17

Participatory land-use planning for priority landscapes of the

L. Usongo and J. Nagahuedi

Central Africa’s conservation entral Africa holds over 15 assessment of ecosystem representative- approach is based on land-use percent of the world’s remain- ness, biodiversity significance, socio- planning in 12 priority landscapes, Cing tropical forest, the second economic importance and geopolitical involving establishment of core largest contiguous forest on the planet. and strategic factors. The participatory protected areas surrounded by The forest provides food, raw materi- selection process involved national gov- multiple-use zones. als, freshwater and shelter for over 75 ernments, conservation organizations million people and is a major source of and local stakeholders. wealth for the region. However, forest resources are threatened by overexploi- A REGION RICH IN NATURAL tation, clearing for agriculture and com- RESOURCES mercial bushmeat trade, all exacerbated The tropical forests of Central Africa by high population growth. cover more than 193 million hectares As described in this article, the – an area almost four times the size Yaoundé process, the Central African of France (CBFP, 2006; ITTO, 2004). Forests Commission (COMIFAC) and About 76 percent of the total forest area the Congo Basin Forest Partnership is production forest (Table 1) (CBFP, (CBFP) provide an enabling institutional 2006). Lying at the equator, the region environment fostering regional coop- harbours among the richest concentra- eration in forest conservation and rural tions of terrestrial biodiversity in the development based on effective land-use world. Although records are incomplete, planning. The core of the Convergence the Congo Basin is known to be home to Plan endorsed by COMIFAC countries in over 10 000 species of plants, perhaps 80 2002 – the road map for conservation ini- percent of which are endemic. The region tiatives in the Congo Basin – is land-use supports the world’s largest assemblage planning in 12 priority landscapes, which of tropical forest vertebrates: about 1 000 are large ecosystems with consistent bird species (16 threatened, 36 percent biological and socio-economic features. endemic) and some 400 mammals which These landscapes were selected using an include 23 threatened species such as ecoregional planning approach based on western and eastern gorillas, chimpan-

TABLE 1. Total forest area and proportion of production forests in the Congo Basin

Country Total forest Production forest (million ha) Leonard Usongo is Senior Conservation (million ha) (% of total) Biologist, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) &HQWUDO$IULFD5HJLRQDO3URJUDPPH2I¿FH 19.6 12.0 61 (CARPO), Yaoundé, Cameroon. Central African Republic 6.3 3.5 56 Jonas Nagahuedi is Executive Secretary, Central African Forests Commission (Commission des Congo 22.3 13.0 58 forêts d’Afrique Centrale, COMIFAC), Yaoundé, Democratic 108.3 98.0 83 Cameroon. Equatorial Guinea 1.5 1.5 79 Adapted from a paper presented at the symposium 22.1 17.0 77 “Our Common Ground: Innovations in Land Use Total 180.5 137.0 76 Decision-Making”, 8–9 May 2007, Vancouver, Canada. Source: CBFP, 2006.

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TABLE 2. Human welfare indicators for some Central African countries Country Area Population Growth Fertility rate Age structure Life Infant Literacy (km2) (%) (births/ (%) expectancy mortality >15 years female) (years) (deaths/1 000 of age <14 15-64 >64 births) (%) Cameroon 475 440 17 340 702 2.47 4.39 41 56 3 51 64 79 Central African Republic 622 980 4 303 356 1.53 4.41 42 54 4 44 86 51 Congo 342 000 3 702 314 2.6 6.07 47 51 3 53 85 84

Democratic Republic of the Congo 2 345 410 62 660 551 3.07 6.43 47 50 3 52 86 66 Equatorial Guinea 28 051 540 109 2.05 4.55 42 56 4 50 89 86 Gabon 267 667 1 424 906 2.13 4.74 42 54 4 55 55 63

