1.1 Defining "typography" 1 1.2 The start and end dates of the historical period my research investigates 5 1.3 My definition of "type design" 14 1.4 Four categories of printing and typographic history 18 1.5 Relationships between graphic design history and graphic designers 21 1.6 Design history 30 1.7 A German typographic "network" 38 1.8 A type designer classification scheme 43

Chapter 2: Research methods 53

2.1 Process note 53 2.2 Hayden White's "the Poetics of History" 53 2.3 My primary sources 60 2.4 Type specimens 63 2.5 Limitations on source availability 71

Chapter 3: Writing history as a designer 75

3.1 Everyday history 75 3.2 Alltagskultur 79 3.3 Grappling with narrative 82 3.4 Gunter Gerhard Lange on the attribution for Akzidenz-Grotesk and Royal-Grotesk 86 3.5 Learning from Lange 104

Chapter 4: The sources for my research 107

4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Literature discussing the intersection of type design and type making in manual punchcutting, as well as in mechanical punch and matrix-engraving 108 4.2.1 Background: The "invention" of printing and typefounding in Europe 110 4.2.2 Background: Matrix-making 115 4.2.3 Background: Early typefounding and independent typefounders 116 4.2.4 Background: Historical accounts of punchcutting 120 4.2.5 Background: Type designers' preliminary drawings 124 4.2.6 Eighteenth-century "dialogue" between Johann Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf, Johannes Enschede, Joan Michael Fleischman, and Pierre Simon Fournier lejeune 136 4.2.7 Punches and counterpunches: How did punchcutters learn their trade? 139 4.3 On issues of bias withing the corpus of typographic history published between the wars 141 X SciiriftRunstler

4.3.1 Daniel Berkeley Updike 141 4.3.2 Stanley Morison 145 4.3.3 Friedrich Bauer, Konrad Friedrich Bauer, and Gustav Mori 153 4.3.4 Julius Rodenberg and Ernst Crous 157 4.4 Twentieth and twenty-first century publications on type making 161 4.4.1 Publications on type designers' use of pantographic-cutting machines 161 4.4.2 Proselytisation attempts to get type designers to cut their own punches 167 4.4.3 Two kinds of punches: soft-metal patrices and hard steel 173 4.4.4 The relationship between punchcutting and photography 183

Chapter 5: Typefounding in Germany between 1800 and 1870 187

5.1 Chapter introduction 187 5.2 Handels- and Hausgieftereien; independent and dependent typefoundries 188 5.3 The distribution of Justus Erich and Theodor Walbaum's typefaces 190 5.4 The introduction of mechanization into typefounding during the nineteenth century 194 5.5 Typefoundries and worker organisation 204 5.6 The international distribution of designs in the nineteenth century, as illustrated by the Midolline types 207 5.7 The origins of the Midolline typeface 210 5.8 Jean Midolle as an example of a type designer in the first of my five categories 221 5.9 The Wilhelm Gronau foundry's Bastard types 229 5.10 Distribution of the Midolline, Schmale Midolline, Magere Bastard, and Fette Bastard designs in Great Britain and the United States 231 5.11 Unauthorised typeface copies 244 5.12 The Flinsch foundry's Halbfette Midolline and Moderne Midolline types 245 5.13 Midolline as a term in typeface classification 247 5.14 Who was the punchcutter behind Midolline? 258 5.15 Chapter conclusion 262

Chapter 6: Type design in German typefoundries from 1871 to 1914 265

6.1 Introduction 265 6.2 The small chronicle 266 6.2.1 Wilhelm Woellmer, Berlin (circa 1877) 266 6.2.2 Julius Klinkhardt, Leipzig (circa 1877) 267 6.2.3 The Genzsch firms in Hamburg and Munich (circa 1878) 267 6.2.4 Flinsch, Frankfurt am Main (circa 1880) 268 6.2.5 J-G. Schelter 8 Giesecke, Leipzig (circa 1883) 269 6.2.6 Otto Weisert, Stuttgart (circa 1885) 270 6.2.7 W. Drugulin, Leipzig (circa 1886) 271 6.2.8 A.W. Kafemann, Danzig (circa 1886) 272 6.2.9 Ferd. Theinhardt, Berlin (circa 1877) T]l. 6.2.10 Gustav Reinhold, Berlin (circa 1892) 275 6.2.11 The limitations of this chronicle's sources 276 6.3 Background: Figures for the German book trade's size around 1900 276 6.4 A “grand chronicle" of Scbriftkunstler active between 1871 and 1914, for whose typeface designs sufficient source material is available 279 1881 280 1883 281 1885 297 1888 299 Table of Contents

1899 299 1900 (Konig) 306 1900 (Eckmann) 311 1901 320 1902 (Behrens) 325 1902 (Schweinemanns) 335 1902 (Eckmann) 341 1904 343 1907 349 1910 357 Circa 1911 359 1914 360 1917 361 6.5 Conclusion 362

Chapter 7: Type making in German foundries, 1871 to 1914 367

7.1 Attributing the different roles within the type-design and type-making processes to specific people 367 7.2 Labour organisation for typefoundry workers 372 7.3 Punchcutters 375 7.4 Designer-punchcutters 379 7.4.1 Ferdinand Theinhardt 379 7.4.2 Friedrich Wilhelm Bauer 386 7.4.3 Albert Anklam 389 7.4.4 Georg Schiller 391 7.5 The implementation of industrial standards in German typefounding 1878 393 7.6 Application of the German standard line within a roman typeface: Genzsch-Antigua 401 7.7 Type designer reactions to standardisation 404 7.8 Wood Type 407 7.9 Pantographic-engraving machines 408 7.10 Typefoundry matrices and typesetting-machine matrices 410 7.11 Pantograph operators 411 7.12 Draftspersons 416 7.13 Soft-metal patrices 420 7.14 Photography and punchcutting 422 7.12 Chapter conclusion 427

Chapter 8: The presentation of German typeface design at the Internationale Ausstel- lung fur Buchgewerbe und Graphik (Bugra) in Leipzig and the Deutscher Werkbund- Ausstellung in Cologne 433

8.1 The Internationale Ausstellungfur Buchgewerbe und Graphik (Bugra) 433 8.2 German typefoundries as exhibitors at the Bugra 434 8.3 The one hundred eighty-three typefaces - designed by seventy type designers - exhibited by sixteen German typefoundries at the Bugra in 1914 445 8.4 The educational backgrounds of the Scbriftkunstler whose typefaces were included in typefoundry exhibits at the Bugra 458 8.5 German typefoundries as exhibitors at the Deutscher Werkbund-Ausstellung in Cologne 462 8.6 Chapter conclusion 466 xii ScftriftRunstler

Chapter 9: Schrift instruction in German design education between 1871 and 1914 471

9.1 The establishment of the first schools for drawing in German-speaking Europe (including Braunschweig) 471 9.2 Instructors 474 9.3 Target audience for Schrift instruction 481 9.4 Research 482 9.5 Lettering and writing instructional manuals 483 9.6 Institutions 486 9.6.1 Leipzig's Schriftklasse documents its century-long history 486 9.6.2 Rothkirch-Trach's documentation of Schrift instruction at the Unterrichtsanstalt des Kunstgewerbemuseums zu Berlin, as part of his dissertation on the school's history 489 9.6.3 The Offenbach and Stuttgart schools 494 9.7 Chapter conclusion 497

Chapter 10: Conclusion 499

Appendix: A comparison of historical type sizes 504

List of abbreviations 506

List of illustrations 507

Bibliography 519