Selbyana 26(1,2): 189-195. 2005.

MAJOR THREATS TO ENDANGERED ORCHIDS OF VICTORIA,

MICHAEL DUNCAN* Flora Ecology Research, Arthur Rylah Institute, Department of Sustainability and Environment, 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia 3084. Email: [email protected]

ANDREW PRITCHARD Department of Sustainability and Environment, 78 Henna Street, Warrnambool, Victoria, Australia 3280.

FIONA COATES Flora Ecology Research, Arthur Rylah Institute, Department of Sustainability and Environment, 123 Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia 3084.

ABSTRACT. Endangered terrestrial orchids in the public network of parks and reserves, on private land, along roadsides, and in small vegetation remnants in Victoria, Australia, face a range of threats. These include weed invasion, grazing by invertebrates and native and introduced herbivores, road maintenance, and small population size resulting from habitat fragmentation. In addition, these areas have been affected often and adversely by altered fire regimes or hydrology, introduced pathogens, mini ng and forestry activ­ ities, recreational activities, and site disturbance. Many species are under threat of illicit collection, and many suffer from inadequate public understanding of basic orchid biology, of conditions required for seedling recruitment, and of the need to maintain specific pollinators and mycorrhizal fungi.

Key words: , threats, endangered, Victoria, conservation

INTRODUCTION facing terrestrial orchids in Victoria include land clearing, habitat fragmentation and small popu­ The state of Victoria, in the southeast corner lation size, weed invasion, grazing by inverte­ of Australia, contains a diverse orchid flora with brates and native and introduced herbivores, site more than 370 taxa recognized. Orchids are disturbance, mining, forestry, recreational activ­ among Victoria's natural treasures and must be ities, altered fire regimes or hydrology, and in­ counted among its most threatened assets (Back­ troduced pathogens, These threats are com­ house & Jeanes 1995). Almost half (170) of Vic­ pounded by a general lack of understanding torian terrestrial orchid taxa have a state conser­ about the biology of native orchids, their my­ vation status of rare (R), vulnerable (V), endan­ corrhizal associations, and the requirements of gered (E), or extinct (X), using criteria of the their pollinators. Unfortunately, these threats International Union for the Conservation of Na­ rarely occur in isolation. ture and Natural Resources, also known as the In the past 15 years, a number of people have World Conservation Union (IUCN 2001, TABLE undertaken assessments of the processes threat­ 1). The perilous status of such a large proportion ening the rarest orchids in Victoria (Beardsell & of our orchid flora reflects the serious and wide­ Muir 1992; Backhouse et al. 1999a, J 999b, ranging threats and threatening processes that 1999c; Berwick et al. 1999; Hill et al. 1999; adversely affect the quality and quantity of nat­ Ingeme & Backhouse 1999; Todd 2000; Craig ural vegetation. Although the problems being & Pritchard 2001a; Coates et al. 2002; Duncan faced by orchids are shared equally by other et al. 2003). In this paper, we describe a range threatened and animals, orchids have the of threats and threatening processes present in potential to act as flagship species, that is, to Victoria, using examples of threatened terrestrial highlight broader nature conservation and bio­ orchid populations. Based on DSE (2003), both diversity issues relating to a decline in the extent the state and national threatened status of a tax­ and quality of ecosystems. on are bracketed following the first mention of The major threats and threatening processes each orchid taxon. Many orchid taxa, which are yet to be formally described, are also yet to re­ ceive a national threatened status, Nomenclature * Corresponding author. follows that of Ross and Walsh (2003). 189 190 SELBYANA Volume 26(1,2) 2005

