. References

Ali, I, and Basistha, S. K. (2000) Butterfly diversity of Assam State Zoo-Cum-Botanical Garden. Zoo’s Print.15, 264-265.

Evans, W.H. (1932) The identification of Indian Butterflies. The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, India, 455

Haribal, M. (1992) Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their natural history. Nature Conservation Foundation, Gangtok, Sikkim. 217 pp.

Klein A. M., Steffan-Dewenter I. & Tscharntke T. (2004) Foraging trip duration and density of megachilid bees, eumenid wasps and pompilid wasps in tropical agroforestry systems. Journal of Animal Ecology. 73: 517-525

Mani, M.S. (1986) Butterflies of the Himalaya. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. Pp. 181.

Larsen, T. B. (1988) The butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains of the Southern India Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). Journal of the Bombay Natural HistorySociety. 84: 26-43.

Tripathi, R. S. & Barik, S. K. (2003) Shifting Cultivation in North East India, In: Proc. Approaches for increasing agricultural productivity in hill und mountain ecosystem. ICAR research complex for North East Hill region, Umiam, Meghalaya, India.

Weisser, W. W. and Siemann, E. (2004) The various effects of insects on ecosystem functioning. In: Weisser WW, Siemann E, editors. Insects and Ecosystem Function. Springer,Berlin, Heidelberg. 3–24

7. Natural History of selected butterflies Family Papilionidae 1) Common Mormon (Papilio polytes) Jet black butterfly with row of white spots along the middle part of hindwing. 90–100 mm.

Range Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, southern and western China (including Hainan (Guangdong province), Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Andamans, Nicobars, Eastern and Peninsular Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia (except Moluccas and Irian Jaya), Philippines, and Northern Marianas (Saipan)

Status Very common. Not threatened. (Collins, N.M. & Morris, M.G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)

Male The male has one morph only. It is a dark-coloured swallow-tailed butterfly. The upper forewing has a series of white spots decreasing in size towards the apex. The upper hindwing has a complete discal band of elongated white spots. It may or may not have marginal red crescents. The males are generally smaller in size than the females but not always. Both male and all forms of the female of P. polytes can vary considerably in size depending on climatic region.

Female The female of the Common Mormon is polymorphic. In South Asia, it has three forms or morphs. These are as follows:

Form Cyrus This form is similar to the male, differing in that it always has strongly marked red crescents. It is the least common of the three forms. It is normally abundant where the common rose or crimson rose do not occur, such as in Himachal Pradesh around Shimla; although a few specimens of form romulus have also been caught alongside.

Form Stichius This female form of the Common Mormon mimics the common rose very closely. This is the commonest form wherever the common rose flies.

Form Romulus This female form mimics the crimson rose and is common over its range. It is not such a close mimic as the previous form being duller than its model. It is easy to differentiate the mimics

from models by the colour of their body—the models are red-bodied and the mimics are black- bodied.

Gynandromorphs This species has considerable genetic variability and is known to produce gynandromorphs, genetic aberrations which are part male and part female.

Mimicry In India, this butterfly is considered as the classic example of Batesian mimicry in which edible species resemble unpalatable butterflies in order to escape being eaten by predators. The populations of the mimicking morphs of the Common Mormon are much smaller than that of their models - the common or crimson rose. This is in order to allow first time predators a much greater chance of preying upon the unpalatable model in the first instance and thus learning of their inedibility. Larger populations of mimics could result in the edible Common Mormon mimics being sampled the first time by predators. If this should happen, the predator may not realise that butterflies of that colour and pattern are protected by the poisons they ingest; thus dramatically reducing the effectiveness of this scheme of protection. In Sulawesi, although the common rose is abundant, the Common Mormon female morph which is found there, mimics a completely different butterfly, Atrophaneura polyphontes.

Habitat The Common Mormon prefers lightly wooded country, but is present everywhere and high up into the hills. It is a regular visitor to gardens, being especially abundant in orchards of its foodplants—oranges and limes. It is most common in the monsoon and post-monsoon months.

Habits Female form romulus seen laying an egg on Murraya paniculata The Common Mormon is fond of visiting flowers and its long proboscis permits it to feed from flowers having long corollar tubes. It is particularly fond of Lantana, Jatropha, Ixora, and Mussaenda in city gardens. In the forests, the Common Mormon remains low keeping within ten feet off the floor and its prefer to visit Asystasia, Peristrophe, and Jasminum for nectar. The male Common Mormon is a very common visitor to gardens where he will be seen hovering over flowers when the sun is shining. It is a restless insect, zig-zagging fast and straight close to the ground, settling down only when it halts to feed. The mimic female Mormons, stichius and romulus are very convincing mimics due to their habits, especially the flight patterns, being very similar to those of the rose models. However, lacking the protection of inedibility, they tend to be more easily disturbed than the roses and fly off erratically. Only the males take part in mud puddling, usually in cool shaded spots rather than in open areas. They have been known to collect on saline soils to extract minerals. Both sexes bask in the sun on shrubs close to the ground. They hold their wings flat against the substratum. The forewing is lowered to cover part of the hindwing and is a typical stance of the Common Mormon. Common Mormons spend the night settled on vegetation with their wings held open, usually quite close to the ground.

Lifecycle The females perch on an exposed branch with wings open or closed. They are courted by the males who approach from behind and slowly and elegantly settle into position.

Eggs The eggs are laid singly on top of the leaves. They are round and yellow to light-orange in colour.

Caterpillar The first few instars of the caterpillar closely resemble those of the lime butterfly. The later instars become dark green in colour. There is a transverse black band with an eye-spot on each side on the 4th and 5th segments. This band, being darker and brighter than that of the Lime Butterfly caterpillar, is the key distinction between the two. The Common Mormon caterpillar also has a black and white oblique band on the 8th and 9th segments, making it resemble that of the blue Mormon. The deep red osmeterium and yellowish- brown head help distinguish it from the blue Mormon caterpillar which has a greenish head. Common Mormon caterpillars are heavily parasitised by chalcid wasps, with over a hundred tiny wasps eventually emerging from each Mormon pupa.

Pupa 16

The pupa is located on underside of leaves and twigs. The pupa is light green and unmarked. It has two projections to the front on its head and also one on its thorax. It closely resembles the Lime Butterfly caterpillar but can be distinguished by: - the projections on the head which have a deeper indentation between them. - the abdomen which protrudes to a small point on each side.

2) Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus)

Description The butterfly is tailless and has a wingspan 80–100 mm. Above, the background colour is black. A broad, irregular yellow band is found on the wings above, which is broken in the case of the forewing. Besides this the butterfly has a large number of irregular spots on the wing. The upper hindwing has a red tornal spot with blue edging around it. As the butterfly caterpillar ages, its hunger for leaf tissue continues to grow. The underside has the ground-colour similar, the cream-coloured markings paler and conspicuously larger. The markings differ from those on the upperside in that the forewing has the basal half of cell and base of wing below it with cream-coloured streaks that coalesce at base; irregular ochraceous spots in interspaces 5 to 8 and the discal series of spots complete not interrupted in interspace 5. On the underside of the hind wing, the black at base of wing and along the dorsal margin centred largely with pale cream-colour; the ocellus in interspace 7, the apex of the cell and the black groundcolour between the medial band and postdiscal markings in interspaces 2-6 centred with ochraceous, margined with blue. Antennae dark reddish brown, touched with ochraceous on the innerside towards the club; head, thorax and abdomen dusky black, the head and thorax anteriorly streaked with cream-vellow: beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen cream-yellow with lateral longitudinal black lines on the last.

Status, range and habitat Papilio demoleus is an aggressive and very common butterfly. It is perhaps the most widely distributed swallowtail in the world. The butterfly can be found in Oman, UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Iran, western and possibly eastern Afghanistan, and western Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India (including the Andamans), Nepal, Burma, Thailand, the Philippines, Kampuchea, southern China (including Hainan, Guangdong province), Taiwan, Japan (rare strays), Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sula, Talaud, Flores, Alor and Sumba), Papua New Guinea, Australia (including Lord Howe's island), apparently Hawaii and possibly other Pacific Ocean islands. Formerly absent from Borneo it is now one of the commonest papilionids in Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysian Borneo, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and in Brunei. In recent years the butterfly has spread to Hispaniola island (Dominican Republic) in the Western Hemisphere and subsequently to Jamaica and Puerto Rico. The Dominican population originated from Southeast Asia but how the butterfly reached there is not known. 17

The widespread range of Papilio demoleus indicates the butterfly's tolerance and adaptation to diverse habitats. It is to be found in savannahs, fallow lands, gardens, evergreen and semi- evergreen forests and shows a preference for stream and riverbeds. In India it is mostly found in the plains but can be found on the hills of peninsular India and up to 7000 feet in the Himalayas. It is common in urban gardens and may also be encountered in wooded country. The butterfly is also a very successful invader, its spread appearing to be due to its strong flight, increase in urbanization and agricultural land use that opens up new areas for dispersal, and greater availability of food plants.

Behavior This butterfly is an avid mud-puddler and visitor of flowers. It basks with its wings held wide open on tufts of grass, herbs and generally keeps within a meter above the ground, even on cloudy days. It relies on its quick flight for escape. It is an interesting butterfly in that it has a number of modes of flight. In the cool of the morning, the flight is slow considering that it is an edible and unprotected swallowtail. As the day progresses, it flies fast, straight and low. In the hotter part of the day, it may be found settling on damp patches where it will remain motionless, except for an occasional flutter of wings, if not disturbed. It is also a frequent visitor of flowers in gardens, where it shows a preference for flowers of smaller herbs rather than larger plants such as the ubiquitous Lantana with its plentiful blooms. It can be found swarming in the groves of its food plants. Research on freshly emerged imagines of Papilio demoleus showed that they have an inborn or spontaneous preference while feeding for blue and purple colours while the yellow, yellowish- green, green and blue-green colours are completely neglected.

Lifecycle The number of generations of Papilio demoleus is dependent upon temperature – near the equator, nine generations have been recorded, while in warm temperate China, five generations have been recorded. In the ideal conditions of a laboratory, a generation has been recorded to take place in just over 30 days. The average time for one generation of Papilio demoleus to mature in the field ranges from 26 to 59 days. In cold climates, the lime butterfly is known to pass the winter as pupae. Typically, the butterfly undergoes five instars as a caterpillar. The female butterfly goes from plant to plant, laying a single egg at a time on top of a leaf which it holds onto with its legs, and flies off as soon as the egg is laid. The egg is round, light yellowish in colour, flattened at the base, smooth-surfaced and about 1.5 mm in height. Fertile eggs develop a small red mark at the apex. The newly hatched caterpillar stays in the middle of the upper side of the leaf. The first instar of the caterpillar is black, with a black heads and two rows of sub-dorsal fleshy spines. The second, third and fourth instars are dark, with glossy, dark-brown head, and white markings on the 8th and 9th segments of the caterpillar which resemble a white patch of uric acid deposited in a bird's droppings, helping them escape predation while remaining in moderately open places.

As the instars progress, this resemblance is lost. From the fifth instar onwards, the caterpillars now turn cylindrical in shape, tapered towards the rear, and uniformly pale green in colour with a white sub-spiracular band. An additional black band is developed on the 4th and 5th segments with two black and two bluish spots on them. The 8th and 9th segments, which earlier provided the camouflage markings now develop a brown and white band. At this stage, the caterpillars are forced to inhabit secluded places. The pupa, which is rugose, stout and 30 mm in length, has two projections to the front on its head and also one on its thorax and resembles that of the common Mormon Papilio polytes, the difference being that the common Mormon pupa has a deeper cut between the projections and its abdomen is more protruded on the sides, having a small point. The pupa is dimorphic with regards to colour, with the colour developing according to the prevalent colour and texture in the background. The green morph, which is found amongst green vegetation and smoother textures, is light green and unmarked or with yellow dorsal markings. When situated among brown or dry objects, the pupa tends to turn light grey-brown to pink- brown and develop cryptic dark brown and black striation. The adults fly in every month but are particularly abundant during and after the monsoons.

Parasitism and predation Cocoons of a parasitoid wasp (Apanteles sp. Braconidae), next to a perforated Papilio demoleus caterpillar. Despite their two stage camouflage scheme, some caterpillars of Papilio demoleus are found by parasitic wasps which lay dozens of eggs in them. The parasitic wasp larva eats the caterpillar from the inside. Initially the vital organs are avoided, but by the time the caterpillar is ready to pupate even the vital organs are consumed. Shortly before, or soon after the caterpillar pupates, the parasitoids emerge from their host thus killing it. In Saudi Arabia, the highest mortality rate was found to be in larvae and pupae in cultivated populations due to a bacterium of the genus Bacillus. In addition, eggs and larvae were heavily predated upon by two unidentified species of spiders which were abundant on citrus trees. In China, species of fungi in the genus "Ophiocordyceps are known to parasitize many kinds of caterpillars including Papilio demoleus. The spores were spread out of the parents’ fungi, and infect the young caterpillar, then when the caterpillar becomes pupa, they will fail to develop into an adult butterfly, instead the fungi killed, and eat the caterpillar flesh from within, and grow a spore bud out of the dead caterpilaar corpse. The fungi were known as "Dōng chóng xià cǎo" that have medicinal property in China, and are known in English as caterpillar fungus. In India, the following braconid wasp parasitoids are known to parasitize Papilio demoleus larvae-Apanteles spp. including Apanteles papilionis.Bracon hebetor. In Thailand, a number of organisms have been recorded attacking immature stages of Papilio demoleus.

Egg parasites

Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferriere (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) Tetrastichus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).

Larval stage Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (Diptera: Tachinidae) (parasite). Cantheconidea furcellata (Wolff) (Pentatomidae predator. Other natural enemies of larvae included reduviid bugs; birds; spiders; sphecid wasps; and chameleons.

Pupal parasites Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae) Pteromalus puparum Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Ophiocordyceps was a genus of fungi that it's spore got into the caterpillar, and start to eat the pups from within growing a spore stalk out the cocoon, which is commonly known as Caterpillar Fungus.In Jamaica, an encyrtid egg parasitoid and a chalcidoid parasitoid have been reported.

3) Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon) The Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon), or Blue Triangle in Australia, is a species of swallowtail butterfly, that is found in South and Southeast Asia, as well as eastern Australia. There are approximately sixteen subspecies with differing geographical distributions.

