Encouraging Use of Conversational Kaska in Adult Speakers through Kaska Language Practice Sessions

by Whūdzī amá Linda Gloria McDonald

M.A., Canadian Studies Carlton University 1992 B.Ed., University of Alberta 1983

Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts

in the Department of Linguistics Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences

© Whūdzī amá Linda Gloria McDonald 2019 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Spring 2019

Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Approval

Name: Whūdzī amá Linda Gloria McDonald Degree: Master of Arts Title: Encouraging Use of Conversational Kaska in Adult Speakers through Kaska Language Practice Sessions Examining Committee: Chair: Nancy Hedberg Professor Marianne Ignace Senior Supervisor Professor ______Dr. Patrick Moore Supervisor Associate Professor ______Department of Anthropology University of British Columbia

Date Defended/Approved: April 16, 2019

ii Ethics Statement

iii Abstract

The Kaska language is a critically endangered Athabaskan language spoken in the southeast Yukon and northeastern B.C. Currently, Kaska is no longer being transmitted to younger people and the fluent speakers are generally over 65 years of age. Kaska people are in a language loss crisis and if steps are not taken to stem this steady language decline, the Kaska language will become extinct. Through a series of adult Kaska beginner conversation practice sessions, this project looks at the language attitudes and current challenges adults wanting to learn Kaska are experiencing. In addition, the sessions were taught in the Pelly Banks dialect to interrogate whether the author, a speaker of a different dialect (Lower Liard/Muncho Lake), could learn across dialects. Recommendations about future activities for adults and for community projects are proposed to increase the use of the Kaska language in all domains and through daily use.

Keywords: Kaska; language revitalization; language attitudes; healing; L1 silent speakers

iv Dedication

To my parents, Pete McDonald and Edna Watson McDonald

A favorite memory from my childhood is of you speaking to each other in Kaska while we, your children slept in the next room in our small cabin. The sounds of your voices speaking Kaska, along with the sounds of the whistling kettle on the wood stove is a touchstone of love and joy for me. Our language, the Kaska language sheltered and comforted me as a child and does so now as an adult, as I strive to reconnect and know those phrases you and our ancestors spoke. Your unconditional love, and strength as strong Kaska people is without question, the reason I am here today.

v Acknowledgements

My great-grandfather Stone, Grandmother Whūdzī amá, grandmother Adela Stone Watson for their visions, dreams and sacrifices so our family could be where they are now. To my parents, Pete and Edna McDonald; who raised our family according to their strong Kaska values and wisdom. Auntie Alice, my second mom for always being my teacher and constant in my life.

I am forever indebted to dear late elder Auntie Mida Donnessey. Mida will always be my role model and teacher. I will continue to share her stories and teachings, to the best of my abilities.

Elder Leda Jules who has always been supportive of me on my language journey. She never tires of me asking repeated questions on pronunciation or meanings of words.

Ann Maje – Raider, Director of Liard Aboriginal Women’s Society who has not only been a great support, but she shines a light of leadership and compassion for our whole community.

Pat Moore, his years of friendship and professional guidance. Pat encouraged my academic pursuits and is endlessly patient with my repetitive questions about Kaska grammar and spelling. As well I want to thank Pat and his partner Jennifer Kramer for welcoming me into their home during my time at SFU, and providing me with a place to stay.

Marianne Ignace, who suggested I apply to the SFU Masters program, The Linguistics of a First Nations Language, when I mentioned to her over a supper in Dawson City, Yukon, how I was looking for a program to further my language skills. Marianne has been very supportive of me throughout the program.

Barb Meek who from when she first arrived to work with us, tried to include me in her work in Watson Lake even though I did not think this was my “bailey wick”. I had an interest in her studies, but I felt it was so far from my strengths or abilities. Barb has

vi been encouraging all the way along my own language revitalization path and has included me as a colleague in conferences and talks and has supported me through this journey of my Masters work at SFU.

Martina Volfova has been a friend from the moment we met, and has offered her knowledge and advice on Kaska spelling, grammar and how to work my laptop. No question is too much for her. She has become part of my family as she came and worked with us in Watson Lake. Her love for my Auntie Alice will always be a comfort to me and I will be forever indebted to her for her support of my Auntie Alice in the last months of her life. As well, Martina’s tireless work ethic and her unwavering support of all our community must be acknowledged and commended. Martina has breathed a breath of life into our language revitalization efforts and we are all so grateful.

Devin Brodhagen, Auntie Alice’s grandson and my mentee? Your strength and love of our language and your determination to learn is awe-inspiring. Your support and assistance during the Kaska adult conversation sessions as well as your assistance at school with my students, has been invaluable. You are a strong role model in our community and your character and strength is a shining light for all of us.

Roger, for your encouragement, and support at the eleventh hour and for giving me a wonderful place to work.

To the participants in the eight-week practice sessions, Margaret, Emma, Sia, Debbie, Hoda, Vanessa, Roxi, Elizabeth, Cathy, Devin, Daniel, Janet and to the others who dropped by occasionally.

Elder Hammond Dick who provided immeasurable support and guidance for our Kaska Language practice sessions and was critical to the success of this project. Soga senlá, se gudīé.

To my colleagues in my cohort for the Simon Fraser University program, Linguistics of a First Nation Language, I hold my hands up to all of you as we have witnessed and supported each other in this journey. In particular, Cheyenne Cunningham

vii and Lisa Lang, your love and support got me through many times when I was not sure I could do this.

To se dadé, Janet, shōwé senlá for your love and support.

To my son Zuneza Cove, a Kaska old soul who often times is more like my father than my son. Thank you for picking me to be your mom. Your love and wisdom keep me going.

viii Table of Contents

Approval ...... ii Ethics Statement...... iii Abstract ...... iv Dedication ...... v Acknowledgements ...... vi Table of Contents ...... ix Opening Image ...... x

Chapter 1. Introduction ...... 1

Chapter 2. Background ...... 6 2.1. History of Kaska Language Documentation and Watson Lake School Programs ... 8

Chapter 3. My Positioning ...... 14

Chapter 4. Literature Review ...... 22 4.1. What is language revitalization? ...... 22 4.2. Why save First Nation Languages? ...... 28 4.3. Language decline and loss, how it got to be this way? ...... 29 4.4. Intergenerational transmission ...... 31 4.5. Trauma and Healing...... 32 4.6. Language Attitudes ...... 34 4.7. Language and Identity ...... 35

Chapter 5. Methodology ...... 37 5.1. Practice Sessions Procedures and Methods ...... 40

Chapter 6. Results ...... 42 6.1. Survey and Session Results ...... 43 6.2. Anecdotal narratives from the class ...... 54

Chapter 7. Discussions and Conclusions ...... 56

References ...... 61

Appendix A. Kaska Language Goals and Attitude Survey ...... 68

Appendix B. Kaska Adult Conversation Class ...... 69

Appendix C. Kaska Adult Basic Conversation Language Lessons Evaluation ... 70

Appendix D. Informed Consent Form ...... 71

ix Opening Image

Location of Kaska Territory Source: Kaska Dena Council Website, kaskadenacouncil.com. Used with permission.

x Chapter 1. Introduction

Estsíe, Estsų̄ , Medégūdīhtʼē gūgą̄ ̄́nhtān. Grandfathers, Grandmothers, God watch over us

Jānī nedādąh nédzedéhyā. Here in front of you we are standing

Kólā nehtsʼi ̨̄ʼ̄́ tēdzedehdlī lēdzedī. Finally to you (plural ) we are praying to you we say.

Didī dídū gūgą̄ ̄́nhtān déʼ This now you watch us then (Today)

Dene skūkānī yḗdé dūłą̄ ̄́ gūtīe gūsʼin gūtīe sų̄ ̄́gūnʼi ̨̄ ̄́ déʼ. People white people and all not well doing to us well you take care of them.

Gūtsī nendī gehzāgé nūzūzedehdéh To us help us our language we will speak

Estsíe, Estsų̄ , Medégudīhtʼē kolā endāghą̄ ̄́dé lēgūhtʼē, Grandfathers, Grandmothers, God finally your way it is, (the way you set)

Kegūté It will be

We Kaska people, as well as many other Indigenous people in Canada and around the world, are working hard to reclaim and revitalize our Indigenous languages in the face of rapid language loss and extinction. Kaska people are well aware of the declining state of the Kaska language and this is mentioned or talked about at every education gathering, annual gathering, and certainly at every passing of an Elder who is a fluent speaker. As Tlingit language warrior, Lance Twitchell (2018, p. 26), clearly points out, “Each death in the community brings the language closer to extinction”.

My research project attempts to inquire, observe and draw conclusions about the results of a group of adult beginning Kaska speakers and how it affects their desire and their actions towards reclaiming their language. This research, and the strategies offered

1 in the conclusion, are to inspire discussions and more importantly, suggest recommendations for our language revitalization goals. As well, in my eight week long study, I examined L1 silent speakers and their journey of loss and oppression of their language, as well as their attitudes about reclamation of the Kaska language.

Due to the small number of participants my results reflect the attitudes and the solutions for us, as a small group of Kaska people. The Kaska language sessions were meant to be a start: a catalyst to inspire adults and other community members to begin their language-reclaiming journey. This study provides recommendations for future activities and projects aimed at inter-generational transmission of the Kaska language. My recommendations might not be reflective of larger First Nations communities with more speakers, however, I believe my findings can be helpful to many who are experiencing language loss and are in the midst of community efforts to stem language decline. Further, this study provides messages of hope for the revitalization of the Kaska language.

Additionally, my project and paper is an auto-ethnography, as I am the researcher as well as one of the subjects of the study.

Kaska people have suffered greatly from the effects of colonization, including various local expansion projects such as the building of the Alaska Highway and Canol Roads, the establishment of Lower Post Residential School, the Faro mining project, and the subsequent influence of non-Kaska society, brought on by the influx of newcomers associated with the various projects. Currently, the majority of the fluent Kaska speakers are those elders who are over the age of 65. This puts the language in the dire situation of not being transmitted to subsequent generations.

Most studies indicate an agreement with Fishman’s work (1991), that the vitality of a language is best secured by the intergenerational transmission over three generations.

We have been fortunate to have extensive linguistic documentation completed and currently being done in Kaska country, mostly on the Pelly Banks dialect. Linguist Pat Moore’s work has been considerable. (1999, 2002, 2003, 2011, 2018, Moore &

2 Hennessey 2006). He lived and worked in Ross River for seven years and he continues to spend a great deal of time with us, as well as working from his home in Vancouver. Pat is highly respected not only as a key person leading our documentation efforts, but, as someone who is considered a friend and family. He was given a Kaska name, Dahyālītáʼ, and he is currently working on the talking language dictionary project at UBC as well as ongoing Kaska documentation with Kaska elder Leda Jules. Pat has also worked extensively with the late elder Martha (Mida) Donnessey recording and documenting the Liard dialect. Additionally, he has worked on the Lower Liard dialect, a dialect spoken by my family. He has worked with Lower Liard/Muncho Lake dialect speakers such as Dennis Porter, John Porter, Louise McDonald, Alice Brodhagen, and Eileen Van Bibber.

Barb Meek lived in Watson Lake, Yukon, from January 1998 to April 2000 to conduct her research on the Kaska language and currently is still adding to her work. (2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2016 a, 2016 b, Carr & Meek, 2013, Hinton & Meek, 2016). Meek has written extensively about the state of the Kaska language and the progression of language loss, and the effect of government policies. In particular, she has examined government policies and programs to assessing whether or not there was an increase in language fluency and in the number of speakers. She has also examined the efforts of the Head Start early childhood development program and other early education programs in the community of Watson Lake, Yukon.

Martina Volfova, a UBC Anthropology/Linguistics PhD student, has been working with us in Watson Lake for the past four years, and has assisted in re- establishing a language department at Liard First Nation. Her work with our community has greatly advanced Kaska language planning and revitalization efforts. Martina initiated events such as the “Kaska lunches". These informal gatherings around eating lunch and learning basic Kaska phrases have provided an activity to encourage community people to learn the Kaska language. She has also initiated digitization work of a great deal of material from old recordings as well as organizing and cataloguing material within the department, as well as organized language documentation workshops and assisted with language lessons at Watson Lake Secondary School. She has worked extensively with Elder Leda Jules in the few years she has lived and worked in Watson

3 Lake. As well, she was recording and working on the Lower Liard dialect with the late Elder Alice Watson Brodhagen.

There has been documentation conducted by people other than linguists. Father Guillbaud, a Catholic priest who lived and served in the parishes of Watson Lake, Upper Liard and Lower Post, recorded and documented Kaska speakers in the late 1950s to the mid early 1980s. He interviewed and documented Kaska people on a variety of topics, mainly word lists and basic phrases. Father Guillbaud’s work provides for us a written record (in Father Guillbuadʼs style of spelling) that is very useful for documentation from that era. His tapes are currently being digitized for easier access and utilization.

Since the early 1980’s, the Kaska language has been taught at the Johnson Elementary School (JES) and classes began in the late 1980’s at the Watson Lake Secondary School, (WLSS). Classes have continued since then are being offered at both schools. Presently, the school language program in the Yukon, aided and assisted by the training and curriculum developed and offered by the Yukon Native Language Center, use a variety of methods to teach First Nation languages, however there is currently no assessment benchmark scale for student evaluation. Often what is taught in the lower grades is repeated all the way through to High School with little advancement in proficiency. This is an area of concern for many people including the Native language teachers.

In spite of the excellent work done on documentation and preserving the Kaska language, there have been few learning opportunities for beginning adult Kaska learners or L1 silent speakers. We are at a critical time for healing in our community, as this is necessary to move forward in all aspects of our community development, health and well being. Our identity and how we carry ourselves rests on reconnecting to our language. The Kaska language will provide the answers as to how to move forward, but we must be reconnecting, relearning or learning our language, as the language embodies and conveys the messages.

With the death of every Elder, we lose access to that knowledge and we have one more speaker whose voice we can no longer hear and whose role as a teacher is no longer

4 available. We are not transmitting the language over three generations. According to Fishman’s Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (1991), we are at the level of # 8, which is the only remaining speakers of the language are members the grandparents generation. The UNESCO Language Endangerment Framework (2009) shows that the Kaska language is critically endangered which is one step above being extinct. This is a very scary place to find our language and ourselves. All of us in our community must face the fact that, either we are creating opportunities to revitalize the Kaska language, or we are every day getting closer to extinction.

5 Chapter 2. Background

Kaska people are part of the Dene (Athabaskan) family and are located in south- eastern Yukon as well as north-eastern B.C. The traditional Kaska Territory is vast, encompassing more than 240,000 square kilometers of land, with 100,000 square kilometers largely undeveloped (Kaska Dena Council website). Kaska Territory is located in what is now known as the Yukon Territory, and also extends south into north- eastern British Columbia and east into western Northwest Territories.