TABLE I. Summary of the conservation status of Vic­ cropping), less than 1 % of the pre-European torian orchids at the state and national level, Aus­ cover ofWBPG remains (NRE 1997). Tiny rem­ tralia, 2003. nants are restricted largely to roadsides, rail re­ serves, cemeteries, and unimproved paddocks Victoria Australia that have so far escaped cultivation and heavy DSE FFG EPBC grazing (Scarlett & Parsons 1993). Although ca. Conservation status (2003) (1988) (1999) 12% of Victoria is protected in national parks or Presumed extinct (X) 1 I 8 3 reserves, these include very little WBPG habitat. Endangered (E) 73 50 27 Thus most of the remaining fraction continues Vulnerable (V) 41 13 24 to be degraded by stock grazing, weed invasion, Rare (R) 45 2 o and site disturbance. The WBPG has a high lev­ TOTAL 170 73 54 el of endemism, with ca. 50% of orchid species Source: DSE (2003). occurring nowhere else (Rouse 2002). As a re­ Note: DSE = Victorian Department of Sustainability sult, 10 nationally threatened orchid species and Environment; conservation assessment of orchids cling to survival in this region, while another by the DSE, using IUCN 2001 criteria. two species are extinct. FFG = Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act For example, basaltica D.L. Jones 1988; orchids listed under the FFG. and M.A. Clem. (E), P. sp. aU. bicolor (E), P. EPBC = Commonwealth Environment Protection sp. aft'. cycnocephala (E), and P. sp. aU. mutica and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999; orchids listed under the EPBe. (E) are all endemic to WBPG and were probably once widespread across the ecosystem. Today they occur together at the same single roadside DISCUSSION site, associated with a small, stony rise sur­ rounded by farmland (Ingeme & Backhouse In surveying the threats currently facing na­ J 999, Duncan et a1. 2003). Two of these taxa (P. tive orchids in Victoria, Australia, we found a sp. aU. cycnocephala and P. sp. aff. mutica) oc­ variety of factors but list the following as most cur nowhere else, while P. basaltica occurs on significant. a second stony rise further along the same road­ side, and P. sp. aff. bicolor also occurs in an Land Clearing and Habitat Fragmentation unimproved paddock more than 100 km away. The roadside site is less than 0.5 ha in area, and Habitat destruction is the single greatest threat within this site, all four species are restricted to to the Victorian orchid flora (Backhouse & the moss beds and shallow soils associated with Jeanes 1995). In little more than 150 years of the edges of exposed basalt rocks. European settlement, the natural vegetation in Protection of this site is critical. Until recently Victoria has been altered enormously. Land there was opportunistic grazing of the roadside clearing of more than 60% of the state for ag­ by stock from surrounding farmland. Also a po­ riculture and urban development has greatly re­ tential exists for fertilizer drift or run-off from duced the extent of many habitats. For example, these properties, as well as herbicide drift asso­ early settlers grazed their stock extensively on ciated with weed spraying along the road. This Victoria's native grasslands and grassy wood­ roadside also forms part of a strategic firebreak lands and forests. They cut down the trees for in the district and as a result has been burnt an­ housing and mining during the gold rush of the nually by volunteers for the last 30 years. The 18505, and then "improved" the pasture by in­ timing of this management practice appears to troducing exotic grasses and applying fertilizers. have fortuitously favored native species over Unfortunately some of these habitats were also weeds. the most orchid-rich, and today they contain the highest proportion of threatened species. Woolly Tea-Tree Scrub Woolly Tea-Tree Scrub (WTTS), dominated Western Basalt Plains Grassland by a dense overs tory of Leptospermum laniger­ The Western Basalt Plains Grassland (WBPG) um (Sol. ex Aiton) Sm., was once widespread in has a flora unique within Victoria. While mem­ swamps and along watercourses on moist, black, bers of the Myrtaceae, Mimosaceae, and Epa­ peaty, alkaline soils in coastal areas of southern cridaceae families dominate ecosystems across Victoria (Coates et al. 2002, Duncan et al. much of the state, the WBPG is dominated by 2003). This habitat is well suited to agriculture. Poaceae and Asteraceae families, with trees and As a result, what must once have been contin­ shrubs restricted to water courses and rocky out­ uous populations of the nationally threatened or­ crops (Rouse 2002). As a result of clearing this chids-Corybas sp. aU. diemenicus (E), Pter­ fertile land for agriculture (principally grazing or astylis sp. aff. furcala (V), and P. tenuissima SECOND IOCC PROCEEDINGS 191

