A JOURNAL OF ACADEMIC WRITING

VOLUME 1 , NUMBER 1 Hohonu

Hohonu, which means “deep, profound” in Hawaiian, celebrates its inaugural issue this year. Hohonu aspires to showcase the quality and the diversity of the writing styles and interests of UH Hilo and Hawai`i CC students. Through Hononu, the UHH/HCC Board of Student Publications seeks to provide students with models of good work, reward the writers, and promote academic writing. In this way Hohonu is contributing to meaningful discourse and enhancing the educational atmosphere on campus. Hohonu features non-fiction academic writing in any format and on any subject. Our first annual issue displays the wide variety of student writing by including personal reaction papers, analysis, argument, review, and research papers.

Hohonu wishes to thank the student authors for their contributions to this successful inaugural issue. Their accomplishments are a part of the success of the collegiate educational process as a whole. Hohonu also appreciates the efforts of Luke Bailey and John Cole, whose inspiration and energy resulted in the creation of this journal of academic writing.

Many mahalos go out to Graphics Services for their help in design and publication. Hohonu gratefully acknowledges the financial assistance of the Office of the Vice Chancellor for Student Affairs, the Office of the Vice Chancellor of Academic Af- fairs, and the Humanities Division, all of the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo. And Hohonu recognizes the work of the student editors Alicia Cuttrell, Andy Gramlich, and Kalyan Meola.

. 1 >

IN A NEW YORK MINUTE Donna Marie Ambrose

It was 3:30 a.m. when I received “The phone call” More excitement as word came that Hollywood from my brother in Florida. He was a broker in New planned to do a re-make of King Kong, this time us- Jersey until his company decided to move. Most of ing the Towers instead of the Empire State Building. his coworkers followed the firm to the “Big Time” at They needed extras for the crowd scene and there were the World Trade Center; he chose to move to their more than enough of us willing to oblige. It was such smaller office in Florida on a whim. a big hype at the time with an inflatable Kong hanging My brain still foggy from my broken sleep, I am from one of the towers to promote the movie. We felt not even sure I am awake yet. I hear his frantic voice proud to be part of it. through the receiver: He had been on the phone with I heard from my brother that they still have not Tony, a mutual friend, at the WTC. They were work- found our friend, Barbara, but they did find her car ing on a deal. In the middle of it, Tony said he just saw still parked in the lot where she caught the ferry to the other tower get hit by a plane. My brother turned work each day. She was the pride of our neighborhood on the television in his office to catch it on the news. when she landed her position with that company at What he eventually sees is another plane heading for the WTC and made it to the top. the tower Tony (still on the line) is in. He tells this to I spoke with my cousin and asked how he and my Tony, tells him to get out. Screams, then silence. It uncles are handling their job with the clean up of the is too late. This is how I came to know the events of site. I do not know how they have been able to get September 11, 2001. My thoughts turn to my family up each day and face this. He tells me they have been and friends who live in the New York area and I am able to deal with everything (you get used to it) but suddenly very awake, wishing this nightmare was only for one thing - the smells. a dream… I was supposed to go back to visit for the holidays. The towers went up when I was a child in the The Towers are the first thing I see as the plane de- eighth grade. scends. I see them and know that I am home. But I remember the excitement they generated and they are not there anymore. the feeling of pride we all had. The tallest buildings And so I find myself faced daily with these long right in our backyard! forgotten childhood memories, fresh in my mind even When we took the train into the City we disem- when I do not care to think about them. I hear my barked at the station beneath them. We always ate brother’s painful voice and I see my friends who are at our favorite pizzeria in the underground mall while gone. I worry about my cousin and uncles. talking about how someday we would make it to the I know we are supposed to “forget” and go on, restaurant on top. To us that meant success. which should not be so hard for me living in Ka`u,

. 3 > far from New York and even CNN, (and I can surely of the world and move to Hawai`i, thankful for the pass the news stand). But I cannot erase the memories life that I have here. or thoughts of family and friends from my mind, nor …..everything can change. And it did. the twinges of guilt that I feel as I wake up each day, thankful for the choice that I made to leave that part This essay was written for History 151. It is a response paper to 9/11.

. 4 > SUPERSTITIONS AS A PART OF RUSSIAN CULTURE Olga Lozhkina

“The mind of the man is like an enchanted glass, might lose all their money, if they do. If a Russian full of superstitions, apparitions and impostures” person meets a woman with an empty bucket after -Francis Bacon leaving the house, he will pinch a button on his shirt between his fingers and bite on his tongue in order Every culture has a certain set of beliefs that reflect to avoid bad luck. If a Russian loses something in the its history and the way people in this culture view the house, he usually addresses domovoj, an imaginary world. These beliefs can be either rational or irrational. creature that supposedly lives in every house, with The irrational beliefs, which cannot be explained or words “domovoj, you have played enough; give it back proved scientifically, are called superstitions. For cen- to me now”. After that, most people find the missing turies people all over the world tried to explain things thing. The list of popular Russian superstitions can go they did not understand, and one of the ways to get on and on. They encompass every aspect of life from control over the unexplainable was to believe in super- birth until death and are widely spread not only in stitions. Modern science, however, proved most of the the rural areas of Russia, but also in big metropolitan irrational beliefs wrong and senseless. It is interesting, cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg. though, why even today in the modern age of science Superstitions are learned from early childhood and and new technologies people in some cultures still throughout life. They are passed on from generation cling to superstitions in their every day life. to generation. Mark Twain once said: “I am aware that I was raised in Russia, a country abundant in even the brightest mind in our world has been trained superstitious beliefs, but I never thought about the up from childhood in a superstition of any kind, it nature of these beliefs until I moved to the United will never be possible for that mind, in its maturity, to States and saw a different culture. In the U.S., people examine sincerely, dispassionately, and conscientiously do not care much about the supernatural forces and any evidence or any circumstance which shall seem ill omens; they look at things in a very materialistic to cast a doubt upon the validity of that superstition” way. After seeing the differences in the two cultures, (9/28/02). I realized that superstitions are truly an important The origin of most Russian superstitions can be part of Russian mentality which reflects its ancient traced back to the ancient times. Before Russia ac- and modern history as well as the nature of Russian cepted Christianity in the year 988 A.D., it was a people. country with a pagan culture, a culture where people What is a “Russian superstition”? It is something worshiped many gods. Ancient Russians worshipped that Russian people do or avoid doing in their everyday elements of nature, such as water, fire, Earth, stones, life out of fear that something bad will happen. For etc. They also believed in “good” and “bad” creatures example, people do not whistle indoors, because they (domovoj is one of them) that lived on the Earth and

. 5 > influenced people’s lives. Christianity brought the when people do not have anything to hold on to, Eastern Orthodox Church to Russia, which remains they turn to superstitions. Superstitions give a certain a dominant religion until this time. Eastern Orthodox degree of confidence, encouragement, and control. For is one of the most conservative and “strict” denomi- example, students never wash their hair before the nations in Christianity, so it quickly forced the pagan exam for the fear of forgetting everything they know. beliefs of people out of religious faith and into supersti- Of course, it does not make any sense, but it sure helps tions. A lot of modern superstitions are based on these those who did not study feel better. ancient pagan beliefs, even though it is sometimes The seventy years of communist regime has also hard to trace that. For example, ancient Russians greatly affected Russian mentality. Most Russian peo- worshipped bread for many centuries. Eventually this ple are followers, not fighters. They would rather adapt religious belief took the form of a superstition, and to the surroundings than change them. Believing in even now people are afraid of throwing away bread, superstitions is one of the many ways people adapt because it might bring misfortune and bad luck. Also, to constantly changing life. It is easier for a Russian one of the evil creatures that ancient people believed to blame the misfortunes of his life on supernatural in was chert. Chert lived behind a person’s left shoul- forces than on his own mistakes. It can be blamed on der and always tried to mislead people and spoil their the black cat or a woman with an empty bucket, or plans. Today a rendition of this belief can be found in whistling inside the house, or taking the rubbish out at a modern superstition that people have to spit three night – anything that one can possibly think of. And times over their left shoulder when they talk about it is so tempting to eat a lucky bus ticket – when the the success of their future plans. sum of the left three numbers equals to the sum of the Christianity itself brought a number of supersti- three numbers on the right – to be forever happy. tions into the life of Russian people. Russian Orthodox Due to the conservative Orthodox religion, Church is very symbolic, for example, in numbers. the majority of Russian people are very traditional. The number “three” represents the Holy Trinity – the History, customs, and traditions are viewed as an Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit – along with the important cultural heritage that has to be preserved. number “forty” which also has a significant meaning People, in general, are very reluctant to change; that to the religious people. This gave life to a lot of super- makes it possible for superstitions to pass from genera- stitions, such as people have to kiss three times when tion to generation, from ancient times to the modern greeting each other; three flowers for a living person, world. two flowers for the dead; a killed spider will take forty So, Russian people may believe in superstitions sins off your soul; dead people wander the Earth for for a number of reasons – out of fear of tempting fate, forty days before they go to heaven, and the mirrors in out of habit, or just to be on the safe side, but the fact the house, where somebody died, have to be covered is that superstitions have played a very important during this period. role in the life of Russian people throughout history. In order to understand the great popularity of It is something that we have lived with for centuries, various superstitions among Russian people one has something that we do consciously or unconsciously in to consider the lifestyle as well as the nature of Rus- order to get through the difficulties of ever changing sian people. For the last hundred years, life in Russia life. has lacked stability. Constant political and economic changes have made people worry about the future and This essay was written for ESL 100. left them helpless. It is true that in troubled times,

. 6 > HAWAIIAN GASTROPOD ECHINOVORES:

THE HUNTING AND FEEDING TECHNIQUES OF CASSIS CORNUTA, CHARONIA TRITONIS, AND TONNA PERDIX. Marc Hughes

Hawaiian Gastropod Echinovores The coral reef system in Hawaii is home to a variety of gastropods (snails). There are three species of large gastropods that prey almost exclusively on echino- derms. These gastropods implement unusual methods to locate, disable, and consume their prey. Each gas- Photo by Marc J. Hughes tropod hunts specific echinoderms. Charonia tritonis Charonia tritonis using its proboscis and cephalic (Tritons Trumpet) eat seastars (Acanthaster planci tentacles to subdue an Acanthaster planci. and Culcita Novaeguineae). Cassis cornuta (Horned Snail Sensory Structures Helmet Conch) prefer sea urchins (Tripneustes gratilla The cephalic tentacles of these gastropods con- and Brissus latecarinatus). Tonna perdix (Partridge Tun) sist of two pointed appendages that look like horns eat sea cucumbers. protruding from under the siphonal notch. The tips of the cephalic tentacles contain both tactile and Sniffing Out Echinoderms chemosensory cells. The cephalic tentacles are used Many gastropods use a modified portion of their to sense and locate prey in close proximity of the gas- mantle, the inhalant siphon, to locate prey on the tropods. At the base of the cephalic tentacles are eyes reef. This section of the mantle is folded into a hol- (black dots), which are probably utilized for detecting low tube-like structure and is used to produce a water shadows and light patterns. current over the osphradium (olfactory tissue). The osphradium is very sensitive to the chemical signa- How to Eat a Seastar fture o prey. These two structures, inhalant siphon The gastropod proboscis is used to manipulate and and osphradium, are instrumental in the location of consume the echinoderm prey once it is located. The gastropod prey. proboscis of Charonia tritonis is an elongate tube that The inhalant siphon of Charonia tritonis and resembles an elephant’s trunk in shape. The proboscis is enveloped by an upturned groove or Cassis cornuta of C. tritonis is used to probe the surface of Acanthaster indentation in the anterior portion of the shell, the planci and other seastars in order to locate the oral siphonal notch. C. cornuta utilizes this smelling ap- orifice. paratuso t locate sea urchins while C. tritonis hunts for The oral orifice offers a relatively unguarded sea stars. The inhalant siphon of Tonna perdix looks entrance to the internal tissues of the seastar. The like a vacume cleaner hose as it sweeps over the sand proboscis contains a tooth like structure called the for sea cucumbers. radula. Once the proboscis enters the oral orifice, the radula is used to rasp away the edible cardiac and pyloric stomach of the seastar. The shape and the extensible nature of C. trito- . 7 > nis’ proboscis allow it to reach the pyloric stomach Gastropod Conservation inside each of the seastars rays. The seastar is literally Cassis cornuta and Charonia tritonis are revered in hollowed out by the proboscis and the surface of the Hawaii, and throughout the pacific, for the acoustical seastar’s rays can be seen bubbling as C. tritonis excises signals that reverberate through their large whorls. The the internal tissue. melodious tones that echo through the nacre rein- forced chambers of these gastropods are often heard at Sea Urchin Hunter the openings of traditional ceremonies. Unfortunately The foot constitutes a major portion of a gastro- these animals are often collected for ornaments, and it pod’s body. Upon locating Tripneustes gratilla (Collector is very difficult to find shells that are uninhabited by Sea Urchins) on the surface of the sand, Cassis cornuta their original, mollusk owners. The shells are usually elevates the forward portion (anterior) of its shell and taken out of the ocean and the animal inside is killed moves over the top of the urchin using its large foot to and evacuated. With a price tag of up to $100.00 for a position itself. It then lowers its shell onto the urchin shell in excellent condition, it is not surprising that the effectively pinning the urchin between its shell and populations of these animals seem to be dwindling. the sandy substratum. These gastropods occupy a unique niche in the ma- C. cornuta rears up on its foot using a combination rine environment. They consume organisms (Crown of muscular contractions and mucus secretion to pro- of Thorns seastars and Collector urchins) that do not duce movements referred to as retrograde pedal waves. have many predators due to their antipredatory adap- The muscular contractions of the foot proceed in an tations (venomous spines and impervious endoskele- anterior to posterior direction, while the gastropod tons). The echinoderms that the gastropods feed upon, moves along the substrate in a forward direction. The consume coral and algae located on the coral reef. It mucus forms a suction that facilitates the extension of is possible that C. cornuta and C. tritonis perform an dorso-ventral muscles used to produce the rhythmic important role as keystone species and orchestrate a movements of the foot. balance between the necessary components of healthy, Upon trapping an urchin, C. cornuta secretes tropical marine ecosystems. Unregulated collection of mucus that contains sulfuric acid which dissolves the C. cornuta and C. tritonis from Pacific islands may cause calcium carbonate test or endoskeleton of the urchin. alterations in the natural succession of reef organisms. The gastropod’s radula is then used to scrape away Further research designed to determine the effects of the resulting calcium sulfate residue, and creates a Hawaiian gastropods on echinoderm populations is hole about the diameter of a pencil eraser in the test. needed. The data collected from these studies could The internal organs of the urchin are then extracted be used to assist legislators in establishing laws that through the hole and consumed by C. cornuta, leaving protect marine habitat in Hawaii. behind a punctured, empty urchin test.

. 8 > THE SUBLIME IN 18TH CENTURY PER- SPECTIVE Kirsten Mollegaard

The Greek treatise “On the Sublime” (Peri hupsous) Movement whose protagonists were developing a type was written sometime in the first century A.D. and of literature that celebrated sensory experience, the is attributed to Longinus. The manuscript was ap- poet as genius, as well as the kinds of feelings aroused parently lost to scholarly debate for several centuries by the sublime (Audi12). until it reemerged at the beginning of the European Longinus’ manuscript defines sublimity as “a kind Renaissance. Its French translation by Nicolas Boileau of eminence or excellence of discourse” (Longinus in 1764 made a tremendous impression on critical 138). In other words, the idea of the sublime is closely thought in Europe and spurred new trends in theo- intertwined with the discourse between writer or orator retical criticism (Leitch 136). As Abrams points out, and his or her audience. Like Aristotle, who discussed the debate on the sublime as a philosophical concept the catharsis experienced by an audience at a tragedy, “helped establish both the expressive theory of poetry Longinus focuses on the psychological effect that art and the critical method of impressionism “ (308). It has on us. Unlike Aristotle, however, Longinus consid- also led to a reinvestigation of the nature of art from ers the emotions of both writer and audience. a philosophical point of view, and to a debate on how Longinus argues that the sublime elicits pathos we experience art and our natural environment. I shall in the audience. Noble passion must be present to discuss how the sublime as a philosophical concept was achieve the lofty, elevated style of writing or speak- developed from Longinus’ idea of it as belonging to ing that produces emotional transport in the form of linguistic discourse, to Edmund Burke’s perception of ecstasy, so that both writer and audience feel under the it as belonging to external natural phenomena, and to effects of a grand, creative power above and beyond Immanuel Kant’s discussions of the sublime as relating the ordinary. “Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind,” to the internal powers of our mind. This discussion will Longinus observes, because nothing but nobility of provide a foundation for understanding the premises thought can capture the essence of the sublime and of the Romantic Movement. convey it to others (Longinus 141). Sublimity is thus a Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that deals force that strikes with the astonishing effect of a flash with the nature of art and the “character of our expe- of lightning, leaving both audience and poet dazzled rience of art” (Audi 12). It became a separate field of by the light. philosophy during the 18th century. It is significant This stance on the sublime is in stark contrast to to note that its elevation to an independent branch Plato’s distrust of any ecstatic emotional transport. of philosophy coincided with the development of In order to confront Plato’s insistence on orderly very fixed definitions of cultural ideals such as beauty, conformity to high ideals, Longinus exposes as self- for example, as in the concept of les beaux arts as op- contradictory Plato’s assertion that only those writers posed to unrefined art. Aesthetics also correlated both are “pure” (150) who devote their energy to making historically and philosophically with the Romantic . 9 > no mistakes. Greatness is not, argues Longinus, the destructive and powerful (like a raging river) – if, that demeaning task of checking for errors - on the contrary: is, the observer experiences these phenomena from a “with grandeur, as with great wealth, there ought to be safe distance. something overlooked” (my italics, 150). Greatness Terror and pleasure constitute the dichotomy of involves risk taking and aiming for new heights in the sublime in the way we experience pleasure in the thought and writing, which is exactly what Longinus presence of terror. Burke’s perception of the sublime sees Plato as doing in his own work. A great writer like externalizes its origin so the awe and fear experienced Plato “redeems all his mistakes many times over by a by a witness is a reaction that does not originate in single sublime stroke” (152). that person’s own mind. Burke’s position thus suggests Longinus digresses to discuss genius vis-a‘-vis that it is this sublime sense of pleasure mixed with fear mediocrity. He formulates the important argument that drew most of us to watch the same televised reruns embraced by Romantic writers that “sublimity raises us of the crumbling World Trade Center on September towards the spiritual greatness of god “ (152). Anyone 11. Who was not truly awed by the awesome, awful can learn to write well and to argue in the right way spectacle of the burning towers and awestruck that according to rhetorical principles. However, true ge- such perverse forces of destruction were possible? nius is innate and it is a natural gift: “erratic excellence However, witnesses to catastrophic, awe-inspiring comes from natural greatness” (153). Noble thought events react differently. For instance, Burke’s idea of and strong, inspired passion thus characterize the the sublime does not take into account how a person’s transcendent genius of a writer and allows him or her reaction to the September 11 terrorist attacks might to produce poetry or speech with a sublime emotional have changed from initial shock and fear to outright effect on the audience. horror, if he or she realized that a friend or loved Abrams observes that during the 18th century one was trapped in one of the burning towers. Such there was a “shift in the location of the sublime from a situation would illustrate the transition from the a quality of linguistic discourse that originates in the universal (facing an instance of human misery on a powers of the writers’ mind, to a quality inherent in grand, anonymous scale) to the particular (facing a external objects, and above all in the scenes and oc- personal loss of dear one). currences of the natural world” (308). Immanuel Kant expanded on Burke’s notions of Edmund Burke was among the first to attempt to the sublime. He agreed that the experience of the define the sublime as the intersection between pleasure sublime is unpleasant to a certain extent, but that it and terror; that is, in the aesthetic realm of human is also pleasant because we like the feeling of being perception: “Whatever is fitted in any sort to excite overwhelmed by something larger than ourselves. Ac- the ideas of pain, and danger, that is to say, whatever cording to Kant, we are aware of the pleasure feelings is in any sort terrible, or is conversant about terrible stirring in our minds in the presence of something objects, or operates in a manner analogous to terror, terrible, but at the same time our power of reason tries is a source of the sublime; that is, it is productive of to check such sensations by imposing rational thought. the strongest emotion which the mind is capable of Kant therefore differs from Burke in placing the locus feeling” (549). In Burke’s view, the sublime is therefore of the sublime entirely in the mind of the beholder: defined as a feeling we experience when confronted “true sublimity must be sought only in the mind of the with the sight of something infinitely large (like the judging person, not in the natural object the judging ocean), the confrontation with something terrible of which prompts this mental attunement” (525). (like the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001), or by Kant suggests that “Sublime is what even to be the physical proximity of something overwhelmingly able to think proves that the mind has a power surpass-