Today, Kaska people live in the communities of Ross River, Watson Lake, and Upper Liard in the Yukon. There are also Kaska people in Good Hope Lake, Lower Post, and Muncho Lake in northern B.C. This is also where the variations or dialects of the Kaska language are spoken (Moore, 2002). These variations are the Pelly Banks, Ross River, Frances Lake dialects, along with the Lower Liard, Liard, Good Hope Lake and Muncho. My family’s dialect is the Lower Liard/Muncho. These two dialects are very similar and I typically refer to it as the Lower Liard/Muncho Lake dialect. The majority of the fluent speakers are the Pelly Banks speakers, living primarily in Watson Lake and Ross River.

In 2002, Dr. Patrick Moore estimated that there were 200 fluent speakers, which included speakers of all dialects (Moore 2002). Today, I believe there are approximately 50 fluent Kaska speakers with the community of Ross River having the greatest number of speakers. Presently, there are seven fluent speakers of the Lower Liard/Muncho Lake dialect. One speaker is fifty-five and the others are over the age of sixty-five. These numbers are based my own estimate from on my personal knowledge of the speakers.

According to the UNESCO Endangerment Scale (Moseley, 2010), Kaska is critically endangered, with one of its dialects or variations, Lower Liard/Muncho, on the verge of extinction.

Needless to say, the Kaska language is in a critical state and requires immediate action on a variety of levels to improve its vitality and use. This situation will only become graver, as we lose our fluent speakers, who are mostly very elderly.

6 Fishman speaks of this in his article, “Maintaining Languages. What works? What doesn’t work?” (1996). Fishman is referring to the lack of sufficient intergenerational transmission. In Watson Lake, we are losing our speech communities. We still have fluent speakers; however, they are older than 65 and those speakers have a small group of older people with whom they converse. People are speaking to their husbands or wives, and possibly siblings, but the people who can speak are diminishing, thus the speech community is reduced to the communication between a few people and a bit of talking at meetings, funerals or gatherings. This leads to another grave concern and that is the loss of dialects. Fishman further elucidates that to lose a dialect is very sad, because you are losing part of that language and the knowledge contained in that dialect (Fishman,1996, p.187; Mithun, 1998, p.163 -191). This is particularly true for my families’ dialect, the Lower Liard. We have most certainly lost much of our speech community and we have lost our intergenerational transmission. To turn this around in order will prevent the imminent extinction of our dialect, immediate local efforts developed with the people involved will be required.

We have already lost much of our vocabulary, phrases and knowledge with the loss of speakers in my dialect, Lower Liard/Muncho Lake. I feel this acutely, as when I have asked Kaska Elders, Pat Moore or Martina Volfova if they have heard a particular word or phrase and they have responded with no, they do not know what it is. An example of this is the word, tūntsʼḗh. This is a power cultural word guiding our behavior. In my family we grew up using and abiding by this word. The definition of this word is, do not say something even in jest, as it will come true. Further it means, do not tempt fate and it is a reminder not to be too full of oneself or be too proud.

Also, the different dialects or variations cause a problem for some people in learning the Kaska language. I have had people ask me what language I am speaking and I reply that its Kaska and they say no it’s not. I then say, “Yes, it is. It might be different from how you say it, but it is Kaska”. I have also heard people say, “I am speaking the true Kaska dialect”. Meaning their dialect is the only one that matters and all others are not real? Most of the elders, do not make negative comments, as they know there are differences and most of them can understand a conversation by a speaker with a different

7 dialect. Over the years, in my job as a First Nations language teacher, students have asked me, “Why can’t we just have one dialect? Why do we have two or three? It’s too difficult to have all these dialects.” I believe we have to fight for all the dialects and continue to even if we are down to one speaker of a particular dialect.

2.1. History of Kaska Language Documentation and Watson Lake School Programs

The Yukon Native Language Project (YNLP) began in 1977 with the goal of documenting and archiving Yukon First Nation languages. The YNLP was created through the efforts of an anthropologist Julie Cruikshank and a linguist John Ritter, with various training sessions created under the direction of Carol Pettigrew. The YNLP later evolved into what is now known as the Yukon Native Language Centre (YNLC), finding its home on the Yukon College Ayamdigut campus. This new venue provided a large and comfortable place for training Native Language teachers and to continue in documentation of Yukon native languages. This was an important endeavour of documentation of fluent speakers from all Yukon First Nation languages.

Under the leadership of the Council for Yukon Indians, YNLC provided training and curriculum materials for all language teachers hired in the Yukon. The certificate and diploma programs were developed and offered to new language teachers hired in Yukon schools. This training was mandatory for all language teachers, hired by Yukon Government to work in the schools, with the exception of those teachers with a Bachelor of Education.

In the 1970’s, through considerable efforts and lobbying from Yukon First Nations elders and education activists, the public-school system in the Yukon added native language classes for elementary grades. In Watson Lake, we had the benefit of programs being offered since the early 1980ʼs. A program was started at the Johnson Elementary School with Jo-Anne Johnson as a certified teacher with a Bachelor of Education, and elder Clara Donnessey as the fluent speaker guide. In the late 1980ʼs a program was initiated at the Watson Lake Secondary School with Ann Mercier as a teacher and a couple of years later, Jocelyn Wolftail was hired as her assistant, half time.

8 1980s YNLC created a rudimentary curriculum guide/teaching manual to be used by native language teachers in public schools. It is called the Blue Book as a blue binder holds the content together. The language curriculum-teaching manual provides an outline to locally develop the learning materials relevant to each language. The manual offers recommendations to develop curriculum, but is not a comprehensive manual for a scope and sequence to develop proficiency in the language. The curriculum was developed for elementary school prior to native language classes being offered in the High Schools in the Yukon. Most of the games and activities suggested in the Blue Book are suitable only for lower aged children.

Jo-Anne Johnson, of Tahltan descent, was hired as the first Kaska teacher. Jo- Anne received her Bachelor of Education from the University of Alberta and did not speak Kaska or Tahltan as a child. Clara Donnessey, a fluent Kaska speaker was hired to teach Kaska in 1980 and Jo-Anne was hired approximately six months later to assist Clara with lesson plans and classroom management. Jo-Anne said that she was given a one to three day training session in Watson Lake prior to starting her job. The Blue Book of Yukon Native Languages had been recently developed and Joanne used that as a guide for her and Clara’s classes. Joanne said that things started to improve in their classes while she and Clara worked as a team. It was Clara’s language skills as well as Jo- Anne’s teaching and curriculum development skills, which helped to make the classes successful. As Jo-Anne did not have any previous experience with any dialect of Kaska, she was learning along with her students and in terms of pronunciation.

In the early years, Kaska programming at Johnson Elementary School was offered to all students, both Kaska and non-Kaska. This changed with the introduction of French classes in the mid 1980’s. Jo-Anne said this caused of a feeling of segregation, which she found uncomfortable. She described students lining up in the hallway, in two rows. One line was for the Kaska class and the other for the French class. This led to feelings of inferiority and difference, which previously was not there, when all the students were taught the Kaska language (J.Johnson, personal conversation, March 2019).

9 Both Jo-Anne and Clara left their positions in the mid 1980’s. Jo-Anne went on to be a coordinator at YNLC and Clara had other commitments she pursued. Phoebe Lewis, Barbara Morris and Aggie Magun taught for the next two decades and all three were fluent speakers with the assistance of training offered by the YNLC.

A high school language program began at Watson Lake Secondary School in the late 1980s. Ann Mercier, a fluent speaker, was hired to teach grades 8 to 12. Jocelyn Wolftail was hired a few years after Ann began and both worked at the WLSS until the late 1990s. Having two fluent speakers who could also read and write English was a boon to the program at the High School. Ann and Jocelyn combined oral language teaching with cultural activities and a great deal of writing. They had a very successful program and their former students still talk about the Kaska they learned in their classes. Kathy Magun has been teaching at Johnson Elementary School without assistance, for the past twelve years. Kathy successfully completed her Native Language Teacher diploma from YNLC in 2016.

Elder Mida Donnessey was hired in 1998, after Jocelyn Wolftail and Ann Mercier left their teaching positions. Frances Carlick, followed by a non-Kaska teacher held the position prior to me taking the job in the fall of 2000. I was hired as a teacher with my credentials of a Bachelor of Education and my limited abilities to speak Kaska. I was fortunate in that, the late elder Mida Donnessey was working part-time as language teacher, but more specifically as an elder resource person. Mida was one of our oldest and most knowledgeable fluent speakers. In addition to being a fluent speaker, she was very adept at all the traditional cultural skills. Mida spoke Kaska at all times and only spoke English when needed. Mida spoke the Liard dialect, which is very close to my families’; the Lower Liard/Muncho Lake version. Mida and I taught her dialect and this was a bit of a problem for some students as they are taught the Pelly Banks dialect from grades K to 7, at Johnson Elementary School.

Kaska is presently taught at both Johnson Elementary School (JES) K to 7, and Watson Lake Secondary School (WLSS) 8 to 12. The classes at the Watson Lake High School, has mostly been experiential and teaching culture using the English language.

10 Mida and I focused more on cultural skills in the past five years, than Kaska conversation. We shared Kaska legends, worked on moose hides, sewed with moose hide, cut meat and made dry meat and we included trapping one semester. We worked vocabulary around these lessons but not a lot of Kaska conversation was taught. Students retained a bit from grade 8 to 9. However, after grade 9, Kaska is an option and most students chose their academic subjects to complete their high school credits for graduation.

Linguists such as Dr. Patrick Moore and Dr. Barbra Meek have documented and completed a large amount of work on documenting and analysis of the Kaska language. Dr. Patrick Moore helped to create two useful books, Dene Gudeji: Kaska Narratives, 1999 and Kaska Tribal Council’s, Guzagi K’ugé, 2007. These resources provide us with written material, which most people refer to as a starting point to familiarize oneself with the Kaska language and culture. Moore has completed and assisted with many language workshops aimed at documenting the language as well as offering an opportunity for people to practice Kaska. These workshops focused on the documenting language knowledge of the fluent speakers and less so on teaching people how to speak Kaska. Meek as well assisted and participated in a number of these “literacy” sessions which took place in various locations in Watson Lake and Ross River.

In the summer of 2002, Pat Moore developed and offered, along with the late Josephine Acklack, an intensive four-week UBC accredited program, which brought together fluent speakers as well as beginners. It was considered very successful and enjoyable by all the participants as it took place on the land at Frances Lake, Ross River, and Mac Pass. Most people took part in the four weeks and some participated in the sections where it suited their schedule, either in the Frances Lake, Ross River or Mac Pass portions. The class was both experiential and classroom based, and was a wonderful opportunity for both learners and fluent speakers to work together. The summer course was both a documentation and language learning class. Although all who attended considered this very successful, the learners were not able to keep up their practice of the language. The challenge with a program like the four-week summer camp, was the

11 absence of follow up programs for participants to maintain or progress with speaking Kaska. As with most beginner speakers, the learning and practice falls off in short order.

There were language workshops in Ross River and Watson Lake in the 1990s, led by Marie Skidmore, Kaska Tribal Council as well as Pat Moore. Meek documented the early workshops put on by the Kaska Tribal Council (2009). Most participants were those who worked for the Ross River Dena Council or Liard First Nation and elders available at that time.

One of our Elders, Leda Jules has worked on language documentation with Pat Moore for many years, as well as on her own. She began her work with adults in the mid 1970s as she worked as an instructor at Yukon College. She was on the first interpreters hired by Aboriginal Language Services when they were in existence. She was the first staff member hired to create and manage the Liard First Nation Language Department. Leda worked for many years with the late Richard Charlie, recording and documenting Elders. Leda also worked as an interpreter at the courthouse in Watson Lake.

Leda Jules is a Kaska language warrior and has followed her passion for the Kaska language for most of her adult life. She is a former student of the Lower Post Residential School and she has turned her back on the trauma, by putting her language and culture first. She reminds all of us, every day of our spirituality, the gifts of the land, and the knowledge from our ancestors. We are so lucky to have her, as a role model putting language first. She has spent a lot of time working with Martina Volfova on language documentation and translation. She currently she works at the Liard First Nation Language Department and continues to provide support and leadership in our language revitalization efforts.

The important work on documentation and preservation must continue however, offering classes and programs, which encourage people to speak Kaska, must be a priority in order to create new speakers. This is of utmost urgency while there are still fluent speakers with us (Blair, Rice, Wood, & Janvier, 2002; Green, 2016; Moore & Hennessy, 2006; Meek 2009; Twitchell, 2018Thompson, 2012). Documenting a

12 language is extremely important and invaluable, however, creating new speakers, while there are still fluent speakers to pass on the language is equally important

It is critical at this juncture that our community come up with a multi-faceted plan to revitalize our language, as we cannot afford to wait any longer. We lose three to four fluent speakers a year between the communities of Ross River and Watson Lake. Each time we lose a speaker, we lose all of their knowledge, and we lose their support of the remaining fluent speakers as part of a system of connecting common knowledge and language, not shared by non-speaking Kaska people. Our traditional knowledge and spirituality is in our language and this is what we lose, when we lose our language.

I feel that our own people are not acknowledging our dire situation, perhaps not as a deliberate ignoring, but as a way of avoiding looking at something too painful to address, as the answers are not readily available nor tangible. In his book, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages Fishman argues that there is a kind of resistance to the very idea that something is happening to their language. “Oh, it’ll pick up….Oh, the younger generation will come around. When they get older, they will start talking it” (1991, p.85). I believe that in our community we face exactly the same attitudes. As I mentioned previously, there are people acknowledging language loss and endangerment, however, it seems there are others who are not taking this problem seriously. Possibly they are, but are not saying anything about it? It is likely they feel they are not in control or in a position to doing anything to change this situation.

13 Chapter 3. My Positioning

I have been fortunate to be born into a family with strong Kaska values, much like everyone else of my generation in our community. My upbringing taught me that I must always be humble. However, it is important to acknowledge the strong Elders who walked before me, who set the path, which I am on today. It is not more or less than anyone else, but it is my story, my path that was given to me. It is because of my ancestors’ strength, spirituality, and prayer that I am here today.

My mother’s grandfather, who she referred to as Étsū lived in the Muncho Lake area in Northern B.C. and around Watson Lake, Yukon. He was also known by the name Old Man Stone. He was a good hunter and was adept at all the necessary skills of a Kaska man. He was also gifted with the ability to heal and to make predictions. He used his skills solely with the purpose of protecting his family and helping people. He was an honorable man who saw into the future and tried to prepare people for what might come.

My father’s family, the McDonalds, lived primarily in the Mountains north and south of Muncho Lake, B.C. The McDonalds and the Stones married into each other’s families and lived and supported each other. Sometime before my mother was married to my father, the Stones decided to stay more often in the Watson Lake area. They fished and hunted seasonally around Watson Lake. My family, for a variety of reasons, we kept to ourselves and did not live where people lived when Upper Liard and Two and a Half Mile became the primary Kaska enclave outside of Watson Lake. We were always known to be off by ourselves.