Nicholls (V)-are now widely scattered, isolated diata D. Don), can cause significant changes to populations. Only isolated pockets of WTTS re­ the vegetation structure and hydrology of !lites. main, commonly as small stands in the wettest corners of active grazing paddocks. Draining Altered Fire Regimes and clearing have led to a highly fragmented dis­ tribution across ca. 600 km of Victoria's south­ Fire is a major environmental factor in Aus­ ern coastline. For example, C. sp. aff. diemeni­ tralia, and major habitats for terrestrial orchids cus is only known from six populations, sepa­ are burnt regularly (Jones 1988). A critical fac­ rated by a minimum of ca. 80 km. These pop­ tor is the timing and frequency of fires (Back­ ulations are now almost certainly genetically house & Jeanes 1995). Most Victorian orchids isolated. In addition, because of the small size have evolved in a pattern of summer (Decem­ of these habitat fragments, these orchids are ex­ ber-February) fires, occurring when most orchid posed to a range of other threats (particularly species are dormant. In many areas, however, weed invasion, site disturbance, and altered hy­ this fire pattern has been altered or replaced with drology). As a result, the thick L. lanigerum a no-fires regime, particularly close to urban ar­ overstory is highly degraded at two sites. eas (Lavarack 1998). The tendency has been to move to a slash/spray regime in urban areas, and such a regime requires careful management to Weed Invasion avoid selection for weed species (particularly aggressive pasture grasses). As a result, main­ Weed invasion, a critical threat to orchids taining a "natural" burning regime becomes across almost all Victorian habitats, is particu­ very difficult when managing threatened orchid larly threatening to the WBPG and WTTS hab­ populations in urban areas. Poor urban planning itats. Invasion of a habitat by weeds gradually with respect to conservation values has seen changes the species composition of native veg­ housing developments surround tiny patches of etation through a process of competition and native vegetation; and in an increasing culture elimination. Weeds dominate by directly out­ of litigation, gaining permission to burn sites can competing native species (including orchids), be near impossible. changing the vegetation type and structure, and! Prasophyllum spicatum R.J. Bates and D.L. or altering microhabitats, which can indirectly Jones (V) occurs in coastal heath and heathy disfavor orchids. In addition, weed invasion can woodland on sandy loams, among the outer alter the fire regime by significantly increasing southeast suburbs of Melbourne. Flowering is the biomass of dry vegetation over summer. stimulated by hot summer fires (Jeanes & Back­ Weeds also can promote soil erosion by forming house 2000), which in the past would have burnt a dense canopy that eliminates the natural these sites every 5-10 years. With the urbani­ groundcover (Cochrane 2001), and provide food zation of the surrounding land, however, fire has and shelter for introduced herbivores that in tum been replaced by biennial slashing of the vege­ may exert their own pressure on the native veg­ tation. Slashing can stimulate P. spicatum flow­ etation (Blood 2001). ering, but it also favors many weed species, par­ Significant weed species that are adversely af­ ticularly grasses such as Briza maxima and Vul­ fecting orchid populations in Victoria include in­ pia bromo ides and perennial herbs such as Wat­ troduced grasses. For example, Phalaris spp., sonia spp., which can quickly come to dominate Vulpia bromoides (L.) Gray, Briza maxima L., sites. and Nasella trichotoma (Nees) Hack. ex Are­ chav. invade from surrounding agricultural land, Altered Hydrology particularly on the WBPG. Species such as rag­ wort (Senecio Jacobaea L.), Scotch thistle (Cy­ Woolly tea-tree scrub (WTTS), a habitat that nara cardunculus