. 10 > ing any standard of sense” (522). He divides Burke’s form. Kant therefore digresses from Burke’s dialectical listing of sublime phenomena in the natural world argument to analyze the nature of aesthetic judgment into two types. First, the mathematical sublime that as arising from within our mind. encompasses seemingly limitless expanses and objects Romantic literature exemplifies both Burke’s and “almost too large for our power of apprehension” (523); Kant’s ideas about the sublime, although Kant’s strict and secondly, the dynamic sublime that results from Prussian methodology seems to have held less theoreti- considering nature as a ‘might’ (“Might is an ability cal allure than Burke’s more imaginative discussion of that is superior to great obstacles” (526)) that has no beauty and the sublime. Besides, Kant’s works were in actual power to harm us. In other words, the math- German and therefore not as widely available to the ematical sublime refers to our mind’s helplessness at English audience as Burke’s writings were. Kant was, comprehending a totality that seems boundless. But by therefore, more widely read on the European Conti- recognizing its innate ability to think beyond known nent than in England, and such English Romanticists boundaries into the totality of the unlimited, our mind as Wordsworth and Coleridge, who traveled exten- “must have within itself a power that is supersensible” sively in Southern Germany, were familiar with him. (524). This insight then fills us with a sense of the However, as Abrams points out, it was mainly through sublime. The dynamically sublime is to be confronted the works of Goethe that German Romanticism and by natural phenomena such as thunderstorms, feel a its particular version of the sublime became known to sensation of fear, and yet know oneself safe from any the English writers (Abrams 313). physical harm. We have to place the philosophical concept of the Kant is thus concerned with our aesthetic judg- sublime within an 18th century historical framework of ments and responses to natural phenomena that stir ideas and philosophical debates in order to understand our emotions and challenge our ability to reason. He the foundation of the Romantic Movement. Based on was interested in several aspects of aesthetics and, their reading of Longinus’ manuscript, Burke and Kant like Burke, discussed ‘beauty’ as part of his theory were instrumental in formulating 18th century theories of aesthetic excellence. Burke had said that beauty about the sublime as a philosophical concept and about should be “smooth and polished”, “light and delicate”, the nature of the aesthetic in general. Romantic writers “small” and “not obscure”, while the sublime should were greatly influenced by these theories and embraced be “vast”, “dark and gloomy”, “solid”, “rugged and the ideas of the poet as genius, of truth to be found in negligent” (Burke 550). He argued that beauty was sensory experience, and of greatness unfolding in the founded in pleasure, while the sublime was founded presence of the sublime. in pain, once again bringing up the idea of the terror- pleasure intersection. Kant, however, observes, “for “Our souls have sight of that immortal sea the beautiful in nature we must seek a basis outside Which brought us hither, Can in a moment travel thither, ourselves, but for the sublime a basis merely within And see the Children sport upon the shore, ourselves and in the way of thinking that introduces And hear the mighty waters rolling evermore” sublimity into our presentation of nature” (521). The (Wordsworth: “Ode: Intimations of Immortality” 163-7) only thing relevant to judging the beauty of a thing is its appearance, and within the appearance its design This essay was written for English 475. The assignment was or form (Audi 11). According to Kant, the beauty of a response paper to class discussion. a painting is not just expressed in its clarity of colors, but also in the design of the colors and the images they WORKS CITED

. 11 > Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th Ed. New York; Harcourt Brace College Publishers, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2001. 1999. Longinus. “On the Sublime”. Leitch, Vincent B. Audi, Robert (gen.ed.) The Cambridge Dictionary of (ed) Philosophy. 2nd Ed. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2001. (135-154) Burke, Edmund. “A Philosophical Enquiry into the origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful”. Wordsworth, William. “Ode: Intimations of Immor- tality”. Leitch, Vincent B. (ed.) The Norton Anthology of The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 6th Theory and Criticism. Ed. Abrams, M.H. (gen.ed.) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2001. New York: W.W.Norton & Company, 1993. (536-551)

Kant, Immanuel. “Critique of Judgment”. Leitch, Vincent B. (ed.) The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2001. (501-35)

Leitch, Vincent B. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism.

. 12 > GENETIC DISPOSITIONS Brittany Klarin

In 1998, the Human Genome Project identified 30,000 is indispensable, scientists involved still project a plus human genes, making a scientific breakthrough century long timeline until gene therapy is brought that held the promise of understanding the makeup into common practice. of all human beings in complete detail. The scientific The determination of researchers to develop community began using the information to discover gene therapy is obvious. The better we understand the sequencing of the base pairs of amino acids that our genetic code and what role each individual gene form DNA, in essence they began the search to break plays in human life, the better we can ensure health, down human beings into the smallest possible particles longevity, and cures for the diseases that put these so that they can treat errors in the genetic code that factors at risk. It is indisputable that the information cause disease. Successful steps in this field would revo- collected by gene research will be invaluable. Gene lutionize medicine. No longer would we need to con- therapy has the potential to actually correct errors in stantly inject chemicals or radiation with harmful side DNA that promote or cause disease. It could literally effects that impair living comfortably. The rookie field purely cure a person who would otherwise die or live of gene therapy could enable the body to fix problems a life of sickness and pain. With further development, at their core, leaving a person healthier, and possibly it even shows signs of being able to affect germ (sex) free of the problem for the rest of their life. cells, allowing corrected genetic code to be passed on The theory behind gene therapy is to replace or to offspring instead of a hereditary disease or disposi- supplement a defective gene, or to bolster a person’s tion. immunity to a chronic or fatal disease (Wilson, 1999). The implications of gene therapy sound too good Since the discovery of the thousands of genes that to be true. And, as with many virgin medical advances, make up human DNA, much speculation has arisen they are, at least for the moment. Though the scien- as to the spectacular claims made by the medical and tific community’s majority supports gene therapy, they scientific communities. With reasons including ethics, themselves can’t deny that it is a new field filled with government support and funding, as well as an effec- more problems than promise. Completely replacing a tive procedure to actually use genetic injection, there gene is difficult. Though scientists have been injecting are many arguments represented throughout the world DNA into cells for years, they haven’t perfected the supporting the end of gene therapy research and devel- art. They are working to find a perfect vector (vesicle) opment. Scientists are continuing their movement by that can safely carry and deliver genes into a cell’s conducting testing and experiments on mice, bacteria, nucleus without being rejected by the body or causing fruit flies, and humans, as well as continuing intensive side effects to the patient (Kmiec, 1999). The three research on the discovered genes that brought them leading ways being studied right now are the A-A Virus to this point. Though every new piece of information (the most promising as it can reproduce without caus-

. 13 > ing the body to activate its immune system), through discovery of the human genes only five years ago. DNA, lipids, or protein complexes, or by creating a Single gene disorders like sickle cell anemia, familial 47th chromosome that could assimilate into the body cholesterolemia, and cystic fibrosis have found new without causing any changes in its system. and effective ways to be treated, though the cures for With such far-fetched procedures like these, these diseases lie further ahead. It is amazing that in there is no wonder that the government, the general this short time, scientists have already found ways to public, and even the scientists have reservations of incorporate this information in positive ways. gene therapy being in common practice. Scientists are In medical history, there have been almost no suc- mainly concerned with the fact that a virus is the most cesses without the failures that preceded them before successful way to carry therapeutic genetic material they were brought to and accepted by the mainstream. into the body. Side effects could be harmful, and the Our society lives at a time where we ail even small fear that a new virus could develop in the patient is (and very natural) inconveniences like headaches and an extremely relevant cause for concern. The medical menstrual cramps without ethical issues, or fear that community also raises the issue of the diseases that are we are wrongly medicating our bodies. The scientific multigene in origin, meaning they develop by more community has been scrutinized throughout important than one gene and are also influenced by a patient’s discoveries that have changed the way we view certain outside environment (like the person with a history of diseases or dispositions. One can’t help but remember breast cancer in her family who also smokes). Scientist the world’s reaction to such practices like abortion, or- remind us that human genes probably have more than gan transplants, pacemakers, and radiation treatments one function per unit, and that further research is when they were first introduced. With the discovery required before any claims are made (Kmiec, 1999). of gene therapy and the practices involved, scientists Ethical issues also present strong obstacles that have been compared to characters like Dr. Evil, or face gene therapy. One of the most exciting procedures Frankenstein. Virginia Postrel reminds us that though of the practice is stem cell coding, which consists of the scientists and doctors are the people responsible removing undeveloped genetic cells from an embryo, for the movement of medicine into this field, they encoding it with the desired genetic information, and are not the people asking for it. The people involved injecting it into a patient’s cells, killing the embryo in are PEOPLE. They are our friends, our neighbors, the process (O’Connor, 1999). Though embryos used and our families who are sick and looking for a cure so far have either been grown in a test tube or donated (2003 p.394). As a worldwide community, we need (for free) from abortions, religious and pro-life groups to keep in mind the history of medical development who believe that life begins at fertilization strongly and the controversy that always seems to surround it. oppose any stem cell research. There will always be dangers involved, unforeseen Funding from the government has been another complications, and even lives lost in the journey of set back for gene therapy. A ban on money support- its development. However, we must realize that in ing or leading research in any area of the field exists, the end, we may have the chance to give someone and probably will until further study shows that the the beautiful and special gift of life without disease, development of the procedures are more guaranteed and this prospect alone should outweigh the other and less controversial. All money involved in the issues. Gene therapy shows the promise of cures and research of gene therapy comes from private funding alleviation to an extent we have never seen before, and investing corporations. and it should have the support of mankind to see its Despite the many forces that are against gene development through. therapy, it has grown in hopeful directions since the This essay was written for English 215. The assignment was a response paper to class discussion. . 14 > REFERENCES