Description Upperside opaque black. Fore and hind wings crossed from above the tornal area on tho hind to near the apex of the fore wing by a semi-hyaline broad pale blue medial band which is broadest in the middle, more or less greenish and macular anteriorly; the portion of the band that crosses interspaces 6, 7 and 8 on the hind wing white; beyond the band on the hind wing there is a subterminal line of blue slender lunules. Underside similar, ground-colour dark brown. Hind wing: a short comparatively broad sub-basal band from costa to sub-costal vein, and the postdiscal area between the medial blue band and the sub-terminal lunules velvety black traversed by the pale veins and transversely, except in interspaces 6 and 7, by narrow crimson lines; lastly, a crimson spot near the tornal angle with an admarginal yellowish-white spot below it. Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen brown, the head and thorax suffused with greenish grey; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen touched with dingy white, the abdomen with two whitish lateral lines. Male has abdominal fold within grey, furnished with a tuft of long, somewhat stiff white hairs. Race teredon, Felder. (South India and Sri Lanka) is distinguishable in both sexes by the narrower medial band that crosses both fore and hind wing. Colour brighter, the contrast between the green of the upper and the blue of the lower portion of the medial band more vivid. Hind wing more produced posteriorly at apex of vein 3, where it forms an elongate tooth or short tail. Variously reported with wingspans between 55 and 75 mm, the Common Bluebottle has black upper wings and brown lower wings. Both fore and hind wings are marked by a central spot in the form of a blue or blue-green triangle, with apex pointing toward the body. 20

Habitat Graphium sarpedon is primarily an inhabitant of moist, low-level rain forests (below 1600 m/5000 feet). In these elevations it is usually seen flying just above the tree canopy. The larvae of the Common Bluebottle feed on trees of the laurel family, which includes the cinnamon tree, and have expanded their range to include cinnamon tree plantations. In eastern Australia, they have adapted to a drier subtropical environment, and are commonly seen in suburban gardens in Queensland and New South Wales.

Behavior The males are known for their habit of feeding by the edges of puddles, often at the roadside. Occasionally, as many as eight will be seen at the same puddle. They have also been known to be attracted to animal droppings, carcasses and rotting insects. It has been recorded as a migrant in South India and is known to mud-puddle during migration. The butterfly has been seen as comprising as much as 5% of the population of migrating butterflies during a 72-hour period in the Nilgiri hills. The Common Bluebottle is known for quick flight and rapid reactions. Consequently, it is difficult to catch.

Diet The adult Common Bluebottle feeds on nectar from a variety of flowering herbs. The larvae feed primarily on the leaves of trees in the families Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae, and Rutaceae. In particular, G.s. sarpedon and G.s. teredon often feed on leaves of the cinnamon bark tree, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, or of the Indian laurel, Litsea sebifera. The list of larval food plants also includeAlseodaphne semecarpifolia, Cinnamomum camphora, Cinnamomum macrocarpum, Cinnamomum malabathrum, Litsea chinensis, Polyalthia longifolia, Miliusa tomentosa, Persea macrantha and Michelia doltospa. The larvae of G. s. choredon, native to Australia, feed on many native Australian species of genera Cryptocarya and Litsea; and virtually all subspecies feed on leaves of the camphor tree, Cinnamomum camphora, which is native to China but has been naturalized throughout southeast Asia.

Life cycle

Egg The egg is yellowish, laid singly on the leaves of a host plant.

Larva When young, is black or dark green, with numerous spines; when full grown, it is green with a short spine on each thoracic segment and anal segment. There is a transverse yellow band on the 4th segment and a lateral band on the body. The caterpillar usually lies on the centre of a leaf on an upper surface. It is very sluggish and pupates near its feeding spot. " Smooth, thickened from the second to the 5th segment and thence decreasing to the end; with two short subdorsal fleshy spines on the 4th segment, between which is a transverse pale yellow line, two shorter spines also on the 2nd and 3rd and two on the anal segment; colour green, with a longitudinal posterior lateral and lower pale yellowish line." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)

Pupa The pupa is green with a slender and pointed thoractic projection, yellowish wingcases and lateral bands. "Conical, truncated in front; thorax produced into a lengthened obtusely-pointed frontal process." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)

4) Common Birdwing (Troides helena) The Common Birdwing (Troides helena) is a butterfly belonging to the family Papilionidae. It is often found in the wildlife trade due to its popularity with butterfly collectors. The butterfly has seventeen subspecies.

Description The description of the commonest subspecies of the butterfly in India, T. h. cerberus Felder, is given below

Male Upperside of forewings are rich velvety black with adnervular pale streaks on either side of the veins beyond the cell. The cilia is short, black, alternated with pale buffy white in the middle of the interspaces. Hindwing: the abdominal fold, the apical half obliquely of interspace 1, the termen broadly, the base of the cell and the costal area up to and including the basal half of interspace 7 velvety black, the rest of the wing rich silky yellow; the veins prominently but narrowly black; the inner margin of the terminal black border produced inwards into prominent cone-shaped markings in the interspaces. All specimens have one or more postdiscal black spots in the interspaces, but never a complete series; in interspace 2 and sometimes also in interspace 3 these spots coalesce with the cone- shaped projections of the terminal black border. Underneath the abdominal fold is a dense mass of buffy-white scented cottony pubescence. Underside similar, the adnervular pale streaks on the fore wing broader and more prominent. Hindwing: dorsal margin broadly black, with an edging of long soft black hairs; interspace 1 with a large oval postdiscal and a terminal black spot; interspace 2 with the postdiscal black spot generally separate from the cone-shaped projection of the black terminal border; the apical and lateral margins of interspaces 2-6 pale yellow irrorated with black scales. Antenna, head and thorax black, the collar narrowly crimson; abdomen yellow, shaded above with black; beneath: the thorax with a large lateral patch of crimson, the anal segment prominently buff-coloured.

Female Upper and under sides of the female is similar to those in the male, but with the following differences: Forewing: the adnervular pale streaks broader and more prominent. Hindwing: the black at base and along the costal margin broader, occupying fully one-third of the cell, the area above it and above vein 7, interrupted however, in interspace 7 near the apex of wing, by a transverse yellow mark which is sometimes subobsolete ; a postdiscal series of large oval black spots, those in interspaces 2 and 3 often joined on the upperside to the cone-shaped terminal black marks; dorsal margin also more broadly black, without the fringe of black hairs and or course of the abdominal fold. Antenna, head and thorax as in the male; abdomen dark brownish black above.

Distribution and Status T. helena is widely distributed and locally common in forest areas. Globally it is found in Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, peninsular and eastern Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Laos, Kampuchea, Thailand, Vietnam, southern China including Hainan, and Hong Kong. In the Indonesian archipelago, T. helena is found in Sumatra, Nias, Enggano, Java, Bawean, Kangean Islands, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Great Natuna (Bunguran), Sulawesi, Butung, Tukangbesi, Kalimantan, and Brunei. In Hong Kong, T. helena is at the northern limit of its range. It is not common in Hong Kong but it is observed that there are stable populations in three sites (the surrounding area of Po Lo Che (Sai Kung), Shan Liu Road (Tai Po) and Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden in the New Territories. It is also found on Lantau Island and Hong Kong Island. In India the T. helena is found in the North-East of the country including Sikkim, West Bengal, and Orissa. It is also found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The subspecies found in India are- T. h. cerberus (C. & R. Felder, 1865) – Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Orissa, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura, W. Bengal. T. h. heliconoides (Moore, 1877) – Andaman Is. T. h. ferrari Tytler, 1926 – South Nicobar Is. The Common Birdwing, though widespread and common in many of the localities in which it occurs, is classified as Vulnerable. (Collins, N. M. & M. G. Morris. (1985) Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)

5) Paris Peacock (Papilio paris) The Paris Peacock (Papilio paris) is a species of swallowtail butterfly found in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

Description 24

Male Upperwings are black and irrorated with dark green scales, which on the outer portion of the forewing coalesce and form an incomplete postdiscal narrow band which is straighter than the similar subterminal band on the forewing of Papilio polyctor. On the hindwing, the irroration of dark green scales does not extend to the costal margin and is interrupted posteriorly by a broad postdiscal area, on both sides of which the green scales coalesce to form narrow diffuse bands; a conspicuous upper discal shining blue patch occupies the base of interspace 4 and outer portions of interspaces 5 and 6; this patch is variable in size, and in many specimens extends narrowly below and above the interspaces 3 and 7, respectively, its outer margin is uneven, its inner margin evenly arched; a prominent claret-red largely black- centred ocellus at the tornal angle, its inner margin with a transverse short violet-blue superposed line; in many specimens an obscure claret-red subterminal lunule in interspace 7. Underside opaque black; bases of both fore and hind wings, up to basal half of cell in fore and up to apex of cell in hind wing, with an irroration of yellowish scales; also present more obscurely on the subterminal area in both wings. Fore wing with a very broad elongate triangular pale area that does not extend to the termen, formed of inter-nervular broad very pale ochraceous-white streaks, short near the tornus, gradually longer up to the costa. Hind wing: a prominent subterminal series of ochraceous-red lunules traversed by short violet-blue lines; in interspaces 1,2 and sometimes in 3, these lunules are formed into more or less complete largely black centred ocelli by the addition of an admarginal portion of the red ring. Cilia conspicuously white in the interspaces. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the latter three sprinkled with green scales above.

Female Similar to the male but somewhat paler and duller. Upperside of the forewing has the green postdiscal band shorter and more incomplete than in the male. Hindwing with the upper discal patch smaller, often green and not blue, the red subterminal lunule in interspace 7 is always present and more prominent than in the male. Underside of wings similar to that in the male, but the tornal and subtornal markings generally formed into more or less complete ocelli. Wingspan: 106–132 mm

Distribution The Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan; the hills of Assam, Burma and Tenasserim, extending to Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. A common insect in Sikkim, where it is found from the Terai up to 5,000 feet. It is rare in Burma and Tenasserim. It also occurs in some parts of the Western Ghats, such as the Chikmaglure b.b.hill ranges.

6) Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon) The Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon) is a predominantly green and black tropical butterfly that belongs to the swallowtail family. The butterfly is also called green-spotted triangle, tailed 25

green jay, or the green triangle. It is a common, nonthreatened species native to India, Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia and Australia. Several geographic races are recognized.

Range Southern India to Saurashtra, Northern India (Kumaon to Assam), Nepal, Sri Lanka, Andamans, Nicobars, Bangladesh, Brunei, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, southern China (including Hainan), Taiwan, South East Asia to New Guinea, Bougainville, Solomon Islands, and Australia (northern Queensland).

Description

Male upperside black. Forewing with the following green markings: a spot at the extreme base of the costal margin, a transverse short bar near base of cell and seven spots beyond, two and two except the apical spot which is single ; two spots beyond apex of cell; a spot at base of interspaces 1a and 1, followed by two oblique short macular bands; a discal series of spots decreasing in size towards the costa, and a postdiscal series of smaller spots that begins with two in interspace 1; the spots in interspace 7 in both series are out of line, placed outwards. Hind wing: three series of similarly-coloured markings that ran transversely across the wing more or less parallel to the dorsal margin, the upper markings (those in interspace 7) white; a short greenish stripe at the extreme base of the wing. Ventral view Underside: fuliginous brown or brownish-black, more or less suffused with pink along the costal margin, on apical area and along the outer margin of the discal markings on the fore wing, broadly along the dorsal and terminal margins and at base on interspaces 6 and 7 on the hind wing; markings similar to those on the upperside but less clearly defined and somewhat more grey in tint. Hind wing black, inwardly red-margined spots superposed on the pink area in interspaces 6 and 7. cilia very narrow, pale pink. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, thorax above and the abdomen on the sides streaked with greenish grey; beneath: ochreous grey touched on the thorax with pink.

Female similar, but with a streak of greenish white along the dorsal margin on both upper and under sides. Race decoratus is found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is very similar to the typical form, from which it can be distinguished as follows : Upperside green spots smaller, especially the discal series on the fore wing. Underside hind wing : the red postcostal spot is relatively small but the red part has much increased against the black part; besides the large red anal mark and the mark before the first disco-cellular veinlet, there is a large red spot in the lower median cellule, a smaller red spot in each of the three preceding cellules and a streak-like spot at the base of the lower median cellule.

Status

Graphium agamemnon is common and not threatened.

Habitat Once found primarily close to wooded country where there is a fairly heavy rainfall, the Tailed Jay is now very common at low elevations and regularly seen in gardens and urban areas due to its foodplant, Polyalthia longifolia (False Ashoka or Mast Tree), being widely used as an ornamental tree.

Behavior Strong and restless fliers, they are very active butterflies and flutter their wings constantly even when at flowers. They are seldom seen drinking from damp patches. The males are particularly fond of nectaring from flowers such as Lantana, Ixora, Mussaenda, and Poinsettia. The females are more likely caught when looking for foodplants or laying eggs. Tailed Jays are active throughout the year but their abundance depends upon the local monsoon and availability of the larval host plants. The butterflies generally fly among the tree-tops but descend to ground level in search of flowers or host plants. Because of their relatively fast life cycle (just over one month from egg to adult), Tailed Jays are multivoltine and may produce up to 7–8 broods per year. It has been noted in one instance to be attracted to lights at night.

Life cycle This species can take from 33–36 days from egg to adult. The species is multivoltine with at least 7–8 broods in a year.

Eggs The eggs are pale yellow and are laid singly on the underside of young leaves, and hatch after 3– 4 days.

Larva Young larvae are dark yellowish green with a pale yellow band in the middle of the abdomen. From the head, which is moderately large, the body increases in thickness rapidly to the 4th or 5th segment and then tapers gradually down to the tail. It has four pairs of spines. The colour is at first smoky-black, but at the last moult becomes a light clear green faintly marked with lines of a darker shade. The fully grown larva is green, fusiform and having small black spots. It has a pair of osmeterium and black spines on each thoracic segment, the third pair being orange- yellow. A fourth pair is situated on the last segment. The caterpillars undergo five instars over a period of 15–16 days, during which many are attacked by parasitoid wasps.

Pupa The pupae are green or brownish. They are found attached on the underside of leaves; sometimes on the upperside, and are held in place with a body girdle. The pupal stage lasts for 13–14 days. The horns are tipped with rusty brown. 27

Family Pieridae 1) Common Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona) The Common Emigrant or Lemon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona) is a medium-sized pierid butterfly found in Asia and parts of Australia. The species gets its name from its habit of migration. Some early authors considered them as two distinct species Catopsilia crocale and Catopsilia pomona.

Description The species has pale and dark morphs in Australia. The form crocale has the antennae black and the form pomona has the antennae pinkish or red. The development of these forms has been linked to photoperiod and temperature during growth.