Living separate from everyone else except our own family, worked well as we were a compact unit able to survive where we lived and hunted without living closely to a larger group of people. It did not work so well for maintaining the Kaska language, in particular as more and more English speaking new comers moved into the area as well as the associated social pressures. We began speaking more English and less Kaska and as the older members of our family passed away, the younger generations spoke more English. Our cousins, who lived south near Muncho Lake, also suffered in the same way.

14 We lived far away from each other and each death in our families meant one less speaker of our dialect.

As a child, Kaska was solely the language spoken at home. English was used periodically, mostly outside the home and around non-First Nations people. In 1960, my father, my older sister and I contracted tuberculosis and we were sent to Charles Camsell Hospital (at that time referred to as an Indian hospital) 1,500 kilometers away in Edmonton, Alberta. I was there for two years and my father and sister for a little over a year. In spite of my father, older sister and I being in the same hospital, but on different wards, we rarely saw each other. I was able to visit my father once, and I do not recall visiting my sister at all. I went to the hospital speaking Kaska and returned home only speaking English. This allowed me to begin school in Watson Lake with knowledge of the English alphabet, numbers and I could write my name. This was a huge advantage for me over my siblings, who suffered greatly because they did not speak English when they started school.

I returned from the hospital with an attitude of disdain for my home and my language. I distinctly remember asking my parents not to speak Kaska to me in the grocery store, and my father responded to me in anger. My mother looked sad and ashamed. That is a very vivid and sad memory, which I now realize that society contributed to my feeling of being ashamed. At a young age, I had already picked up the negative attitude towards our language and culture. I went to public school and learned to read and write with more ease compared to my brothers and sisters who struggled with the foreign language of English. I remember feeling both mad and confused with the overt and subtle racism in the public school my siblings and I attended.

Two years ago, when I started the Master’s program at Simon Fraser University, I was speaking to my younger brother about my return to academia, and my area of study. His response touched me at my core. He said, “Who would have thought that you would be at university studying “Indian” and teaching it at school?” He remembers after his first day of school, he came home and said to mom, “I’m never speaking Indian again!” He went on to say, “Watson Lake was racist as hell! Don’t you remember Ned (our older

15 brother) getting strapped at the airport school for chewing gum? He had 40 straps on each hand. Ned’s hands were swollen and cut.” He went on to query, “why do you think us kids didn’t keep our language?”

Fortunately, we did not attend residential school in spite of it being the law regarding status Indians as per the Indian Act. My father Pete McDonald passed away when I was 14 and over time, my older siblings left home to live on their own. My mother Edna McDonald, my Auntie Alice and grandmother Adela Watson Stone, continued to speak Kaska at home, and English in town. I left Watson Lake for college, then university and only spoke Kaska when I came home to visit. By then, my speaking was reduced to very few words and responding with yes or no to my mother’s questions. I could understand my mother, my grandmother, my aunt, and older siblings when I was spoken to in Kaska, but I answered in English.

I have another story here about me being away at university. My grandmother spoke only Kaska and a few English words. She queried my mother about where I was, as she had not seen me for quite some time. My mother conveyed to her that I was away at school. My grandmother knew that I had already spent years in Watson Lake at public school, thus for me to be attending some more did not make any sense to her. She said to mom, in Kaska, she must not have any brains; they can’t seem to teach her, as she keeps going and going! More schooling in western society means more intelligence and more esteem, and in Kaska society, it means you didn’t get it when you should have in the early years. She likely said to mom, “me tsʼį̄ ̄́ hǭ ̄́ nédūé, meaning her brains are gone, implying not very smart. She was correct. I should have been home learning from her, instead of being so far away, getting an education, by another cultures’ standards and implied superiority. My dear grandmother, who I often thought of as someone who bridged the old ways to modern times, although she did not adapt into the new ways. She stood strong in her traditions, in the face of increasing numbers of non-First Nations people moving into Kaska territory and bringing unsolicited change. Much of the change was helpful, with the tools, food and other goods. However, it was the many societal changes forced upon our people which caused the breakdown of our society and all the things which kept us well and which held us together as a strong people.

16 Chʼédūdī (water bug), Adela Stone Watson, was a strong Kaska woman from a powerful family, the Stones, someone who found a partner with a newcomer, my grand- father, Frank Watson (Watson Lake’s namesake). Likely it was a survival strategy, as well as a personal choice and alliance. My grandmother could throw a small hatchet at a grouse and cut off its head. She was as good with a needle and hide as with an axe. She beaded and sewed many items of clothing to sell to the manager at the trading post in Lower Post. She sold her footwear and mitts as well as to the soldiers building the Alaska Highway and later on to the employees at the Watson Lake airport. My grandmother’s lead dog was shot in the traces as she mushed on her trapping trail near the Watson Lake airport. A soldier saw movement through the trees and thought it was a wolf. There could not have been a more forceful way for the newcomers to say, “I have power over you”. A white man with a gun sent that message forcibly to the daughter of a renown Kaska medicine man.

My grandmother broke a bone in her lower arm in the late 60ʼs and was taken to the Watson Lake hospital, the services of which she had not needed before, and she only went at the behest of my Uncle Eddie; my grandmother’s son-in-law and my uncle. Dr. Wigby marvelled at this woman, this legendary Kaska woman, who begrudgingly allowed the doctor to put a cast on her left arm. She returned home and attempted to chop some wood. I believe she had the cast on her arm for possibly 24 hours, and then she took her hatchet and with the blunt end destroyed the cast. She said it got in her way, and was not able to work as normal with the cast on her arm. Years later, at approximately 102 years of age, grandma had a stroke and she was once again taken to the Watson Lake hospital. Dr. Wigby had long since retired and was replaced by a new and younger doctor. He was curious about my grandmother, as he had been in Watson Lake for a number of years and had not yet seen my grandmother. He dealt with the immediate crisis of her stroke, but examined the rest of her. The doctor was looking at her arm, a bend in the elbow and further down another bend toward her wrist. I told him the story about Dr. Wigby and the cast and how she broke it off. He looked at grandmother’s arm, shook his head and said, “your grandmother is one tough woman as she has obviously endured a great deal of pain”. At the time, I was silently replying, yes physical pain as well as spiritual and emotional. My grandmother withdrew from the

17 world in the last ten years or so of her life, as she showed increasing signs of dementia. I like to think that she could not take what was happening to her world and decided to “check out”. My grandmother, the sometimes gruff, strict woman who looked after us as children, the strong matriarch, who often scared us, but was fierce about protecting her family. The grandmother who later told my Aunt Alice, I should have her mother’s name, Whūdzī amá when I got older. Chʼédūdī, how I wish I had those years back, how I wish I could hear your voice telling Kaska stories now.

Another irony of the stories about my grandmother is a bitter one to do with how the Canadian government viewed and labeled her. Due to her common-law relationship with my grandfather Frank Watson, the government considered my grandmother a non- status Indian as per the Indian Act. To further complicate the situation, her daughter Edna, my mother, who was also considered non-status because of her white father, gained her status by marrying my father, Pete McDonald. Consequently, all of us, the children of Edna and Pete, were considered status. Our grandmother non-status and her grand- children status. She was considered by law to be a non-Indian and her grand-children had all the benefits per the Indian Act and she was considered for all intents and purposes, white or non-native. Adela, Chédūdī, a few months before she died in 1987, was happy to know that in faraway place called Ottawa, the white people there, gave her back her Indian status through Bill C-31. (indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/bill_c-31)

What do my stories have to do with language revitalization? I believe my stories have everything to do with language loss and revitalization and how trauma can continue to affect us, many years beyond. I also believe that we can heal from past traumas and we can do so reconnecting to our language and culture. The very thing that was taken from us is what will also heal us.

Now, many decades later from the time my grandmother wondered why I did not seem to be learning, I am again meeting academic standards, this time based on my knowledge of the Kaska language. I am holding up my language and honouring it, and struggle to gain more proficiency, as speakers of my dialect now number seven people.

18 I did not think much about the Kaska language until much later, when I was teaching at the elementary school in Watson Lake, and the high school language position became vacant. I applied and got the job. I thought that I should be able to do the job since I understood Kaska. I realized immediately upon starting the position, the difficult task I had undertaken. That was 19 years ago. I have since progressed very little and that can be attributed to many factors associated with the job as language teacher in our public school system. I had the assistance of a fluent elder, Mida Donnessey, who up until her death a couple of months ago was one of our most knowledgeable language and traditional knowledge keepers. My scheduling of classes varied year to year and often I was assigned to teach other things other than Kaska. The timetable did not lend itself to allow for much time to work on language learning. Teaching requires a multitude of tasks to be completed each day and I was busy keeping one step ahead of the students. As much of what I teach is cultural skills (in English) and the scheduling of Kaska classes as well as the challenges of teaching across the three dialects of Kaska spoken in Watson Lake; the Pelly Banks, Liard and Lower Liard dialects. I attribute my lack of progression to the continued underlying lack of self-esteem from my insecure childhood experiences. My lack of self-esteem has affected everything I have undertaken throughout the whole of my adult life, including as a mother and grandmother. The father of my son, encouraged me to speak Kaska at home, but I could not seem to get “started” or get a “foot hold” to teach him or my (step) grandchildren living in Vancouver. The irony of this situation is that I am the Kaska language teacher at school and yet did not use the Kaska language at home. My speaking abilities were very limited, and such that on top of my low self-esteem, I was not able to break past that barrier inhibiting me from speaking to my son and grandchildren.

My mentor, Mida Donnessey worked with me at the Watson Lake Secondary School for the 19 years I have been a teacher there. She was a part-time teacher, and her job was as mentor/Elder advisor for myself and our students and staff at the Watson Lake Secondary School. Mida spoke to me in Kaska from the day I started, as she has known my family and me my whole life. She always spoke to me in Kaska outside of school and in the community. To learn to speak a language, one must speak it. It is not enough to simply hear and understand the language to become a speaker (Green, 2017, p. 45).

19 In studying and writing about language loss and revitalization, I know I have something to offer from my experiences. I feel and know this topic that I am writing about. I feel this in my every breath and being. I feel the loss of our words, and through that loss, the loss of our spirituality and our values. The very thing which will help save our language is what is slipping away and that is the deep spiritual knowledge and wealth in our language. How can I ask my ancestors for help, if I can only speak English? The values, which will save our language, are in our language.

Subtle and underlying racism in our society still exists. When my son was born, twenty-seven years ago, my mother gave him his name Zuneza (Dzūnzā as it is spelled in our variation). She gave him his name, as is her responsibility as his grandmother and Kaska knowledge keeper. In spite of my mother giving Zuneza his name, she and others in my family were concerned about my husband and using his Kaska name as his “real” name. They were concerned that non-First Nations people would not be able to pronounce it properly, as the practice for the previous approximately seventy years was to give Christian English names and to use Kaska names in private with the family and community. The one concession I made to non-Kaska people was how I spelled his name. I did my best to use English phonetics in the hopes that people would be better able to pronounce his name it, and at that time, I was not concerned about spelling Kaska correctly.

I recall one response from a non-First Nations woman regarding my son’s name ending in an “a” and how this is interesting as in English names ending in “a’s” are girl names. She said it in a tone, which was derisive. I responded rather defensively by saying it was a gift from my mother. It is a Kaska name; a spiritual name given to my son by my mother.

I am passionate about Language Revitalization, and have been since I started teaching Kaska at the Watson Lake Secondary School. Also, the thought that I could be the last speaker of the Lower Liard/Muncho Lake dialect of Kaska is almost too much to bear. I also feel a great guilt over the fact that I did not teach my son, any Kaska.

20 This work is important to me because most of my adult life I have been feeling inadequate because I am not fluent in my language. I pride myself in understanding some Kaska, however, having a conversation or offering anything other than a few short responses to simple questions, is beyond my current abilities. I acutely feel the loss of the fluent speakers who have passed away over the years. In particular, I feel the loss of my relatives who were fluent speakers. I recall the deep grief when my mother passed away. I lost my mother at a time when I had just become a mother myself and I grieved her, but I also grieved the loss of her knowledge. I kept imagining an archive being blown up. This is how some people refer to the loss of a family or community member who is a knowledge carrier. All over the world, there are articles written and obituaries of last speakers of a language, who are referred to not only as a loss of that particular person, but of the wealth of knowledge which is now gone. MIT linguist Ken Hale uses a similar analogy, when he was quoted as saying, "Languages embody the intellectual wealth of the people that speak them. Losing any one of them is like dropping a bomb on the Louvre”. (Bilger, 1994, p. 27)

At the same time that one is feeling vulnerable about losing a relative, one is also feeling the loss of one more person who can help and assist you to learn the language.

We have programs and help for a lot of things in our community, but assisting with language learning or language support is not one of those areas we have a great deal of support for at this time. More recently, there has been some progress made with language planning. The Liard First Nation Language Department was funded and staffed. There are currently three employees and one elder who is working on documentation, digitization of previously collected recordings and of organizing the material gathered in previous years. Much of this progress is due largely through the work and efforts of Martina Volfova, a UBC, PhD student who has been working with us here in Watson Lake.

This project is one that I am very subjectively involved with and that I feel personally. I felt the joy of the participants as they were learning more Kaska as well as my own joy from improving my skills as well.

21 Chapter 4. Literature Review

The challenges of creating effective Indigenous Language programs for adults that will enhance speaking ability are numerous. The significance of these efforts to reverse the collective trauma of colonialism and loss of language and culture in Indigenous populations is enormous. In seeking to explore avenues for effective adult language research of my language, Kaska, I have garnered insights from a number of previous studies and sought to find effective pathways that have proven useful for other Nations. Specifically, I am looking at the challenges of developing and delivering community programing as well as looking at language revitalization as one important factor in community healing and wellness, as well as language to identity and culture. Another aspect of this project is that I myself have experienced language loss and understand the personal impacts of this loss for my family as well as my community and myself. This makes this auto ethnography an important aspect of my work.

4.1. What is language revitalization?

Language revitalization is a term attributed to Fishman (1991), as he described the re-establishment of the intergenerational transmission of the target language. The test of the revival of the language is if the target language is being transmitted down three consecutive generations. Joshua Fishmanʼs, Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) has to been used to assess the state of languages, (Lewis and Simon, 2009).

Much has been written about language revitalization and reversing language loss in Canada and other parts of the world (Fishman, 1996; Grenoble & Whaley, 2005; Hinton, 2011; Ignace 2016, p.11; Krauss, 1996; Meek, 2009; Reyhner 1996). Currently, First Nations communities in Canada, the US and internationally have completed projects, have programs being conducted and many more being planned with the goals of stemming language loss and increased efforts and focus on language revitalization.

Since 1990, the FPCC has allocated more than $20 million in grants – including federal Aboriginal Languages Initiative and provincial BC

22 Languages Initiative grants – to First Nations organizations to enable local language revitalization and documentation projects (Ignace, 2016, p. 11).