Kmiec, E.B (1999): Gene Therapy [44 paragraphs] 394) New York: Longman Publishers. American Scientist website. Retrieved February 1, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.amsci. Wilson, J.M (1999): Human Gene Therapy: Present org/articles/99articles/kmiec.html and Future [13 paragraphs] Human Genome Project website. Retrieved February 1, 2003 from the World O’Connor, E (1999): Panel Supports Funding Wide Web: http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/hgn/ For Stem Cell Research [14paragraphs]. CNN. v10nl/15wilson.html com website. Retrieved February 1, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.CNN.com/ HEALTH/9909/15/stem.cell/index.html

Postrel, V (2003): Fatalist Attraction in W. Vester- man’s Readings for the 21st Century (5th ed. Pp. 390-

. 15 >

WHAT YOU LIKE BE ONE ARCHAEOLO- GIST FOA? Sean Näleimaile

As my time here at the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo B.A. in Anthropology. I am also feverishly attempting slowly reaches its fruition, I reflect back upon what I to continue this educational process by applying to have accomplished and also how these accomplish- graduate school to deepen my archaeological scholar- ments will ultimately affect my future. When I re- ship. The question still remains, why? turned to school as a non-traditional student at the I have had the great opportunity to make my own age of 34, nothing at that particular time would have destiny. Opportunity knocks and you hope that you’re in any way, shape or form given me any indications home when it comes. Through education, archaeology that one day the title of this story would be some- became my opportunity. I welcomed this opportunity thing anyone would ask me. Some of my professors for what it was worth and made it my passion, made have shared their stories of how that since they were it important to me, found the way to make it a part young, they felt destined to become what they are of who I am as an individual. today. Not me! I have utilized my education to guide me and I had no real aspirations to do much. Other than assist me in finding what is important to me. This is dabbling as a professional musician for some time, me, what I’ve been blessed to find... I am proud to be a an archaeologist? I don’t even like dinosaurs. Well, Native Hawaiian and with that comes a plethora of today that seems a whole lifetime away. I returned to kuleana (responsibilities), I enjoy the study of culture; school with the hopes and full intentions of becoming my own as well as the multitudes outside these shores, a contributing part of my community. But how? At first and I’ve realized that I can make a difference just by I had no idea. being involved. Semesters come and semesters go... You choose Now let me answer that question. The question classes that seem interesting, later you wonder, why did gets asked because of a “bad” history between the I even waste my time in that class? However, some- Hawaiian community and the community of archae- times you’re fortunate enough to choose a class that ologists. Many of my friends ask that of me and can’t unknowingly sparks an interest and provides you with understand why I’d want to go and dig up bones. The a desire to actually want to read the required textbook. persona of the “white”, maha`oi (nosey) archaeologist You feel energized, you pay more attention, you come precedes my explanation. out of your shell and ask stupid questions, you begin The contentious history between the Hawai- to have opinions and suddenly you’re engaged in the ian community and the field of archaeology came subject matter. That was me... I know... what a geek! into focus between the 70s and 80s and continued Fast forward eight semesters and somewhere along through to the H-3 project on O‘ahu. A serious lack the way I’d taken that transformational class. And of standards as well as firm procedural systems, con- here I am approaching the stage (soon) to receive my

. 17 > tributed to a multitude of fundamental violations in that the community can support you. Lastly, commit appropriate management and excavation of Hawaiian yourself to demonstrating methodologies of respect cultural sites. These inequities have provided signifi- and cultural appropriateness when dealing with the cant fodder to the idea that the association between material remains or the sacred sites associated with archaeology and nä mea Hawai‘i (things Hawaiian) Hawaiian heritage. should cease. A very prominent Native Hawaiian Native Hawaiians have an indisputable right to be scholar has lashed out against the “studying, unearth- recognized as the caretakers of these islands. Mälama ing, slicing, crushing, and analyzing” of Native Hawaiian ‘äina (caring for the land) is a undeniable part of the sites. Many individuals in the Hawaiian community kuleana of each and every Native Hawaiian, a value share the same sentiments. I also cannot support that system passed down through generations of küpuna sort of disrespect. I am quite sure that there has been (elders). These küpuna come in many forms, the ‘äina, a fair amount of questionable dealings in the field of the kai (seas), the lani (sky), the multitudes of animal archaeology that would merit this sort of skepticism. species as well as our human ancestors. These are the These individuals that maintain a lack of sensitivity manifestations of the Native Hawaiian’s connections towards the issue surrounding the sanctity of nä mea to their universe. We look to these küpuna and owe Hawai‘i, obviously deserve the harshest of criticisms. them respect, for they are the progenitors of what we So why do I want to become an archaeologist? are today. Well I want to be a Hawaiian archaeologist. This may Understanding this kuleana provides the Hawaiian sound like a dichotomy to some, but it is something archaeologist with a framework for dealing with the that the Native Hawaiian community can and should inevitabilities of continued progress. Another impor- support. My perspective in becoming this “Hawaiian tant aspect to understand as a Hawaiian archaeologist archaeologist” is that I want to be proactive. It’s one is the appropriateness of proper protocol. One need thing to read about these inequities that occur each not look far to gain information to assure the appro- and every day and sit at home and complain, but it is priateness of one’s actions. Many Hawaiian scholars much more beneficial to make your self a part of the and practitioners are well learned in the manners and steps to rectify these inequities. So what does becom- customs related to various aspects of the Hawaiian’s ing a Hawaiian archaeologist really entail? The first universe. Therefore, within the field of archaeology, challenge is to become knowledgeable with the basic the Native Hawaiian who chooses to pursue this career Hawaiian cultural foundations. I’d like to view this as has at his disposal an elemental body of knowledge to making yourself aware of the things you didn’t know utilize. One just needs to be aware of them and know you were aware of. Solidifying your own personal where to find them. understanding as well as the understandings of these An additional aspect of archaeology that is lack- cultural foundations within the Native Hawaiian ing, and that should be a high priority to the Hawaiian community. Secondly, making yourself aware of the archaeologist, is the functionality of the information many protocols that are associated with the areas and that he has gathered. Volumes of archaeological associated artifacts in which you will come into con- studies are housed in libraries, in files of the for-profit tact with in your attempts to be a part of this career. archaeologists and under lock and key. I am sure that Thirdly, make this information available to the Native they’re available if one asks, but it still is not readily Hawaiian community for the purpose of deepening available. Providing community workshops, develop- the overall knowledge of the community so that the ing curriculum for schools or just making the reports entire Native Hawaiian community can and rightfully community friendly, can make all the difference in so, benefit. Providing a purpose for your efforts so facilitating dialogue and understanding.

. 18 > When archaeological work needs to get done, the provide me with educational possibilities. Hawaiian archaeologist should be well versed in the So the question... “What you like be one archae- protocols, the cultural foundations and the appropriate ologist foa?” I can confidently answer in no uncertain methods of management needed for the particular site terms. I want to apply myself to the task and make or artifact. If information can be attained, disseminat- it my kuleana, along with the other Native Hawaiian ing it as useful information is the utmost in priorities scholars in this field, to meld the gap, to address the for the Hawaiian archaeologist. dichotomy of native/non-native, to rewrite and in- The field of anthropology has some Native Ha- still an indigenous perspective in the study of nä mea waiian scholars entering its ivory walls. Dr. Lynette Hawai`i. Cruz, a Native Hawaiian cultural anthropologist, MA The application of appropriate protocols, commu- candidates like Lahela Perry, Kekuewa Kilikoi as well nity-based research projects that address the needs of as Ty Kawika Tengan, who currently teaches a class the communities being studied and apply contempo- on Indigenous Anthropology, are just a handful, and rary methodologies in a Native Hawaiian’s pursuit of there are others. These individuals have provided me information for utility. I can make a difference. I can with renewed inspiration to continue my pursuit of be a part of this process. I can represent my küpuna and this career. I am eagerly awaiting future opportunities my Native Hawaiian community with pride and confi- to exchange challenges and mana‘o (thoughts) with dence. I can stand firmly in the present, looking to my these people. cultural connections as my guide as the future comes I must not forget the professors in the anthropol- upon me. Hawaiians can be a proactive participants ogy department at the University of Hawai‘i at Hilo. rather than just reactive in the Western onslaught as These individuals provided me with the seeds and then long as we fully understand what is to be a Hawaiian, the cultivation of this desire to pursue anthropology as even a Hawaiian archaeologist. a field. Dr. Peter Mills, Dr. Craig Severence, Dr. Su- zanne Romaine, Dr. Lynn Morrison, Dr. Chris Reichel This essay came from the author’s research in developing and Dr. Sue Aki (now residing somewhere in Texas), a curriculum for an Introduction to Hawaiian Archeology course. opened my mind to the possibilities. Enabling me to “imagine alternatives” in the discovery of the larger human condition and myself. I am also looking forward to studying under profes- sors like Dr. Michael Graves and Dr. Terry Hunt at the University of Hawai‘i at Mänoa, who will continue to