Male Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2. "The upperside of the male is chalky-white, sometimes with a more or less broad and clearly defined basal sulphur-yellow area on both fore and hind wings; this sulphur-yellow colour is at times diffused over the whole surface of the wings, though generally it becomes paler towards the terminal margins. For the fore wing, the whole, or sometimes only the apical half, of the costa narrowly black, this color widened out irregularly at the apex; termen widely black at the apex, the colour narrowed posteriorly. This border in some specimens almost reaches the tornus, in others terminates above vein 4; occasionally it is continued posteriorly by a series of block dots at the apices of the veins. Hind wing: generally uniform, unmarked, some specimens bear minute black dots at the apices of the veins. "On the underside the groundcolour is very variable, with white with a slight to strong ochraceous tinge, greenish white or sulphur-yellow. The fore wing is typically without markings, in some specimens with a patch of sulphur-yellow on either side of base of median nervure, in the very yellow examples the tornal area is often widely greenish white, in others (Catopsilia catilla, Cramer) it bears a spot variable in size on the discocellulars. This spot has a pearly centre and an outer reddish line. Many specimens have an irregular angulated narrow discal reddish line (the colour varies in intensity) that runs from the costa obliquely outwards to vein 7, and then obliquely inwards to vein 2, though this line is often absent in specimens that bear the discocellular spot; apex and termen sometimes very narrowly reddish. The hind wing is typically uniform, without markings; in var. catilla there is a single small spot at the end of the cell similar to that on the fore wing, sometimes this spot is much larger with a narrow outer reddish ring, sometimes it is accompanied by a similar spot at base of interspace 5; when two spots are present they may be entirely separate, or their outer rings may coalesce; again, some specimens have a highly irregular discal reddish line (often reduced to a series of minute spots) that extends from the costa to vein 1; finally, the majority of specimens have a series of minute red terminal dots at the apices of the veins."

Female 28

Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2. "On the female upperside the ground-color varies as in the male, but sometimes it is chalky white at the bases of the wings, with the terminal margins more or less broadly sulphur-yellow. Fore wings always with a round, occasionally quadrate, black discocellular spot variable in size; in some specimens the costa is black only towards the apex of the wing, in others broadly black throughout and opposite the apex of cell so widened out as to touch the discocellular spot. In lightly marked specimens in addition to the discocellular spot, there is only an irregular terminal black band dentate inwardly and widest at the apex of the wing; in others there is in addition a more or less diffuse highly curved macular postdiscal band that extends from the costa obliquely outwards down to vein 7, where it often touches the terminal black band, and thence is continued downward and slightly inclined inwards to interspace 1, getting gradually paler and fainter posteriorly. Hind wing: a series of terminal inter-spacial black spots that vary in size, and in the dark forms coalesce into a terminal black band." "The underside varies from white with a light yellowish sometimes ochraeeous tinge to deep chrome-yellow; markings as in the male but still more variable; in var. catilla the spot at the apex of the cell in both fore and hind wings is enlarged into a large reddish blotch, the similar spot on tho hind wing is sometimes so enlarged as to occupy the apex of the cell, the basal two-thirds of interspaces 4, 5, and 6, and the middle third of interspace 7; in some specimens it is continued posteriorly in a series of obscure lunules to interspace 1a. Antennae red, obscurely dotted with black, palpi and head above red, thorax clothed with long yellow, sometimes greenish hairs, abdomen pale yellow; beneath: palpi and thorax pale to dark yellow, abdomen white."

Lifecycle Egg The eggs of the butterfly are laid on various species of plants including several Cassias. Other host plants include Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Bauhinia spp., Pterocarpus indicus, Senna alata and Sesbania species. The eggs are usually laid singly on the underside, at the margin of the leaves. Each egg is white, bottle shaped, and ribbed vertically. The eggs hatch in 3–4 days.

Caterpillar (larva) The newly hatched caterpillar is about 0.5 cm long and is of a yellowish green color. In later instars the color changes to a leafy green. The head is green and spotted with tiny black tubercules. The spiracules are covered with a continuous white line. Each segment of the body bears tiny shiny black tubercules. The tubercules immediately above the spiracular line being larger and more distinct giving the effect of a black line over the white spiracular line. The paired lines are found on both sides of the body and run from head to anus. The similar Catopsilia pyranthe caterpillar has a much broader black line leaving only a narrow green line on the back of the body. The larva is described by Bell as "The head is round, green, the clypeus edged with brown, covered with small shiny black tubercles which... do not hide the colour of the head; the anal flap

is rounded, but looks square at the extremity, and is covered with rows of small black tubercles... of which only the row along the spiracular line is conspicuous. The spiracles are oval, shiny and white. The colour is green with a spiracular white band touched with bright yellow on segments 2-5, and these segments, especially 3 and 4, are distinctly flanged on the spiracular line. Length 51 mm.

Crysalis (Pupa) Pupation takes place low to the ground. The pupa is suspended by a silken body band and attached to the substrate by a black cremaster. Its entire body is bright leaf green. A continuous yellow runs from the cremaster to the head, the head ending in a snout. In the similar Catopsilia pyranthe the snout is short. The pupa is described by Bell as "The pupa has the dorsal line of the thorax absolutely parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pupa for two-thirds of its length, consequently the hinder part just before the margin is perpendicular to this part, it is raised suddenly but very slightly above the front margin of segment 4, and the front end of this parallel dorsal line is at an angle, and a sharpish angle, with the front slope of the thorax. The cremaster is distinctly bifid at the extremity, and has some shiny, very stout, black, suspensory hooks dorsally as well as at the extremity. There is a dorsal rugose black tip to the snout terminating the head, which snout is cylindrical in its apical half; there is no black line round the eye and there is a dark green-blue dorsal line which is yellow on the thorax as well as the supra-spiracular yellow line. Length 34 mm; length of snout 3 mm; breadth at segment 7 is 9 mm; height at apex of curve of wing (segment 6) 10 mm; height at apen of thorax 8 mm".

2) Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe) The Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae found in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Australia.

Description Male The upperside is chalky-white, slightly tinted in some specimens with green. The fore wing is with or without a discocellular black spot, that varies in size; costa and termen sometimes without a black margin; occasionally the costa has its apical third narrowly black, broadened slightly at the apex with black spots between the anterior veins; or again, the costa may be narrowly black, the apex very broadly so, and this colour continued down the termen but narrowed posteriorly. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, but generally with narrow terminal black spots at the apices of the veins, these often reduced to mere dots, or again so broadened as to coalesce into a narrow terminal black margin. The underside's ground-colour is similar, suffused on the anterior half of the fore and over the whole surface of the hind wing with a greenish tint that varies to an ochraceous yellow, and, except in the very palest specimens, is evenly irrorated over the greenish or ochraceous-tinted

areas with transverse, short, reddish-brown strigae; both fore and hind wings with generally an obscure discocellular reddish-brown spot or indication thereof.

Female The upperside is as in the male, but sometimes with a suffusion of pale greenish yellow on the terminal third or fourth only of both fore and hind wings, rarely of that tint throughout. The fore wing is always with a discocellular black spot that varies very much in size; costa sometimes narrowly black with the basal half pinkish, in other specimens narrowly black throughout, the black broadened at the apex and continued along the anterior half of the termen in a series of inwardly-pointed black spots; or again, the costa may be more broadly black, that colour widened considerably at the apex and continued broadly down the termen to vein 3, then suddenly narrowed to a slender line at the tornus. In most specimens there is an anterior postdiscal short black macular baud; in the dark forms this coalesce with the black on apex and termen. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, sometimes with a series of terminal spots at the apices of the veins, sometimes with a narrow dusky-black terminal band broadest near the apex, narrowed posteriorly to a slender line at the tornus. In the very dark specimens there is in addition an ill-defined, short anterior postdiscal macular black band. The underside is as in the male, with similar variations, but in addition in most specimens the discocellular spots are well-defined with an outer red ring that encircles a silvery spot; on the hind wing one or two similar spots on each side of the discocellulars; generally, also both wings are crossed by a transverse postdiscal line of minute red spots, which on the fore wing is confined to the anterior portion, on the hind wing is nearly complete. In both sexes: antennae reddish, head and thorax anteriorly brown, thorax clothed posteriorly with long white hairs, abdomen white: beneath: the palpi, thorax, and abdomen white.

Life history The host plants of the species include Cassia spp. (e.g., C. fistula, C. javanica or C. roxburghii, C. bakeriana), Gnidia glauca, Senna spp. (e.g. S. alata; S. auriculata; S. garrettiana), Crotalaria spp., Ormocarpum cochinchinense, Sesbania spp. and Colocasia sp.

Pupa The development period from egg to adult is 22 to 29 days allowing up to 11-12 generations a year.

Larva: "Long, somewhat depressed, rough, green, with a white lateral line and above it a black line more or less conspicuous, formed by minute black shining tubercles. In short, this larva in very like a big specimen of a Eurema hecabe"

Pupa: "Much stouter (i.e. than that of Eurema hecabe, and the keel formed by the wing-cases much less pronounced. The normal colour is pale green with a yellow lateral line. We have never

found it on any plant except Senna occidentalis. It habitually rests on the upperside along the midrib, like almost all Pierine larvae." Davidson and Aitken, quoted in Bingham.

3) Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe)

The Large Grass Yellow or Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe) is a small pierid butterfly species found in Asia or Africa. They are found flying close to the ground and are found in open grass and scrub habitats. It is simply known as "the grass yellow" in parts of its range; the general term otherwise refers to the entire genus Eurema.

Description The Common Grass Yellow exhibits seasonal polyphenism. The lepidopteran has a darker summer morph, triggered by a long day exceeding 13 hours in duration, while the shorter diurnal period of 12 hours or less induces a fairer morph in the post-monsoon period. Male Upperside: yellow, variable in tint from sulphur to rich lemonz-yellow according to locality with a light or heavy rainfall. Fore wing: apex and termen deep black, this colour continued narrowly along the costal margin to base of wing, near which it often becomes diffuse; the inner margin of the black area from costa to vein 4 very oblique and irregular, between veins 2 and 4 excavate on the inner side, this excavation outwardly rounded between the veins and inwardly toothed on vein 3; below vein 2 the black area is suddenly dilated into a square spot which occupies the whole of the tornal angle; the inner margin of this dilatation is variable, in the typical form slightly concave. Hind wing: terminal margin with a narrow black band which is attenuated anteriorly and posteriorly; dorsal margin broadly paler than the ground-colour. Underside: yellow, generally a slightly paler shade than that of the upperside, with the following reddish-brown markings. Fore wing: two small spots or specks in basal half of cell and a reniform spot or ring on the discocellulars. Hind wing: a slightly curved subbasal series of three small spots, an irregular slender ring or spot on the discocellulars, followed by a highly irregular, curved, transverse, discal series of spots or specks, some or all of which are often obsolescent. On both fore and hind wings the veins that attain the costal and terminal margins end in minute reddish-brown specks. Antenna greyish yellow, the club black; head, thorax and abdomen yellow, shaded with fuscous scales; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen yellowish white. The sex-mark seen from above appears as a thickening of the basal half of the median vein on the fore wing.

Female Upper side: Very similar to that of the male but without the sex-mark; the black areas on both fore and hind wings slightly broader, with the inner edge of the black terminal band on the hind wing often diffuse.

Underside: ground-colour and markings as in the male. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen similarly coloured.

Dry-season form Upper side: ground-colour and markings much as in wet-season specimens, the margination on the inner side of the black area and the tornal dilatation on the fore wing similar. On the hind wing, in the great majority of individuals, the black terminal band is also similar, in a few it is narrower and diffuse inwardly in both sexes. Underside: ground-colour similar to that in wet-season specimens, but in very many with a greater or less irroration of black scales over the yellow parts of the wing; the reddish-brown markings on both fore and hind wings are also similar, but the spots are larger, more clearly 33

defined, darker, and therefore far more conspicuous. In addition, on the fore wing there is a preapical, very prominent, transverse, elongate spot or short bar or reddish brown extended downwards from the costa. This spot is irregular in shape and of variable width, but does not seem ever to spread outwards to the actual edge of the termen. In a few specimens there is also a small reddish-brown spot in interspace 1 near the tornus. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen, and in the male the sex-mark, as in wet-season specimens.

Life cycle Eggs are laid on Abrus precatorius, Acacia spp., Aeschynomene spp., Albizzia spp. and numerous other Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae and Cucurbitaceae species. Studies suggest that the females can discriminate colours when choosing host plants for oviposition.

Larva: Long, green, rough, cylindrical, or slightly depressed, with a large head.

Pupa: Suspended by the tail and by a moderately long band; the abdominal segments are round, but the thorax is much compressed, the wing-cases uniting to form a deep sharp keel. The head- case terminates in a short pointed snout. Ordinarily the pupa is solitary and green, but sometimes on a twig in large numbers. Many Pierine and other larvae seek each other’s company at that time. Having selected a dead branch of some neighbouring bush, they acquired the colour of their surroundings as nearly all Pierine and Papilionine pupae do to a greater or less extent. This species has been found to be parasitized by multiple strains of Wolbachia. These bacteria can alter the sex-ratios of the species.

4) Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete) The Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae, found in South Asia and Southeast Asia.

Description Closely resembles Delias eucharis but can be distinguished as follows:

Male upper forewing has the black margins to the veins more diffuse; the transverse postdiscal band diffuse, ill-defined, oblique, not parallel to termen in its lower portion but terminated at apex of vein 2; the apical portion of the wing beyond the fascia more or less so thickly shaded with black scales as to leave the white lanceolate spaces between the veins (so prominent in eucharis) ill-defined and obscure. Hind wing white, the black venation and terminal narrow black border as well as the sub-terminal vermilion-red spots between the veins on the underside show through by transparency. Underside: fore wing as in eucharis, but the black margins to the veins much broader and the postdiscal transverse fascia as on the upperside oblique but broader. Hind wing differs from that of eucharis in the much deeper chrome-yellow tint of the ground-colour, the postdiscal black curved band that in eucharis separates the yellow from the subterminal vermilion-red spots entirely wanting, the red spots themselves pointed inwardly, not subcordate,

they conspicuously increase in size posteriorly. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen similar to those of eucharis.

Female differs from the female of eucharis on the upperside by the very much darker shading, especially on the fore wing, and by the postdiscal transverse band which is as in the d oblique but broader. Hind wing also more darkly shaded, the postdiscal transverse curved black baud entirely absent. Underside as in the female but darker, the fore wing especially more thickly shaded with black scaling, the preapical interspaces tinged with yellow. Antennae, thorax and abdomen similar to those in eucharis. Race metarete, Butler. (Southern Myanmar; extending to Java and Sumatra). Differs from race hierta as follows: Male upperside has the ground-colour a much purer white; apical half of fore wing in contrast with the white on basal half densely shaded with black scales. Underside: the colours clearer and purer, the chrome-yellow on the hind wing confined to the base and posterior half of the wing, the apical half of the cell and the anterior interspaces within the line of the vermilion-red spots pure white; the anterior two or three subterminal red spots margined interiorly with diffuse black scaling. Female differs less from the 2 of hierta, but on the underside of the hind wing the yellow colour is as restricted as it is in the male; the subterrninal red spots are of a richer vermilion than in hierta, and the anterior two or three as in the d have an interior narrow margin of diffuse black scales. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in hierta, but the thorax and abdomen shaded slightly darker with a bluish-grey appearance. Race ethire, Doherty. (Madras;Orissa; Lower Bengal) Differs from typical hierta as follows: Male upperside very pure white. Fore wing has the black margins to the veins very narrow, the oblique postdiscal band ill-defined, scarcely any irroration of black scales on the apical half of the wing. Hind wing pure white, the colours of the underside seen through by transparency as in hierta. Underside differs from hierta principally in the brighter tint of the yellow on the hind wing, and in the more clearly defined, less diffuse black margins of the veins. Female differs less from female hierta than does the male from the corresponding sex of the same insect. Upperside has the interspaces beyond the postdiscal oblique band on fore wing and the cell and basal halves of the interspaces beyond the cell on the hind wing distinctly tinged with yellow. Underside: all the markings more neatly and clearly defined than in hierta, the inter-spaces beyond the oblique postdiscal band on the fore wing bright lemon-yellow. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen in both sexes as in D. hierta.