There has been a great deal money spent, however, a lot of it has not resulted in creating neither fluent speakers nor intergenerational transmission (Meek, 2009). Not that the work has not been good, necessary or appreciated, but that recently more and more First Nations people are embarking on language activities which are part of a bigger plan of language revitalization and not simply piece meal activities (Green, 2016; Twitchell, 2018; Blair et al., 2002). The Yukon Native Language Centre in Whitehorse under the new leadership of Skaaydu Tina Jules is working cooperatively with Yukon First Nations people as a reflection of this new and growing thinking that we must, as First Nations people come up with a community plan for our future which includes a multi-year, multi- faceted and multi-organization and community members approach. Projects funded for short periods of time, or focused on one aspect are no longer a priority unless they fit within the bigger picture. We all have to be working together to create some momentum with new speakers.

There are many studies which point out that language revitalization is an important social issue, not simply one of academic studies, government statistics or communities wanting to reconnect to their past. The language must be used every day and with various people in the home and the community and used not only by the Elders.

Revitalization is a socio-cultural question, not a technical, pedagogical, demographic or even linguistic. It is not about just learning and knowing a language, but using it and living in it and doing so in meaningful numbers. Therefore, language use requires interactions between L1 and L2 speakers in various contexts and types of social interactions. (Green, 2017, p. 27).

A big part of the literature is about reconnecting to identity and culture. This to me, is the most powerful aspect of what we Kaska people are facing. We are also seeking healing through reconnecting to language. It is all part and parcel of the same thing. (Hinton & Hale, 2008; MacIvor & Napoleon, 2013; Moore, 2003; Ngaha, 2011; Rewi and Rewi, 2015; Timms, 2013; Thompson, 2012; Touchie, 1997; Twitchell, 2018).

23 Revitalizing First Nation languages is more than simply learning a language, as Green (2016) points out. It is about healing from the trauma of colonialism and about stepping forward to the future in a good way (Hinton & Hale, 2008, MacIvor & Napoleon, 2013, Moore, 2003, Ngaha, 2011, Rewi and Rewi, 2015, Touchie, 1997, Thompson, Twitchell, 2018, Tims, 2013).

Language Revitalization is not just about the language. We want our people to heal from the inter-generational trauma we carry as a result of the legacy of colonialism and assimilationist policies that sought to eradicate our people. We want to make good people who have good lives… who have happy families…not just to create speakers or our languages. (Green, 2016, 76)

This important work is part of a greater process, which involves healing from cultural oppression and genocide. The research, which describes the improvement of First Nations people’s lives, resonates with myself as my research project demonstrated this in a small way over the two months of the language sessions. Seeing the happiness in the participants and feeling confident and proud of their language and culture is very healing. One does not need a research project to prove this statement.

Attitudes of the greater society have contributed to negative attitudes about First Nations language and culture. An article printed in an early Watson Lake newspaper is a demonstration of racism at worst, and cultural misunderstanding at best.

A tour through the Lower Post school this week was exciting. How lucky to be an Indian! – and the place shines from the furnace room to the rooftop – not a speck of dust. Happy and smiling faces of the children, and serene look of the sisters and the Father make one wonder why the harassed look of the mother of four in the mud-tracked kitchen? (Stillwell, J.K. “Salute to Watson Lake and Area” 1961)

As part of this revitalization process, there has been a notable increase in First Nations communities and educational organizations as well as individuals who are looking at various strategies from immersion, head-start early learning programs, master- apprentice, cultural camps, intense classroom instruction as well as on-going school programs to enhance efforts to change in a positive, language decline. (Green 2017;

24 Ignace 2016; Meek and Hinton, 2016; Meek and McDonald, n.d.; Rewi & Rewi 2015; Twitchell, 2018)

Simply offering programs are not necessarily a measure of success or measuring numbers of speakers is not a good indication of success in creating 2nd language speakers. (Rewi & Rewi, 2015) Maori speakers are looking beyond academics writing about language and looking at creating speakers and having language be used by all facets of society. As Green (2017), Carr and Meek (2013), and Meek (2009), point out, it is more than simple numbers of speakers, it’s about using the language in everyday life.

Over the years here in the Yukon a great deal of effort, time and money has been allocated to language revitalization, or First Nation language projects. All of it well meaning, but some of it not necessarily meeting the right goals. Meek writes about this disjuncture in her 2010 work, “We are our Language”. She describes the statistics which were collected by government agencies, describing language speakers and non-speakers and how based on age, the younger generation were clearly shown to be at risk of language loss, however the allocation of money was not based on those numbers (Meek, 2016, p. 79).

A great deal of money was spent on creating the Yukon Languages Act (1988), and hiring First Nation language interpreters. We were very fortunate to have had one of these positions in our community. The funding for Aboriginal Language Services was secured from 1989 to 1993, with a further five years extension granted up to 1998 (Meek, 2010, pp. 25-26). In hind sight, this may not have been the best way to allocate the money, if we are looking to create new speakers. There was a huge disjuncture created between Elder and young people by jobs created by the Yukon Government which did not promote language learning. “State run employment practices also underscored the practices and discourses of First Nations elders, especially those aspects that promoted the authority of elders;…Kaska was becoming the ideologically the language of elders.” (Meek, 2010, p.157).

Meek goes on to describe the disjuncture in teaching of the Elders with young people. The method of teaching, expecting silence and respect did not match the

25 expectation and necessity of speaking to learn a language. Programs and materials necessary for teaching a language have not been readily available for successful Kaska language learning in pre-school or in the school programs. This disjuncture was noted by some of my participants in the Kaska language sessions spoke of previous language workshops being too difficult or the pace not accommodating where they were at in their learning. Hence, further alienating beginning speakers from making much of an effort. One participant described people working in First Nations languages as “cliquey”. Although, Kaska language workshops or employees has never excluded anyone, this was the perception of a participant as not feeling like she had a place in activities or workshops.

Another disjuncture written about by Meek, was the importance placed on writing the language. Many of the elders attending the workshops in the 1990ʼs were motivated by a desire to learn to write and read Kaska (Meek, 2010, p. xvi). Moore also wrote about this in his 2003 work as he quotes fluent Elder Leda Jules who said, “you can do so much with writing”, (Moore, 2003, p.134). I have experienced this throughout my teaching career when I would speak to people about trying to teach my students to speak and they would allude to learning to read and write. Recently in discussing my Master’s degree studies, a fluent elder said to me, “oh good, you can get better at the writing of Kaska.” I replied, with an objection and said, “oh no, I want to get better at speaking and help other people to speak. Someone else can do the writing.” It is difficult to change the attitudes that Kaska literacy has a higher value than speaking Kaska.

Intergenerational transmission and the restoration of the language through generations are highlighted in many studies (Fishman, 1991, 1996; Hinton & Hale, 2008; Twitchell, 2016) Language revitalization is a multi-faceted challenge with a variety of solutions. A one size fits all is not feasible for language revitalization. It requires cooperation with outside agencies as well as community leaders, language activists and learners (Blair et al., 2003; Green 2017; Hinton & Hale, 2008; Ignace, 2008; Meek, 2009; Timms, 2013; Volfova, 2015). Developing a revitalization plan requires community ownership and commitment. Vital to this is the community and individuals of that community making the time and commitment as well as securing the resources to support

26 long-term projects. In order to have significant change and improvement of speakers speaking the language good leadership and planning is critical (Green, 2017, p. 75). That has been key in all the successful language revitalizations programs all over the world. Language planning is never complete and its ongoing and changing as conditions, participants, and funding changes (Hinton, 2008, p. 59).

Many people believe you should just start with what you have and build up some momentum from small projects. They eventually grow to bigger projects as more and more people become involved.

Any language revitalization plan therefore must be cognizant that capacity comes in many shapes and forms and should not just be squarely placed upon one person, or on one group. As Indigenous peoples we often argue for self-determination especially in determining processes and practices intended to better our existence. (Rewi & Rewi, 2015, p. 150)

My review is not extensive on the topics of language revitalization, healing and language and the close links between identity, culture and language, however, I have looked at studies either closest to Kaska geographically or with similar situations of populations, dialects, low number of speakers. As well I have reviewed the programs, which have gathered and presented best practices from a variety of places nationally and internationally. I have discovered there is a great body of work on a number of issues, (Car & Meek, 2013; Meek 2001, 2007, 2012, 2016; Meek & McDonald, [n.d.]; Moore 2003, 2011; Moore & Hennessy, 2006) relating to revitalization in the Yukon. Our situation in the Yukon differs from many parts of Canada and the world, in that our total populations of First Nations are small and even smaller are the fluent speakers. Add to this complexity, the many dialects and language revitalization situation becomes challenging on many levels. We also have strengths in that the contact with non-native people happened later than it did in other parts of Canada and the world, which resulted in traditional culture and ways are not something in the distant past. Kaska people in particular, have strong spiritual and culture ties to the land and this remains one of our strengths.

27 I have reviewed studies with strong statements about the challenges and the solutions for communities, educational institutions and individuals with regard to language revitalization.

The literature strongly conveys the belief that language revitalization is very much about spirituality as well as a healing for the community. Learning one’s language connects one to one’s culture and people in a unique and powerful way (Meek 2009, 2010 Moore et al., 2006, Moore, 2011, Twitchell, 2018, Thompson, 2012).

As Kaska people, traditionally and now, we pray to give thanks and to ask for things to happen in a good way. Prayer and talking to the ancestors will always put one in the right direction and keep things going well. Hammond and I worked on creating a Kaska prayer for our class and at the beginning of our sessions; our Elder Hammond said this prayer. We started each language session with prayer and the students were given the written words to follow. I believe we started our sessions in a good way, and we were guided and assisted by our prayers.

4.2. Why save First Nation Languages?

Why do we bother to save Indigenous languages or talk about language decline? Many studies tackled this question with a variety of strong answers related to cultural integrity and well-being. (Timms, 2013, Twitchell, 2018, Reyhner 1996, Fishman 1991, Meek, MacIvor 2013, Ignace 2016) Much of what was presented is the notion of relating language loss to loss of cultural knowledge. Many elders have echoed this; as you cannot have one without the other. One cannot speak of language without talking about culture and vice versa. Hinton (2001) builds on this argument, contending that language loss and cultural decline often go hand-in-hand. This idea is pointed out by Hinton is as follows,

… the loss of language is part of the loss of whole cultures and knowledge systems, including philosophical systems, oral literacy and musical traditions, environmental knowledge systems, medical knowledge, and important cultural practices and artistic skills (Hinton 2008, p. 5).

Reyhner also linked concerns about the decline in language diversity to an associated decline in human knowledge: “our languages contain a significant part of the world’s

28 knowledge and wisdom” (1996, p. 4). When a language is lost, much of the knowledge that language represents is no longer available.

Hinton (2001), Timms, (2013). Fishman further emphasizes the point of language and culture, “The most important relationship between language and culture that gets to the heart of what is lost when you lose a language is that most of the culture is in the language and is expressed in the language.” (Fishman, 1996, p 81).

As MacIvor, et al., (2013) indicated that First Nations communities attribute their survival in spite of 150 years of colonization to their language and culture. Further, they stated that although First Nations health is lower than the general population in Canada, there are some factors, which they describe as protective factors. The importance of culture and language and practicing traditions was highlighted. As well, spirituality and the land was key to all aspects of maintaining a good life. The stories, which were shared in the Kaska language sessions, were about being on the land and practicing traditions, which includes language. The stories depicted great joy and connection to culture and identity.

4.3. Language decline and loss, how it got to be this way?

Twitchell (2018), Green (2017), Ignace (2016) describe the of decline of First Nation languages, the historical reasons related to effects of colonization: specifically, oppression and torture through the residential schools and government policies related to assimilating First Nations people in the mainstream Canadian society by undermining their language and culture.

Ignace (2016) points out the looming danger of extinction of many First Nation languages in British Columbia and Canada, due to residential schools and other assimilationist policies.

The forced assimilation through residential schools – a system designed, “to kill the Indian in the child,” which resulted in significant language loss. These horrific schools significantly impacted “ … three generations or more … and destroyed the intergenerational transmission of Aboriginal languages by removing children from their communities, relatives, and

29 elders, while moreover inflicting physical punishment, shame and humiliation for the use of First Nations languages. (Ignace 2016, p. 3).

Twitchell (2018) describes the Alaska and Canadian state of Tlingit language and Green (2017) describes the Anishinaabe of the Six Nations. It is important to document how First Nations languages and culture were directly affected by colonization, specifically the policies and actions aimed at assimilating First Nations people into Canadian culture. (Ignace 2016; Moore 2003; Meek 2009; Twitchell; 2018, & Green 2017) It is necessary to look back, as a reminder and to ensure that as a society we do not forget these painful truths, and bring those difficult times forward as a way to understand where we are now as First Nations people. As well, we must be looking back, as taking stock of one’s language and doing an assessment is a critical foundation piece to any language revitalization work. One has to closely examine the situation in order to bring about change. We must look at the historical facts, but also where we are at now, to clearly paint a picture of the stark reality of the state of our languages (Moore, 2011, Twitchell, 2018, Meek, 2009, 2010, McIvor, et al., 2013). Green stated this in his work on the Anishinabe language plan. He writes, “this study seeks to deconstruct our present reality and understand how we came to exist within it, in order to transform it”. (2017, p. 14)

The very thing, which we need to revitalize our languages, is to communicate in our languages every day; however, it is this very challenge of not enough daily speech, which leads to language loss. (Hinton & Hale, 2008) They also point out that daily communication in families is what is lost when dominant language and society take over.

Fishman talks about language revitalization being about relationships, and how creating community is the most challenging part of language revitalization. (1991, p. 90) Further he states that relationships are critical and he used an analogy of using one’s lap instead of a laptop. I would argue that in our community, language creates community and relationships, as was beautifully demonstrated by the participants in my language sessions project. The participants spoke of the joy of returning to the class to share their progress and their stories with others. They spoke of the joy of running into one another at a community event and speaking Kaska.

30 Building language takes family, not machines. Yukon Native Language Centre spent a great deal of money on computers in the 1990’s and a lot of publicity was given to the purchases. People were excited at first about the fact that one could sit at the computer and with one click hear the phrases, as well as see the phrases written. However, people rarely used these computers, and proficiency in language was not assisted by these programs. Computers are critical as tools of language work, but the relationships and the communication between family, friends and community is what will revitalize a language and stem language loss.

4.4. Intergenerational transmission

Josh Fishmanʼs (1991), “Re-establishment of the Intergenerational transmission of the target language” clearly states that if your language is successful you will have three generations speaking it. Fishman’s Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) is the standard utilized by many researchers to determine the state of ones’ language. If a language is no longer spoken at home, it cannot be passed along to subsequent generations.

It is not enough to increase the number of second-language speakers, but it is also necessary to increase the number of Aboriginal first-language speakers while restoring the transmission of that language from one generation to the next. The transmission of Aboriginal languages from older to younger generations becomes the critical factor in the continuation of any Aboriginal language. (Norris and MacCon, 2003, p. 168)

This was also strongly supported by Meek, (2009). As well, Hinton & Hale (2008), in the Green Book of Language Revitalization, have stressed the importance of intergenerational transmission, as have Meek (2010), Moore & Hennessy (2006,) Green, (2017), Thompson, (2012) and Twitchell, (2018).