L.), and watsonia or Watsonia has suffered significantly from altered hydrolo­ meriana (L.) Mill. var. bulbullifera (J.w. Mar­ gy, naturally occurs in swampy areas and along thews & L. Bolus) D.A. Cooke commonly in­ creeklines. As the surrounding land has been vade a range of habitats. In coastal areas, com­ cleared for agriculture and forestry, drainage mon weeds include African boneseed or Chy­ patterns have been changed significantly at a santhemoides monilifera subsp. monilifera (L.) landscape level, resulting in the environment Norl., blackberries (Rubus fruticosus spp. aggre­ disfavoring the persistence of WTTS. At the gate), and flatweeds (Hyposchaeris radicata L.). same time, the rise of agriculture in these areas Larger shrubs and trees, such as coast wattle or has had the secondary effect of introducing Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willd. subsp. so­ weeds and farm stock to the WTTS habitat. Be­ phorae (Labill.) Court, mirror bush (Coprosma cause some of these weed species use large repens A. Rich., and Monterey pine (Pinus ra- amounts of water, the net result is that the site 192 SELBYANA Volume 26(1,2) 2005

dries out, and the eXlstmg WTTS habitat be­ Committee of Management is needed to ensure comes degraded. Drier sites are further predis­ protection of the native orchid. posed to invasion by more weed species and are A number of Victorian rare plants occur in placed in a spiral of decline. Similarly, grazing small, rural cemeteries. One example is Praso­ and trampling by stock can destroy vegetation phyllum suaveolens D.L. Jones and R.J. Bates and cause increased erosion, leading to a gradual (E), which occurs in a small cemetery in central decline in stand size and quality. Victoria. Three groups have a role in the man­ In far eastern Victoria, one nationally threat­ agement of this site. First, the Cemetery Trust is ened orchid species is under threat from altered responsible for the running and general upkeep hydrology in its swampy habitat. Cryptostylis of the cemetery. The local shire council is re­ hunteriana Nicholls (VE) occurs in spear grass­ sponsible for mowing/slashing and site works, tree (Xanthorrhoea resinosa Pers.) swamps in and the Department of Sustainability and Envi­ coastal areas of Victoria, New South Wales ronment is responsible for managing areas with (Jeanes & Backhouse 2000), and Queensland in significant vegetation. The potentially competing eastern Australia (Logan 1998). This orchid, interests of these groups must be accommodated however, is threatened in all three states. In Vic­ when planning for the protection of this species. toria, C. hunteriana occurs in swamps around a In all cases, the security of these sites and of coastal holiday town. Unfortunately, as the pop­ the threatened orchids can change dramatically ularity of this area as a holiday destination has as a result of something as simple as the current increased, so too has the pressure on C. hunter­ on-site manager leaving. It is critical that all par­ iana populations. As the town expands, new ties are kept informed about the orchid popula­ roads are built, and land is cleared for new hous­ tion on their land, its progress, and its needs. In ing subdivisions. This has resulted in many addition, everyone from the caretaker to the swamps being either purposely drained for de­ board and management need to be educated re­ velopment, or inadvertently degraded by drain­ garding the impact of the timing and methods of age pattern changes, resulting from the creation particular management practices to ensure the of the surrounding road network. Cryptostylis protection of each orchid. hunteriana appears well adapted to an environ­ ment that experiences seasonal inundation, and Site Disturbance the removal of this event has seen the reduction and/or elimination of the species at some sites. Site disturbance covers a wide range of threats, which can act alone or in combination Competing Management Activities to adversely affect orchids or their habitat. Remnant vegetation remains on the urban In a landscape where huge areas have been fringe of Melbourne and other regional towns, cleared for urban or agricultural development, it and often these urban fringe areas are