Source: CIA, 2007. zees, bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees) (Table 2). All countries in Central have a largely interdependent social rela- and forest elephants (WWF, 2002). Africa except Gabon (which has rela- tionship with the Bantu made complex The Congo is the world’s second richest tively high urbanization and per capita by ethnic rivalries. river system for fish (700 species) and income) have high population growth Bantu farmers practice slash-and-burn is distinguished by exceptional levels rates and a predominantly young popu- subsistence agriculture; forest is felled of endemism in both fish and molluscs. lation. Low literacy rates and lack of and burned, providing nutrients for the The Congo Basin forests also provide education, particularly among women, crops. In addition to food crops, many valuable global ecological services by are recognized factors in the high fertil- farmers maintain small plots of cocoa absorbing and storing carbon dioxide, ity rates and are critical issues facing grown under shade. Cocoa is grown for thereby helping to slow the rate of global both conservation and human develop- export and its production is thus linked climate change. ment in Central Africa. High population to world market prices. The Congo Basin contains four of Afri- growth rates ultimately also affect the All the nations in the region are depend- ca’s freshwater ecoregions identified environment. ent on extractive industries (oil, min- by the World Wide Fund for Nature Ethnically, the main tribal groups liv- ing, timber, wildlife and other non-wood (WWF, 2008) as globally outstanding ing in the Congo Basin are Bantu groups forest products [NWFPs]) for a large per- for their high diversity of freshwater and pygmies. Baka, BaAka and Bakola centage of their gross domestic product species. Between 75 and 95 percent of pygmies were formerly hunter-gatherers (GDP), almost all their foreign exchange the rainfall in the Congo Basin is esti- but are now becoming increasingly set- and much of their tax revenues. Well mated to come from recycled water gen- tled, both through their own choice and capitalized and technically competent erated by evapotranspiration within the because of government policies. They multinational corporations dominate region. In this feature the region differs dramatically from other major tropical Baka pygmies, watersheds of the world; the Amazon indigenous hunter-gatherers Basin, for example, recycles only about in the forests of 50 percent of its water (WWF, 2002). southeastern For this reason, central African forests Cameroon, are increasingly are probably more sensitive and less becoming settled resilient ecologically than other tropical moist forests.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT Central African nations rank among the lowest in the world on most human welfare indicators and among the high- D. ROUGE est in population growth and fertility

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most extractive industries except arti- percent of national GDP. Export of pri- Wildlife killed as food in Central Africa sanal gold and diamond mining. mary wood products from Cameroon, the amounts to 1 million tonnes each year The region’s forests are a major source Central African Republic, the Congo, (Eves et al., 2002). Bushmeat cheaply of local and national economic growth the Democratic Republic of the Congo provides a varied source of high-quality with revenues generated from logging, and Gabon generated US$995 million protein. It contributes between 30 and mining, hunting, fishing and trade in in 2003 (ITTO, 2004). 80 percent of the protein consumed by other NWFPs. The timber industry is Wildlife also provides important rev- forest-dwelling families in the Congo an important source of national rev- enue and employment, in particular for Basin. Furthermore, bushmeat hunting enue and employment in all countries rural communities. In most of Central is a low-risk economic activity requir- in Central Africa and will be a major Africa, the rural revenue produced by ing almost no capital investment and determinant of the future state of forests both legal and illegal trade in bushmeat producing very quick financial returns. in the region (Brunner and Ekoko, 2000). is probably equivalent or even superior Therefore sustainable village hunting Timber exports contribute at least 40 to that produced by the logging industry. has an important role in alleviating poverty among the most economically 1 Future biodiversity threat vulnerable people.

THREATS TO FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY w5 The rich resource base of the Congo Basin provides immense opportunities Bangui for economic growth and sustainable Douala development. However, much of the Yaounde w1d Malabo resource use and development has been w1f uncoordinated, uncontrolled and unsus- w1c w1e tainable. Future threats to biodiversity w3b w1a w1h w3a are estimated to be high throughout w1b Kisangani the region (Figure 1). Allowing further Libreville w1g w3c environmental degradation to occur will c3b w3f diminish the very resources on which w3d future economic development and the c3a w2b w3e livelihoods of the people depend. c1a c3c w2a The threats to the Congo Basin have a w2c c1d number of diverse and interlinked root causes. These include local and glo- c1b Brazzaville Kinshasa bal demands for forest products such c1c as timber, meat and ivory – which are Kananga frequently met through unsustainable 200 0 200 km means of production – as well as global mineral and oil markets. Many NWFPs Threats are also overexploited. Problems are Highest Guinean-Congolian forest region compounded by inadequacies in both High Moderate funding and capacity for sustainable Low resource management at all levels, c1a Gamba w1c Nki-Boumba w2c Léfini and the lack of alternative livelihood c1b Mayombe (Conkouati) w1d Ngotto w3a Lac Télé opportunities for local people engaged c1c Cabinda-Bas Congo w1e Sangha Tri-national w3b Mankanza Swamp c1d Tchibanga w1f Dja Faunal Reserve w3c Giri in unsustainable production. c3a Koulamoutou w1g Mingouli w3d Lac Ntomba Climate change is also likely to have c3b Lopé-Abeilles-Chaillu w1h Lobaye-Sangha-Likouala- w3e Mai Ndombe c3c Louesse Ivindo Buffer w3f Ubangui-Congo Buffer important impacts on forests and river w1a Minkébé Complex w2a Leconi-Bateke-Léfini w5 Bam-Djérem basins. Although the science of predict- w1b Odzala Complex w2b Leconi-Bateke ing the regional impacts of global warm- Source: WWF, 2002. ing is still in its infancy, most models