Currently the state of the Kaska language is that we are critically endangered and because the language is only spoken by Elders over 65 years of age. We are not transmitting or using the language across generations. For some people in my community, there is an attitude of all is well. It’s like an elephant in the living room,

31 which no one wants to acknowledge. This is in part due to Elders who are fluent and can speak, so they don’t think it’s a problem or do not think about it, or the young people who don’t speak, and feel helpless as to what to do without the support and availability of resources and programs to work on learning the language. There are elders and young people who know this is a problem however are unsure how to tackle this issue or where to start. It deeply affects those language warriors and others who have been working on our languages for a long time.

“There is a kind of resistance to the very idea that something is happening to their language. “Oh, I’ll pick it up. Oh, it happened before. Oh, the younger generation will come around.” (Fishman, 1996, p. 85).

In her work, “Language Ideology and Aboriginal Language Revitalization in Yukon, Canada”, Meek highlighted a poignant quote by late elder, Annie Ned from Aboriginal Language Services (1991), p.10. “I go by myself, no grandchildren behind me…..We got to work hard so our grandchildren will come behind us”. (Meek 2009, p.165)

Norris and MacCon (2003) state that transmission of the Aboriginal language is bleak for speakers who are over fifty. This translates into almost no transmission to the younger populations of that community; therefore, it is critical for speakers to be younger to ensure transmission of the language. Meek echoes this as well, “While loss of language does not necessarily lead to the death of a culture, it can severely handicap the transmission of that culture” (2009, p. 168).

4.5. Trauma and Healing

Most of the literature on trauma and languages attributes, it to Residential Schools and other effects of colonization. (Green, 2017; Meek, 2009, 2016; Moore, 2003; Moore & Hennessy, 2006; Thompson, 2012; Twitchell, 2018). The Truth and Reconciliation Commission Canada, had many hours of testimony from First Nations people who suffered because they were beaten for speaking their language (http://nctr.ca/reports.php). Further to that, they could no longer speak it when they left the residential schools. The documentation and the testimony of people who have suffered and are still suffering are

32 numerous and very powerful, and it shows through the break in language transmission. Twitchell (2018) and Thompson (2012) both write about this very eloquently in their works.

The narrative of genocide and oppression continues to loop through individuals and collectives in Indigenous communities when it comes to language and cultural loss. Only in recent years have these interconnected pieces of oppression been looked at in terms of their long-lasting effects on Indigenous people and their physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health (Twitchell, 2018, p. 61).

Twitchell (2018) and Thompson (2012) wrote extensively about trauma on their perspective communities and the effect it has on their language. Twitchell emphasizes the point I made earlier about documenting so as to not forget. He recognizes that the trauma people went through stopped them from passing on the language to the next generation and that the shame and hurt continues to exist. Thompson reinforces this point. She stated that while there is still pain, there needs to be healing and with healing can come language revitalization. She quotes a community member, David Rattray,

The amount of emotional pain that exists is so horrific, …when we talk about language revitalization; we have to factor in a huge healing component. .. Language is too difficult to learn and use, with all the pain elements that flow through our world. (Thompson 2017 p.140)

The L1 silent speakers in my Kaska practise language sessions, spoke of being punished for speaking Kaska and as a result they blocked their language for years. They could not bring themselves to speak it. One woman described it as having the language in her but not being able make the sounds come out. One person described how it would bring her back to the time one of the nuns strapped her hand. She said she could feel it as strongly as it had happened today. The healing from these traumas has to include spirituality. We, as First Nations people are suffering from spiritual poverty (Twitchell, 2018, p. 63). When people fail to pass on their language to their children, there are consequences; when youth do have their language, more positive outcomes are attested. Hallett, Chandler & Lalonde, 2007, make a strong case about higher levels of language knowledge correlated with lower levels of suicides in youth.

33 4.6. Language Attitudes

Over the years, attitudes from the greater society have changed to a more positive one from that of disdain and superiority: however there remains a stigma, which is often felt subtly and sometimes overtly. In my years of teaching Kaska at the Secondary School in Watson Lake, my students have said to me, “Why are we learning Kaska? No one speaks it anymore, it’s a dying language”. As well, more recently, one of my Kaska students responded negatively when I said “Dentah?” to her in another class. She said, “Ms. McDonald, this isn’t Kaska class.” As if to say why are you speaking to me like that here? I replied with, “you know that I want you to practice Kaska anywhere. I will speak it as much as possible, not just in Kaska class and I hope you will do so as well.”

Hinton and Meek (2016) refer to this in their article, “Language Acquisition, Shift, and Revitalization Processes in the USA and Canada.” They describe how the attitudes of the parents affect the attitude of the child and will determine how the child carries on with that language or not. As well, we have the long history of residential schools and years of the dominant Canadian Society treating First Nations languages as “less than” that of white society. In the years from the residential school to present day, there still exists a shame or a feeling of having to hide our language when speaking amongst non-Native people.

Additionally, Native language speakers around the Yukon often shared that it was “impolite to “speak Indian” around those who did not understand the language, especially around non-Natives. The focus on politeness overlaid another explanation. A number of Native people have told us that non-Native speakers, upon hearing an Aboriginal language being spoken, would interpret the discourse as being about them and in particular as mocking them. (Meek & McDonald [nd]., p. 8)

Meek refers to Kaska adults who were raised in English speaking homes, and who spoke of their insecurity about the Kaska language. Even those adults, who worked with Meek on documenting and recording Kaska with elders, remarked on “their own current lack of use and loss of language reflecting on their own language ability as substandard. Even adults who have worked on documenting Kaska often remarked on their uncertainty

34 and requested that I mark items to check with other older speakers. Rather than valuing their skill with and knowledge of their language, they would express frustration at not being equivalent to elders. This frustration was compounded by a worry that this older generation was rapidly aging, and with their demise so goes the language.” (Meek 2016, p. 87)

We have a long way to go to bring up the Kaska language to be respected and honoured by society as well as by our own people. We have a great deal of trauma to heal, and the scars from the past 100 and more years of colonization are still apparent in our communities and in Yukon society.

4.7. Language and Identity

There is a great amount of literature written on language and identity, and much of what is written clearly states that there is a strong link between language and culture. (Hinton & Ahlers, 1999; McIvor et al., 2013; Meek, 2009, 2010, 2012; Ngaha, 2011; Nicholas, 2010; Norris & MacCon, 2003; Thompson, 2012; Twitchell, 2018; Whalen, Moss, & Baldwin, 2016)

It is evident that when one identifies with a group or a people, they will refer to the language whether they speak it or not. Norri and McCon commented, “Much of Language is not only a tool of communication but a symbol of cultural identity”. (2003, p.168)

First Nations youth in Canada and the world are feeling the effects of colonization and loss of culture. The pressures are great on youth, not only to succeed in today’s society with all of its challenges, but without the benefit of traditional knowledge as it is rapidly eroding, in front of them. Hallett, et al., 2007, describe this succinctly.

Nowhere are the costs associated with failures to achieve a proper measure of individual and cultural continuity more apparent than in the identity struggles of young First Nations persons who are required, not only to clear the standard hurdles that punctuate the ordinary course of individual identity development, but to construct a sense of shared identity out of the remnants of a way of life that (as a result of colonization, ongoing

35 prejudice, and positional inferiority) has been largely overthrown. (2007, p. 394)

Nicholas in her 2010 study with the Hopi, refers to the strong connection of the Hopi to language and their identity. “When you learn about Hopi, you learn about that balance between your responsibilities to yourself, your society, your whole world. That’s how Hopis think about it. This is passed through the language,” (Nicholas, 2010, p.126). It is this balance between self and our world that we as Kaska people are desperately seeking in our language revitalization efforts. The adults in the Kaska language practise sessions affirmed this is many ways, through their stories; joy in connecting to cultural understanding and in speaking Kaska.

36 Chapter 5. Methodology

My research question was to evaluate the results of adult Kaska language practise sessions with the purpose of creating a group of beginning Kaska speakers. More specifically, I looked at the effort it would take to create a group of Kaska learners with the goals of increasing Kaska conversation.

My project consisted of conducting eight weeks, 16 one-hour sessions, two per week of adult Kaska beginning language sessions for both Kaska and non-Kaska participants in Watson Lake. I advertised my project as a ten-week project, however due to unexpected circumstances and cold weather in early January, I reduced the number of weeks from ten to eight.

My methodology for advertising my project, was simplified due to the fact that I am Kaska and a member of the Liard First Nation; thus, everyone knows me and I did not have to spend a lot of time getting to know people prior to seeking participants. As the P1 and the facilitator, my personal connections allowed me to easily find participants and who had trust in me and were supportive of my project. My familiarity with the community and them with me, allowed me the time to prepare for our sessions without having to spend a lot of time advertising, or recruiting. Also, my topic and project was of personal interest to my participants, thus the language practise sessions, “sold themselves”.

My participants ranged in age from thirty to sixty-eight years of age. They were both Kaska and non-First Nations people from the Watson Lake area. There was an additional participant who is Kaska and lives in Whitehorse. She joined us via Zoom; an online video conferencing program allowing people to join a meeting from a distance, utilizing audio and visual projection. I opened the practise sessions to non-Native people as well, as I wanted to create a group of Kaska language learners. Three of the twelve participants were not Kaska or from a First Nation.

37 I excluded fluent Kaska speakers to ensure that my participants were comfortable about practicing and making mistakes. I also excluded school age students to keep it to an adult session without any constraints due to having younger people in the sessions. I wanted the adults to feel as comfortable as possible about this experience.

I developed my project and the methods I would utilize, after consulting with Marianne Ignace, Pat Moore and Martina Volfova. As an experienced classroom teacher, I was confident in my teaching methods although, I was somewhat uncertain as I have not spent a great deal of time teaching adults. I wanted to keep my sessions practical and based on daily conversation rather than simply teach lists of words and phrases. I also wanted to ensure that the participants felt comfortable speaking with each other and would enjoy the sessions.

Once I developed my weekly themes for the practice sessions, I was able to advertise and seek participants. I used Facebook as well as my long-standing connections within the community to personally recruit participants by word of mouth. The Liard First Nation executive director put out a memo through the interoffice email system and told employees they would be given the time off to attend these sessions. It was through Facebook, I received the greatest number of responses, but I also made cold calls to people who I knew might be interested.

I selected the time and the venue for easy access for myself and for one of my participants, my nephew Devin who is a quadriplegic and a colleague at Watson Lake Secondary School. I chose my classroom where I work at WLSS, to ensure that I spent less time moving materials and my equipment to another location. This also made it easier for Devin as he is in a wheelchair. My classroom as a venue worked very well, as it is in close proximity to where most of my participants live and work in Watson Lake.

The sessions were designed to be one hour long two days a week, with one day in between the classes. I felt that this was a manageable time frame, and I chose the time of 3:30 pm to 4:30 pm on Tuesdays and Thursdays, with the idea that those were the best days of the week for maximum participation. Many people in our community travel to Whitehorse for various reasons and Mondays and Fridays are often days when people are

38 away. Also, having the classes after Devin and I were finished our classes at the school, meant that we could get started as soon as possible after we finished our school work day. I was also taking chances on choosing an earlier time, rather than later in the evening, as I felt this would work better for the participants. Many people do not like going out for the evening after they get home, especially in winter. The participants reported that they were happy with the scheduling of the sessions.

I required an Elder who would assist me by providing the language for our sessions. I did not have to advertise this role. I know who lives in the Kaska community and would be able to do this type of work. Fortunately, the Elder I chose was available for the whole of the eight-week project. Hammond Dick speaks the Pelly Banks dialect; therefore, I chose this dialect for our language sessions. As mentioned earlier, the Pelly Banks dialect is most commonly spoken in Watson Lake and Upper Liard, Two Mile and Two and a Half-Mile.

I am somewhat functional in the Pelly Banks dialect, or more orally receptive. I am also orally receptive in my L1, which is Lower Liard/Muncho Lake. I am not as verbally proficient in the Pelly Banks dialect, so I am also looking at my own progress in the Pelly Banks dialect as a result of these sessions. In addition, I am looking at whether or not this increased proficiency will transfer to my own dialect and will result in increased usage and communication in my dialect.

Once I determined who my participants would be, I set up interview times and we met in the two weeks prior to the beginning of the sessions. I met each participant individually and described my project and assessed their Kaska skills using a model of language assessment developed by Dr. Onawa McIvor and Dr. Peter Jacobs Learning Assessment Tool at the University of Victoria, which could be found at: https://www.uvic.ca/research/assets/docs/rpkm/NETOLNEW_Language_Learning_Asses sment_Tool-Fillable.pdf)

I made notes of their responses to the questions I asked in Kaska. They read and signed the consent form and I provided them with schedule and outline of the eight weeks sessions.

39 My pre-sessions evaluation did not require much time, as most of the participants did not know any Kaska. A few could answer one or two of my questions. I noted their response on paper. To document people’s attitudes and interest in the Kaska language, I also had them fill out a pre-session survey.

5.1. Practice Sessions Procedures and Methods

I met with Hammond the day or two prior to our weekly sessions to go over our theme and the phrases we wanted to work on for that week. I would review the phrase and Hammond would say them for me.

We started each session with a prayer. It was important for us to begin this way, to bring our ancestors in to our sessions and to remind all the participants that praying is an important part of our culture. We introduced ourselves in Kaska and those who could say their names in Kaska did so and the rest in English. I would introduce the phrases and terms and Elder Hammond saying the phrases. The participants would repeat after Hammond and I and then we would break into groups of two and practice with each other.

For each week’s session, I would record Hammond saying the phrases. Sometimes I would record myself saying the phrases and I emailed the sound files to everyone. I used my IPhone to make the recordings as the sound was sufficient and I did so out of expediency and ease of recording and sending the sound files. I suggested to the participants that they practice saying the phrases with someone or work with the recordings on their own. I reminded them of the many times they heard English as a baby, child and toddler. Repeating and hearing words and phrases over and over again is what puts language in our long-term memory.

I warned people of what I call “language bullies”. These are people who have a superior attitude because they can speak Kaska, and may respond negatively when you attempt to speak Kaska to them. They say things such, “I don’t understand you”, “What language are you speaking?’, and “That’s not how you say that”. I told the participants to smile and say, I am trying and I may be speaking a slightly different dialect than the one

40 you speak. One of the participants had one of these experiences in the grocery store when she was trying out a few phrases. She said she remembered what I said and smiled and walked on. Most of the participants described receiving a positive response from people when they were practicing Kaska, although most of the time, the participants were practicing on their own.

One of the sessions was used to introduce the new phrases and the next session was spent practicing the phrases. At the beginning of every session I would ask for examples of the participants practicing their phrases, or what I called a check-in. Our practise sessions always ran over the one hour time frame. Sometimes the check-ins would take five to ten minutes and often it went on for twenty-five minutes. Stories were shared about speaking Kaska or about connecting with family and remembering old stories or traditions. In spite of taking time from language practice, this part of the sessions was invaluable for creating a sense of community, sharing traditional knowledge and for reaffirming Kaska identity. We often stayed for 30 minutes or longer after the sessions ended, as the participants had questions for Hammond and myself, ator they wanted to share another story.