most at is rare, outside of Victoria's system of parks and risk from site disturbance. For example, a few reserves, for remnant vegetation to survive, un­ small populations of Prasophyllum spicatum oc­ less the site serves a dual purpose. For example, cur in heathy grassland around the town of Crib Cryptostylis erecta R. Br. (E) and Cryptostylis Point. These sites are under enormous pressure hunteriana occur in a swamp in eastern Victoria from the activities of the surrounding commu­ that has survived, because it is part of the land nity. Prasophyllum spicatum sites are used for that forms the buffer around the end of the run­ dumping rubbish and garden waste, which way of a regional airport. Thus, for many years smothers plants and introduces weeds. They are this area has been managed solely for the pur­ slashed a few times a year to reduce their fire pose of airport safety, but luckily this has not risk. They play host to the BMX bikes of the caused any significant change to the site hy­ local children; and even worse, some local drology, and the slashing regime has not disfa­ youths have taken to driving their cars in the vored these orchid species. mud on one site during the wet, winter months. All but two plants of the 350 known Calad­ This activity in particular has had a devastating enia xanthochila D. and C. Beardsell (E) plants affect on that site. In addition, P. spicatum sites occur at a single site in rural western Victoria. are under threat of being developed for housing. This 100-ha site originally was owned by the In the goldfields of central Victoria, Ptero­ local doctor, who never developed it for agri­ stylis despectans (Nicholls) M.A. Clem and D.L. culture. Instead the doctor's passion was in­ Jones (E) is threatened by site disturbance dulged, and a golf course was constructed on the caused by gold prospectors. During the gold site. Today, the C. xanthochila popUlation sur­ rush of the 1850s, serious site disturbance oc­ vives in the rough along one of the fairways, curred across this entire region, as miners and the ongoing cooperation of the golf club "turned-over" the topsoil in their search for SECOND IOCC PROCEEDINGS 193 gold and cut down most of the trees to sure-up pathogen has been recorded infecting the roots mine shafts and build houses. In recent years, a of more than 400 native species, mostly in new generation of gold miners has returned to Victoria and southwest Western Australia (Weste this area, with powerful metal detectors, capable 1972, Shearer & Smith 2000). It has been de­ of recognizing metallic objects of a smaller size scribed as the most destructive plant pathogen and at a greater depth in the soil. The relatively ever recorded in native vegetation in this and shallowly buried P. despectans tubers have been possibly any region (Newhook & Podger 1972). dug up extensively at one of its five known sites The direct impact of Phytophthora cinnamomi by gold prospectors eager to uncover the next on orchid species is unclear, but in general they big nugget. appear to be at least field resistant (M. Duncan unpubl. data). Its indirect effect on orchid spe­ Grazing cies, however, can be devastating. In Victoria, Paracaleana disjuncta D.L. Jones (E) is known Grazing by native herbivores (principally kan­ from a single colony of about 50 plants that oc­ garoos and wallabies) usually is not a problem cur in a 0.5 ha area adjoining the Grampians NP. in native vegetation; however, as the area of na­ The plants grow in moss beds in natural gaps in tive vegetation shrinks because of land clearing, the heathy understory or around the trunk bases leaving a highly fragmented patchwork of bush, of Eucalyptus baxteri (Benth.) Maiden and the grazing pressure on the remnant vegetation Blakely ex J.M. Black. Death of some heath spe­ increases significantly. Too many animals and cies (e.g., Xanthorrhoea australis R. Br.) caused not enough vegetation is not a good scenario for by P. cinnamomi is occurring within 50 m of highly palatable orchids. Add a drought to this this population, and it is only a matter of time scenario, and grazing pressure is further mag­ before it spreads into the site. Eucalyptus baxteri nified. In unprotected vegetation (e.g., land not is