Distribution Sri Lanka; India (Uttaranchal to Arunachal Pradesh, Northeast, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Western Maharashtra); North Myanmar; Java, Sumatra, Bangladesh

5) Yellow Orange-tip (Ixias pyrene)

Yellow Orange Tip, Ixias pyrene is a small butterfly of the Family Pieridae, that is, the Yellows and Whites, which is found in India and Southeast Asia. 35

Description Wingspan: 50-55 mm. Dry-season brood.

Male upperside: deep sulphur-yellow. Fore wing: base and basal half of costa thickly irrorated with black scales; apical half of the wing black, with an enclosed, large, irregularly triangular, orange-coloured patch, the apex of which is more or less broadly rounded and blunt; the orange colour extends into the apex of the cell bat is interrupted there by a black discocellular spot that spreads diffusely inwards and joins the black oblique bar which forms the base of the orange patch; veins that traverse this latter, black. Hind wing: uniform with a little black scaling at extreme base; termen with a dusky-black somewhat narrow border (sometimes entirely absent) which decreases in width posteriorly. Underside: a darker yellow, sparsely irrorated with fusco-ferruginous short strigae and minute spots. Fore wing: base and posterior area broadly, with a whitish pale virescent tint; the strigae and minute spots most numerous towards the apex and along the termen; interspaces 4, 5, 6 and 8 with a curved sub-apical series of small, rounded, dull ferruginous spots and a similar spot on the discocellulars. Hind wing also with a ferruginous spot on the discocellulars, followed by a postdiscal series of similar spots in interspaces 3 to 8, all or most of them centred with white; the spots in interspaces 5, 6 and 8 the largest, those in 5 and 6 often coalescent. Antennae and thorax anteriorly dull ferruginous, thorax posteriorly and abdomen above fuscous black; head, thorax and abdomen beneath yellow.

Female upperside: white faintly tinged with yellow. Fore wing: apical half black, with an enclosed, irregular, broad, oblique patch of the ground-colour that extends into the upper apex of the cell, on the inner side of this the black is reduced to a short oblique bar broadened at the lower apex of the cell, from whence it is continued as a somewhat slender diffuse oblique streak to the tornus, where it broadens again abruptly and meets the black on the termen; the outer margin of the oblique white patch is irregularly crenulate, sometimes trisinuate; the black colour on the apex often forms a right angle on vein 4; on the white patch posteriorly there is a black spot in interspace 2 and another in interspace 3. Hind wing: uniform, a few subobsolete slender, fuscous, transverse strigae posteriorly; the terminal margin sometimes with (more often without) a narrow dusky black edging, broadened anteriorly at the apices of the veins. Underside: similar to that in the male, with similar markings, the ground-colour a dark dull ochraceous, the fusco-ferruginous strigae more numerous. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male. Wet-season brood. - Upperside in both male and female differs in the broader, more pronounced, black terminal edging to the hind wing, which is often remarkably broad, and in the female by the ground-colour which is pale yellow. Underside: the fusco-ferruginous strigae and spots often subobsolete, occasionally entirely absent in the male.

Status, distribution and habitat in Sri Lanka and peninsular India

It is distributed throughout the plains and lowlands. It is common in dry deciduous forests, scrub and fallow lands and found throughout the year. However, it is more common during the monsoon and post-monsoon and considerably rare in the summer.

6) Great Orange-tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) The Great Orange Tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) is a butterfly belonging to the Pieridae family, that is the yellows and whites’ butterflies, found in the Indomalaya ecozone and Wallacea.

Distribution This species is found in much of South and Southeast Asia, as well as in southern China and southern Japan.

Description The following descriptions are true for much of its range. There are subspecies that differ, such as H. g. vossi where the white is replaced by pure yellow.

Wet-season brood In the males the upperside is creamy white. Fore wing: the costa narrowly, the apex and terminal margin to middle of interspace 1 are black. An irregular, somewhat sinuous, black band extends obliquely from beyond the middle of the costa across the upper apex of the cell, and meets at interspace 1 the black on the terminal margin. Within the triangle thus formed is enclosed a rich orange-red patch that is traversed by the black veins and bears in interspaces 3 to 6 a postdiscal series of black inwardly-elongated spots. Hind wing: nearly uniform, touched with black on the terminal margin anteriorly and with a conspicuous postdiscal black spot in interspace 7. In some specimens there are one or two smaller spots in continuation of the series in the interspaces below. The underside is white. The apical third of the fore wing and the whole of the hind wing are mottled, with more or less prominent brown stripe and spots. Costa of the fore wing and a fine line that runs from base of the hind wing through the cell, straight to the middle of the terminal margin, are brown. Antennae are dark brown. The head and thorax have anteriorly a reddish- brown pile. Thorax above is greyish-blue, while the abdomen is white with a bluish tinge. Beneath: head and thorax are more or less brownish, abdomen is white.

Female is similar to the male. Upperside: ground-colour with a slight greenish tinge. The orange patch on fore wing is more restricted, it consists of a series of brood streaks in interspaces 3 to 6 and 10, the outer apices of which are deeply incised by black and with a row of hastate orange spots beyond in interspaces 2 to 6. Hind wing: similar to the hind wing in the male, but with a postdiscal series of large triangular black spots and a terminal connected series of still larger triangular black spots at the apices of veins 2 to 7. Underside: similar to that in the male, the brown transverse strigae and spots are more numerous, the costa of the fore and the median line

on the hind wing are very prominently brown. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.

Dry-season brood Differ only from the wet-season brood in the slightly more falcate apex to fore wing, and in the purer white ground-colour on the upperside. Also the terminal margin on the hind wing in the male has the black markings all but obsolete, while in the female the postdiscal and terminal black markings on the same are smaller than in the wet-season form. Underside: the mottlings of brown strigae and minute spots are more numerous and dense. Race australis, Butler (Southern India and Sri Lanka). Males and females. Differs only from the typical form in the following particulars: - Inner black border to the orange patch on the upperside of the fore wing is absent, this represented by a few obsolete touches of black scaling. Hind wing: white throughout, with only a half-obliterated subcostal black spot in interspace 7 in the male; in the female the postdiscal and terminal series of spots are smaller.

Toxicity In the wings of Hebomoia glaucippe is present glacontryphan-M, a peptide toxin belonging to the family contryphan that are active constituents of the poisonous venom produced by cone snail (genus conus). In H. glaucippe this toxin should function as a defense against predators.

The life cycle The eggs The eggs are laid on the larval food plants Crataeva religiosa, Capparis monii, Capparis roxburghii, Capparis cantoniensis, and Capparis sepiaria (Capparaceae).

Larvae "Subcylindrical, tapering towards each end, numerously-covered with minute tubercles; green." (Moore.) Subcylindrical; suddenly tapered at both ends; covered with transverse rows of pointed tubercles. Colour dark green, with a lateral bluish line bordered inferiorly with a series of minute red spots; legs green, the prothoracic legs bordered with black that widens on the middle one of the three.

Pupa "Much arched along the back; head pointed." (Moore.) Spindle-shaped, head acutely pointed, dorsum much arched. Colour green, a patch of pale ochraceous on the wing-cases and a narrow lateral band of the same colour from head to tail, with a brown line superposed on it that extends to the abdominal segments; abdominal segments and wing-case sparsely spotted with black.

Family Lycaenidae 1) Common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon) The common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon) is a small butterfly found in South Asia that belongs to the lycaenids, or blues family.

Distribution Bangladesh, Sri Lanka. India, Myanmar; Tenasserim, extending into the Malayan Subregion. In the Indonesian archipelago the butterfly occurs in NE Sumatra, East Java, Bali, Bangka, Timor, Wetar, Kissar, Sumbawa and Sulawesi. In India the butterfly is found in peninsular India south of the outer ranges of the Himalayas, except in desert tracts; East India; the North West Himalayas; Assam. The butterfly is also found in the Andaman Islands and South Nicobar Islands.

Description Male Upperside is mainly white. Forewing has the costa, apex and termen edged with black, the edging much broader on apex and termen; base outwards for a short distance more or less densely overlaid. with metallic blue scales which cover and make indistinct a large basal outwardly clavate black spot; a transverse black oval spot on the discocellulars touching the black edging on the costa ; an oblique irregular line of four quadrate black spots beyond, the upper spot coalesced with the black on the costal border, the next spot below shifted outwards out of line, touching, as does also the lowest spot, the terminal black edging; posterior to this is a quadrate black spot in the apical half of interspace 2, and placed obliquely outwards from 1b coalescent with the terminal black border, another similar spot in interspace 1.

Hind wing: three basal black somewhat coalescent spots overlaid with metallic blue scaling; the costal margin above the subcostal vein and vein 7 black; this colour filling also the base of interspace 6, where in some specimens it is divided into a basal portion with a spot beyond; a postdiscal curved transverse black band followed by a subterminal transverse series of black spots, each spot edged inwardly and outwardly by very slender lunules of the white ground- colour; on the inner side of the postdiscal band posteriorly is a broken line of four black generally coalescent spots two and two, the two upper often touching the postdiscal band. Underside primarily white. Fore wing has a long oblique black band from base outwards to the costa; below it and obliquely placed an irregular black somewhat conical mark; following these are two outwardly oblique, medially interrupted, black macular bands; the inner of the two 39

extended from costa along the discocellulars, is then widely interrupted below its posterior portion that is formed of two elongate coalescent spots and touches the inner subterminal transverse line of elongate spots just above the tornus; the outer, obliquely placed line is subapical and medially broken, the middle portion consisting of a quadrate spot is shifted outwards; finally, two parallel sub-terminal transverse series of black elongate spots, the inner series of broad, more or less rectangular spots, the outer series of more linear spots, the latter coalescent anteriorly with a slender ante-ciliary black line. Hind wing: a transverse basal black band, with an elongate black spot below it on the dorsum; a transverse sub-basal line of four well-separated black spots; a transverse, oval, disco-cellular black spot and obliquely above it three subcostal similar spots, the inner two coalescent; postdiscal and terminal markings consist, the former of four black posterior spots two and two, each pair coalescent and placed en echelon, the latter of a transverse double series of subterminal black spots and an anticiliary black line; the upper portion of the postdiscal markings touches the inner subterminal line. Cilia of both fore and hind wings white alternated with black at the apices of the veins; filamentous short tail to the hind wing black tipped with white. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the shafts of the antennae ringed with white, the head between the eyes and behind them white; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen white, the last barred broadly with white on the sides.

Female Similar to the male but with the black markings on the upper and under sides broader.

Larva "Feeds on Zizyphus jujuba and is of a rough texture as if shagreened all over. It is of the usual woodlouse form, much flattened towards the anal segment which is very broad; head concealed; colour bright green with a double, dorsal, yellow line and the sides powdered with small yellow spots." (Davidson, Bell and Aitken)

Pupa "Of the usual Castalius form but narrow and slightly flattened. It is intensely glossy as if covered with gum. It varies in colour, being sometimes black, at others green with inconstant black markings." (Davidson, Bell & Aitken)

2) Common Hedge Blue (Acytolepis puspa) The Common Hedge Blue (Acytolepis puspa) is a small butterfly found in India, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Borneo and New Guinea that belongs to the Lycaenids or Blues family.

Wet-season brood. Male. Upperside: Violaceous blue, with brilliant iridescent tints in certain lights. Fore wing: the costa, apex and termen bordered with black, this edging narrows from base to the middle of the costa, then broadens greatly at apex, where it occupies the apical fourth of

the wing, and is again narrowed below vein 4, whence it is continued as an even band to the tornus; on the disc beyond the apex of the cell the groundcolour is sensibly paler, and the dark markings of the cell are faintly visible by transparency from below. Hind wing: the costa very broadly, the termen much more narrowly black:; the black bordering on the latter consists of a series of rounded coalescent spots, which on the inner side are margined by faint dark lunules; these are formed not by actual scaling but by the dark markings of the underside which show through more or less clearly.

Underside: slightly bluish white; the markings, some black, some dusky, but all large and distinct. Fore wing: a short bar on the discocellulars, an anteriorly inwardly curved, transverse, discal series of seven, more or less elongate spots, of which the spot in interspace 2 is vertical and sinuous, the next above it irregularly oval and obliquely placed, the next smaller and almost round, the fourth placed almost longitudinally, forms a short bar, and the apical three decrease in size to the costa; beyond these is an inner subterminal, transverse, lunular line, an outer subterminal series of transverse spots and a very slender anticiliary line. Hind wing: two basal and three subbasal spots in vertical order; a line on the discocellulars; a spot above it at base of interspace 6; a much larger spot above that in interspace 7; a lower discal irregular transverse series of five spots, followed by terminal markings similar to those on the fore wing, except that the spots in the subterminal row are rounded, not transverse. Cilia of both fore and hind wings white alternated with dusky black at tho apices of the veins. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen dusky black, the antennae ringed with white; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen white.

Female:Upperside: white, the bases of the wings and in some specimens the hind wing posteriorly shot with iridescent blue. Fore wing: costa, apex and termen broadly black; the discocellulars marked with a very short, fine black line that extends down from the black on the costal margin. Hind wing: costa and apex broadly black; termen below rein 6 with a regular subterminal series of black spots in the interspaces, enclosed within an inner lunular and an outer straight slender anticiliary black line; the veins, except vein 5 in the middle, slenderly black. Cilia of both fore and bind wings white. Underside: ground-colour and markings similar to those of the male. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.

Dry-season brood. Differs very slightly from the wet-season brood. In the male there is a small patch of white on the upperside of the fore wing beyond the cell and on the upperside of the hind wing on the anterior portion of the disc; the extent of this patch varies on the fore wing from a mere touch of white just beyond the cell to a large discal area of white which is diffuse with ill- defined margins. In the female the blue iridescence at the base of the wings on the upperside is in some specimens considerably restricted, in others entirely absent. On the underside in both sexes the ground-colour is paler and in form and position the markings are much less prominent, though entirely like those of the wet-season brood.

Range The butterfly occurs in Peninsular India, Himalayas, Assam, Andamans, Nicobars, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and New Guinea.

Status Reported as Common by Wynter-Blyth in India. Reported as Rare in Andamans to Very Rare in Nicobars.

3) Zebra Blue (Leptotes plinius) The Zebra Blue or Plumbago Blue (Leptotes plinius) is a species of blue butterfly found in India.

Description This form closely resembles in both sexes on the upperside with Tarucus theophrastus, but the character and disposition of the markings on the underside are completely different.