41 Chapter 6. Results

The conversation practice sessions were designed to be eight weeks in length, which brought together both First Nation and non-First Nation learners in a safe environment. The sessions created a community of learners who were supportive and encouraging of each other, and it was very healing as described by the participants with their responses to the sessions. It was held at a neutral social setting and offered much more than language learning. It enabled the few L1 silent speakers who attended to begin learning their language in a way that they have not previously been able to, prior to participating in these practice sessions. It provided the participants with an introduction to the Kaska language and the sessions were presented at their comfort level. The participants had a low risk, safe place to learn basic Kaska conversation with others like themselves. There are many whom prior to this opportunity were shy, nervous, self- conscious and otherwise hesitant and uncomfortable about trying to speak.

The pre-session interview results were similar for everyone, except for two people. Of the twelve who were asked the Kaska questions, there were four who did not know any Kaska or recognize any of the questions. The other eight recognized the questions but were not sure how to answer them. Likely because they were used to introducing themselves but not accustomed to someone asking what their name is. One person could answer the question, Dentá, and enzī duguyeh?, and could also list some animals and say some weather words.

There were four people who joined our class in the second and third week, who I did not assess. Two of the latecomers were L1 speakers who were former residential school students and who were orally receptive to Hammond and myself speaking Kaska.

The pre-session surveys showed that of the eight who filled out the McIvor/Peters Language assessment forms, https://netolnew.ca/assessment-tool/ everyone was in the “not yet” or “rarely” categories for speaking. There were two people who answered more of the questions “rarely” and “sometimes.” In the understanding sheet, there were two who answered “rarely” and “sometimes”; the rest answered “not yet”. I was not able to

42 get everyone to fill out an assessment due to people starting a few weeks late, and my lack of availability to conduct interviews because of my tight schedule due to my full- time job as a teacher.

In facilitating these eight-week sessions, I came to understand that the time allotted for the project was a small portion of time needed to gain momentum in proficiency and speaking. Fortuitously, I saw other promising results, particularly in the early stages of language learning.

In analyzing the submissions made by the participants in the pre-session survey, the evaluations and in the comments made during the sessions, the following themes were made clear.

6.1. Survey and Session Results

1. What were your motivations for learning Kaska and take part in the Kaska practice sessions?

• Reconnect to culture and to be able to speak to the Elders.

• To be able to speak to the few Elders left who speak it.

• To be able to teach grand-children the language.

• To be able to listen and speak in a comfortable setting.

• To be able to teach family members.

• To be able to understand Kaska and follow some simple conversation or phrases.

• To eventually become fluent.

• To understand the Elders and to be able to speak back.

• To be able to understand Kaska people and my students better as well as learning some language.

43 2. What stopped were the barriers stopping people from learning Kaska prior to taking these sessions?

The L1 silent speakers, who were students at the Residential School in Lower Post, stated that they could not speak their language because of the trauma of attending school. They pointed out that the language was still in them, and they required some help for the language to come out. Several of the former residential school students said they blocked the Kaska language for years, because of how they were punished in school. They could not speak Kaska because it brought up the memories of their trauma. The blockage was too powerful to overcome and it stayed with them for years.

The L1 speakers said they could understand everything, but to speak Kaska was too difficult, as they could not get the words and phrases to come out. They all attributed it to Lower Post Residential School.

The L1 silent speakers said they were busy working and did not make the time. Others said, there were no classes or programs available to help one learn the language. One L2 speaker said that the family members who could speak were stopped from doing so, because of their own experience from residential school. She described it as ongoing residential school trauma, which affected the next generation.

The L1 silent speakers and L2 speakers described being laughed at, at some point in their past and that this was discouraging as well. They can remember the incident and which family member laughed at them and remembered it in detail. They said that stopped them from trying again.

Some participants indicated that another barrier to learning Kaska was the lack of classes or sessions available to them. One person said they never got involved in language activities before, because it felt “cliquey”, and only limited to a few people. There were workshops put on in the past, but some people felt they were not open to them. Another comment made about previous Kaska workshops, is that it was geared to fluent speakers, the pace too fast for them to catch on. They felt overwhelmed with the information.

44 3. Learning Styles and what motivates and encourages people to learn the Kaska language?

It was also indicated that there have not been classes or practice sessions available to people, prior to this group. They also mentioned the lack of learning materials available to them. There are some things on line, but they said that it helps to have a class first and then be able to take advantage of what is online. Most people said they did not know about the online links such as, the UBC and Yukon Native Language Centre websites. Those who knew about the websites, said it was difficult to “stick with it”, and that it was challenging as a sole method of learning. It is preferable to have many options to assist in learning, such as written material, recordings, and “apps”, in addition to a learning group like this Kaska practise group. All of the resources together assists one in learning a language, but on its own it is challenging for a learner speaker to make substantial progress. For consistent and steady progress, learners require assistance and guidance from a fluent speaker as well as other learning materials.

In the comments about learning styles, everyone wrote about feeling safe and being in a comfortable environment. People felt safe making mistakes with pronunciation and due to the fact that everyone was learning, no one felt inhibited by their mistakes or limited knowledge. They also commented on the patience of the facilitators. They liked the repetition and encouragement to speak, no matter how “off” they may have been pronouncing the words and phrases.

They also wrote about understanding how the language works, which helped in understanding the patterns of Kaska. Some people said it helped to see it written and wanted more of it written, so that they could refer to it later on. One of the participants made colourful flash cards, which she packed around with her to the store and wherever she went.

Most people commented on how much easier it was to have the written material as well as the sounds. They liked having the written word to refer to, in spite of the challenges of the sounds and the tones in Kaska. They also asked me to put the English words first and then the Kaska, on the theme sheets I made up for them. A few pointed

45 out that they are visual learners so it helped to connect sounds to letters and words. One participant stated that having the inconsistency of the spelling was challenging. I take full responsibility for this shortcoming as this was due to my limitations in writing Kaska and I was alternating between dialects in my writing. A few of the participants said that it helped with the learning to understand the mechanics of the language and helped them progress further than they had before. One participant described an earlier learning experience. He said it was based on too much memorization, rather than demonstrating how the language works.

They all described how the sessions were fun and inclusive. People felt safe to make mistakes. They also said being able to practice with one another was a huge part of the success. They also said, they realized, repetition, repetition, repetition works. As well, it is important to experience the language in your own way, rather than only listening to and repeating after an instructor or facilitator. One participant described how having authentic speaking situations and feedback from a speaker on good pronunciation, helps with making progress and increasing Kaska speech.

4. How did the sessions improve speaking ability to speak or understand Kaska over the period of the practice sessions?

“I can understand more of what my mom is saying when she speaks”. Other people described being able to understand family members better and with greater comfort in making an effort. One non-native participant described her efforts throughout the weekly sessions and even though her pronunciation was as a beginner, people generally responded positively. Some commented on her pronunciation, but she had understood from the discussions in class that people might respond in that manner. She did not let that deter her or diminish her efforts and motivation to keep trying.

Having practice sessions helps ones’ progress with speaking and understanding Kaska. The sessions have to be taught where people are at in the language, and teach to their level. It is great to have language sessions with everyone, especially for planning however, the teaching sessions with people at many different levels are not very effective for teaching beginners. Having beginners participate with fluent speakers, at a high level,

46 is off putting for the learners. For the fluent speakers, beginning type sessions moves along too slowly, and covers too many basic things, which is rather boring and repetitive for the more proficient speakers. It is very important to have sessions designed to suit the participants where they are at in the level of the language, which engages them and pushes them, but not too difficult so that it is not having a positive affect.

When asked about being shy to speak Kaska, for those who may know a little bit or those who were learning said shyness was a factor if they previously had a bad experience with someone making fun of them. The non-native and others who are L2 speakers said that they were not shy about trying, it was more due to the fact that previously, they had not had the opportunity to learn. One of the participants described having a previous opportunity to learn Kaska, but because of living a great distance from Watson Lake, did not have an opportunity to keep up what she learned, by not being able to practise with Kaska speakers.

The participants all described learning something and now having a little bit of Kaska to practice with in the future. Some of the participants who have fluent speakers in their family said it helped them be able to speak and understand better what is being said around them. They also felt more comfortable in trying to say something, greetings and be able to ask a question. They further described more confidence in making an effort. These Kaska practice sessions were effective at teaching enough language for people to either practice a bit more than they had previously and to give people the self-confidence and skills to try to speak and understand more than previous to the sessions.

5. What activities, both during the lessons, and outside of them, work best for motivating speakers to work on their language proficiency and to help their increased use of the language?

The participants emphasized that repetition as well as being able to hear the person enunciate the words and phrases clearly. They described the difficulty of trying to hear someone who speaks too quickly and without clarity making it difficult to learn. They like teachers who can speak slowly and clearly. This was very important to encourage and take people from whatever level they are at to a higher level of proficiency and understanding. One person described how when they would ask a fluent speaker to

47 repeat what they just said, the speaker would switch to English. The participant described that as challenging and hampered her learning efforts because she wanted the speaker to say it again, and not switch to English.

The research project described different learning activities and games as well as singing. However we did not get to try many different options for learning. TPR or Total Physical Response was introduced and described, but was not practiced, as well, we did not practice singing or drumming or creating songs in Kaska. In spite of not trying these methods, the participants understood that, physical movement and gestures could enhance language learning. We listened to some songs sung in other languages but we did not attempt to sing with the Karaoke machine. Creating new songs would come later with a bit more language proficiency. The participants understood and appreciated how songs could work to help people learn more language. I had the students close their eyes at times and listen to the sounds and listen to themselves say the words. I further encouraged them to look in the mirror to see them selves’ make the sounds.

6. How did the Kaska practice sessions make you feel emotionally or about yourself and your identity as a Kaska person?

Our practice sessions increased everyone’s confidence in speaking, even the one student who was from a different country. “Hearing the laughter was healing”, is how one participant described the fun. Another participant put it this way, ““I love to speak it. It makes me laugh (in a good way)”.

Another described the discussions and story telling as another positive aspect of the sessions. “The discussions about cultural understanding in English, was so interesting and it was a safe place to share ideas. Starting every class with a prayer in Kaska was empowering and set the tone for the class and gave strength to me personally.”

Participants described events from years ago and very clearly demonstrated that humiliation and shame is a powerful emotion, which can inhibit learning, in particular if people were punished or made fun of for speaking their language. People remembered incidences from years ago. We must gently encourage those who suffered trauma and assist them to get to a place of reconnecting to Kaska.

48 The participants spoke about the emotional connection to Kaska and the sense of community and identity from attending these sessions. This was true, as well for the participant who was connecting via Zoom from Whitehorse. She wrote in her evaluation, “I looked forward to the sessions and enjoyed watching and listening to the class discussions and practicing the language. It made me feel part of the community even though I was not physically present. This connection helped me during a difficult time in my life.”

“There was a lot of joy in the sessions and people were always happy to see each other and to report on their week. The smiles and hugs were an important part of the sessions”.

These sessions were a very rewarding experience for myself as a facilitator and learner, as well as for Hammond, our elder speaker, and for the participants. Further, they hoped that we would offer our sessions again in the near future. Learning Kaska is hugely difficult, however it gave people a great sense of accomplishment to make an effort and to experience success. Much like starting a tough journey but having started, it feels less challenging.

7. How are you planning on sharing your learning with other people in the community or your family?

The participants who were Kaska stated that they wanted to speak to family members and be able to communicate with fluent speakers while they are still with us. There was also a concern to pass on their knowledge and language to grandchildren. The non-native participants wanted to be able to practice more and be able to understand Kaska when it was spoken.

49 8. Did these Kaska practice sessions help you learn more of your own dialect (if it was different from the dialect you are familiar with?)

This question was only intended for me, however, I realized soon into our sessions that three of the participants spoke, or understood the Lower Liard dialect.

The L1 speakers and myself who spoke a different dialect from our Elder, understood and we were able to make progress with our dialect. We realized how speaking and practising allows one to improve quickly. It was rewarding to those of us who are L1 silent speakers.

9. What could be done to improve these sessions or future learning opportunities?

Participants stated that they wanted more time to practice and to have more written material to go with the sound files. As well, there were participants who wanted more knowledge of the grammar, and how the language works, as that helps with learning to speak, when one understands the patterns.

10. How can organizations like the Yukon Native Language Centre help with language revitalization goals?

Organizations such as Yukon Native Language Centre could assist in the availability and access to more written and sounds files, as well as video. They could also assist with sponsoring workshops or classes as well as supporting a variety of learning opportunities.

11. The overall success or sense of accomplishment from the sessions.

The joy that people felt, to be given the opportunity to learn Kaska, cannot be underestimated. The synergy in the room and the sense of community was awe-inspiring. Everyone commented on how much they enjoyed the sessions, being with each other and having a group to safely share their learning of Kaska. The conversation and stories, which were shared, went beyond what any of us expected. Language truly can connect one to culture and identity. The Kaska prayer at the beginning of our sessions cannot be underestimated. I believe our ancestors were in the room and they are with me now as I write this.

50 12. What are your visions or dreams for Kaska revitalization?

That there would be a continuation of the Kaska basic language sessions which will help the silent speakers in our community to heal, new Kaska speakers to develop, and all people to learn and grow through learning to speak Kaska.

Suggested Activities:

• Sentences recorded for answering the phone be developed and shared. Make random phones calls to community members and have prizes for people who answer in the language!

• A competition similar to a spelling bee – instead have participants demonstrate what they can say in the language- as beginner, intermediate and advanced learners. This would celebrate and provide recognition to language learners.

• Make Kaska videos and post them on YouTube.

• Have Karaoke sessions using the Kaska language to create songs.

• Obtain permission from Disney or other Film producers to develop the Kaska dialogue and utilizing English subtitles for movies.

• Develop immersion programs or increase the teaching to four to five hours per day.

• Have community dances like we used to have, and do language activities during the dance. Create a sense of community like we had before.

• Community dinners and teas in the language.

• Continue with the Kaska language lunches at the Liard First Nation.

Opportunities:

• A local place set aside for Kaska language documentation. This place could also house cultural information, photos, genealogy information, and documentation of Kaska names for families, place names and stories.

• A group of Elders designated to develop NEW Kaska words for modern things.

• A dancing and drumming group be started in Watson Lake and songs developed in Kaska.

• A safe place for Kaska language speaking- a coffee shop- “speak Kaska only” sessions.

51 • More intergenerational learning opportunities out on the land where Kaska speaking and learning is encouraged.

• More recordings made available of authentic conversation between fluent Kaska elders

• Kaska stories on audio or video with transcriptions.

• More documentation of all the Kaska dialects.

• Signage in Watson Lake community to be in Kaska.

• Offer sewing, carving, trapping and other traditional activities in Kaska.