susceptible to this pathogen. A common part of the public system of parks and reserves), change in the floristic composition caused by P. grazing by introduced (e.g., sheep or cattle) or cinnamomi is a reduction in the size and fre­ feral (e.g., rabbits or hares) herbivores can be quency of gaps in the ground layer. These gaps devastating. In addition, the impact of sheep and are often colonized by sedge species (e.g., Lep­ cattle can be exacerbated by their trampling of idosperma laterale R. Br. and Gahnia sieberiana any plants that escape grazing and their intro­ Kunth.) following the removal of the susceptible duction of weed seed in their feces. heath understory species (Duncan & Keane In the box-ironbark forests of Victoria, large 1996). The future of the P. disjuncta population flocks of 20-30 white-winged choughs are a is far from certain. common site. The size of small ravens or crows, they forage on the forest floor feeding on inver­ Natural Disasters tebrates and larvae, using their strong, sickle­ shaped beaks to probe the ground, vigorously Natural disasters are perhaps the most frus­ flipping sticks, stones, and leaf litter out of the trating of all threats because of their unpredict­ way (Falkingham 1995). White-winged choughs ability and often large-scale impact. In Victoria, also fancy orchid tubers. For example, upon dis­ natural disasters generally are associated with covery of a colony of Pterostylis despectans ro­ environmental extremes such as floods, drought, settes, the choughs carefully dig down and ex­ or bushfires. tract the plant with the tuber in tact. They then On 8 January 2003, lightning started 85 bush­ devour the tuber and carefully place the rosette fires across northeast Victoria. Eight of these and collar beside the hole, as if to tell you what fires could not be contained and united to be­ they've done. A flock of choughs can devastate come the largest wildfire in Victoria in a 65-year a population of P. despectans in just a few period. Burning for 59 days, the fire burnt ca. hours. l.2 million ha of mostly native vegetation. One of the most severely effected areas was Omeo Introduced Pathogens in the Victorian Alps, which includes the only population of Pterostylis aenigma D.L. Jones The introduction of the soil-borne fungal and M.A. Clem. (E). The popUlation is located pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands has in a broad, flat seasonal creekline that flows out led directly to large-scale changes in the floristic of the surrounding steep hills, which were se­ composition of native vegetation in botanically verely burnt by the fire. In March 2003, how­ significant areas of Victoria, such the Grampians ever, less than a month after the fire, a localized National Park (NP), Brisbane Ranges Np, and storm event delivered 80 mm of rainfall to these Wilsons Promontory NP (Weste & Law 1973, hills in less than an hour. The result was a mas­ Weste 1986, Kennedy & Weste 1986). This sive movement of sediment from the recently, 194 SELBYANA Volume 26(1,2) 2005

denuded hilltops, which moved down the creek chidaceae: Caladeniinae) 1998-2002. Victorian and came to a rest along the flats of the P. aenig­ Department of Natural Resources and Environ­ ma site. ment, East Melbourne, Victoria. Backhouse, G.N., A. Webster, and J. Arnott. 1999c. In November 2003 at the upstream end of the Recovery Plan for the Sunshine Diuris Diuris fra­ site, the creek had cut a channel through the me­ grantissima (Orchidaceae: Diuridinae) 1998- ter-deep silty layer of sediment from the sur­ 2002. Victorian Department of Natural Resources rounding hills. The creek continued to largely and Environment, East Melbourne, Victoria. follow its original path. By the time it reached Beardsell, C.M. and A.M. Muir. 1992. A Recovery the P. aenigma popUlation, the sediment depth Plan for Rosella Spider-orchid (Caladenia rosella was less than 20 cm, and slightly lower where G.W. Carr). Report to the Australian National the water was running. Surprisingly, P. aenigma Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra. rosettes and buds could be seen emerging Berwick, S., A. Moorrees, and G. Backhouse. 