Male Upperside: dark violet with, in certain lights, a rich blue suffusion. Fore wing: no discocellular black spot so conspicuous in T. theophrastus; terminal margin with a narrow edging of fuscous black, widest at the apex, gradually decreasing to the tornus, followed by an inconspicuous anticiliary jet-black line. Hind wing : costal margin slightly but broadly shaded with fuscous, which is continued as a slender anticiliary black line to the tornus. Underside: white. Fore wing: with the following brownish-black markings:—an irregular edging along the costa to near the apex from which extends downwards a subbasal band, broadened across the cell and below it; an irregular band that extends along the discocellulars and below them to interspace 1 where it ends in a point; an upper discal curved band of more even width but dislocated below vein 4, the lower portion of it shifted inwards forms a large quadrate spot in interspace 3, below vein 3 the band is continued downwards by two small inconspicuous spots, beyond this is a very short acutely pointed comma-shaped mark; a very regular evenly curved complete transverse lunular line, a transverse series of subterminal spots and an anticiliary slender line. Close to the base of the wing extended obliquely upwards and outwards from the dorsum is a triangular mark, the edging of white colour left near the base forms above the apex of this mark an acute angle; between the band that crosses the middle of the cell and the transverse discocellular band is a more or less slender, irregular, similarly coloured line; and between the discocellular and upper discal bands another much shorter line that extends from the costa downwards but does not reach vein 4, this is slightly clavate anteriorly and posteriorly. Hind wing: mottled with brownish black that leaves only basal, subbasal, medial and discal transverse lines or bands of the ground-colour; the medial and discal bands, which are highly irregular, enclose here and there small brownish markings, the bands themselves coalescing above a very irregularly shaped brown mark that is placed on the posterior half of the middle of the wing; terminal markings as on the fore wing but the subterminal spots larger, the apical one especially so, the tornal two spots jet-black and each encircled by a glittering slender ring of metallic green scales. Cilia of both fore and hind wings, the antennae, head, thorax and abdomen much as in T. theophrastus.

Female. Upperside very closely resembles that of female T. theophrastus, but the extent of white on the fore wing is greater so that there is a greater area of white to be seen between the brown markings superposed on it, these markings have the appearance of an irregularly formed V on a white background. Hind wing much as in T. theophrastus. Underside: similar to that of its own male but the brown bands less broken, more regular. Cilia, antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.

Distribution

Ethiopian region in part. N.W. Himalayas to Kumaon; the plains of Northern India; Central and Western India; Sri Lanka; Assam ; Myanmar; Tenasserim in the low hot valleys of the north; extending to China and in the Malayan Subregion to Java. The description given above is taken from males and females of wet-season broods. Specimens of the dry-season broods are paler on the upperside with, in the male only anticiliary black lines to the wings. On the underside the markings on the wings will, on careful examination, be found very similar but paler brown and all very much reduced in width so that a greater extent of the white ground-colour is visible.

Life history Foodplants Plants of the Legume family, Plumbaginaceae and some of the citrus family Rutaceae. Species include Glycine tomentella, Dyerophytum indicum, Indigofera suffruticosa, Lablab purpureus, Plumbago zeylanica, Rhynchosia tomentosa, Sesbania bispinosa, Tephrosia obovata, Ziziphus mauritiana, Indigofera argentea, Indigofera erecta, Medicago sativa and Toddalia asiatica.

Larva "Pale greenish yellow above, sides lilacine, a narrow brownish median line, followed by eight diagonal short streaks and six brownish-red spots. Before pupating the colouring gets much more diffused. Feeds among the flower-buds of Plumbago."

Pupa "Dull yellowish profusely mottled with brown spots." (E E Green as quoted by de Niceville.)

4) Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus) The Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus) is a small butterfly found in India that belongs to the Lycaenids or Blues family.

Description Male upperside, fore wing: velvety jet-black; base deep blue, beautifully metallic and shining, measured on the dorsum this colour occupies three-fourths of its length from base, its outer margin then curves upwards just past the apex of the cell, entera into the bases of interspaces 10, 11 and 12 and fills the whole of the cell. Hind wing: costal margin above subcostal vein and vein 7, and dorsal margin narrowly fuscous black, a medial longitudinal pale streak on the former; terminal margin narrowly edged with velvety black, inside which in interspaces 1 and 2 is a slender transverse whitish line, with an elongate irregular transverse black spot above it in interspace 1 and a more obscure similar spot in interspace 2; traces of such spots also are present in some specimens in the anterior interspaces. Cilia of both fore and hind wings black; filamentous tail at apex of vein 2 black tipped with white. Underside: dark chocolate-brown. Fore and hind wings; transversely crossed by the following very slender white Hues all more or less broken into short pieces:—Fore wing: a short pair one on each side of and parallel to the discocellulars, a pale streak along the discocellulars themselves; a single line in continuation of the outer of the discocellular lines, extends down to vein 1; an upper discal pair of lines that form a more or less catenulated short band extend from the costa to vein 3, the inner line of the two continued to vein 1; two more obscure subterminal and a single terminal line, the area enclosed between the subterminal lines and between them and the terminal line darker in the interspaces, giving the appearance of two obscure subterminal lines of spots edged inwardly and outwardly by white lines. Hind wing: crossed by nine very broken and irregular lines; tracing them from the costa downwards their middle short pieces are found to be shifted outwards and a few are short and not complete, the inner two are posteriorly bent abruptly upwards, the subtcrminal two are lunular and the terminal line nearly continuous; posteriorly between the subterminal pair of lines in interspace 1 there is a small black spot inwardly edged with dark ochraceous, and in interspace 2 a much larger round black spot, both black spots are touched with metallic blue scales. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the shafts of the antennae speckled with white; beneath: palpi, thorax and abdomen narrowly white down the middle.

Female. Similar to the male generally but with the following differences: upperside, fore wing: ground-colour fuscous opaque black, not velvety black, blue basal area more restricted and not so deep a blue nor at all metallic. Hind wing: the black costal and terminal margins very much broader, the blue on the basal area consequently much restricted and of the same shade as the blue on the fore wing; terminal margin with a subterminal anteriorly obsolescent series of spots of a shade darker than that of the terminal black area on which they are superposed; these spots posteriorly more or less distinctly encircled with slender lines of bluish white, anteriorly these lines are almost obsolete. Cilia of both fore and hind wings and the filamentous short tail as in the male. Underside: similar to that oE the cf but the ground-colour generally paler and duller; the transverse white lines broader and more dearly defined. Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.

Distribution Peninsular India, but not in the very dry or desert tracts; Ceylon; Assam; Burma; Tenasserim; the Andamans; extending in the Malayan Subregion to Australia.

Lifecycle "The larva which we have taken at Karwar in June is hardly distinguishable from that of Catochrysops pandava, Horsfield; it is, however, covered with minute hairs and is generally of an olive-green colour and without the reddish suffusion so generally noticed in C. pandava. The pupa is indistinguishable from that of C. pandava. The larva feeds on Xylia dolabrifornis, and also on the flowers of Butea frondosa." Other food plants noted include Millettia peguensis.

5) Lesser Grass Blue (Zizina Otis) The Lesser Grass Blue (Zizina otis) is a species of blue butterfly found in south Asia. The Lesser Grass Blue is often misidentified as the Common Grass Blue, Zizina labradus.

Description Male upperside Pale violet-blue, with a silvery sheen in certain lights, fore wing: a broad brown edging along the termen, which covers in some specimens quite the outer fourth of the wing, while in others is much narrower. It is always broadest at the apex and is bounded by an anticiliary darker line, beyond which the cilia are brownish at base and white outwardly. Hind wing: anterior or costal third to half and apex brown; a slender black anticiliary line, beyond which the cilia are as in the fore wing.

Male underside Brownish grey. Fore wing: a short, transverse, dusky lunule on the discocellulars and a transverse, anteriorly curved, discal series of seven minute black spots, all the spots more or less rounded, the posterior two geminate, the disco-cellular lunule and each discal spot conspicuously encircled with white; the terminal markings beyond the above consist of an inner and an outer transverse subterminal series of dusky spots, each spot edged on the inner side very obscurely with dusky white, the inner line of spots lunular, the outer with the spots more or less rounded. Cilia dusky. Hind wing: a transverse, curved, sub-basal series of four spots and an irregular transverse discal series of nine small spots black, each spot encircled narrowly with white. Of the discal spots the posterior four are placed in an outwardly oblique, slightly curved line, the middle two spots geminate; the three spots above these are placed in an oblique transverse line further outwards; lastly, the anterior two spots are posited one over the other and shifted well inwards, just above the apex of the cell; disco-cellular lunule and terminal markings as on the fore wing, but the inner subterminal lunular line in the latter broader and more prominent. Cilia dusky. Antenna black, shafts ringed with white; head, thorax and abdomen brown, with a little blue scaling; beneath: white.

Female upperside Brown, with a more or less distinct suffusion of violet-blue at the bases of the wings, on the hind wing continued obscurely along the dorsum; both fore and hind wings with slender anticiliary lines, darker than the ground-colour.

Female underside Ground-colour slightly darker than in the male, markings precisely similar. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male, but the thorax and abdomen above without any blue scaling.

Distribution Zizina otis occurs in south Asia. It was reported from Oahu (Hawaii, USA) in 2008. Zizina otis labradus is found in the North Island, and the northern part of the South Island of New Zealand. While the Zizina otis oxleyi is found in the southern part of the South Island of New Zealand only.

Larval host plants The species breeds on many plants of the family Leguminosae including Alysicarpus vaginalis, Desmodium spp., Glycine max, Indigofera spp., Mimosa spp.

Family Nymphalidae 1) Common Indian Crow (Euploea core) The common crow (Euploea core) is a common butterfly found in South Asia and Australia. In India it is also sometimes referred to as the common Indian crow, and in Australia as the Australian crow. It belongs to the crows and tigers’ subfamily Danainae (Danaini tribe). E. core is a glossy black, medium-sized 85–95 millimetres (3.3–3.7 in) butterfly with rows of white spots on the margins of its wings. Euploea core is a slow, steady flier. Due to its unpalatability it is usually observed gliding through the air with a minimum of effort. As caterpillars, this species sequesters toxins from its foodplant which are passed on from larva to pupa to the adult. While feeding, it is a very bold butterfly, taking a long time at each bunch of flowers. It can also be found mud puddling with others of its species and often in mixed groups. The males of this species visit plants like Crotalaria, Heliotropium to replenish pheromone stocks which are used to attract a mate during courtship. The common crow is the most common representative of its genus Euploea. Like the tigers (genus Danaus), the crows are inedible and thus mimicked by other Indian butterflies (see Batesian mimicry). In addition, the Indian species of the Euploea genus shows another kind of mimicry, Müllerian mimicry. Accordingly, this species has been studied in greater detail than other members of its genus in India.

Description The common crow (Euploea core) is a glossy black butterfly with brown underside with white markings along the outer margins of both wings. The wingspan is about 8–9 cm and the body has prominent white spots. The male has a velvety black brand located near the rear edge on the upperside of the forewing. On the underside there is a white streak in the same location. This white streak is present in both male and female. In its natural position this streak is hidden behind the hind wing and can be seen only when the butterfly is captured and observed closely. Excerpt from Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 1. Upper side E. core "Upperside dark brown, broadly paler along terminal margins; Fore and hind wing with subterminal and terminal series of white spots; on fore wing the former more or less oval, curved inwards opposite apex, the latter series often incomplete, not reaching apex, the spots smaller; often there is a small costal spot, and very rarely a spot in apex of cell and one or more discal spots; on the hind wing the inner series of spots are elongate, the outer conical. Underside similar, but ground-colour more uniform; cell, costal and discal spots on both fore and hind wing nearly always present.

Underside paler brown, the white spots larger, more clearly defined. Fore wing not violaceous at apex, a spot (sometimes absent) in apex of cell, and two or three discal spots. Hindwing: a spot in apex of cell, also sometimes absent, and a discal series of five small spots beyond. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen very dark brown, and, the antennae excepted, sparsely spotted with white.

Mimicry and similar species Due to its inedibility, Euploea core is mimicked by a few edible species. Additionally, a number of other inedible species within the same family mimic each other forming a Mullerian ring. The edible species are contained in the 2 families- Papilionidae - Malabar Raven (Papilio dravidarum), Common Mime (Papilio clytia) form clytia Nymphalidae - Great Eggfly (Hypolimnas bolina) female, Ceylon Palmfly, Elymnias singala male and female. Distribution also plays a role in telling the species apart. Both Papilionids are forest dwellers and while the Common Mime is distributed in all forested areas in India, the Malabar Raven is endemic to the western ghats south of Goa. The inedible species are in the same genus forming a mullerian ring- Brown king crow (E. klugii) Double branded crow (E. sylvester) Both these species differ in the number and size of brand and allied streak in the female, which can only be examined if the specimen is caught and closely examined. The double branded crow has 2 brands and the female has 2 white streaks on the underside. The brown king crow has a broad brand and the female has a short indistinct white streak on the underside

Range, habitat and habits It is found in southern Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Russia, and Australia. In its range E. core is found at all elevations, right from sea level up into the mountains to 2,400 metres (8,000 ft). It can be observed in all layers of vegetation and in all types of regions from arid land to forested areas. It can as commonly be seen gliding over the treetops as flitting about a foot off the ground searching for nectar flowers. In thick forests it is often seen moving along open tracks or following the course of a river. The butterfly, being protected by its inedibility, has a leisurely flight. It is often seen flying about shrubs and bushes in search of its host plants. It visits a large variety of flowering plant species. When gliding E. core holds its wings at an angle just greater than the horizontal plane, maintaining its flight with a few measured wingbeats. E. core is a nectar lover and visits flowers unhurriedly. It seems to prefer bunches to individual flowers. When feeding the butterfly is unhurried and is not easily disturbed. It can be approached closely at this time.

On hot days large numbers of these butterflies can be seen mud-puddling on wet sand. E. core is an avid mudpuddler often congregating in huge swarms along with other Euploea species as well as other Danaids. This butterfly also gathers on damaged parts of plants such as Crotalaria, Heliotropium to forage for pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are chemicals precursors to produce pheromones. During courtship the males of E. core release these sex pheromones to attract females. Once a female is in the vicinity the males glide around and with the help of a couple of yellow brush like organs extending out from the tip of the abdomen they disperse the scent in the air. Along with other Danaids, such as the tigers, E. core is one of the most common migrating butterfly species. Males and females in equal proportions have been seen to migrate.

Protection The common crow is distasteful due to chemicals extracted from the latex of the food plants consumed in their caterpillar stage. Thus protected, they fly in a leisurely manner, gliding skillfully with wings held slightly above the horizontal. This indicates its protection due to inedibility to a predator. The inexperienced predator will try attacking it, but will learn soon enough to avoid this butterfly as the alkaloids in its body cause vomiting. The butterfly has tough, leathery wings. When attacked it shams death and oozes liquid which causes any predators to release them and become nauseous. Once released the butterfly "recovers miraculously" and flies off. Predators experience enough trauma that the characteristics of the butterfly are imprinted in memory.