• Language immersion canoe trips on the Liard, Frances River and the Dease Rivers.

• More “on the land” style of teaching and learning in Kaska for all ages. School age children as well as adults. Have programming for the whole family on the land.

• We need activities to involve more community members, as this is a community issue.

• A bus available to pick up potential students to come to town or to wherever the activities are happening. Encourage participation by assisting with transportation and day care.

• Have the school language teachers work part-time at the school and part time for the community for adult classes but still get paid by Yukon Government- part of reconciliation goals for Canada is to revitalize language.

• Creation of manuals and sound files for the RCMP, the hospital and the schools staff members to work on practising Kaska. Offer language classes to those who work with Kaska people.

• Revive our Kaska radio station (as we have all the equipment and CRT license) and offer programming in Kaska, even a few hours a day to start.

• Create a program for new speakers to learn and offer an honorarium to attend school. Give financial incentives while we still have fluent speakers with us.

• Offer Saturday and evening classes for those people who work during the week.

• To improve the Kaska language programs offered in our schools, we require an assessment – evaluation methods to be linked to the scope and sequence of language instruction.

52 Involvement of others:

• Connection with Ross River or Kwadacha in language learning opportunities.

• Watson Lake daycare to allow workers time for language learning so they can then in turn speak to the children.

13. Incidental Findings

My language sessions took place over a short period of time in terms of teaching language. It was difficult for me to try all the activities I had planned. In future, when I offer language sessions, I will do so under less of a time constraint. I will allow for flexibility in the schedule due to cancellations and changes in participant’s availability.

A non-Kaska member of the group, who is a teacher at WLSS, reported that after the first session, she learned a great deal about Kaska people and it helped her to understand her Kaska students, better than she has up to now. She was amazed at what she learned from the first day and her learning continued through out the rest of the sessions.

My conclusions are slightly different after conducting the sessions and evaluating what took place. I thought I would be assessing language learning and proficiency but the time was not enough to build up greater proficiency of vocabulary and phrases. Although all the participants learned some Kaska and improved and increased their skills, it was barely measureable. What was achieved, was a sense of community, a strengthening of identity as Kaska people, and a great sense of accomplishment. Further, the sessions created healing on many levels, for those who experienced past trauma, as well as all the participants.

I too have been affected on a deep level, both emotionally and mentally, by my language journey, and these sessions have given me hope about my own ability to become a better Kaska speaker. My assumption was that my language practice sessions would be positive, but not with any certainly. I knew that gathering together would be a positive experience, but I underestimated how it would have affected people in such

53 inspiring and positive ways. Particularly, to encourage the participants on their individual Kaska language learning journeys.

6.2. Anecdotal narratives from the class

We had great stories from everyone about Kaska culture and reconnecting to family members. We often spoke about Aʼī and the ways in which we should behave as Kaska people. We heard legends and personal stories about people hearing their relatives speak Kaska and how it reminded them of family and relatives who have passed on. The learning, by all of us, from these stories and anecdotes were an unexpected added bonus to our sessions. The non-native teacher reported to the group that after the first day with us, she understood her Kaska students better based on what she learned from the very first class. The other non-native people echoed that, and of particular note is the one person who has lived in Watson Lake for many years. She learned so much about culture and spirituality from our group. She also stated that seeing fellow participants around the community gave her an opportunity to connect in ways that she previously did not experience. They had something in common and she would say a greeting in Kaska or try to have a bit of a conversation. This was a wonderful example of reconciliation and how we can learn from and appreciate each other.

One day I invited a young non-First Nations man to participate with our class via Zoom. He has lived and worked with the Ross River Kaska for most of his adult life. He is well known as the “white guy who speaks Kaska”. I invited him to our sessions to ask him some questions about how he learned Kaska. He started to learn when he was seventeen or eighteen years old. He loved the land and believed that Kaska was the language of the land. He also wanted to spend more time with and learn from the Kaska Elders. He started spending time with Elders and asking them how to say words for objects and simple phrases. He was not self-conscious about his pronunciation or making mistakes. He said he kept working at it, with flash cards, taking notes and making short recordings. He also began working on the Ross River traditional Knowledge project and he did a lot of recordings with elders through that position. He also said he was not shy, and people would laugh at him sometimes, but he never let that discourage him. He said

54 he was not shy about “making a fool of himself”. He spent a lot of time with the elders and they would talk about a variety of events and daily activities. He would listen and try to repeat it and eventually he started to catch on. He continues to spend time with the elders and he marvels at the complexity and beauty of the language. He was very encouraging to the participants in our language sessions and congratulated all of us for taking this important step.

The response from other Kaska people in Watson Lake and elsewhere have been very positive. I had a call from one of my cousins in Ross River who wanted to offer an adult Kaska class. She wanted help with a poster to put up in her community. She said she was inspired to do so after hearing about our practice sessions. She said that it gave her the confidence to try it.

55 Chapter 7. Discussions and Conclusions

This small eight-week project was illuminating about language revitalization in many ways. I learned that as Kaska people, we are very resilient and determined to reconnect to our culture and identity through our language. The response from a dozen people who met two times per week for eight weeks, to practice Kaska, showed all of us that learning language can be accomplished. Further, that we can make learning sessions available for beginners without too much preparation and planning. The sessions were created for this research project and it came together without a lot of problems. Everyone who participated were very appreciative and wanting to learn more.

Past trauma affects one’s attitude about the Kaska language, and has further affected people’s ability to speak Kaska or to attempt to speak to relatives and friends. The trauma has also affected the L2 learners who did not attend Residential School. In spite of their past trauma, the L1 silent speaker participants said the language was “still in me”. During the sessions, they felt strengthened by the Kaska language and it had a positive influence on their self-identity and feelings of wholeness.

Learning language is an emotional activity. I was buoyed by my feelings of happiness while I was facilitating these sessions and the participants concurred with this sentiment. They expressed feelings of happiness from being in touch with the knowledge, spirituality, and sounds in the Kaska language. We were happy to be with each other sharing, learning and talking in a safe and caring place. Language is also connected to community and individual wellness. As people heal from past traumas and hurt, they will feel more inclined to relearn their language. As people are learning Kaska, they will feel better about themselves. We, as a community must be promoting the Kaska language as the doorway to wellness, as well as wellness being the doorway to reconnecting to one’s language and culture. I would like to explore this area further and suggest that we have different types of healing and modalities offered to promote reconnecting to the Kaska language.

56 Learning Kaska builds communities and healthy groups of supportive learners. Speaking Kaska creates a common ground for Kaska people as well as others in the community. Kaska can heal past differences and allow for people to work together toward a common future with a strong Kaska language and cultural base. Learning language builds community.

Kaska learning opportunities must be offered in a variety of ways, and not necessarily based on how one might teach English. Culture must be the basis of the teaching methods and the knowledge taught. One cannot separate one from the other. Using written materials is suitable for those who do not have access to an immersion style program and should be used to supplement the other methods of teaching. A variety of safe and fun activities must be provided for learners, as well as built in repetition in the sessions. Often times, regular attendance is difficult to maintain due to family and work commitments, thus learning opportunities must be flexible. We must create small pods or chunks of language lessons, which permit participants to start and stop, as their lives allow. Encourage everyone, even those who are having a tough time sticking to the lessons. All of this adds to our momentum of Kaska language use and revitalization. We must encourage everyone; including people who only have time to learn introductions to those who are going ahead to complicated story telling. All of us as learners, speakers, fluent elders, we are all part of our language community and we must be supportive and positive.

We must increase and highlight story telling as a way to promote and teach the Kaska language. We must be teaching language, but we must also be passing along important spiritual and cultural information. We need to create opportunities to have storytellers share in Kaska, and also provide written versions and translations. We need to have story telling gatherings like we do with hand games.

People require a safe place to learn language and be able to make mistakes as they are learning. Learners require supportive teachers and fluent speakers to help them on their language journey. Fun and laughter is very healing; and we must allow this to

57 happen naturally. For Kaska people, humour is an important value and is part of our every day lives.

As Kaska people, the land has cared for us, and it will take care of us again, by spending time on the land. Language and land go together as both are healing. When possible, the sessions should be offered on the land, as the language reflects so much about the land. Ideally, this is where language learning must occur. The spirituality of our people and our beliefs come alive and are remembered more easily on the land.

When the First Nation or other organizations receive money for language activities, they must be vigilant about utilizing the money for language programing. Hire elders and facilitators who will stay in the language. Use the language dollars appropriately and make Kaska the language of communication. It is far too easy to slip into English; however, progress in language proficiency will only happen with more opportunities in the language. Assist the learner, but do not fall back into English. We must help each other to use language dollars for teaching language and not for other activities.

We must create opportunities for speaking Kaska, such as getting together for coffee/tea/meals and cultural activities. Many people may not want to attend a class; however many people will come to an event. Kaska first! Always make an effort to use the Kaska abilities one has in any communication.

We must encourage non-First Nations people to learn Kaska with us if they so choose. They live with us, shop at the same stores, teach our kids, and marry into our families. The goal is to hear Kaska spoken more often by more people. However, Kaska people have different motivations and connections to the language, which are not shared by anyone else. That will not change, however, having other people appreciate and share the language, allows for more Kaska in every day conversation. This is ultimately what is needed for us to revive our language and ensure it is transmitted and used throughout three generations.

58 Learning another dialect can help one to speak one’s own dialect. The various dialects of Kaska are very similar, with many of the nouns being identical. Hearing Kaska in any dialect is important for beginning speakers to become familiar with the sounds. Eventually, the common words and phrase become more recognizable. We must be listening to as much Kaska as possible, especially in the face of steady loss of fluent speakers through the passing of our Elders.

I would also like to examine the possibilities of working with healers, body workers, therapists, and hypnotherapists about dealing with trauma as people are relearning the language. Liard Aboriginal Women’s Society in Watson Lake has provided this type of healing for Kaska people for many years. They especially utilized First Nations healers. I strongly believe healing assisted by experienced healers and spiritual people, as well as allowing the land to heal, is our way forward.

Kaska narratives and stories are ideal to teach language, once you reach a higher level of proficiency. However, it is not enough to have the stories available in written form. Kaska stories must be seen and heard by storytellers delivering the story. There is so much, which is not transmitted through the written word. Volfova describes this nicely in her article, “Indigenizing the Teacher’s Toolbox”, “since storytelling is related to rich and complex traditions, the actual practices of storytelling are essential for maintaining their integrity.” (Volfova, 2015:99) Materials with audio and video recordings can be created to accompany written stories, thus enhancing the learners’ ability to hear and learn new phrases as well as learning the stories.

This small community project demonstrated that with little effort, people could experience and learn Kaska at a beginner’s level. These sessions did not require enrolling in a post secondary program nor did it require applying for government funding. Other achievements included a strong feeling of identity, reconnection to Kaska culture and traditions, a sense of community. For L1 silent speakers, a chance to give voice to the language they had been suppressing for many years. The participants each came away with realizing that they could learn Kaska with some effort. Previously this opportunity had not been available.

59 Continued advancement in Kaska proficiency is possible with the availability of various programs and activities, suited to the individuals’ needs. This project demonstrates that small efforts are worthwhile when it comes to language revitalization.

Learning the language is connecting to the ancestors, and doing so brings us back to who we are meant to be. Reconnecting and revitalizing our language is critical to our survival as Kaska people. I will conclude with the words of late Elder, Mida Donnessey.

I listen to my old people and they teach me language, how to do everything. I listen to my mom and dad, my gramma that is why I am here today. We got to hang on to our language and we can’t lose it. We are Kaska people, we’re not white people. M. Donnessey (personal communication, February 20, 2017)

60 References

ACTFL. (2012). ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines. 1001 N. Fairfax St., Suite 200 Alexandria, VA 22314

Akiwenzie-Damm, K. (1996). We belong to the land: A view of ‘cultural difference’. Journal of Canadian Studies, 31(3), 21-28.

Bilger, B. (1994). Keeping Our Words. The Sciences, 09/10,1994, 16-20.

Blair, H., Rice, S., Wood, V., & Janvier, J. (2000). Daghida: Cold Lake First Nation Work Towards Dene Language Revitalization. In Indigenous Languages across the Community. Proceedings the 7th Annual Conference on Stabilizing Indigenous Languages (Toronto, Ontario, Canada, May 11 –14, 2000). ED462238 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED462238

Boras, A. (2016). As Languages die, we lose diversity of thought. Anchorage Daily News. September 29, 2016. https://www.adn.com/voices/article/languages-die- we-lose-diver...

Cantoni, G. P. (1999). Using TPR-Storytelling To Develop Fluency and Literacy in Native American Languages. In J. Reyhner, G. Cantoni, R. N. St. Clair, & E. P. Yazzie (Eds.), Revitalizing Indigenous Languages. Flagstaff, Arizona: Northern Arizona University. ED428927 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED428927

Carr, G. L., & Meek, B. (2013). The Poetics of Language Revitalization: Text, Performance, and Change. Journal of Folklore Research 50 ( 1-3), 191-216, Special Triple Issue: Ethnopoetics, Narrative Inequality, and Voice: The Legacy of Dell Hymes DOI: 10.2979/jfolkrese.50.1-3.191

Chandler, M.J. & Lalonde, C. (1998). Cultural Continuity as a hedge against suicide in Canada’s First Nations. Transcultural Psychiatry 35, 191-219.

Dauenhauer, N. M., and Dauenhauer, R. (1998). Technical, Emotional, and Ideological Issues in Reversing Language Shift: Examples from Southeast Alaska. In L. Grenoble & L. J. Whaley (Eds.), Endangered Languages: Current Issues and Future Prospects (pp. 57-98). New York: Cambridge University Press.

De Jong, D. H. (1998). Is Immersion the key to Language Renewal? Journal of American Indian Education, 37(3), 31 – 46.

Dementi-Leonard, B., & Gilmore, P. (1999). Language Revitalization and Identity in Social Context: A Community-Based Athabascan Language Preservation Project in Western Interior Alaska. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 30(1), 37-55.

61 Dole, C., & Csordas, T. (2003). Trials of Navajo Youth: Identity, Healing, and the Struggle for Maturity. Ethos, 31(3), 357-384.

Edwards, K. (2018). Without language, we have nothing. Macleans. Oct. 2018

Ellis, C. & Bochner, A.P. (2000). Auto ethnography, personal narrative, reflexivity. In N. K. Denzin and Y.S Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd ed.), (pp. 733-768). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Field, M. C. (2012). Kumiai Stories: Bridges between the Oral Tradition and Classroom Practice. In P.V. Kroskrity (Ed.), Telling Stories in the Face of Danger: Language Renewal in Native American Communities, (pp. 115-126). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Fishman, J. A. (1972). Advances in the Sociology of a language. The Hague: Mouton.

Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Fishman. J. A. (1996). What Do You Lose When you Lose your Language? In G. Cantoni, (Ed.), Stablizing Indigenous Languages, (pp. 80-91). Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University.

Fishman, J. A. (Ed.). (2001). Handbook of Language and Ethnicity, (Revised Edition). New York: Oxford University Press.