1999. Draft Recovery Plan for Audas' Spider-Orchid through the sediment beneath the flowing water. Caladenia audasii (Orchidaceae: Caladeniinae) Almost 50 flowering plants were recorded when 1998-2002. Victorian Department of Natural Re­ official monitoring occurred in late November sources and Environment, Melbourne. 2003 (1. Turner pers. comm.). Monitoring in pre­ Blood, K. 2001. Environmental Weeds: A Field Guide vious years has recorded 23-59 flowering plants. for SE Australia. Cooperative Research Centre for Thus P. aenigma has survived the fire and the Weed Management Systems, University of Ade­ subsequent sediment movement; howevel~ many laide, South Australia. tons of sediment still sit in the creekline less Coates, F., J. Jeanes, and A. Pritchard. 2002. Recovery than 50 m upstream of the orchid population. Plan for Tweuty-five Threatened Orchid Taxa in The continuing movement of this sediment will Victoria, South Australia, and New South Wales be influencing the site for many years to come. 2003-2007. Victorian Department of Natural Re­ sources and Environment, Heidelberg, Victoria. Cochrane, A. 2001. Alien Invaders: Identification, CONCLUSIONS Control, and Monitoring of the Most Recogniz­ able Environmental Weeds of Melbourne and Sur­ The prognosis for many of Victoria's 170 rounds. Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, Vic­ threatened orchid species is not rosy. The reality toria. is that the threats and threatening processes at Craig, A. and A. Pritchard. 2001. Recovery Plans for work in this state are formidable. Without inten­ Three Species of Orchid in Southeast South Aus­ sive management intervention, many orchid spe­ tralia and Southwest Victoria: Caladenia richard­ cies are facing extinction within the next 10 siorum (Little Dip Spider Orchid), Caladenia cal­ cicola (Limestone Spider Orchid), and Pterostylis years. Thankfully, both the State and Common­ tenuissima (Swamp Greenhood) for 2001-2005. wealth governments have recognized the urgen­ National Parks and Wildlife, South Australia and cy of the situation, and have facilitated the prep­ Victorian Department of Natural Resources and aration of recovery plans for 59 nationally Environment, Warrnambool, Victoria. threatened species (including many of those dis­ DSE. 2003. Advisory List of Rare or Threatened cussed in this paper). In addition, an effective Plants in Victoria-2003. Victorian Department of network has been established of officers working Sustainability and Environment, East Melbourne, with threatened orchids, government scientists, Victoria. universities, local orchid enthusiasts, and orchid Duncan, M.J. and PJ. Keane. 1996. Vegetation chang­ societies. Cooperatively they are implementing es associated with Phytophthora cinnamomi and its decline under Xanthorrhoea australis in King­ strategies to combat each threat and create an lake National Park, Victoria. Aust. J. Bot. 44: environment where orchid numbers can grow 355-369. into the future. Duncan, M., A. Pritchard, and F. Coates. 2003. Recov­ ery Plan for Fifteen Threatened Orchids in Vic­ LITERATURE CITED toria and South Australia 2004-2008. Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environ­ Backhouse, G.N. and I.A. Jeanes. 1995. The Orchids ment, Heidelberg, Victoria. of Victoria. The Miegunyah Press, Carlton, Vic­ Falkingham, C. 1995. White-winged choughs Corcor­ toria. ax melanorhamphos and bird behaviour. Victorian Backhouse, G.N., H. Bramwells, R. Musker, G. Walk­ Nat. 112(6): 258-260. er, and K. Lester. 1999a. Draft Recovery Plan for Hill, J., G. Carr, A. Pritchard, A. Govanstone and G. the Frankston Spider-Orchid, Caladenia robinson­ Backhouse. 1999. Draft Recovery Plan for Mell­ ii G.W. CalT, 1999-2003. Victorian Department of blom's Spider-orchid Caladenia hastata (Orchi­ Natural Resources and Environment, East Mel­ daceae: Caladeniinae) 1998-2002. Portland Alu­ bourne, Victoria. minum and the Victorian Department of Natural Backhouse, G.N., C. Beardsell, D. Tonkinson, and G. Resources and Environment, Melbourne, Victoria. French. 1999b. Draft Recovery Plan for the Ingeme, Y. and G. Backhouse. J999. Recovery Plan Charming Spider-Orchid, Caladenia amoena (Or- for the Basalt Greenhood Pterostylis basaltica. SECOND IOCC PROCEEDINGS 195

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