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Unsustainable might be lost or degraded over the next logging is a threat 25 years, assuming that most food in to wildlife habitat and thus to the Gabon is produced domestically (see livelihoods of Table 1 for the current situation). In rural people who Cameroon, increasing deforestation and obtain revenue and employment from forest degradation could affect more than wildlife (lowland 50 percent of forest. gorilla, Lobeke National Park, Cameroon) LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT The legal regimes in the different coun- tries of the subregion are committed to long-term sustainable use of forest resources and to biodiversity protection; D. ROUGE all require management plans for logging predict approximately a 1 mm per day regional species extinction for several and other management interventions. increase in rainfall across most of the large mammals, birds and reptiles. Land tenure systems remain a source Congo Basin by 2050, assuming a 1 per- Hunting is linked to logging, not only of tension, with both State ownership cent per year increase in carbon dioxide because of increased consumption of and traditional land rights in the same

(CO2) (Parenti and Hanna, 2007). bushmeat within concession areas, but area. There are essentially two parallel also because logging leads to improved systems: the formal system, regulated Unsustainable logging road infrastructure and increased move- by statute, in which land is owned and The World Resources Institute (WRI, ment of people, in turn facilitating the title is obtained; and a traditional system 2000) estimates that 50 to 90 percent of supply of bushmeat to urban markets and in which land use is regulated accord- central Africa’s forests outside protected enhancing the profitability of the trade ing to clan ownership. Legally, forests areas are under logging concessions; through increased turnover rates. and natural resources such as minerals, for example, 81 percent of Cameroon’s The human population in the region timber and wildlife belong to the State, forest is available for logging. Many is expected to double in 25 to 30 years while rural communities, living on land loggers are not accountable to forestry (CIA, 2007). If the demand continues to that they regard as theirs by ancestry, administrations and other stakehold- grow as expected, and consumers do not are allowed usufruct rights. ers seeking sustainable forest manage- or are unable to switch to eating meat In terms of land-use planning, forests ment. from domestic livestock, then hunting are divided into permanent and non- Unsustainable logging is also a threat to of wild game will increase in the future. permanent domains. In the permanent wildlife habitat. However, with current This will place most large mammals at domain are the State forests (forêts unsustainable levels of hunting, many risk of local or regional extinction. domaniales), including national parks, wildlife species will not survive long wildlife reserves, hunting zones, game enough to be impacted by habitat loss Agriculture ranches, zoological gardens, wildlife (Sayer and Campbell, 2004). Today, most people in the Congo Basin sanctuaries, buffer zones, strict nature rely on shifting cultivation and small- reserves, production forests and protec- Unsustainable hunting scale permanent agriculture to provide tion forests. Hunting for the commercial bushmeat their non-protein dietary needs. With The non-permanent forests (or in Gabon trade is the primary threat to animal population growing at the rate of 2 to 3 rural forest, domaine forestier rural) biodiversity in the Congo Basin. Pigs, percent per year, clearing for agricultural are those that are not legally required primates, rodents and especially duik- purposes will constitute a major threat to remain forest in the long term. In ers (small forest antelope) are the most to forests in the long term. Cameroon the non-permanent forests commonly hunted animals in the forest If agricultural practices do not inten- include all community forests and forests (Hochschild, 1998; Wilkie et al., 2000). sify and remain largely unchanged, belonging to private persons. Regional and international demand most forests in the ecoregion might be The forest legislation provides an (especially from China) for ivory is converted to agricultural lands by the adequate basis for habitat maintenance also driving the poaching of elephants. year 2025. Even in Gabon, where 60 over large areas, as it allows for the crea- Unsustainable hunting threatens local percent of the population of 1 million tion of a large permanent forest domain extirpation of many vertebrates and lives in cities, over 20 000 km2 of forest made up of forest management units and