Life cycle Eggs Eggs are laid on the underside of young leaves of the host plants. The egg is shiny white, tall and pointed, with ribbed sides. Just before hatching the eggs turn greyish with a black top.

Caterpillar Throughout its life the caterpillar stays on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillar is uniformly cylindrical, vividly coloured and smooth. It has alternate white and dark brown or black transverse bands. Just above the legs and prolegs, along the entire body is a wide orangish- red band interspersed with black spiracles. The most striking characteristics are the 4 pairs of long and black tentacles. The first pair is movable and also the longest. The tentacles are present on the 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 12th segments. The head is shiny, smooth and has alternating black and white semicircular bands. Since the host plants contain poisonous latex, the caterpillar has evolved peculiar eating habits. It first chews the midrib of the leaf, cutting off the leaf's supply of latex and then goes on to nip a few of the secondary veins of the leaf, further blocking the flow of latex. Subsequently the caterpillar feeds on the leaf but only where the leaf's natural defences have been turned off. The caterpillar is able to tolerate the plant toxins and stores it in its fatty tissue which helps make the adult distasteful to predators. 50

Pupa The pupa of this species is one of the most wonderful sights in nature. It is shiny golden in colour and compact. The wing margins and margins of the abdominal segments are marked with broad colourless bands. The abdomen has a pair of black spots on each segment. The cremaster is black. Just before emergence the black wings show through the skin of the pupa. The species are attacked by parasitic flies.

2) Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace) The Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace) is a butterfly found in India that belongs to the crows and tigers, that is, the danaid group of the brush-footed butterfly family. This butterfly shows gregarious migratory behaviour in southern India.

Description Upperside black, with bluish-white semihyaline spots and streaks. Fore wing: interspace 1 two streaks, sometimes coalescent, with a spot beyond cell: a streak from base and an outwardly indented spot at its apex; a large oval spot at base of interspace 2, another at base of interspace 3, with a smaller spot beyond it towards termen; five obliquely placed preapical streaks, and somewhat irregular subterminal and terminal series of spots, the latter the smaller. Hind wing: interspaces 1b, 1a, and 1 with streaks from base, double in the latter two, cell with a forked broad streak, the lower branch with a hook, or spur-like slender loop, at base of 4 and 5 a broad elongate streak, and at base of 6 a quadrate spot; beyond these again a number of scattered unequal subterminal and terminal spots. Underside: basal two-thirds of fore wing dusky black, the apex and hind wing olive-brown; the spots and streaks much as on the upperside, Antennae, head and thorax black, the latter two spotted and streaked with, white; abdomen dusky above, ochraceous spotted with white beneath. Expanse: 98–106 mm

Life cycle Food-plants A mimic of the Blue Tiger, Common Mime Papilio clytia form dissimilis, a papilionid The butterfly larva generally feed on plants of family Asclepiadaceae.

Larva Yellowish white; 3rd and 12th segments, each with a pair of fleshy filaments, black and greenish white; each of the segments with four transverse black bars, the second bar on all broader than the others, bifurcated laterally, a yellow longitudinal line on each side; head, feet and claspers spotted with black. The larva is around 1.21 centimetres (0.48 in) in length and weighs around 5 milligrams (0.077 gr) initially, but grows double that size and four times that weight within 48 hours.

Pupa

"Green with golden scattered spots and beaded dorsal crescent" (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham)

Range South Asia and Southeast Asia. Also found in numbers in Queensland (at least as far south as Mackay, but also recorded in Brisbane) Australia

Habits Congregating with an Common Crow in Kolkata, West Bengal, India This species migrates extensively during the monsoons in southern India. The migratory populations have been observed to consist nearly entirely of males. It is also known to mud- puddle during migration.

3) Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda) The Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda) is a common species of butterfly found flying at dusk. The flight of this species is erratic. They are found in Africa, South Asia and South-east Asia extending to parts of Australia.

Description Wet-season form: Fore wing: apex subacute; termen slightly angulated just below apex, or straight. Upperside brown. Fore wing with two large subapical black spots, each with a smaller spot outwardly of pure white inwardly bordered by a ferruginous interrupted lunule; costal margin narrowly pale. Hind wing with a dark, white-centred, fulvous-ringed ocellus subterminally in interspace two, and the apical ocellus, sometimes also others of the ocelli, on the underside, showing through. Underside paler, densely covered with transverse dark brown striae; a discal curved dark brown narrow band on fore wing; a post-discal similar oblique band, followed by a series of ocelli: four on the fore wing, that in interspace 8 the largest; six on the hind wing, the apical and subtornal the largest.

Dry-season form: Fore wing: apex obtuse and more or less falcate; termen posterior to falcation straight or sinuous. Upperside: ground-colour similar to that in the wet-season form, the markings, especially the ferruginous lunules inwardly bordering the black sub-apical spots on fore wing, larger, more extended below and above the black costa. Hind wing: the ocellus in interspace 2 absent, posteriorly replaced by three or four minute white subterminal spots. Underside varies in colour greatly. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen in both seasonal forms brown or greyish brown: the antennae annulated with white, ochraceous at apex.

Ecology Colonel C. T. Bingham wrote of the genus in 1878- The Melanitis was there among dead leaves, its wings folded and looking for all the world a dead, dry leaf itself. With regard to Melanitis, I have not seen it recorded anywhere that the species of this genus when disturbed fly a little way, drop suddenly into the undergrowth with

closed wings, and invariably lie a little askew and slanting, which still more increases their likeness to a dead leaf casually fallen to the ground. Resident butterflies are known to fight off visitors to the area during dusk hours. This chase behaviour is elicited even by pebbles thrown nearby. The caterpillars feed on a wide variety of grasses including rice (Oryza sativa), bamboos, Andropogon, Rotboellia cochinchinensis, Brachiaria mutica, Cynodon, Imperata, and millets such as Oplismenus compositus, Panicum and Eleusine indica. Adults feed mainly on nectar, and in rare cases visit rotting fruits.

4) Common Palmfly (Elymnias hypermnestra) The Common Palmfly (Elymnias hypermnestra) is a species of satyrid butterfly found in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

Description As some other species in the genus Elymnias, the Common Palmfly presents a precostal cell on the hindwings and a hair tuft of androconial scales on dorsal discal cell of hindwings. This butterfly species is dimorphic, males and females do not look alike.

Males exhibit black colored upperside forewings with small blue patches and reddish brown color on upperside hindwings, while the females mimic butterfly species of the genus Danaus. Race caudata Male from Calicut, Kerala Race caudata (Western Ghats) Males and female resembles E. undularis, Drury, but both sexes have the wings longer, proportionately to their breadth, and the tail at apex of vein 4 on the hind wing longer. Upperside: male differs from E. undularis as follows: the subterminal and preapical spots on the fore wing white suffused slightly with dark scales; the terminal half of the hind wing tawny, more or less suffused with dusky black, which in some specimens forms a distinct border along the termen. Female similar to the female of E. undularis, but the black more extended; veins 2, 3, and 4 on the hind wing broadly bordered with black. Underside: Female differs from E. undularis in the more conspicuous broadly triangular white pre-apical patch on the fore wing, and in the prominence of the broad tawny terminal half of the upperside of the hind wing, which shows through a pale, sometimes pinkish-brown on the underside. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen brown, paler beneath and much paler in the female than in the male. Race undularis (Subhimalayas and Southeast Asia) Male upperside blackish brown. fore wing with a subterminal series of blue or sometimes slightly green elongate spots, curving strongly inwards and getting more elongate opposite apex, forming almost an oblique bar up to the costa. Hind wing: the terminal margin broadly bright chestnut, sometimes with a subterminal paler spot in two or more of the interspaces. Underside pale brown, the basal two-thirds of both fore and hind wing densely, the outer third more sparsely covered with dark ferruginous, somewhat broad, transverse striae. Fore wing with a broadly triangular pale purplish-white preapical mark; both fore and hind wings with a broad subterminal area purplish white. Hind wing with a small white

spot opposite middle of the costa and a more or less complete series of more obscure whitish subterminal spots. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen brown; abdomen beneath paler.

Female Upperside tawny, veins black. Fore wing : the dorsal margin broadly black; the apical area beyond a line curving from the tornus, round apex of the cell and a little beyond it, to the base of the costa also black, the wing crossed preapically by a conspicuous, broad, oblique white bar, and three subterminal white spots. Hind wing: dorsal margin dusky; terminal broadly, costal margin more narrowly black ; a subterminal series of four white spots. Underside tawny, with markings similar to those in the male; the pale whitish markings more extensive; the dorsal margin broadly without striae.

Range Peninsular India, sub-Himalayas, and southeast Asia.

Life history Food plants Cocos nucifera, coconut. Calamus pseudo-tenuis, Calamus rotang, Calamus thwaitesii, Phoenix loureiroi and Licuala sp.

Life cycle Larva Race caudata "Spindle-shaped, slender, transversely rugose and clothed with short stout bristles...; head large, surmounted by two stout horns, sloping backwards, slightly branched at the ends; a pair of long straight caudal spines setose like the body; colour bright green with longitudinal yellow lines more or less distinct and two rows of large yellow spots tinged with green and sometimes tipped with black on the back; head dark brown, with a yellow cheek-stripe and frontal-line." Race undularis "Elongate, fusiform, setose; green with longitudinal dorsal and lateral yellow lines, and a subdorsal row of yellow elongated spots, which are centred with red and posteriorly edged with blue; head brownish, armed with two erect brownish setose processes; anal segment also with two red slender hindward-projecting processes." Larvae are known to be cannibalistic.

Pupa "Suspended by the tail only, but in a rigidly horizontal position, regular with the exception of two small pointed processes from the head and an acute thoracic projection above them; colour bright green, beautifully ornamented with four irregular rows of large yellow spots bordered with red." (Davidson & Aitken quoted by Bingham.)

5) Lemon Pansy (Junonia lemonias) Junonia lemonias, the lemon pansy, is a common nymphalid butterfly found in South Asia. It is found in gardens, fallow land, and open wooded areas.

Description It is brown with numerous eye-spots as well as black and lemon-yellow spots and lines on the upperside of the wings. The underside is a dull brown, with a number of wavy lines and spots in varying shades of brown and black. There is also an eyespot on the lower side of the forewing. The wet and dry season forms differ considerably in coloration and even shape. In the wet season form the markings are distinct and vivid and the wing shape is a little more rounded. In the dry season form the markings are obscure and pale especially on the underside and the wing margin is more angular and jagged. This helps it camouflage in the dried leaf-litter. The lemon pansy is a very active butterfly and can be seen basking with its wings open facing the sun. It sits very low to the ground and can be approached easily. It feeds with its wings half open. It is a fairly strong flier and flies close to the ground with rapid wingbeats and often returns to settle back in the same spots.

Life cycle Eggs Eggs are laid singly on the underside of leaves. The egg is green and barrel-shaped with longitudinal ridges. 56

Caterpillar The caterpillar is cylindrical, uniformly thick and covered with rows of spines which are branched at the tip. It is dull black with a faint blue sheen and has dorsal stripe of a darker color. There is a distinct orange ring behind the head. The caterpillar stays on the underside of the leaf and if disturbed, rolls up and drops to the ground.

Pupa Pupation takes place in dense foliage close to the ground. The pupa is compact, with small conical processes on its rough surface. The pupa is well camouflaged with varying shades of brown with fine streaks and lines.

Foodplants Caterpillars feed on plants from the families Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae, Rubiaceae, Tiliaceae and Verbenaceae.

Annexure XII: List of Insects

Annexure 1 Butterflies of Kaziranga (Gogoi 2009) Sr.No. Common Name Scientific Name Status Family: Papilionidae 1. Common Birdwing Triodes helana cerberus NR 2. Lesser Batwing Parides aidoneus NR 3. Common Batwing Parides aruna astorion R 4. Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae NR 5. Great Windmill Atrophaneura dasarada ravana R 6. Common Mime Chilasa clytia C 7. Great Mormon Papilio memnor agenor C 8. Paris Peacock Papilio paris NR 9. Common Ravern Papilio castor C 10. Red Helen Papilio helenus NR 11. Yellow Helen Papilio chaon NR 12. Common Mormon Papilio polytes romulus VC 13. Lime butterfly Papilo demoleus C 14. Fivebar Swordtail Papilio antiphates pompilius NR 15. Common Bluebottle Zetides sarpedon C 16. Common Jay Zetides doson axion C 17. Lesser Jay Zetides evemon albociliatus R 18. Tailed Jay Zetides agammemnon C 19. White Dragontail Leptocircus curius curius R Family: Pieridae 20. Green Blackvein Pieris napi montana NR 21. Bath White Pontia daplidice moorei R 22. Indian Cabbage White Pieris canidia indica C 23. Large Cabbage White Pieris brassicae nepalensis C 24. Lesser Gull Cepora nadina R

25. Yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene NR 26. Painted Jezabel Delias hyparete hierte C 27. Redspot Jezebel Delias descombesi C 28. Redbase Jezebel Delias aglaia C 29. Spot Puffin Appias lalage C 30. Chocolate Albatross Appias lyncida C 31. Common Albatross Appias albina C 32. Eastern Striped Albatross Appias olferna NR 33. Psyche Leptosia nina C 34. Great Orange-Tip Hebomoia glaucippe NR 35. Common Emigrant Catopsilia pomona C 36. Mottled Emigrant Catopsilia pyranthe NR 37. Tree Yellow Gandaca harina assamica NR 38. Spotless Grass Yellow Eurema laeta sikkima NR 39. Three Spot Grass Yellow Eurema blanda silhetana VC 40. Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe contubernalis C 41. Scarce Grass Yellow Eurema lacteolasarinoides R 42. One Spot Grass Yellow Eurema andersoni andersoni NR Family Riodinidae 43. Punchinello Zemeros flegyas indicus VC 44. Plum Judy Abisara echerius prunosa C Family Nymphalidae 45. Glassy Tiger Parantica aglea melanoides C 46. Chestnut Tiger Parantica tytia tytia NR 47. Scarce Blue Tiger Tellervo gautama gautama R 48. Common Tiger Anosia plexippus VC 49. Plain Tiger Anosia chrysippus VC 50. Blue Tiger Tellervo limniace C 51. Dark Blue Tiger Tellervo septentrionis C