. 19 >

THE LANGUAGE AND THE PAROLE OF GENDER BIAS Kirsten Mollegaard

Socialization is the process that molds the biological have the cultural license to loud and boisterous speech sexes into gender roles through the complex inter- in public, while Malagasey men maintain a dignified, action of language, culture and social structure. As formal style of speech, which is compatible with their Bonvillain observes, gender is “a social construct” higher social status (ibid. 222-4). In Western societies, (2000:174) and is, as such, the product of both direct men and women employ different styles of speech, and indirect social and cultural forces, which create which we tend to exaggerate in order to support cul- norms unique to each culture about what are ‘normal’ tural myths about gender differences (ibid. 176). Such characteristics of men and women. In this context, myths are important to our ideas about genders even language (or langue) is therefore the underlying “so- though empirical studies show that not all women use cially established system of linguistic units and rules” standard speech, for example, or that all men speak in (Jary 1991:270) while the produced speech (parole) a monotone. is the directly spoken everyday language. The latter Nevertheless, while it is important not to create derives much of its semantic content from the former, stereotypes from overgeneralizations regarding such like, for example, outdated formulaic expressions that differences, it can be argued that English does maintain are used on ritualized, formal occasions such as church “a system of hierarchy favoring men and devaluing ceremonies, oaths, or in proverbial sayings and fixed women” (ibid. 176). Gender bias is thus defined as the expressions. In analyzing the inherent gender bias in reproduction and reinforcement of negative gender these types of expressions, Bonvillain points to the stereotypes, which become internalized as negative existence of “a pervasive, covert ascription of posi- symbols for both genders through contemporary tive and normative qualities to males and negative or language (la parole) (ibid. 198). Through semantic secondary ones to females” (2000:205). structures in a linguistic system like English (la langue), However, before examining Bonvillain’s argu- gender bias becomes what Bourdieu calls a “habitus” ments in greater detail, it is necessary to follow her which is the process of internalizing “the active pres- distinction between gender differences and gender bias. ence of the whole past of which it is the product”” Gender differences refer to the differing styles of speech (Bourdieu 1980:56). In other words, the habitus of de- employed by men and women, such as pronunciation, valuing women in English is both a historical and cul- grammar, intonation, lexical choices, sentence struc- tural process, which is perpetuated through the praxis ture, and so on (ibid. 176-98). These differences reflect of semantically reproducing and reinforcing negative the social and cultural environments of the speakers, stereotypes about women in everyday speech. and there is great variation as to what is considered Modern English has developed from Indo-Euro- ‘typical’ male or female speech, both cross-culturally pean roots, but is essentially derived from a mixture and within a culture. For example, Malagasey women of the two major linguistic subgroups: Germanic and

. 21 > Romance languages (Finegan 1999:506-35). Unlike ally controlling her sexuality, namely either father or modern German or French, English has lost much of husband. its original morphological complexity, in particular This structure is even more evident in English in the gender of nouns and the declensions of nouns, girls’ names, which are often derived from boys’ adjectives, and pronouns (ibid. 515-17). The gender names and distinguished from them by a diminutive, bias in present-day English is undoubtedly linked to feminine ending, for example Roberta from Robert, the disappearance of feminine and neuter forms and Alice from Alex, Jolene from Joel, and Henrietta from the prevalence of the masculine mode in Middle Eng- Henry. The diminutive endings added to boys’ names lish at about 1400 AD (ibid.). tend to get lost in adulthood and in formal settings, With this linguistic and historical background in while adult women often continue to be addressed by mind, I will discuss Bonvillain’s argument for the exis- the diminutives, even in formal settings (ibid. 200). tence of gender bias in English in semantic derogation, “Generic man” and the widespread usage of “he” focus fronting, diminutive endings in first names, and (ibid. 202-5) to mean anyone, male or female, is the the application of the concept “generic man” (Bonvil- most striking evidence for gender bias in modern lain 2000:198-205). English. ‘Man’ or ‘human’ (which derives from Latin Semantic derogation refers to the derogatory con- homo) are gender-biased terms that define the male notation of the female unit in a pair of male/female gender as normative. Many writers are consciously gender images: master/mistress or bachelor/spinster, for aware of the gender problems inherent in using these example. The original neutral or even positive ring to terms and try to accommodate both sexes by writing these terms has denigrated over time into a negative ‘s/he’, ‘he or she’ or even just ‘she’ instead of the ge- meaning for the female terms, while the male terms re- neric ‘he’. But English has no equivalent term for the main neutral or positive. It should be added, however, German ‘‘Mensch”, which is used to signify any human there are many other such pairs in which no particular being regardless of sex. Although the term seems to negative meaning is attached to either the male nor be of minor importance, its significance becomes a the female term: chief/chiefess or landlord/landlady. problem in translation: He is a good man has two very Bonvillain argues that focus fronting is devaluing different meanings in German: Er ist ein guter Mann to the female gender in giving “primary status” (ibid. means a good husband or simply a man possessing the 199) to males in fixed terms and expressions such as best of male attributes, whereas Er ist ein guter Mensch ‘for better or for worse’, ‘men and women’, and ‘hus- means a man possessing human integrity. band and wife’. Focus fronting places positive value The evidence listed by Bonvillain shows that on the first unit of the pair. Terms such as ‘ladies and the spoken word (parole) perpetuates the semantic gentlemen’ or ‘bride and groom’ are not evidence to devaluing of women in the English language system the contrary. Rather, they are chivalric masks that (langue). The message of gender bias is internalized as actually underscore the superior social power of males. a habitus, as a shared ‘common sense’ based on stereo- As is the case with the examples of semantic deroga- types about men and women, and is again reproduced tion discussed above, there are other fixed expressions and reinforced through the spoken word. The absence such as ‘black and white’, which do not support the of a neutral word for a human being in English is the above assertion. However, archaic expressions, like most powerful evidence to Bonvillain’s assertions and the formulaic ‘I now pronounce you man and wife’ one, which continues to challenge our perceptions and the fact that the majority of women in English about sex and gender, as well as how exactly to define speaking countries still take their husbands’ surname a common denominator for men and women. after marriage, are evidence of a structural langue that defines female identity in relation to the males ide- This essay was written for Linguistics 121. The assignment

. 22 > was a response paper to gender issues in the text book.

WORKS CITED

Bonvillain, Nancy. 2000 Language, Culture, and Communication. The 1999 Language. Its Structure and Use, 3rd Edition. Meaning of Messages, 3rd Edition. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. New Jersey :Prentice Hall. Jary, David & Julia Jary. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1991 The Harper Collins Dictionary of Sociology. 1980 The Logic of Practice. California: Stanford Uni- New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Ltd. versity Press.

Finegan, Edward.

. 23 >

THE DRUG AND TERROR WARS IN CO- LOMBIA:

DANGEROUSLY SIMPLE SOLUTIONS TO CONFRONT COMPLEX REALITIES Penelope Rodriguez

Up to the 1970’s, for most of the people around the and many innocent people were killed, kidnapped, or world Colombia was a small out-of-the-way coun- displaced from their hometowns. try. Few people had heard about anything beyond On February 24th, 2002, the director of the na- Colombia’s mild coffee or its wonderful emeralds. tional newspaper “El Tiempo” wrote that peace was Unfortunately, some years later, when the country not possible if the global drug chain was not broken, began to be known outside its frontiers, it was due because it was the origin of violence in Colombia and to illicit drugs: first marijuana, then coca and finally in other many countries. For some people to break the poppy. Since then, the drug problem has reached such chain means to reinforce the war against drugs, for importance that drugs have eclipsed all other social, others it means to legalize drugs. political, and economical problems the country has Although there is a strong connection between confronted for decades. The world has been unaware drugs and violence in Colombia, drug legalization is of an old armed struggle between the government and not an issue that provokes the same interest there as the guerrilla forces that kills thousands of people each it does in the United States or in other countries af- year, turning Colombia into the most violent country fected by drug consumption. One of the few attempts in the world. While some countries, especially the to discuss the topic in Colombia occurred on August United States, continuously engage in different type 22nd, 2001, when a bill to legalize drugs was presented of wars (against communism, drugs or terrorism), in by Senator Viviane Morales. Morales, a leader of the Colombia, peace is all that people anxiously wish for. Liberal Party, proposed the state monopolization of the Yet, peace is something that seems to be far from being production, distribution, and consumption of narcot- achieved in the short term. ics, considering that the prohibitionist alternative was Last February 20th, 2002, after three years of nego- not the best solution for the country. The legislative tiations between the government and the Revolution- project was buried before it could be discussed in ary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), Colombia’s depth. The government of President Andres Pastrana largest rebel organization, President Andres Pastrana considered the initiative as inconvenient because of decided to end the ongoing peace talks. He also took the international agreements the country had signed back the “détente zone”, a 16,000 square-mile region to combat drug trafficking. Furthermore, some col- he had yielded to them in 1999 to facilitate the peace leagues of Senator Morales denounced that political process. These two actions had immediate results: an electoral interests had motivated the bill, and asked open confrontation between the official army, the to safeguard the prestige of the Congress by burying paramilitary and the guerrilla forces re-started with se- the initiative, as was finally done. rious consequences for the population. Rebel violence escalated since then; bombings rocked major cities,