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TABLE 3. Indicative list of funds mobilized by donors to support implementation governance and sustainable management of COMIFAC’s Convergence Plan since the launch of the Congo Basin Forest of natural renewable resources. Its main Partnership focus is to support a network of well-man- Donor Funding Purpose aged national parks alongside sustain- (million US$) ably managed surrounding forest areas France 30 Protected areas, trust funds, sustainable that include logging or mining conces- forest management sions, agricultural lands and community Germany >35 Protected areas, trust funds, sustainable forest management, community forests. The programme also provides development assistance to surrounding local com- Italy 60 Debt cancellation munities that largely depend on forest Netherlands 30 Community development, livelihoods, resources for their survival. CBFP is the capacity building, natural resource management highest-funded environment programme in the world, with contributions from European Union 45 Sustainable forest management bilateral and multilateral donors, inter- United States 128 Implementation of landscape programmes national conservation organizations and World Bank 25 Natural resource management, especially targeting protected areas and promoting research institutions (Table 3). sustainable use To ensure better coordination and Global Environment Facility (GEF) 17 Land-use planning in TRIDOM landscape implementation of the CBFP programme, United Nations Educational, 8 World Heritage programmes COMIFAC has established and coordi- 5EKGPVKſECPF%WNVWTCN1TICPK\CVKQP nates the following specialized regional (UNESCO) structures, which also bring together Conservation NGOs 120 Protected areas, trust funds, sustainable forest management, community other technical partners: development • the Conference on Central African Source: Rough estimates from project documents gathered 2002–2007. Moist Forest Ecosystems (CEFDHAC), dealing with management of consul- protected areas. Governments recognize ered with full responsibility to coordi- tative processes within subregional and traditional use rights, encouraging the nate all conservation initiatives in the national fora; definition of regimes for collaborative Congo Basin. The treaty also provides a • the Agency for the Development of management and benefit sharing with strong legal framework for negotiating Environmental Information (ADIE), communities. with bilateral and multilateral funding for the management and dissemina- agencies to establish long-term funding tion of environmental information to REGIONAL COORDINATION mechanisms for these initiatives. all stakeholders; The Yaoundé Declaration of 1999, signed The highest governing body for the • the Organization for the Conserva- by Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo Basin collaboration is the Heads tion of African Wildlife (OCAW), Chad, Congo, Equatorial Guinea and of State summit, programmed once every which addresses biodiversity conser- Gabon, provides an institutional frame- five years. The Council of Ministers vation and combats poaching across work for collaboration on cross-border under COMIFAC is convened every national borders; forest issues, creation of protected areas two years. COMIFAC has a regional • the African Timber Organization and development and implementation of secretariat in Yaoundé. (ATO), which covers issues related sustainable forest management. A regional umbrella structure, the to forest economics, forest certifica- In May 2000, the signatory States Congo Basin Forest Partnership, brings tion and trade in forest products; established the Central African Forests together governments, non-governmen- • the Network of Protected Areas in Commission (Commission des forêts tal organizations, research institutions Central Africa (RAPAC), which d’Afrique Centrale, COMIFAC) to and universities, donor agencies, the pri- provides linkages for management direct, coordinate, harmonize and moni- vate sector, indigenous forest peoples’ of national protected areas. tor forest and environment policies and groups and civil society to implement initiatives in the subregion. In 2005, the Congo Basin conservation initia- IMPLEMENTING CONSERVATION these six countries plus Angola, Burundi, tive. Endorsed at the World Summit for COMIFAC supervises implementation Rwanda and Sao Tome and Principe Sustainable Development in 2002, the of the Convergence Plan, which sets con- signed a treaty which transformed partnership promotes economic deve- servation priorities for the Congo Basin. COMIFAC into a legal entity empow- lopment, poverty alleviation, improved The plan includes six strategic axes:

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xharmonization of forest and taxation are established through a participatory of conservation, whereby policies and policies; land-use planning process involving the conservation practices are harmonized xknowledge of natural resources; government forest administration, local to ensure effective management of rep- xmanagement of ecosystems and re- communities, private-sector partners resentative assemblages of genes and forestation; such as logging companies and non- species within a particular ecosystem. xbiodiversity conservation; governmental organizations (NGOs). Coordination of transboundary pro- xsustainable valorization of forest Four international conservation NGOs grammes is regulated by agreements resources; provide technical assistance to national signed by member countries; they are xdevelopment of alternative economic governments in developing the land-use endorsed by national parliaments of activities and reduction of poverty. plans. WWF, for example, leads in seven member countries and thus legally recog- The Convergence Plan focuses on 12 of these areas, focusing its work on par- nized. The Governments of Cameroon, priority landscapes (Figure 2), many ticipatory land-use planning involving the Central African Republic and the of which cross national borders. They consultations with all stakeholders to Congo, for example, signed an agreement were selected based on sound scien- map out multiple-use zones and impor- establishing the Sangha Tri-national tific research and knowledge of species tant conservation areas within a network transboundary area (4.5 million hec- endemism, biodiversity uniqueness, eco- of protected areas. Sustainable natural tares) and arranging for its collaborative system resilience, threats and socio-cul- resource use by local communities and management – an important step towards tural factors, including relations between stakeholders such as logging or mining managing poaching and illegal logging indigenous forest communities and their companies is promoted in zones sur- in the subregion. environment. More than 150 scientists rounding conservation areas, to ensure The land-use planning process of from different disciplines and organiza- that local communities have access to the Sangha Tri-national landscape has tions participated in Congo Basin–wide natural resources and also benefit from resulted in the establishment of core surveys and data analysis which led to the forest revenues. protected areas covering 780 500 ha with selection of these priority landscapes. The transboundary landscape model surrounding multiple-use zones making In these priority landscapes, commu- was developed using a planning approach up about 3.7 million hectares (Figure nity forest areas and other use zones that focuses on the ecoregion as the unit 3). Broad management guidelines are being developed for the different forest

2 domains. The multiple-use zones include Priority landscapes in the Congo Basin community wildlife hunting areas and forest areas reserved for community forestry. Some of the communities, in (8) Chad southeastern Cameroon for instance, (6) generate significant incomes from (10) Central leasing community hunting areas for Cameroon African trophy hunting as well as through sale (1) Republic (2) of wood from community forests. The (3) Sangha land-use planning model will (5) Democratic be replicated in other selected priority Equatorial Republic Guinea landscapes in the Congo basin. (8) of the Congo Another vast priority landscape is (12) Gabon Congo the Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-national transboundary area (TRIDOM), which involves 14.5 million hectares of forests (4) (7) in six protected areas in Gabon, Cam- eroon and the Congo. The agreement (11) pertaining to this landscape, which con- 1. Sangha Tri-national 7. Mont Fouari tains ecologically rich protected areas 2. Dja-Odzala-Minkébé Tri-national 8. Estuaire du Rio-Muni at its core, was signed in 2005. 3. Minkébé-Mengamé 9. Boumbadjida-Binder-Lerelam 4. Mayumba-Conkouati 10. Bili Uere-Bangassou Transboundary agreements provide the 5. Campoma'an_Campo 11. Mayombe institutional framework for enhanced 6. Zakouma-Manovo-Gounda-St Floris 12. Lac Tela-Lac Tomba cooperation in key conservation activi-