52. Striped Blue Crow Euploea mulciber C 53. Spotted Black Crow Euploea crameri bremeri NR 54. Common Indian Crow Euploea core vermiculata C 55. Long-branded Blue Crow Euploea deione NR 56. Double-branded Blue Crow Euploea harrisi hopei NR 57. Great Crow Euploea corus phoebus R 58. Magpie Crow Euploea diocletianus diocletianus C 59. Blue King Crow Euploea klugii NR 60. Blue Spotted Crow Euploea midamus brahma VR 61. Whitebar Bushbrown Mycalesis anaxias oemate NR 62. Common Bushbrown Mycalesis perseus blasius C 63. Dark-brand Bushbrown Mycalesis mineus mineus C 64. White-edge Bushbrown Mycalesis menstra R 65. Lepcha Bushbrown Mycalesis lepcha kohimensis NR 66. White-line Bushbrown Mycalesis malsara R 67. Plain Bushbrown Mycalesis Mycalesis malsarida NR 68. Lilacine Bushbrown Mycalesis francisca santana NR 69. Bamboo Treebrown Lethe europa niladana C 70. Common Treebrown Lethe rohria rohria C 71. Banded Treebrown Lethe confusca gambara C 72. Common Red Forester Lethe mekara zuchara C 73. Common Forester Lethe insana dinarbas NR 74. Scarce Red Forester Lethe distans VR 75. Bamboo Forester Lethe kansa C 76. Plain Threering Ypthima lyscus R 77. Large Threering Ypthima nareda sarcaposa NR 78. Common Fourring Ypthima huebneri C 79. Common Fivering Ypthima baldus C 80. Dark Catseye Zioetis scylax Hewitson NR

81. Nigger Orsotrioena medus C 82. Dusky Diadem Anadebis himachala NR 83. Common Evening Browns Melanitis leda ismene VC 84. Dark Evening Brown Melanitis phedima bela C 85. Branded Evening Browns Cyllogens suradeva R 86. Common Palmflies Elymnias hypermnestra undularis C 87. Spotted Palmfly Elymnias malelas NR 88. Blue striped Palmfly Elymnias patna NR 89. Jezabel Palmfly Elymnias vasudeva deva R 90. Common Faun Faunis arcesilaus C 91. Jungle Glory Thaumantis diores C 92. Common Duffer Discophora sondaica NR 93. Great Duffer Discophora timora NR 94. Tawny Rajah Charaxes polyxenia hierax C 95. Black Rajah Charaxes fabius sulphureus NR 96. Blue Nawab Polyura schreiberi assamensis C 97. Common Nawab Polyura athamas C 98. Pasha Herona marathus NR 99. Painted Courtesan Euripus consimilis R 100. Circe Hestina nama C 101. Constable Dichorragia nesimachus R 102. Popinjay Stibochiona nicea C 103. Grey Count Tanaecia lepidea C 104. Common Earl Tanaecia julii C 105. Plain Earl Tanaecia jahnu NR 106. Common Baron Euthalia garuda C 107. White-edge Blue Baron Euthalia phemius 108. Gaudy Baron Euthalia lubentina indica NR 109. Redspot Duke Euthalia evelina derma NR

110. Dark Arkduke Euthalia khasiana NR 111. Knight Lebadea martha ismene C 112. Clipper Parthenos sylvia gambrisius R 113. Commander Moduza procris C 114. Colour Sergent Parathyma nefte inara C 115. Staff Sergent Parathyma selenophora NR 116. Blackvein Sergent Parathyma ranga NR 117. Common Sergent Parathyma perius C 118. Orange Staff Sergent Pantoporia cama NR 119. Great Sergent Pantoporia siamensis R 120. Dot-dash Sergent Pantoporia kanwa phorkys R 121. Short-banded Sailer Neptis columella ophiana NR 122. Yerbury’s Sailer Neptis yerburyi sikkima NR 123. Common Sailer Neptis hylas adara VC 124. Sullied Sailer Neptis soma VC 125. Dingy Sailer Neptis vikasi pseudovikasi R 126. Dingrest Sailer Neptis harita R 127. Neptis carita burmana R Plain Sailer 128. Neptis omeroda R 129. Yellowjack Sailer Lasippa viraja C 130. Broad-banded Sailer Neptis sankarna quilta NR 131. Small Yellow Sailer Neptis miah NR 132. Common Lascar Neptis hordonia C 133. Common Map Cyrestis thydomas C 134. Wavy Maplet Chersonesia rahria rahriodes R 135. Maplet Chersonesia risa NR 136. Tabby Pseudergolis wedah NR 137. Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina VC 138. Wizard Rhinopalpa polynice birmana NR

139. Autumn Leaf Doleschallia bisaltide indica NR 140. Orange Oakleaf Kallima inachus NR 141. Peacock Pansy Precis almana VC 142. Lemon Pansy Precis lemonias VC 143. Grey Pansy Precis atlites VC 144. Yellow Pansy Precis hierta magna VC 145. Chocolate Soldier Precis iphita VC 146. Painted Lady Vanessa cardui C 147. Indian Red Admiral Vanessa indica NR 148. Common Jester Symbrenthia hippoclus C 149. Bluetailed Jester Symbrenthia niphanda R 150. Indian Fritillary Argyreus hyperbius NR 151. Rustic Cupha erymanthis lotis NR 152. Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha C 153. Vagrant Vagrans egista sinha NR 154. Cruiser Vindula erota Fabricius, NR 155. Common Yeoman Cirrochroa tyche mithila NR 156. Large Yeoman Cirrochroa aoris C 157. Leopard Lacewing Cethosia cyane C 158. Red Lacewing Cethosia biblis tisamena C 159. Common Castor Ariadne merione assama C 160. Yellow Coaster Acraea vesta NR 161. Tawny Coster Acraea terpsicore NR 162. Common Beak Libythea celtis C 163. Club Beak Libythea myrrha sanguinalis C 164. Slate Awl Hasora anura R 165. Common Awl Hasora badra C 166. Plain Banded Awl Hasora vitta vitta NR 167. Large Banded Awl Hasora khoda coulteri R

168. White-banded Awl Hasora taminatus NR, 169. Common Banded Awl Hasora alexis NR 170. Branded Orange Awlet Bibasis oedipodea aegina NR 171. Plain Orange Awlet Bibasi anadi VR 172. Small Green Awlet Bibasis amara R 173. Pale Green Awlet Bibasis gomata R 174. Orange Awlet Bibasis harisa R 175. Orange-tail Awl Bibasis sena uniformis R 176. Indian Awlking Choaspes benjaminii xanthopogon R 177. Branded Awlking Choaspes stigmata R 178. Similar Awlking Choaspes similis R 179. Caudate Awlking Choaspes subcaudatus crawfurdi R 180. Choaspes furcata R 181. Celaenorrhinus entellus simula VR Hooked Awlking 182. Celaenorrhinus saturatus R 183. Celaenorrhinus aurivittata NR 184. Large Snow Flat Tagiades gana C 185. Suffused Snow Flat Tagiades obscurus C 186. Common Snow Flat Tagiades japetus ravi C 187. Spotted Snow Flat Tagiades menaka NR 188. Water Snow Flat Tagiades litigiosa C 189. Yellow Flat Mooreana trichoneura pralaya NR 190. White Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis sinica narada NR 191. Dusky Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis phisara C 192. Malay Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis limax NR 193. Fulvous Pied Flat Pseudocoldaenia dan C 194. Chestnut Angle Odontoptilum angulata NR 195. Grey Pied Flat Coladenia laxmi laxmi R 196. Common Small Flat Sarangesa dasahara C

197. Indian Skipper Spialia galba Fabricius C 198. Giant Hopper Apostictopterus fuliginosus VR 199. Forest Hopper Asticopterus jama olivascens NR 200. Ampittia dioscorides NR 201. Bush Hopper Ampittia virgata myakei 202. Ampittia trimacula R 203. Ampittia maroides Scarce Bush Hopper 204. Ampittia dalailama R 205. Aeromachus kali 206. Aeromachus stigmata obsoleta NR Blue-spotted Scrub Hopper 207. Aeromachus jhora creta NR 208. Aeromachus discreta NR 209. Pigmy scrub Hopper Aeromachus pygmaeus NR 210. Brown bush Bob Pedesta pandita C 211. Chestnut Bob Iambrix salsala C 212. Indian Palm Bob Suastus gremius gremius R 213. Ceylon Palm bob Suastus minuta aditia NR 214. Malay Palm Bob Suastus everyx R 215. Forest Bob Scobura cephala NR 216. Malay Forest Bob Scobura phiditia R 217. Large Forest Bob Scobura cephaloides NR 218. Grass Bob Suada swerga NR 219. Narrow-banded Velvet Bob Koruthaialos rubecula cachara NR 220. Koruthaialos butleri butleri Dark Velvet Bob. 221. Koruthaialos focula RF 222. Bright Red Velvet Bob Koruthaialos xanites gopaka NR 223. Coon Psolos fuligo subfasciatus C 224. Watson’s Demon Stimula swinhoei R 225. Circular Tufted Demon Ge geta VR

226. Chocolate Demon Ancistroides nigrita 227. Ancistroides gemmifer R Gem Demon 228. Pseudokerana fulgur R 229. Udaspes folus C Grass Demon 230. Notocrypta quadrata R 231. Notocrypta pria R Small Demon 232. Notocrypta clavata R 233. Common Banded Demon Notocrypta paralysos C 234. Spotted Demon Notocrypta feisthamelii alysos C 235. Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia C 236. Giant Redeye Gangara thyrsis thyrsis NR 237. Palm Redeye Erionota thrax thrax 238. Common Redeye Matapa aria C 239. Purple Redeye Matapa purpurascens NR 240. Dark-brand Redeye Matapa druna R 241. Black-veined Redeye Matapa sasivarna R 242. Grey-brand Redeye Matapa shalgrama R 243. Tree Flitter Hyarotis adrastus prabus NR 244. Purple and Gold Flitter Zographetus satwa C 245. Zographetus ogygia ogygia R Purple spotted Flitter 246. Zographetus rama rama R 247. Vermiculata Lancer Pyroneura vermiculata VR 248. Red-Vein Lancer Pyroneura niasana burmana VR 249. Yellow-vein Lancer Pyroneura margherita NR 250. Purple Lancer Salanoemia fuscicornis R 251. Maculate Lancer Salanoemia sala sala R 252. Salanoemia noemi NR Spotted Yellow Lancer 253. Salanoemia tavoyana NR 254. White Tipped Palmer Lotongus calathus zalates VR

255. Yellowband Palmer Lotongus sarala sarala NR 256. Plain Green Palmer Pirdana distanti R 257. Nonsuch Palmer Cyrina cyrina parca VR 258. Dark straw Ace Pithauria murdava R 259. Light Straw Ace Pithauria stramineipennis NR 260. Branded Straw Ace Pithauria marsena NR 261. Silverybreast Ace Sovia albipectus prominens R 262. Sovia grahami R 263. Graham’s Ace Sovia lucasii magna R 264. Thoressa hyrie R 265. Northern Spotted Ace Thoressa cerata NR 266. Leech’s Ace Thoressa latris thandaunga VR 267. Gharwal Ace Thoressa aina debilis 268. White-fringed Ace Halpe insignis 269. Swinhoe’s Ace Halpe burmana Swinhoe NR 270. Moore’s Ace Halpe porus NR 271. Halpe homolea NR Indian Ace 272. Halpe veluvana veluvana R 273. Halpe flava R 274. Tavoy Sulphur Ace Halpe aurifera NR 275. Halpe toxopea R 276. Tenasserim Ace Halpe kusala C 277. Confusing Ace Halpe wantona NR 278. Halpe pelethronix pelethronix R Javan Ace 279. Halpe hieron R 280. Banded Ace Halpe zema zema NR

281. Halpe ormenes vilasina R Dark Banded Ace 282. Halpe zola C

283. Knyvett’s Ace Halpe knyvetti 284. Plain Ace Halpe kumara R 285. Sikkim Ace Halpe sikkima R 286. Halpe tytleri R Tytler’s Ace 287. Halpe arcuata R 288. Beggar’s Ace Halpe paupera R 289. Wax Dart Cupitha purreea NR 290. Veined Grass Dart Taractrocera ziclea tissara 1910 291. Taractrocera archias quinta R Yellow Grass Dart 292. Taractrocera aliena NR 293. Malay Dartlet Oriens paragola NR 294. Oriens gola C Common Dartlet 295. Potanthus fettingi 296. Branded Dart Potanthus rectifasciata rectifasciata R 297. Potanthu omaha NR 298. Lesser Dart Potanthus ganda NR 299. Potanthus taxilus R 300. Himalayan Dart Potanthus dara R 301. Common Dart Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa NR 302. Potanthus pallida C Pallid Dart 303. Potanthus zatilla 304. Potanthus flava R Yellow Dart 305. Potanthus sita NR 306. Chinese Dart Potanthus confucius dushta NR 307. Burmese Dart Potanthus juno R 308. Tropic Dart Potanthus tropica tropica C 309. Palni Dart Potanthus palnia palnia VR 310. Large Dart Potanthu hetaerus serina NR 311. Broad Bident Dart Potanthus trachala tytleri C

312. Narrow Bident Dart Potanthus mingo ajax R 313. Sikkim Dart Potanthus nesta R 314. Potanthus mara R Sikkim Dart 315. Potanthus amor VR 316. Pale Parm Dart Telicota augias NR 317. Common Palm Dart Telicota colon C 318. Dark Palm Dart Telicota bambusae NR 319. Dark Palm Dart Telicota ohara jix NR 320. Besta Palm Dart Telicota besta bina NR 321. Greenish Palm Dart Telicota ancilla horisha NR 322. Linna Palm Dart Telicota linna linna NR 323. Plain Palm Darts Cephrenes palmarum C 324. Paintbrush Swift Baoris farri NR 325. Dark Branded Swift Caltoris brunnea NR 326. Figure of 8 Swift Caltoris pagana NR 327. Yellow Fringed Swift Caltoris aurociliata 328. Sirius Swift Caltoris sirius C 329. Colon Swift Caltoris bromus R 330. Caltoris cara NR Colon Swift 331. Caltoris tenius NR 332. Full stop Swift Caltoris moolata C 333. Tufted Swift Caltoris plebeia NR 334. Purple Swift Caltoris tulsi R 335. Caltoris kumara C Blank Swift 336. Caltoris malaya NR 337. Philippine Swift Caltoris philippina belli NR 338. Baby Swift Polytremis minuta R 339. Contiguous Swift Polytremis lubricans 340. Yellow Spot Swift Polytremis eltola

341. Himalayan Swift Polytremis discreta 342. Great Swift Pelopidas assamensis R 343. Conjoined Swift Pelopidas conjuncta javana R 344. Large Branded Swift Pelopidas sinensis C 345. Small Branded Swift Pelopidas mathias C 346. Straight Swift Parnara guttatus C 347. Ceylon Swift Parnara bada C 348. Rice Swift Borbo cinnara C 349. Bevan’s Swift Pseudoborbo bevani C

Abbreviations -VC: Very common (abundant) C: Common NR: Not rare (uncommon) R: Rare VR: Very rare (endemic) *Multiple subspecies excluded.

