sign in sign up
<<
Home , Orthography

The Role of Orthography in 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

The Role of Orthografe in Dislexia Topics

SWIDA • What is orthography? • How does poor orthographic awareness February 24, 2018 affect and development? • What are some informal and formal ways Nancy Mather, Ph.D. to assess orthographic awareness? University of Arizona • What are a few examples of interventions for students who struggle with orthography?

The study of the use of letters and the rules of Orthography is the system of marks that spelling a (p. 456). make up a printed language. For the English The Cambridge encyclopedia of the (Crystal, language, orthography includes upper and 1995, p. 456). lower case letters, numerals, and marks (p. 245). A standardized system for a specific language. The notion includes a prescribed Wagner, R. K., & Barker, . A. (1994). The development of orthographic processing ability. In V. . Berninger (Ed.) The system of spelling and punctuation. varieties of orthographic knowledge I: Theoretical and developmental issues (pp. 243-276). Dordrecht, Netherlands: A dictionary of language (Crystal, 2001, p. 244) Kluwer.

Definitions Orthographic: the visual representations specific to (not visual-spatial skills)

Orthographic coding: Representing a printed in memory and accessing the whole word, a cluster, or a letter.

Orthographic image: Representation of a specific written word in memory .

Source: Berninger, V. W. (1996). Reading and writing acquisition: A developmental neuropsychological perspective. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

1 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Orthography Orthographic Processing “…the written system of spelling patterns and correspondences between and print.” • quality of orthographic codes • the speed of accessing those codes Relevance to reading and spelling: The spelling system represents - • knowledge of both whole word and correspondences, patterns, and subword units meaningful parts of words (); it must be decoded for reading and encoded for writing.” Source: Hultquist, A. M. (1996). Orthographic processing in Source: Moats, L. C. (2010). Speech to print: Language reading disabled students and reading age controls: Whole word essentials for teachers (2nd ed.). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. and subword units. (Doctoral dissertation, American International College, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International, 57:1485A. Brookes Publishing Co. (p. 3).

Orthographic mapping: Starting point: forming the “…the process readers use to store connections between the written words for immediate, and the . effortless retrieval. It is the means by which readers turn unfamiliar written Phonemes: /m/ /a/ /n/ words into familiar, instantaneously accessible sight words” (p. 81).

Source: Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading Graphemes: m a n difficulties. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Ehri’s theory proposes: Similar constellations of symptoms have • The pronunciations of words are the anchors for been referred to as: written words in memory. • Readers learn sight words by forming connections word blindness (Kussmaul, Hinshelwood, between the letters seen in the of words Morgan, Orton) and the sounds of the pronunciations already stored in memory. visual dyslexia (Johnson & Myklebust,1968) • More advanced phonemic skills lead to more detailed analysis of the internal structure of words dyseidetic (Boder, 1973) and the acquisition of increasingly explicit and more fully specified orthographic representations. surface dyslexia (Castles & Coltheart,1973; Marshall & Newcombe, 1978).

2 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

In describing an intelligent 14-year old boy: He seems to have no power of preserving and storing up the visual impression produced by Three Subtypes of Reading Disabilities words - hence the words, though seen, have no Boder (1973) described three subtypes of significance for him. His visual memory for children with a : words is defective or absent; which is equivalent (a)a dysphonetic group lacking word to saying that he is what Kussmaul has termed analysis skills and having difficulty with word blind. I may add that the boy is bright and of average intelligence in conversation...The schoolmaster who has taught him for some (b)a dyseidetic group experiencing years says that he would be the smartest lad in problems with whole word gestalts, and the school if the instruction were entirely oral. (c) a mixed group. (p. 94). -Pringle Morgan (1896)

The Major Question 1997 Spence, Grade 5 How can this be a phonological processing problem when the student spells words exactly the way they sound?

Subtype vs. Subcomponent

• Make separable contributions to and spelling • contribute differently to reading and spelling difficulties Source: Scottish Rite Hospital for Children (2014, November). What is orthography, orthographic knowledge and orthographic processing? Dallas, TX: Luke Waites Center for • require different types of intervention Dyslexia and Learning Disorders.

