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This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Ethics and World-view in Identity-based Conflict in Nigeria A Practical Theological Perspective on The Religious Dimension of Violence in Plateau State Bruce Kirkwood Campbell PhD Practical Theology The University of Edinburgh January 2015 Abstract Severe intercommunal violence has repeatedly rocked Plateau State in the first decade of the new millennium, killing thousands of people. Observers have attributed the ªcrisisº to political, economic and social forces which breed pockets of exclusion and resentment. One notable model explains the violence through a paradigm of privileged ªindigenesº who seek to prevent ªsettlersº from the political rights which would give them the access to the resources managed by the state and the economic opportunities that this entails. While not taking issue with the diagnosed causes of conflict, the Researcher argues that there is a substantial body of evidence being ignored which points to conflict cleavage having opened up along the divide of Christian-Muslim religious identity in a way that the settler-identity model does not sufficiently explain. On the basis that perceptions are as important as facts when it comes to seeking a transformational peace process, he sets out to map world-views, identities and ethics of the warring factions. The researcher, motivated to undertake this research by his direct experience of the 2008 crises and three years experience as an adviser to the EYN©s rural development outreach in Adamawa and Borno States, posits that religion may indeed be part of the problem, and mosque and church must be partners to a solution. Forced to limit the scope of his research, he embarks on the initial stages of a practical theological investigation in order to review the conflict from a specifically religious perspective which might assist the Church in its efforts towards peace. Research is focussed on the perceptions of the pew faithful of two denominations in Plateau and Adamawa States and is based on an evaluation of interviews and focus groups which were held across a range of cohorts and settings in order to draw comparative conclusions. Respondents© backgrounds were both rural/urban, young/old, page i Muslim/Christian, and hailed from various ethnic groups (Berom, Tarok, Kamwe, Fali and Hausa-Fulani). Evaluation methodology drew heavily on Grounded Theory and also included elements of Critical Discourse Analysis. The success of the methodology hinged on the ability of the Researcher to establish rapport and trust with respondents. The applied research methods were foremostly designed to build theory rather than statistically test any hypotheses. The thesis detects evidence not only for the salience of religion as a factor in the way conflict unfolds, but of religion displacing ethnicity as the marker of identity in some locations and age groups. It also demonstrates how ethno-religious narratives stemming from former rural strife between nomadic and sedentary populations and urban conflicts resulting from the competition for indigene rights have been conflated and then further reinforced by the emerging threat of Boko Haram, resulting in a narrative of a unified Muslim programme for conquest, domination and forced conversion. In tune with an undertaking couched in practical theology, this research also identifies a number challenges to the Church©s witness and its ability to be a convincing force for reconciliation which arise from this. Eminently, there are signs that ethnocentric mores have been integrated into an emerging Christian identity, which engenders a monolatric perception of God and a penchant to reinforce boundaries rather than remove them. However, Christians also feel restricted by a Christian imperative to forego violence and beleaguered by an Islamic front which they perceive as having moral licence to perpetrate violence in pursuit of dominance. The researcher holds the conviction that it is the Nigerian Church who must embark on a theological process on her own to respond to some of these problems, and concludes with a number of propositions and recommendations to assist her on this voyage. page ii Lay Summary There has been recurring civil unrest in Plateau State, Nigeria since the turn of the Century. Various observers have attributed the crisis to political, economic and social forces which breed pockets of exclusion and resentment. One notable model explains the violence through a paradigm of privileged ªindigenesº who seek to prevent ªsettlersº from the political rights which would give them the access to the resources managed by the state and the economic opportunities that this entails. This however ignores a substantial body of evidence which points to conflict cleavage having opened up along the divide of Christian-Muslim religious identity in a way that the settler-identity model does not sufficiently explain. On these premises, the research undertaken in this volume seeks to take a fresh look at the evolving conflict from a religious angle, and by applying the so-called pastoral cycle draws some conclusions as to how the local Church might contribute to transforming the conflict and building peace. A main thrust is the exploration of perceptions. To this end church- and mosque-goers in several locations in Plateau and Adamawa State were engaged in recorded interviews and focus group discussions, and the dialogues were subsequently evaluated by applying an array of methods used for qualitative data analysis. The findings detect evidence not only for the prevalence of religion as a factor in the way conflict unfolds, but of religion displacing ethnicity as the marker of identity in some locations and age groups. They also show how Christians' perceptions of earlier possibly non-religious conflicts have evolved, particularly in light of the growing menace of Boko Haram, to form an understanding of being under threat of a pan-Muslim programme of conquest, domination and forced conversion. Intriguingly, religious identity is nevertheless lived and experienced much in the way as ethnic identity formerly was. This poses a particular challenge to the Church's page iii calling to be a force for reconciliation and peace. Many of its members feel beleaguered and hobbled by moral injunctions which do not permit them to respond in kind to an aggressive Islamic front perceived as having moral licence to use whatever force of violence it deems necessary in pursuit of dominance. The dissertation makes a number of proposals and recommendations which might serve as a foundation for the Nigerian Church to define an appropriate theological response to her predicament. page iv Acknowledgements I am greatly indebted to my thesis supervisors Dr Cecelia Clegg and Prof Em. Jack Thompson who have mentored my work with exemplary patience and encouragement throughout my endeavour, and have been very supportive as I conducted my work in a challenging geographical context as a part-time student. I am also obligated to many who gave me unwavering support throughout my fieldwork. In the first place, there are Prof Andrew Warren, Dr Matthew Harley and Dr David Crosier of the translations department of TCNN in Bukuru, Dr Samuel Dali and Dr Toma Ragnjiya of the Kulp Bible School in Kwarhi, and Prof Danny McCain and Dr Ibrahim Hassan of the University of Jos who generously allowed me to use their facilities as a base for my research preparations and brought me together with the right people to assist my actual research. Research was carried out by means of interviews and focus sessions in a total of six different languages across Plateau and Adamawa States. I was able to assemble teams of diligent and competent men and women who assisted me in convening interactions with respondents, carried out translation work and otherwise enlightened me on issues of culture and security. In Plateau State I thus extend my heartfelt thanks to Ms Sarah Niya, Rev Christopher Sohdan, Rev Yarling Yilchang, Mr Daniel Fajing, Ms Margaret Mado and Mr Samson Yunana Dung as well as Alh. Mohammed, Alh. Shehu, Ml Abubakar and Ml Isa. In Adamawa State I similarly express my appreciation of Rev Anthony Ndamsai, Mr Steven Doma, Rev Mark Zira, Mr Barnabas Joli and Mr Peter Kwaji. It is with great sadness and indeed anger that I have perceived how Boko Haram has ravished their ancestral homelands in the time since my field research, and driven out them, their families and countless of their page v kinsfolk, who have been forced to seek refuge in other towns and cities across Nigeria and Cameroon. I wish to express my gratitude the COCIN and EYN parishes and their members who welcomed me as a researcher and former missionary onto their premises and extended the trust and openness which enabled me to record their private and communal experiences. At least one of these parishes has since been destroyed and its members scattered or killed. Although outwith the core geographical focus of my study, many have since fled to the city of Jos. Destined to become participants in the next chapter of the conflict I have endeavoured to analyse, it is my prayer that they may be a force for the good.

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