Annexure 2 Habitatwise distribution of Orthoptera and Mantodea in Kaziranga National Park, Assam (Senthilkumar 2010)

Sr. Species Family Forest Savannah Grassland No. 1 Xenocatantops humilis Acrididae + + + 2 Phlaeoba infumata Acrididae + + + 3 Phlaeoba tenebrosa Acrididae - + + 4 Spathosternum prasiniferum Acrididae + - - 5 Atractomorpha crenulata Acrididae - + + 6 Catantops ferruginuous Acrididae + + + 7 Gesonula punctifrons Acrididae - + + 8 Phlaeoba antennata Acrididae + - - 9 Phlaeoba sp. Acrididae - + - 10 Trilophidia annulata Acrididae + - - 11 Caryanda sp. Acrididae + - - 12 Atractomorpha sp. Acrididae - + + 13 Tagasta indica Acrididae + - - 14 Oxya hyla hyla Acrididae - - + 15 Heiroglyphus banian Acrididae - + + 16 Eyprepocnemis alacris Acrididae - + + 17 Orthacris maindroni Acrididae - + + 18 Acrida exaltata Acrididae - + + 19 Oxya nitidula Acrididae - - + 20 Conocephalus maculatus Tettigoniidae + + + 21 Conocephalus (Xiphidion) Tettigoniidae + - - melaenus 22 Euconocephalus indicus Tettigoniidae - + + 23 Letana rubescens Tettigoniidae + - -

24 Hexacentrus unicolor Serville. Tettigoniidae + + - 25 Khaoyaiana sp. Tettigoniidae + - - 26 Hexacentrus major Redtenb. Tettigoniidae + - - 27 Elimaea (Orthelimaea) Tettigoniidae + + + securigera 28 Mirrollia sp. Tettigoniidae - - + 29 Teleogryllus sp. Gryllidae - + + 30 Gryllinae sp. Gryllidae + - - 31 Gryllodes sigillatus Gryllidae + + + 32 Hierodula sp. Mantidae - + - 33 Creobroter sp. Mantidae + - - 34 Statilia sp. Mantidae - - + 35 Tenodera sp. Mantidae - + + 36 Mantodea sp. Mantidae + - -

+ is Presence; - is Absence

Annexure 3 List of thrips from Kaziranga National Park, Assam (Singh and Varatharajan 2013)

Suborder: Terebrantia; family: Thripidae 1. Anaphothripssudanensis Trybom,1911 2. AyyariachaetophoraKarny1927 3. Chaetanaphothripsorchidii(Moulton,1907) 4. Craspedothripsminor(Bagnall,1921) 5. Dendrothripsstannardi(Ananthakrishnan,1957) 6. DichromothripsnakahariMound, 1976 7. Dichromothripssmithi(Zimmerman,1900) 8. Frankliniellaintonsa(Trybom,1895) 9. Fulmekiolaserrata(Kubos, 1893) 10. HydatothripsaureusBhatti, 1973 11. Lefroyothripslefroyi(Bagnall, 1913) 12. Megalurothripsdistalis(Karny 1913) 13. M.mucunae (Priesner,1938) 14. M. pecularis(Bagnall,1918) 15. M.typicusBagnall, 1915 16. M.usitatus(Bagnall,1913) 17. Microcephalothripsabdominalis(Crawford,1910) 18. Mycterothripssetiventris(Bagnall,1918) 19. NeohydatothripsraniaeBhatti,1967 20. Rhamphothripsparviceps Hood,1919 21. Sciothrips cardamomi (Ramakrishna,1935) 22. ScirtothripsdorsalisHood, 23. Stenchaetothripsbiformis(Bagnall,1913) 24. TaeniothripsmajorBagnall, 1916 25. Thripsandrewsi(Bagnall,1921) 26. T.coloratusSchmutz, 1913

27. T. flavidulus (Bagnall, 1923) 28. T. flavus Schrank, 1776 29. T. hawaiiensis (Morgan, 1913) 30.T. kodaikanalensis Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish,1966 31. Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis (Bagnall, 1915) 32. T. palmi Karny, 1925 33. T. tabaci Lindeman, 1889 34. Astrothrips tumiceps (Karny, 1923) 35. Helionothrips kadaliphilus (Ramakrishna and Margabandhu, 1931) 36. H. parvus Bhatti, 1968 37. Monilothrips kempi Moulton, 1929 38. Panchaetothrips indicus Bagnall, 1912 39. Phibalothrips peringueyi (Faure, 1925) 40. Retithrips syriacus (Mayet, 1890) 41. Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood, 1919 42. Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard, 1901) 43. Zaniothrips ricini Bhatti, 1967 Suborder: Tubulifera, family: Phlaeothripidae 44. Androthrips flavitibia Moulton, 1932 45. A. ramachandrai Karny, 1926 46. Araeothrips longisetis Ananthakrishnan, 1976 47. Araeothrips vamana Muraleedharan, 1982 48. Arrhenothrips longisetis Sen, 1977 49. Bamboosiella nayari (Ananthakrishnan, 1958) 50. Crotonothrips cacharensis Muraleedharan & Sen,1978 51. Dexiothrips madrasensis (Ananthakrishnan, 1964) 52. Dolichothrips indicus (Hood, 1919) 53. D. montanus Ananthakrishnan, 1964 54. Ecacanthothrips tibialis (Ashmead, 1905)

55. Eurynchothrips ordinarius (Hood, 1919) 56. Gigantothrips elegans Zimmerman, 1900 57. G. tibialis (Bagnall, 1921. 58. Gynaikothrips bengalensis Ananthakrishnan, 1973 59. G. cecidii Ananthakrishnan, 1968 60. G. uzeli Zimmerman, 1900 61. Haplothrips ceylonicus Schmutz, 1913 62. H. ganglbaueri Schmutz, 1913 63. H. gowdeyi (Franklin, 1908) 64. H. longisetosus Ananthakrishnan, 1955 65. Haplothrips (Haplothrips) montanus (Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1970) 66. H. tenuipennis Bagnall, 1918 67. Hoplandrothrips flavipes Bagnall, 1923 68. Hoplothrips fungosus Moulton, 1928 69. Leeuwenia ananthakrishnani Varatharajan and Sen, 2000 70. L. karnyiana Priesner, 1925 71. Liophloeothrips amoenus Ananthakrishnan, 1966 72. L. pavettae Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969 73. Liothrips aequilus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969 74. L. associatus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969 75. L. himalayanus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1970 76. L. infrequens Muraleedharan and Sen, 1979 77. L. mohanrami Bhatti et al., 2006 78. L. morulus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1970 79. L. ramakrishnae Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969 80. Membrothrips indicus (Hood, 1919) 81. Mesothrips ambasensis Muraleedharan and Sen, 1981 82. M. extensivus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1969 83. M. lividicornis (Karny, 1923)

84. Mimothrips orientalis Ananthakrishnan, 1949 85. Neodixothrips assamensis Sen amd Muraleedharan, 1976 86. Tylothrips indicus Sen & Muraleedharan, 1977 87. Xylaplothrips pusillus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1969 88. Dinothrips sumatrensis Bagnall, 1908 89. Elaphrothrips curvipes Priesner, 1929 90. E. denticollis (Bagnall, 1914) 91. E. greeni (Bagnall, 1914) 92. E. procer (Schmutz, 1913) 93. E. spiniceps Bagnall, 193 94. Meiothrips nepalensis Kudo and Ananthakrishnan, 197 95. Nesothrips brevicolis (Bagnall, 1914) 96. N. lativentris (Karny, 1913)

Annexure 4 Checklist of butterflies observed during this study

Sr. No. Common Name Scientific name Family 1. Zema Banded Ace Halpezema Hesperiidae 2. Pale Palm-Dart Telicota colon Hesperiidae 3. Dark Palm-Dart Telicotabambusae Hesperiidae 4. Common Small Flat Sarangesadasahara Hesperiidae 5. Black Angle Tapenathwaitesi Hesperiidae 6. Water Snow Flat Tagiadeslitigiosa Hesperiidae 7. Common Snow Flat Tagiadesjapetus Hesperiidae 8. Fulvous Pied Flat Pseudocoladeniadan Hesperiidae 9. Common Spotted Flat Celaenorrhinusleucocera Hesperiidae 10. Dark Velvet Bob Koruthaialosbutleri Hesperiidae 11. Chestnut Bob Iambrixsalsala Hesperiidae 12. ExtraForest Bob Scoburacephala Hesperiidae 13. Dingy Scrub Hopper Aeromachusdubius Hesperiidae 14. Restricted Demon Notocryptacurvifascia Hesperiidae 15. Spotted Demon Notocryptafeisthamelii Hesperiidae 16. Common BrandedRedeye Matapa aria Hesperiidae 17. SmallerDartlet Oriensgoloides Hesperiidae 18. Common Pierrot Castaliusrosimon Lycaenidae 19. Elbowed Pierrot Caletaelna Lycaenidae 20. Straight Pierrot Caleta(Pycnophallium)roxus Lycaenidae 21. Banded Blue Pierrot Discolampaethion Lycaenidae 22. Common Tit Hypolycaenaerylus Lycaenidae 23. Fluffy Tit Zeltusamasa Lycaenidae 24. Common Imperial Cheritrafreja Lycaenidae 25. Blue Imperial Ticherraacte Lycaenidae

26. Witch Araoteslapithis Lycaenidae 27. Dark Cerulean Jamidesbochus Lycaenidae 28. Silver Forget-me-not Catochrysopspanormus Lycaenidae 29. Zebra Blue Leptotesplinius Lycaenidae 30. Malayan Megisba malaya Lycaenidae 31. Common Hedge Blue Acytolepispuspa Lycaenidae 32. Acute Sunbeam Curetisacuta Lycaenidae 33. Purple Sapphire Heliophorusepicles Lycaenidae 34. Common Ciliate Blue Antheneemolus Lycaenidae 35. Lesser Grass Blue Zizinaotis Lycaenidae 36. Pale Grass Blue Pseudozizeeriamaha Lycaenidae 37. Dark Mottle Loganiadistanti Lycaenidae 38. Yamfly Loxuraatymnus Lycaenidae 39. Plum Judy Abisara echerius Riodinidae 40. Punchinello Zemeros flegyas Riodinidae 41. Large Yeoman Cirrochroaaoris Nymphalidae 42. Vagrant Vagransegista Nymphalidae 43. Common Baron Euthaliaaconthea Nymphalidae 44. Powdered Baron Euthaliamonina Nymphalidae 45. Common Earl Tanaeciajulii Nymphalidae 46. Common Bushbrown Mycalesisperseus Nymphalidae 47. Plain Bushbrown Mycalesismalsarida Nymphalidae 48. Common Evening Brown Melanitisleda Nymphalidae 49. Angled Red Forester Lethe chandica Nymphalidae 50. White-bar Bushbrown Mycalesisanaxias Nymphalidae 51. Common Faun Fauniscanens Nymphalidae 52. Nigger Orsotriaenamedus Nymphalidae 53. Angled Castor Ariadne ariadne Nymphalidae 54. Rustic Cuphaerymanthis Nymphalidae

55. Psyche Leptosianina Nymphalidae 56. Grey Count Tanaecialepidea Nymphalidae 57. Courtesan Euripus nyctelius Nymphalidae 58. Common Palmfly Elymniashypermnestra Nymphalidae 59. Grey Pansy Junoniaatlites Nymphalidae 60. Peacock Pansy Junoniaalmana Nymphalidae 61. Lemon Pansy Junonialemonias Nymphalidae 62. Yellow Pansy Junoniahierta Nymphalidae 63. Commander Moduzaprocris Nymphalidae 64. Staff Sergeant Athymaselenophora Nymphalidae 65. Colour Sergeant Athymainara Nymphalidae 66. Common Sergeant Athymaperius Nymphalidae 67. Unbroken Sergeant Athymapravara Nymphalidae 68. Common Four-ring Ypthimahuebneri Nymphalidae 69. Common Five-ring Ypthimabaldus Nymphalidae 70. Tawny Rajah Charaxesbernardus Nymphalidae 71. DingiestSailer Neptisharita Nymphalidae 72. False DingiSailer Neptispseudovikasi Nymphalidae 73. Sullied/CreamySailer Neptis soma Nymphalidae 74. Small Yellow Sailer Neptismiah Nymphalidae 75. Clear Sailer Neptisnata Nymphalidae 76. Plain Tiger Danauschrysippus Nymphalidae 77. Common or Striped Tiger Danausgenutia Nymphalidae 78. Blue Tiger Tirumalalimniace Nymphalidae 79. Glassy Tiger Paranticaaglea Nymphalidae 80. Dark Blue Tiger Tirumalaseptentrionis Nymphalidae 81. Common Indian Crow Euploea core Nymphalidae 82. Striped Blue Crow Euploeamulciber Nymphalidae 83. Magpie Crow Euploearadamanthus Nymphalidae

84. DanaidEggfly Hypolimnasmisippus Nymphalidae 85. Knight Lebadeamartha Nymphalidae 86. Common Nawab Charaxesathamas Nymphalidae 87. Wizard Rhinopalpapolynice Nymphalidae 88. Pallid Nawab Charaxesarja Nymphalidae 89. Leopard Lacewing Cethosiacyane Nymphalidae 90. Common Lascar Pantoporiahordonia Nymphalidae 91. Common Birdwing Troideshelena Papilionidae 92. Common Mormon Papiliopolytes Papilionidae 93. Common Bluebottle Graphiumsarpedon Papilionidae 94. Paris Peacock Papilioparis Papilionidae 95. Great Mormon Papiliomemnon Papilionidae 96. Tailed Jay Graphiumagamemnon Papilionidae 97. Lime Butterfly Papiliodemoleus Papilionidae 98. Yellow Helen Papilionephelus Papilionidae 99. Mottled Emigrant Catopsiliapyranthe Pieridae 100. Common Emigrant Catopsiliapomona Pieridae 101. Yellow Orange-tip Ixias pyrene Pieridae 102. Great Orange-tip Hebomoiaglaucippe Pieridae 103. Chocolate Albatross Appiaslyncida Pieridae 104. Painted Jezebel Deliashyparete Pieridae 105. Red-spot Jezebel Deliasdescombesi Pieridae

Annexure XIII: Images of Butterflies

Some Butterflies recorded by BNHS team during the Survey

Common Birdwing Troideshelena Paris Peacock Papilio paris

Kasambe

All photos by Dr. Raju Dr. by Allphotos

Unbroken Sergeant Athyma pravara Courtesan Euripus nyctelius

Colour Seargeant Athyma nefte Common Lascar Pantoporia hordonia

Common Earl Tanaecia julii Wizard Rhinopalpa polynice

Kasambe

Raju photos All Dr. by

Large Yeoman Cirrochro aaoris Knight Lebadea martha

Nigger Orsotriaena medus Angled Red Forester Lethe chandica 85

Witch Araotes lapithis Dark Mottle Logania distanti

All photos by Dr. Raju Kasambe Raju photos All Dr. by

Common Ciliate Blue Anthene emolus Long-banded Silverline Spindasis lohita

Swinhoe’s Forest Bob Scobura isota Pygmy Scrub Hopper Aeromachus pygmaeus86