3 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Dyslexia: a disorder at the sublexical Spelling (subword) level • Sequencing the sounds in order requires phonological processing, particularly phonemic segmentation • Recalling the visual elements of words requires Level orthographic processing. This is critical for the Orthography retrieval of predictable letter sequences that cannot be sounded out (e.g., -ght, -tion), as well as the irregular parts of words (e.g., the ai in said). Subword

Poor Orthographic Processing and Reading Poor Orthographic Processing and Spelling

Has trouble remembering sight words Has difficulty learning how to form letters Continues to sound out words after many Reverses letter and numbers exposures Has trouble copying Confuses low-image words (e.g., of and for) Spells words the way they sound, not the way they look Confuses similar-looking letters and words Spells the same word inconsistently (e.g., on and no) Violates rules of English spelling Has a slow word perception and reading Has poor spelling into adulthood rate

Differences in the amount of print exposure affect the development of orthographic Questions to Ask processing.

What methods have been used to Orthographic processing explains teach reading and spelling? additional differences in reading and spelling development independent of How much time does the student phonological processing. spend reading and writing? Source: Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1989). Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 402-433.

4 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Questions to Ask How Problems in Phonology and Orthography Affect Spelling • Has the student had adequate print exposure? Phonology Orthography • Are sounds sequenced correctly in most • does not put sounds in order • puts all sounds in the correct spellings? • adds or omits sounds sequence but uses incorrect graphemes • represents phonemes with • Are spellings more accurate when a phoneme • reverses letters (e.g., b and d) is represented by a single letter grapheme (f) incorrect graphemes and transposes words (e.g., saw and was) than a multiple letter grapheme (gh or ph)? • confuses similarly sounding speech sounds (e.g., /b/ and • spells common high frequency • Are spellings more accurate of regular words /p/ -voiced and unvoiced words like they sound, not like (nonwords and real words) than of irregular or consonant pairs) they look exception words? • confuses vowel sounds • regularizes the irregular element of words (e.g., “thay” for they, and “sed” for said)

Methods for Assessing Orthographic Processing Examples of Exception Words Exception or Irregular Word Reading and Spelling again people Regular Words: predictable spelling patterns that answer said conform to English spelling rules because their come though Regular but ambiguous: several possible could two spellings (e.g., ) does was eyes water Irregular: unpredictable or not rule governed great were spelling patterns in one or more element of the once whose word

Spelling Pseudoword and Irregular Word Spelling Regular Nonwords Irregular Words rab s___d (said) • Sequencing the sounds in order requires , particularly bem th__y (they) segmentation • Recalling the visual elements of words prig co__ (comb) requires orthographic awareness. This is critical for predictable letter sequences that velt w____d (would) cannot be sounded out (e.g., ght, tion) and the irregular parts of words (e.g., the ai in said). stam once

5 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Homophone choice tasks Pronouncing Nonwords (Olson, Kleigl, Davidson, & Foltz, 1985; Stanovich & West, 1989) Nonword or nonsense word reading is often described as a phonetic coding task. Which is the correct spelling for the flower? rows or rose What does is take to pronounce a nonword that Which is related? (rose: flour or flower) has regular grapheme-phoneme correspondence? Letter-string choice (Treiman), Circle the one that looks more like a real word (e.g., ffeb, beff) Example:

shomble (WJ IV Word Attack)

Three Stages of Nonword Reading Spelling involves phonology, 1. Grapheme parsing: Convert a letter or letter group into a grapheme string. (Involves orthography, morphology, and orthography) 2. Phoneme assignment: Determine what phoneme corresponds to each grapheme. (Involves orthography) Knowledge of phonology precedes 3. Phoneme blending: Convert phonemes into a orthography single, unified form. (Involves phoneme manipulation, not orthography).

Source: Coltheart, M. (1996). Phonological dyslexia: Past and future. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 13, 749-762.

List a few examples of spelling errors that seem more related to phonology and a few that seem more related to orthography.

Phonology Orthography Standardized Assessments of Orthography

6 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Test of Silent Word Reading - 2 (TOSWRF-2) PRO-ED itdogredsunfell chaosempathysurrendercostume it/dog/red/sun/fell/

Nine Subtests Varies by age level: Ages 6-7: Signs & Symbols, Grapheme Matching, Choice, Punctuation Ages 8-12: Homophone Choice, Punctuation, Abbreviations, Letter Choice, Word Scramble, Sight Spelling Ages 13-18: Punctuation, Abbreviations, Letter Choice, Word Scramble, Sight Spelling. and Word Choice

7 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Composites

Overall: Orthographic Ability (OA)

Ages 8-12 and 13-18 Forms have 3 more composites:

Conventions (CO) Spelling Accuracy (SA) Spelling Speed (SS)

Orthographic Processing and Retrieval Subsequently, when the reader encounters one of these letter combinations again, recognition of the image and its sound is activated. A person who has an Orthographic processing is the ability to rapidly orthographic weakness is less likely to perceive the and accurately form images of individual letters patterns; thus, no image is created in long-term and the spelling patterns of our language in memory or the image created is unstable. memory. This includes letter form and orientation, Subsequently, when he sees a word/word part (even common letter combinations, and syllable types. one seen many times before), it does not register as When a typical young reader sounds out a word a familiar or activate its sound. Consequently, this few times, he remembers the word as a whole. As person depends on sounding words out for skill increases, he notices and stores images of recognition, acquires sight words more slowly, and frequently seen letter combinations and patterns reads less fluently. (e.g., con, er, tion).