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ties such as surveillance, research and these, about 4.5 million hectares are forest effective conservation of biodiversity, monitoring, park management and par- protected areas (889 782 ha in Cam- given increased pressures due to unsus- ticipatory management involving local eroon, 1 million hectares in the Congo, tainable exploitation practices in the communities in villages across borders. 515 000 ha in Equatorial Guinea and multiple-use zones that surround them. Each transboundary programme has a more than 2 million hectares in Gabon). Large blocks of natural habitat, on the technical committee bringing together Cameroon and Gabon have carried out order of millions of hectares are needed protected area authorities of t he countries UEKGPVKſETGXKGYUQHVJGKTPCVKQPCNRTQ- to maintain viable species populations involved. Transboundary committees tected area networks and have approved for resilience to large-scale disturbances work in collaboration with national gov- new networks as a result. such as climate change. The large land- ernments and COMIFAC for programme scape conservation approach adopted in coordination and implementation. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND the Congo Basin is aimed at effective 5KPEGVJGſTUV;CQWPFÃUWOOKVKP LESSONS LEARNED management of a network of protected more than 6.5 million hectares of new Isolated pockets of protected areas and areas along with promotion of sustain- protected areas have been created. Of forest patches alone do not allow for able use of natural resources in surround- ing forests for economic development, 3 livelihood support and the well-being of Sangha Tri-national landscape, with core protected area and multiple-use zones surrounding local communities. Success in managing large-scale and complex initiatives that cut across international boundaries and national Yokadouma priorities depends on an enabling institu- Nola tional environment, which must address national sensitivities and the geopolitical context in the subregion. The COMIFAC treaty signed by Central African leaders addresses some of the geopolitical and Dzanga strategic issues, forging cooperation and Dzanga- the commitment of member countries Sangha National Park to work together. COMIFAC is now a legal entity empowered by the govern- Sanghe ments to take decisions and formulate Lobeke Nouabale Ndoki regional policies to promote sustainable National Park National Park management of natural resources in the Congo Basin. The treaty is also an impor- tant benchmark towards harmonization of regional forestry laws, policies and governance systems. The Yaoundé process has been a Ouésso catalyst for regional cooperation and more efficient management of natural resources in the Congo Basin. Both the commitment of Central African leaders and support from the international con-

Cameroon Central servation community have been critical African Republic in its success. The existence of a Congo Congo Basin treaty has stimulated bilateral and multilateral funding agencies to com- mit funding for the Congo Basin basket 02550 km fund. One of the unique characteristics of the Core protected area Sangha Tri-national landscape Yaoundé process and Congo Basin con-

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servation initiative is the participatory International Tropical Timber nature in which the programme has been Organization (ITTO). 2004. Annual developed and is being implemented. Review and Assessment of the World Timber It institutionalizes dialogue, participa- Situation 2003. Yokohama, Japan. tion and empowerment of stakeholders Parenti, C. & Hanna, L.  6JG ſIJV including local communities in land-use to save Congo’s forests. The Nation, 22 planning processes at grassroots levels, October. Available at: www.thenation. and as shown by the example of the com/doc/20071022/parenti Sangha Tri-national landscape described Sayer, J.A. & Campbell, B.M. 2004. The above, communities are benefiting. science of sustainable development: local The process has also demonstrated livelihoods and the global environment. the value of rigorous scientific analy- Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University sis in the development of large-scale Press. conservation programmes. In the Congo Wilkie, D.S., Sidle, J.G., Boundzanga, G.C., Basin, priority landscapes and actions Blake, S. & Auzel, P. 2000. Defaunation were determined following methodical or deforestation: commercial logging and assessment of the socio-economic and market hunting in northern Congo. In R. biological value of key sites. Fimbel, A. Grajal & J.G. Robinson, eds. Experiences and lessons learned from The impacts of commercial logging on the Congo Basin would be useful for wildlife in tropical forests. New Haven, other regions confronted with similar Connecticut, USA, Yale University Press. problems, for example Latin America World Resources Institute (WRI). 2000. which also still has large areas of natural An overview of logging in Cameroon. forest. X Washington, DC, USA. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). 2002. Strategic planning – Western Congo Basin Moist Forest Eco-region. Eco-region Technical Report. Libreville, Gabon, WWF &HQWUDO$IULFD5HJLRQDO3URJUDPPH2I¿FH Bibliography (CARPO). WWF. 2008. Global 200. Internet document. Brunner, J. & Ekoko, F. 2000. Cameroon. Available at: www.nationalgeographic. In F.J. Seymour & N.K. Dubash, eds. The com/wildworld/global.html X right conditions: the World Bank, structural adjustment, and forest policy reform, pp. 59–80. Washington, DC, USA, World Resources Institute. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), United States. 2007. The World Factbook 2007. Washington, DC, USA. Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP). 2006. The forests of the Congo Basin – state of the forest report. Eves, H., Stein, J., Wilkie, D. & Bush Meat Crisis Task Force (BCTF). 2002. The bush meat crisis in West and Central Africa. Silver Spring, Maryland, USA, BCTF. Hochschild, A. 1998. King Leopold’s ghost: a story of greed, terror, and heroism in colonial Africa. New York, USA, Houghton /KHƀKP%QORCP[

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