. 25 > Drug legalization clearly is not an option when the A look to the past United States is fighting a fierce war against drugs in Not drugs, but a very narrow conception of de- Colombia. However, the debate about the effective- mocracy and an impudent political corruption, rest nessf o such drug policy and the policy to confront the at the origin of violence in Colombia. An irrational guerrilla forces in Colombia is not over. The intensifi- political confrontation between the two traditional cation of violence due to the way the insurgence and parties, which started more than one hundred years the paramilitary forces have reinforced their armies ago, created and perpetuated a social system character- with the drug trade profits, is a reality that forces the ized by social and political exclusion. Then, a corrupt revision of the above two policies. Colombia has spent agreement signed in the seventies between these two almost 40 years combating the leftist guerrillas and parties to minimize their confrontation, allowed them more than 20 years trying to stop drug production and to share political and economical power to the detri- trafficking. Yet, the FARC has increased its number of ment of everybody else. members to 20,000 and controls 622 of the nation’s Leech (1999) wrote a comprehensive description 1,071 municipalities at the present time. Likewise, the of the origin and the evolution of the Colombian cultivated area of coca has grown from 50,900 hectares conflict in his article “Fifty Years of Violence”. Accord- in 1995, to 160,000 in 2002 (El Tiempo, March 24, ing to him, the ideological differences between the 2002). That expansion, which occurred even when the Liberal (center-left) and Conservative (right-wing) United States was spending millions of dollars on Plan elites in the nineteenth and early twentieth centu- Colombia, made the country the principal producer ries, resulted in violent encounters which reached of coca and poppy in the world. their climax when the dissident Liberal and leading The results cannot be more discouraging. The presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán was assas- Colombian military strategy and US aid have not sinatedn i Bogotá on April 9, 1948. Gaitán’s followers, been successful in confronting the guerrilla move- most of them from the lower classes, put the blame ment and the production, supply, and consumption of of this murder on the Conservative government and drugs. Now, in spite of these results, the Colombian raised in revolt starting the “Bogotazo”, a historical and United States governments are planning to use popular uprising that ended in massive destruction the new counter-terrorism policy of the Bush admin- in the capital. This insurrection was the beginning istration against the Colombian guerrilla army. If the of “la violencia”, a bloody and savage confrontation rebels are confronted like terrorists, both governments between Liberal and Conservative partisans, during seem to suppose that they will be defeated, the internal which more than 200,000 people died. This period conflict will be solved, and the production of drugs is still remembered with horror by its survivors not in Colombia will be over. This is a very dangerously only because of the atrocities Liberal and Conserva- simplistic way to confront more complex realities. tive partisans committed against each other, but also Although drugs are related to violence in Colom- because of the way the Liberal leaders betrayed their bia, they have not caused it. The Colombian internal followers. While in rural areas peasants from opposite conflict and the peasant link to drug production have parties killed each other, in the cities, Liberal lead- more intricate economic and political causes that ers, despite their differences with the Conservative must be seriously taken into account if there is a real government, supported the repressive means president interest in helping the country solve its problems and Laureano Gomez used to control the confrontations. preserve the political stability in the region. Liberal and Conservative leaders preferred to forget momentarily their differences, in order to avoid a peasant-based social rebellion that could threaten

. 26 > their hegemony. That old treason has been neither the Liberal uprising was Pedro Antonio Marin. Later forgotten nor forgiven. In the collective memory of he would come to be known as Manuel Marulanda the poor people, that disloyalty marked the beginning Velez, or “Tirofijo” (“Sure Shot”), who is still chief of a hidden anger toward their former leaders, that commander of the FARC”. has been expressed in different violent ways and in a Not only the FARC but also some other popular profound distrust toward the political institutions ever based parties and guerrilla forces were created in the since. sixties, writes Leech (1999). The independent Nation- In 1953, this violent repression lead to a coup al Popular Alliance (ANAPO), was formed in 1960 d’etat that brought General Gustavo Rojas Pinilla to by supporters of Rojas Pinilla, who ran as presidential power, and a new fight started after an amnesty that candidate in 1970. After being narrowly defeated he issued to all Liberal armed peasants and to support- by the official candidate, his supporters denounced ers of former president Gomez imprisoned for acts of electoral fraud and in response they formed the M-19 terror. The Gomezistas released from jail began killing guerrilla movement in 1972. After 17 years of fight- innocent peasants, forcing those who had accepted ing, the M-19 laid down their weapons in 1989 and amnesty to once again take up arms. The Conservative participated in the following elections, but right-wing and Liberal elite blamed the renewal of the violence death squads assassinated many of the party’s leaders, on Rojas Pinilla, forcing him to resign in 1957, and including candidate and former M-19 commander creating the National Front: a corrupt agreement to Carlos Pizarro. alternate four-year terms in the presidency and to dis- Inspired by the Cuban Revolution, the Soviet, and tribute all public positions between the two parties. the Chinese revolutionary ideology, two other groups This deal momentarily stopped the violence were formed in those years: the Popular Liberation because it gave Liberals access to the political power Army (EPL) and the Army for National Liberation that had been controlled by the Conservative Party for (ELN). The EPL lasted more than 25 years and in some decades. In fact, before the National Front, the 1990 many of its members laid down their arms, while Liberals had been considered communists because they a small dissident faction continued fighting in north- demanded social reforms to increase the poor people’s ern Colombia. The ELN, which is at the present the living conditions (demands that were forgotten as nation’s second-largest guerrilla force has focused its soon as they reached power). This political agreement activities almost exclusively on disrupting the oil in- temporarily stopped the violence, but it did not solve dustry and electric transmission networks. This group the conflict, as Leech (1999) recalls. The armed peas- is now in the process of starting peace talks with the ants who had survived the military offensives, most of Colombian government. them liberals and communists, emigrated to the mostly All these groups were formed mostly in opposi- uninhabited eastern areas and cleared new lands in tion to the National Front, which ended in 1974. sections they declared “independent republics”. Soon After 16 years of coalition, the balance was dramatic: thereafter, the army attacked those “republics” one by the population living in absolute poverty increased one, and the land became concentrated in the hands from 25 percent to 50.7 percent in the cities and to of the richest landowners. 67.5 percent in the rural areas. It means that the Na- By 1964, the peasants decided to start fighting tional Front excluded the majority from the political against the government, demanding an agrarian reform participation, induced the creation of an unmanage- and two years later these armed self-defense move- able guerrilla movement, and was the mechanism to ments officially became the FARC. Molano (2000) impoverish the country by concentrating wealth in a reminds, “one peasant guerrilla who emerged from few people.

. 27 > It is not surprising, says Leech (1999), that in the sassinated during the UP’s first five years of existence. late 1970’s, the coca boom attracted all these poor The memory of this precedent is still an obstacle to people who abandoned their homelands and migrated convince the FARC to lay down their weapons and to the remote FARC-controlled colonized regions, enter again the political game. Besides corruption, where they became coca farmers. To keep order in the a historical intolerance to opposition is perhaps the controlled zones the FARC imposed war taxes on new most difficult attitude to remove from the Colombian peasants, which increased the guerrilla forces’ earnings political elite, which has become involved in an in- and military capabilities. This was the beginning of a admissible dirty war oriented to abolish any person or disastrous relationship between the guerrilla move- group that attempts to criticize the establishment. ment and drug trafficking, which distorted the FARC’s By 1989, the narco-landowners started fighting revolutionary ideals and purposes. against government officials who supported the ex- At the beginning of the coca boom, the guerrilla tradition of drug traffickers to the United States. The forces and the drug lords worked together. However, “Extraditables,” as they named themselves, waged a this alliance collapsed when the guerrilla started violent bombing campaign that killed thousands of kidnapping the new rich narco-landowners and their innocent people in that period. According to Ro- relatives to supplement their coca taxes. “A drastic cha (2002) this confrontation marked the end of a miscalculation”, says Guillermoprieto (2000), be- decade when the traffickers infiltrated the country’s cause in response the drug traffickers created and institutions, repatriated their expanding income, and financed the first paramilitary group in 1981 (Death attempted to maintain their position through bribery to Kidnappers) after which, hundreds of paramilitary and intimidation. After almost four years of narco- organizations have been founded. Fidel and Carlos terrorism, the government put out of action the two Castaño, two brothers trained in one of those orga- major cartels Medellin and Cali, with a very high cost nizations, whose father was kidnapped and killed by to society in human lives and in fiscal terms. However, the FARC, formed their own paramilitary force: the this was not the end of narco-traffic. The confronta- United Self-Defense Groups of Colombia (ACCU). tion period was followed by a “low profile phase” where This organization, which has been responsible for industry was reorganized “in small specialized organiza- the most terrible massacres in the last years, is also tions with a low profile and more discreet relationships in the drug business. Since then, many paramilitary with political institutions, but still with an enormous organizations have been created and through the use potential for destabilization, not least through their of terror they have displaced entire populations at the alliance with guerillas and paramilitaries” says Rocha north of the country by implementing an aggressive (2002). counter-agrarian reform to allow narco-landowners to The statistics of the last three decades of the twen- increase their land holdings. tieth century reported by Leech (1999) are frightening: “Meanwhile, the Patriotic Union (UP), a political political killings increased from 1,053 in the 1970’s to party affiliated with the FARC, was formed in 1985 12,859 in the 1980’s. In 1988 alone there were 108 following a cease-fire agreement between the rebel massacres; between 1989 and 1993 there were 1,926 group and President Belisario Betancur”, says Leech cases of social cleansing (elimination of drug addicts, (1999). This has been the most frustrating political ex-convicts, petty thieves and criminals, prostitutes, experience the opposition has ever experienced in homosexuals and street children) performed by death Colombia: the next government abolished Betancur’s squads. In 1997, 23,532 people were killed (an average peace initiatives, and nearly 200 leaders and more of 70 people murdered each day) and 185 politically than 1,000 members of the Patriotic Union were as- motivated massacres were registered. In 1998, 1,658