Orthographic retrieval is the ability to retrieve those English Words and a Traffic Light images from long-term memory, as in spelling. Once the writer has retrieved and written the word, he uses orthographic recognition to see if the word “looks Green: Phonically regular right.” For example, smoke and smoak are both words: (e.g., cat, swim) phonically accurate but only one is spelled correctly. Knowing which one is the correct spelling depends Yellow: Irregular but frequent on orthographic recognition. Research in reading disabilities has shown correlations among perceptual patterns (e.g., ight) speed, orthographic processing, Red: Irregular (e.g., once) acquisition, and reading fluency.

Adapted from a psychoeducational report by Dr. Lynne Jaffe, July 9, 2012

8 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

1. The word is right. Talk-to-Yourself Chart 2. When I stretch the word, I hear 3 sounds. (Adapted from Benchmark School, Gaskins) 3. There are 5 letters because it takes i-g-h to 1. The word is ______. represent the i sound. 2. When I stretch the word, I hear _____ sounds. 3. There are _____ letters because ______. 4. The spelling pattern is ight. 4. The spelling pattern is ______. 5. This is what I know about the vowel: the 5. This is what I know about the vowel is the only vowel in the word and it says vowel:______. its own . 6. Another word I know with the same vowel sound 6. Another word that I know with the same is:______. vowel sound is: ride. 7. Other words that share this same spelling pattern 7. Other words that share this same spelling are:______. pattern are: light, night, might, tight, sight, plight, fight, flight,and fright

Tracing Why Tracing is Effective

§ Attention 1. Requires student to pay attention and look at each letter § Memory (Orthography) 2. Reinforces the connections between the phonemes and § Sound-Symbol graphemes Associations 3. Student has to write word from memory, not copy § Handwriting

Write-Say Method (based on Fernald) Principles of Irregular Word Instruction • Select word and write it on a card. 1. Introduce one exception (red flag, • Pronounce the word and have the student look at trickster) word every several lessons. and say the word. Highlight or color code the irregular • Have the student pronounce the word while element (e.g., said). tracing it as many times as needed until he or 2. Have the student spell the word letter she can write the word from memory. by letter and then say the word. • Have the student write the word correctly 3 3. Gradually increase the rate to several times from memory and then file in a word new words each day. bank. 4. File in a word box and provide • Review the word periodically to ensure the systematic review of the words. student can read and spell the word with ease.

9 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Spelling Flow List

• Daily testing of a few words s ai d • Keep on list until word is spelled correctly 3 days in a row Draw a heart around the irregular part. • Review weekly. If incorrect, add Say the sounds of the regular letters back to flow list. and the letter of the irregular • Select words from students part. writing or a high frequency list. /s/ A- I- /d/

Principles of Spelling Instruction

Ø Select words at the instructional level Ø Concentrate on high-frequency words Ø Provide practice and review Ø Use multisensory techniques when needed Ø Have student practice writing words from memory

Rapid Word Recognition Chart Rapid Word Recognition Chart pretty said who there they what Chart composed of five rows of 6 irregular words said pretty there who what they Time how quickly the student reads the chart. there who they said pretty what Count and record number of words read successfully who what said they there pretty

Source: Carreker, S. (1999). Teaching reading: Accurate decoding and fluency. In J. R. Birsh (Ed.). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills. they there pretty what who said Paul Brookes.

10 The Role of Orthography in Dyslexia 02/24/2018 N. Mather, Ph.D. SWIDA

Common Points of Fluency Repeated • Designed for children who read slowly despite Methods adequate word recognition (Samuels, 1979). • Select a passage from 50 to 100 words long from a § Read while listening to the same book that is slightly above the student's reading level. material • Have student read the same passage several times. § Track print with finger or marker • Time the reading and count the number of errors. • Record the reading time and the number of words § Use high-interest material pronounced incorrectly. § Can use material at the instructional • Use two different color pencils for recording time and errors, or you make the points for time, a circle, and level the line for errors an "X" or square. Adapted from: Samuels, S.J. (1979). The method of repeated readings. Reading Teacher, 32, 403-408.

11