Green, J. (2017). Pathways to Creating Onkwehonwehnéha Speakers at Six Nations of the Grand River Territory. Ohsweken, Ontario: Six Nations Polytechnic.

Grenoble, L. A., & Whaley, L. J. (2005). Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hallett, D., Chandler, M.J., & Lalonde, C.E. (2007). Aboriginal language knowledge and youth suicide. Cognitive Development 22, 392–399. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2007.02.001

Hermes, M., Bang, M., & Marin, A. (2012). Designing Indigenous Language Revitalization. Harvard Education Review, 82(3), 381-402. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.82.3.q8117w861241871j

Hinton, L., & Ahlers, J. (1999). The Issue of "Authenticity" in California Language Restoration. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 30(1), 56.

62 Hinton, L. (2008a). Language revitalization: An Overview. In L. Hinton & K. Hale (Eds.), The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice (pp. 3-18). Bingley, UK : Emerald Group Publishing.

Hinton, L. (2008b). Language Planning. In L. Hinton & K. Hale (Eds.), The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice, (pp. 51-62). Bingley, UK : Emerald Group Publishing.

Hinton, L. (2011). Language Revitalization and Language Pedagogy: New Teaching and Learning Strategies. Language and Education 25(4), 307-318.

Hinton, L. & Meek B. (2016). Language Acquisition, Shift, and Revitalization Processes in the USA and Canada. In S.M. Coronel-Molina and T.L. McCarty, (Eds.), Indigenous Language Revitalization in the Americas, (Chapter 3). New York: Routledge https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203070673

Hinton, L., M. & Steele V. & N. (2002). How to Keep Your Language Alive: a Commonsense Approach to One-on-one Language Learning. Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday Books.

Honigmann, J. J. (1981). Kaska In J. Helm (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians Vol. 6 Subarctic, (pp. 442-450). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.

Ignace, M. (1998). Handbook for aboriginal language program planning in British Columbia: A report prepared for the First Nations Education Steering Committee, Aboriginal Language Sub-Committee. North Vancouver, BC: First Nations Education Steering Committee.

Ignace, M. (2016). British Columbia Kindergarten -12 First Nations Languages Curriculum Building Guide. FNESC. (www.fnesc.ca)

Johnson, L. M. (2010). Trail of Story, Traveller's Path: Reflections on Ethnoecology and Landscape. Edmonton, AB: AU Press.

Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Krauss, M. (1996). Status of Native American Language Endangerment. In G. Cantoni, (Ed.), Stabilizing Indigenous Languages, (pp. 15-20). Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. Lewis, M. P & Simon, G.F. (2010). Assessing Endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS. RRL, LV, 2, 103–120, Bucureşti.

63 Ludke, K. (2009). Teaching Foreign Languages through Songs. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh.

Ludke, K. M. (2018). Singing and arts activities in support of foreign language learning: An exploratory study. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 12(4), 371-386.

McIvor, O., A. Napoleon, A., & Dickie, K. (2013). Language and Culture as Protective Factors for At-Risk Communities. International Journal of Indigenous Health, 5(1): 6.

Meek, B. A. (2007). Respecting the Language of Elders: Ideological Shift and Linguistic Discontinuity in a Northern Athabascan Community. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 17(1), 23-43.

Meek, B. A. (2009). Language Ideology and Aboriginal Language Revitalization in Yukon, Canada. In P. V. Kroskrity and M. C. Field (Eds.), Native American Language Ideologies: Beliefs, Practices, and Struggles in Indian Country, (pp. 151-171). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

Meek, B.A. (2011). Failing American Indian Languages. American Indian Culture and Research Journal 35(2), 43-60.

Meek, B.A., (2012). We Are Our Language: An Ethnography of Language Revitalization in a Northern Athabaskan Community. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press.

Meek, B.A. (2016a). Shrinking Indigenous Language in the Yukon. In E.S. Carr & J. Lampert, (Eds.), Scale:Discourse and Dimensions of Social Life, (pp. 70 – 88). Oakland: University of California Press.

Meek, B.A. (2016b). Politics of Language Endangerment. In N. Bonvillain, (Ed.), Routledge Handbook of Linguistic Anthropology, (pp. 447- 462). New York: Routledge. https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203492741

Meek, B.A., (2001). Kaska Language Socialization, Acquisition and Shift (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.

Meek, B.A. & McDonald, L.G. n.d. “At risk” Languages and the road to recovery: a case from the Yukon. Unpublished ms in the files of the authors.

Mithun, M., (1998). The Significance of Diversity in Language Endangerment and Preservation. In L Grenoble and L.J. Whaley (Eds.), Endangered Languages: Current Issues and Future Prospects, (pp. 163-191). New York: Cambridge University Press.

64 Moore, P. (Ed.). (1999). Dene Gudeji: Kaska Narratives. Watson Lake, Yukon: Kaska Tribal Council.

Moore, P. J. (2002). Point of View in Kaska historical narratives, Vol. 1 (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.

Moore, P. J. (2003). Lessons on the Land: The Role of Kaska Elders in a University Language Course. Canadian Journal of Native Education 27(1), 127-39.

Moore, P. (2011). We Are Our Language: An Ethnography of Language Revitalization in a Northern Athabaskan Community (review). Anthropological Linguistics 53(3), 291-92.

Moore, P. (2018). Shifting Amerindian perspectivism in Kaska narrative performances. Language & Communication, 63, 33-48.

Moore, P., & Hennessy, K. (2006). New technologies and contested ideologies: The Tagish First Voices project. American Indian Quarterly, 30(1), 119-137; 261- 262.

Morin, R. (2018). Discovering new pathways to old teachings: The Paul Creek Method of Second Language Acquisition for adult Cree language learners. Victoria: University of Victoria.

Moseley, C., (Ed.). (2010). Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, (3rd edition). Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Online version : http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas

Nevins, E. M. & Nevins, T.J. (2012). They Don’t Know How to Ask: Pedagogy, Storytelling, and Ironies of Language Endangerment on White Mountain Apache Reservation. In P. V. Kroskrity (Ed.), Telling Stories in the Face of Danger: Language Renewal in Native American Communities, (pp. 129-150). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

Ngaha, A.B. (2011). Te Reo, a language for Māori alone? An investigation into the relationship between the Māori language and Māori identity (Unpublished doctoral dissertation), University of Auckland, Aukland, New Zealand.

Nicholas, S. E. (2010). Language, Epistemology, and Cultural Identity: “Hopiqatsit Aw Unangvakiwyungwa” (“They Have Their Heart in the Hopi Way of Life”). American Indian and Culture Research Journal, 34(2), 125-144.

65 Norris, M. & MacCon, K. (2003). Aboriginal Language Transmission and Maintenance in Familes: Results of an Intergenerational and Gender based Analysis for Canada, 1996. In J.P. White, P.S. Maxim, and D. Beavon (Eds), Aboriginal Conditions: Research As a Foundation for Public Policy, (pp. 164-196). Toronto: UBC Press.

O’Grady, W., & Hattori, R. (2016). Language Acquisition and Language Revitalization. Language Documentation & Conservation, 10, 45-57 http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldchttp://hdl.handle.net/10125/24686

Owen, C., (2011). Language and cultural identity: Perceptions of the role of language in the construction of Aboriginal identities (Unpublished master’s thesis). Carlton University, Ottawa, Ontario.

Pauwels, A. (2016). Language Maintenance and Shift (Key Topics in Sociolinguistics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rewi, T., & Rewi, P. (2015). The ZePA Model of Māori Language Revitalization: Key Considerations for Empowering Indigenous Language Educators, Students, and Communities. In J. Reyhner, J. Martin, L. Lockard and W.G. Sakiestewa, (Eds.), Honouring our Elders, (pp. 136-153). Flagstaff, AZ.: Northern Arizona University.

Reyhner, J. (1996). Rationale and Needs for Stabalizing Indigenous Languages. In G. Cantoni, (Ed.), Stabilizing Indigenous Languages. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University.

Reyhner, J., Martin,J., Lockard, L., & Sakiestewa, W.G., (Eds.). (2015). Honoring our Elders, Culturally Appropriate Approaches to Teaching Indigenous Students. Flagstaff AZ: Northern Arizona University. http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/HOE/

Reyhner J., O. Trujillo, Carrasco, R.L. & Lockard, L (Eds.). (2015). Nurturing Native languages. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University.

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP). (1996). Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples https://www.bac- lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/aboriginal-heritage/royal-commission-aboriginal- peoples/Pages/final-report.aspx

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1996). “Living Languages” People to people, nation to nation: Highlights from the report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.Minister of Supply and Services Canada. https://www.aadnc- aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100014597/1100100014637

Salute to Watson Lake and Area (1961). pp. 1-2. May 10, 1961

66 Smith, L, T. (2012). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous People (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Zed Books

Thompson, E., J. C. (2012). “Hedekeyeh Hots’ih K!hidi – “Our Ancestors Are In Us”: Strengthening Our Voices Through Language Revitalization From A Tahltan Worldview (Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia.

Timms, C. E. (2013). Indigenous language revitalisation in Aotearoa New Zealand and Alba Scotland (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Ortago, New Zealand.

Touchie, B. (1997). Ditidaht elders’ strategies for the Introduction of Immersion Programs in a First Nation Community (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Twitchell, L., X. (2018). For Our Little Grandchildren: Language Revitalization among the Tlingit (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Hawai’i at Hilo, Hilo, Hawai’i.

Valijarvi, R., & Wilbur, J. (2011). The past, present and future of the Pite Saami language: Sociological factors and revitalization efforts. Nordic Journal of Linguistics, 34(3), 295-329.

Volfova, M. (2015). “Indigenizing the Teacher’s Tool Box” In J. Reyhner, J. Martin, L. Lockard and W.G. Sakiestewa (Eds.), Honoring our Elders, Culturally Appropriate Approaches to Teaching Indigenous Students, (pp. 95-107). Flagstaff, AZ.: Northern Arizona University. http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/HOE/

Weinberg, M. & De Korne, H. (2016). Who can speak Lenape in Pennsylvania? Authentication and language learning in an endangered language community of practice. Language and Communication, 47, 124 -134.

Whalen, D.H, Moss, M. & Baldwin, M & D. (2016). Healing through language: Positive physical health effects of indigenous language use [version 1; referees: 2 approved with reservations] F1000Research 2016, 5, 852.

67 Appendix A.

Kaska Language Goals and Attitude Survey

Name: ______

1. What are your goals for this class? What do you hope to get out of this class?

2. What has stopped you from learning Kaska prior to taking this class?

3. What is something you can tell me about your learning style which might help me in teaching this class?

4. How will you share what you are learning in class to others in your family, work colleagues, community members?

5. Have you ever felt shy, nervous or hesitant about speaking Kaska in front of fluent speakers or others who speak?

Any other comments about your attitude or feelings about learning to speak Kaska.

68 Appendix B.

Kaska Adult Conversation Class

January 8 – February 28, 2019 Tuesdays and Thursdays 3:30 – 4:30 pm

Instructor: Linda McDonald Elder: Hammond Dick and possibly other elders

I will stick with this schedule except for extenuating circumstances, such as death in the community/extreme illness or extremely cold weather. In case of cancellation, the class will be rescheduled for an agreed upon new date.

I can be reached by phone or email.

Week 1 – Jan. 8, 10 Introductions/Greetings/Helping Words

Week 2 – Jan 15, 17 Feelings/Illness

Week 3 – Jan 22, 24 Food/Cooking/Eating

Week 4 – Jan 29, 31 How Many?/What do you want to buy?

Week 5 – Feb 6, 8 Where are you going? I/you/we are going. Directionals

Week 6 – Feb 13, 15 What are you doing?

Week 7 – Feb 20, 22 Picking up things/more nouns/Colours/numbers

Week 8 – Feb 27, March 1 Body Parts/Illness/Wellness

We will also be doing two other activities: A Kaska Coffee Klatch and a Kaska dinner. We will set the dates for those sometime at the end of January and or in February.

69 Appendix C.

Kaska Adult Basic Conversation Language Lessons Evaluation

Name: ______

1. What motivated you to take part in the Kaska Language practise sessions?

2. Have you taken Kaska lessons or practise sessions before, if so when and where? What was your experience? What were your successes from those experiences?

3. What did you like about the methods of practising/learning Kaska in these practise sessions? What didn’t work for you? Is there something which could have done differently or perhaps more of a type of method and less of another?

4. What did you learn about your own learning style for learning another language? Example are you more an oral learner, or was it easier to have something to follow along in writing? What activities would you have liked to see more of?

5. For those who are Kaska, how did you feel emotionally as you were learning Kaska or practising it with your family and friends?

6. For silent speakers of Kaska, those who learned Kaska at home as a child, what was it like to be speaking and learning Kaska? Can you describe your feelings or thoughts about Kaska as you reconnected to your language?

7. Do you feel inspired after these language sessions to further pursue learning Kaska?

8. How can the opportunities to learn the Kaska language be improved or expanded upon for those who are interested?

9. How can LFN, Yukon Native Language Centre, and other institutions help support Kaska revitalization efforts?

10. What are your dreams for Kaska language revitalization? Please give as much detail as possible for activities, opportunities, involvement of others.

11. Any other thoughts or comments?

70 Appendix D.

Informed Consent Form

Study Title: Encouraging the Use of Conversational Kaska in Adult Speakers through various Language Learning Activities. Principal Investigator: Linda McDonald Senior Supervisor: Dr. Marianne Ignace

Project Description and Purpose: I am interested in determining which learning activities promote and encourage adult Kaska language learners to speak basic conversational Kaska. Further, I am examining classroom type learning activities, which help L1 speakers (people whose first language is Kaska) to become more proficient in oral communication in Kaska. Secondarily I will be assessing participants and their progress through 10 weeks of Kaska language and conversational activities. The purpose of this research is to examine the effectiveness of adult Kaska language practise sessions, with the purpose of further developing useful methods of language learning or acquisition.

Project Contact Information: Linda McDonald Telephone: [xxx] Email: [xxx]

I have been informed of the objectives of this project, and consent to participating. Any information that I wish to remain confidential will not be recorded, or if I later decide that information that has been recorded should not be used in the study, I can inform the researcher and the material will be withdrawn. If I decide to withdraw from the study, I can do so at any time. If I do not want my name used, it will not appear in written material except general lists of study participants. No publication or public presentation will be made based on the information I provide without my express written consent. I am aware that the data from this study will be kept in a locked filing cabinet as well as a password secured file in Linda McDonald’s hard drive, as well as with her supervising professor, Marianne Ignace in her password protected hard drive. This information will be kept up to five years.

71 Name (please print):______

Signature: ______

Date: ______

Recording consent form: Recording of the practice sessions will be made to help the researcher assess the progress of the sessions. Photographs, audiotapes, or videotapes will only be made with permission.

Consent for: photography _____ video _____ audio recording _____

Name: ______

Signature: ______

Date: ______

This project was reviewed by the Research Ethics Board of Simon Fraser University and was approved on ______

72