. 28 > kidnappings were denounced; it is estimated that more Drugs have played a very significant role in the than 1,500 people have “disappeared” for political Colombian conflict. They have increased violence reasons over the past decade and almost two million and corruption, distorted social values and morality, people have been displaced from their hometowns due and destroyed big extensions of forest (Rocha, 2000). to violence. Finally, the social balance is not better: However, they are not responsible for the whole con- Colombia, a country of 40 million inhabitants, has flict and it is unrealistic to imagine that the country 25 million living in poverty and eight million living would be a paradise if drugs were eliminated or at least in misery. Poverty, political corruption and economic legalized. segregation are the most terrible problems that Co- Neither legalization nor the war against drugs is lombian society confronts at the present. a solution. Drug legalization would suppress the Ma- In summary, the conflict that started fifty years fia, points out Mondragon (2000); it would also save ago has killed more than one million people. Today, the Amazon and other tropical forests, but it would one out of every three Colombians has a relative who not be a solution to avoid the violent dispossession has been kidnapped, displaced, injured or killed. In an of rural people and genocide, which have existed in interview by Scott Wilson from the Washington Post Colombia since long before cocaine. No matter what is with Carlos Castaño on March 12, 2001, the para- produced (sugar, gold, coca, coffee or petroleum), land military leader said that the present confrontation did property concentration has required that peasants and not have anything to do with the old violent conflict indigenous people be expelled from their native lands. because this was a new war. That is not true. Maybe People exiled from their rural areas increase poverty today the fighters are different, but the motivations are in the cities where the youth without opportunities as irrational in the third millenium as they were dur- join the guerrilla or the paramilitary force, not always ing the last century. Yesterday, Liberals fought against because they share their political principles, but in Conservative partisans; today, leftist guerrillas fight response to the social exclusion they have suffered. against extreme right-wing groups. The new ingredient Neither exclusion nor inequity and social injustices is disloyalty. Five decades ago it was inconceivable for are going to be abolished by drug legalization. In fact, a Liberal partisan to move to the Conservative Party. drug legalization is another easy answer and the debate In the present, a person fighting one day in the guer- about it has been useful just to divert people’s attention rilla force moves to a paramilitary group a few months from the real causes of drug production and abuse. afterward and starts fighting against his old “comrades”. On the other hand, the war against drugs is not a The new paramilitary member denounces the people solution either, since there is little chance it will be who helped him when he was in the guerrilla army, and won. The herbicide spray campaigns have not been ef- the paramilitary force kills peasants for having assisted fective to eradicate illicit crops, which have increased him some months before. The sons and other relatives considerably. Instead, fumigation has killed food crops, of the killed peasants join the guerrilla to avenge the fish, and livestock, has contaminated water supplies, crime against the family, making the cycle of death and has affected the health of the people (Benjamin, continue year after year. This dynamics of revenge is 2000). It has been denounced repeatedly in medical another powerful and unmanageable element behind reports that “exposure to glyphosate herbicides is the conflict in Colombia. To forgive and forget that related to short-term symptoms including blurred long story of hatred and vengeance is one of the most vision, skin problems, heart palpitations, and nausea. difficult challenges for the next coming generations. Studies have also found associations with increased risk of miscarriages, premature birth, and non-Hodgkin’s Back to the present: Drugs in context lymphoma”, points out Massey (2001). Sometimes

. 29 > it looks like spraying has destroyed big extensions of markets that at the same time play an important crops, but this is a temporary illusion until the farmers role in the arms trade (TED, 2002). clear new lands, pushing the agricultural frontier into The economic interests that support the drug the jungle with unpredictable ecological consequences production and traffic business seem to twist any at- to the Amazon. tempt to solve the problem. If, for instance, drugs were The war on drugs, focused on crop eradication legalized or illicit crops were eradicated, or moreover, and in peasant expulsions from their lands, does not if drug consumption were stopped, there would be an seem to be really oriented to stop drug production. abrupt loss of capital with undesirable consequences The Plan Colombia, which summarizes the US drug over economic activities like the arms industry, among policy in Colombia, is seen by many opponents of the others. A sudden loss of capital would have serious US drug war as an excuse to fight left wing guerrillas, political consequences, which is the other factor that rather than to solve the social and economic problems interferes with any honest interest to abolish or at least that push farmers into coca cultivation (Borger and control the drug problem, either in the consumer or in Hodgson, 2001). The social effects of Plan Colombia the producer countries. In this context, one can ask if are still unknown, but some organizations like Am- there is a real interest to win the war against drugs. nesty International are opposed to the military aid Nevertheless, the United States’ new war on ter- program because it will turn the Colombian human rorism is going to force the discussion on drugs once rights crisis into a human rights catastrophe. “Military again. The relationship between both problems has operations contemplated in the Plan anticipate the become more evident after September 11, and sooner internal displacement of tens of thousands of Colom- or later such a perverted alliance will have to be faced bians, thereby aggravating an existing humanitarian by all the countries involved in the drugs-arms chain. crisis” (Colombia: Stoking the Fires, 2001). If there is a real will to avoid an escalation of terror- Apparently the “war on drugs” is a pretext for poli- ism, the chain has to be broken in some of its links cies that have little to do with drugs and more with no matter which interests are affected. other economic interests. According to Massey (2001), Meanwhile, it is evident that as the problem be- the oil industry and the U.S. military helicopter com- comes more global, the internal conflict in Colombia panies are the most interested in the US intervention seems to become less relevant. The big economic in Colombia’s civil war. “The oil companies want interests behind the drug trade and the armed con- a strong military to help secure their investments, flict eclipse poverty, inequity and social injustices in and the defense contractors wish to receive the $400 Colombia, and hide the terrible consequences of this million earmarked to purchase their companies’ he- war for millions of people. licopters”, says the author. However, these economic In this context it is not difficult to imagine how interests are not limited to the United States; they the situation is going to evolve in Colombia if the war form part of a global chain that can be summarized in on drugs is equated to the war on terror and more re- the following terms: sources are directed to fight against the guerrilla forces. The drug trade is a multi-billion dollar industry The first predictable consequence is a growth of illicit involving all levels of commerce from individual crops because the fight against the rebels will have purchases to Wall Street investments of profits. to concentrate in the urban areas, where they have The illicit drug market generates more profits increased their actions since the peace talks ended. than the 500 largest companies in the United Hence, it will not be easy for the army or the police States, and the exorbitant resources deriving to keep a strict control over illicit crops placed in the from this illicit business feed the big financial remote forest. To substitute the lack of state control

. 30 > over those extensive regions, the paramilitary groups ing to Cordoba, that 2 million Colombian citizens who will reinforce their presence there, aggravating the hu- are not in favor of the present political and economic man rights situations in those zones. The Colombian system should be killed in order to solve the problem. army does not seem to be trained to fight against small Unless Colombia is ready to accept a massive genocide, terrorist urban cells, so it will take some time until the army’s answer is not the best. A negotiated peace they can control this new type of threat. Meanwhile, and the transformation of all institutions inside the as urban terror increases, the economic situation will country are the most promising though not the most deteriorate, the government will lose more legitimacy immediate solutions to the conflict. and the people’s faith in their country’s institutions On the other side, fueling an internal war is not will decrease more and more. Besides, most if not all the way that the United States could help a society of the social reforms will be postponed during the in such a desperate situation. The ideal situation for war, massive human displacement will contribute to Colombia would be a more comprehensive and holistic increase poverty and again, the next generations of international policy, as that described by Mark Dan- young people, born and raised in such deprived condi- ner: tions, will be part of the future guerrilla or paramilitary One might imagine the outlines of a wiser policy: armies. building up the institutions of Colombia’s gov- In short, more resources to reinforce the armed ernment with the help of foreign aid; bolstering confrontation will not help to win either the war on Colombia’s legitimate economy by encouraging drugs or the war on terror, unless the country is ready foreign investment and lowering barriers that to accept the consequences of a more generalized keep its products out of US markets; launching a and bloody civil war. Looking at the recent history serious, sustained diplomacy to bring Colombia’s in Colombia and in other countries, it is evident that civil war to a negotiated solution; and greatly the military answer does not solve anything. The increase money spent in the United States to transformation of the political and economic model reduce consumption of drugs by treating drug that currently generates exclusion and poverty, and a users and persuading Americans of the harmful negotiated peace are the only promising solutions to effects of drugs. But such a policy, however ef- the Colombian conflict. fective it might be in reducing the violence in This is not a very popular perspective in Colombia Colombia or America’s consumption of drugs, right now because the situation there is desperate. In would not attract enough votes in Congress such a difficult moment people clamor for definitive – certainly not enough votes to pass a billion and drastic solutions, like the complete destruction of dollar program – as fighting drug dealers in an the rebels and their supporters, and the total fumiga- election year still can. (Brackman, 2002) tion of coca and poppy fields, which means a military In conclusion, it appears that the Colombian escalation of the conflict. Piedad Cordoba, a Colom- conflict has reached such a dimension that no one bian Senator who was forced to leave the country there could pretend to solve it without aid from the because she was threatened with death, warns about international community. However, arms, helicopters, the risks of this type of resolutions. People who wish and military training are not what the country and its for war, says Cordoba (2000), believe that it can be people need most urgently. An integral and coordi- won if it is possible to eliminate the rebels and their nated international policy, as the one described above supporters; the Plan Colombia has calculated that the would be more desirable. The developed countries and armed conflict is mostly rural and is supported by less the United States in the first place, have a historical that 4 percent of the population. That means, accord- responsibility to the rest of the non-developed world

. 31 > because wealth and prosperity in the former countries 37oped.html have been inextricably related to poverty and exclu- sion in the latter. Perhaps, in a non-global world it was Borger J. & and Hodgson,M. (17 May 2001) . US possible for some societies to ignore the hard realities drug war aids Colombian paramilitaries The Guard- other nations were living, as long as their frontiers ian [London]. Retrieved March 14, 2002, from the seemed to protect them. Globalization is changing this World Wide Web http://www.amazonwatch.org/news- state of affairs. Sooner or later the tremendous poverty room/mediaclips01/plancol/010517tg.html found across the world is going to affect rich countries unless their leaders start designing aggressive policies Brackman, S. The folly of the US drug war on Co- to combat it. Poverty, inequity and social exclusion lombia: the Vietnam syndrome. Retrieved March that insult human dignity are at the roots of violence 13, 2002 from the World Wide Web War & Peace and at the beginning of the drug chain whose profits Home Page http://www.warpeace.org/ feed the army business and terrorism. If the worldwide income is not redistributed in a more equitable way, Colombia: Stoking the fires of conflict (2001). Ter- poverty will not be abolished. Likewise, if the war on ror Trade Times. Retrieved March 14, 2002, from terrorism had as a goal to truly find the roots of the the World Wide Web: http://www.web.amnesty. problem and to implement effective social and political org/web/ttt.nsf/june2001/colombia solutions instead of armed confrontations, there would be much hope. Unfortunately, political leaders are still Córdoba, P. (2000). El Plan Colombia: El escala- using old strategies to fight new and unknown wars. miento del conflicto social y armado. Equipo Nizkor. The United States has achieved the highest level Retrieved April 12, 2002, from the World Wide of social and economic development a society could Web http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/colombia/doc/cor- desire. As a nation, this country has been successful doba.html in convincing its citizens that laws (and not arms) are the best method to solve their conflicts. It would be El Tiempo (2002, March 24). Editorial. Retrieved more desirable that instead of exporting wars to other March 24, 2002, from the Web Site nations, along with an aggressive and dehumanized http://eltiempo.terra.com.co/ capitalist model, the United States were engaged in a global aid program to construct societies respectful of Guillermoprieto, A.(2000, April 13). Our New War laws and human rights, societies that would achieve in Colombia. The New York Review of Books, at last a more humane way to solve their conflicts and pp. 34-39 to accept their differences. Leech, G.M (1999). Fifty years of violence. Re- This essay was written as a research paper for ESL 100. trieved April 15, 2002, from the World Wide Web http://www.colombiareport.org/fiftyyearsofviolence. REFERENCES htm#one.

Benjamin, M. (June 14, 2000). Colombia: another Massey, R. (2001). Echoes of Vietnam. (Colombia). Vietnam? Retrieved March 14, 2002, from the World Wide Web: http://www.sfbg.com/News/34/37/

. 32 > Retrieved March 13, 2002 from the World Wide Oct., 2000). The Thistle. Volume 13, Number 2. Re- Web: http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/South_Ameri- trieved March 14, 2002, from the World Wide Web. ca/Echoes_Vietnam.html http://web.mit.edu/thistle/www/v13/2/drugwar.html

Mondragon, H. (December 2000). U.S. Fuelling the Wilson, S. (2001, March 12). Interview with Carlos fires in Colombia. Retrieved March 20, 2002, from Castano, head of the United Self-Defense Forces of the World Wide Web: http://www.nadir.org/nadir/ini- Colombia. The Washington Post Online. Retrieved tiativ/agp/free/colombia/mondrag1.htm April 10, 2002, from the World Wide Web http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp/ Molano, A. (2000). A Guerrilla Group’s Long His- yn?pagename=article&node tory. NACLA Report on the Americas, Sept/Oct 2000. Retrieved May 3, 2002, from the World Wide Web: http://www.derechos.net/paulwolf/colombia/mo- lano.htm

Rocha, R. The Colombian economy after 25 years of drug trafficking. United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention. Retrieved March 15, 2002, from the World Wide Web: http://www.odccp.org/”/images/logo_fo.gif” http://www.odccp.org/

TED Case Studies. Colombia Coca Trade. Case number 136 case mnemonic: colcoca. Retrieved March 14, 2002, from the World Wide Web: http://www.american.edu/ted/COLCOCA.HTM

The absurdity of the drug war in Colombia. (Sept./

. 33 >

FRANKENFISH Melanie Morin

We have been exploring the potentials of genetic engi- What this means, is that a specific genetic sequence, neering for the past century. We have used it for medi- in this case one that will hasten growth and that was cal purposes, to enhance food we like, reduce the use obtained from another organism, is to be inserted into of chemicals necessary to grow the food we eat as well the genetic sequence of the salmon. In the early stages as for many other purposes. Even after exploring this of this research, scientists obtained these sequences field for many years, the scientists have barely begun from humans, rodents and cows. However, in more to touch the surface of what they know and what they recent scientific experiments, sequences of fish origin can do, and because of this, the general public is still were discovered (Laight & Maclean, 2000). These very uneducated and uneasy toward the subject. The useful genes with fish origin were first discovered public is leery of what the scientists tell them about the accidentally by Newfoundland scientists who were safety and benefits of their products, especially when trying to improve salmon’s cold water tolerance with it involves food. Genetically engineered salmon and gene therapy. They discovered that the gene did not other kinds of fish have the potential to revolutionize do what they had originally planned, but gave them the food industry. However, there are certain risks and surprisingly useful results. By splicing a piece of this fears that need to be addressed before this product hits gene into a salmon’s growth-hormone gene, the salmon the market. In the case of the genetically engineered would grow much faster and to much bigger sizes salmon, there are environmental risks too great to (Golden & Thompson, 2000). With this information, ignore. Also, people are starting to demand laws that these scientists started A/F Protein. This company force companies to adequately label the engineered focused on the genetically engineered salmon (Golden food they sell, including the salmon, to reassure them & Thompson, 2000). These new transgenic fish grow of the product’s safety and also provide information to enormous sizes, that is, to about five hundred and on its creation. Furthermore, a global effort needs to fifty pounds. They also grow at an accelerated rate be made if we are to educate the public on genetically and are ready for market sale twice as fast as regular engineered products, the salmon being one, as well as salmon (Aken, 2000). From this example, it is clear police the marketers who sell them, to ensure accep- that genetic engineering certainly can be an asset by tance of these products as well as safety for the people lowering market costs and even increasing the world’s and for the environment worldwide. food supply, but the risks involved as well as people’s Genetically engineered or “[t]ransgenic organ- opinions need to be considered. isms, can be defined as these which have received Many countries are now investing in this research sequences of DNA by artificial means, followed by with a variety of different fish. These countries, such integration of one or more of the novel sequences into as New Zealand, Israel, Thailand, Taiwan, China and their chromosomal DNA” (Laight & Maclean, 2000). a few more are losing the race to attain marketing

. 35 > of these fish to the company called A/F Protein Inc. In truth, certain fears would easily be dissipated which is based in the United States. However, the with a little bit of common sense and basic knowledge. research is done in three Canadian provinces, New People often cannot pinpoint exactly where the line Brunswick, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island is between unnatural and natural. There are many under the direction of Aqua Bounty Farm, a branch processes we use today, such as “multiple ovulation, of A/F Protein. Canada has reservoirs already full of embryo transfer and artificial insemination used in transgenic salmon and trout as well as many eggs ready cattle breeding”, which are far from being natural and for sale. A/F Protein now awaits permits to sell its people accept these (Laight & Mclean, 2000). The product on a large scale to the dissatisfaction of the real fear scientists will have to deal with is the fear rest of the fish farmers. When the farmers were asked that the fish are not safe to eat (Laight & Mclean). how they felt about this new breed of fish, most of In the past, there have been problems with certain them voted against them, the reason being that there genetically altered food becoming unsafe for certain is already an excessive amount of salmon on the world people. One such example happened when “scientists market and that prices have already dropped in the added commercially valuable traits from the Brazil last ten years (Aken, 2000). These issues seem to be nut to a strain of soybeans but ended up making the overlooked by a lot of companies interested only in soybeans risky for people with nut allergies” (Summit making money. Days such as these, when the people underway, 1999). People are afraid that a repeat in who should know best are ignored and their opinion history might occur, not necessarily with these fish, not considered are alarming days. but with any genetically engineered product. Another frightening thought haunting people’s For these reasons, people are starting to take minds is genetic engineering itself. When people action. One such person is Anne Kapuscinski. She think of genetic engineering, they think fetus, cloning, is a leading authority on evaluating and containing grown body parts, and run wild with their imagina- the risks that genetically engineered products pose tion and scare themselves. When people think about to people and nature. As a member of many com- genetically engineered food, they are wary and afraid mittees related to biotechnology, she pushes the idea of it, calling it Franken-food. For this reason, “public that “an industry-led [genetically modified organism] debate and opposition to GM food has been both in- safety development process that would request input tense and growing throughout the world” (Charman, from consumers, public interest groups, government, 2002). A large number of people oppose genetically and academics alike” is the solution to assuring the engineered food, including the transgenic salmon. public of the safety of these products (Moore, n.d.). The objections most known are that “the procedure Algora is a Greek word that Kapuscincki defines as used to produce the fish is unnatural and therefore “the public space in which science meets the public undesirable” (Laight & Maclean, 2000). The idea and the public speaks back to science” (Moore, n.d.). that the genes used to better the fish might either This event is greatly needed and may be the key to cause some unwanted new characteristic in the fish, furthering the bioengineering world, such as sales of or that it might produce proteins not toxic to the fish, these products, including the salmon. Up until now, but toxic to the consumer are also fears the people “public opinion has been unsolicited, if not ignored, have about these GM fish (Laight & Maclean, 2000). and the result has been fervent accusations based on Therefore, in order to get people’s acceptance of this an underlying sense of mistrust” (Moore, n.d.). This product, the companies must first present information is what Kapuscinski hoped to change, and now the on the genetic process that will educate and reassure public is speaking out in ways that cannot be ignored. the public. Many people and organizations, including Greenpeace

. 36 > are fighting for laws that would oblige the marketers to (Laight & Maclean, 2000). Then, the products should label merchandise, such as groceries or clothing that be labeled and in addition, a safety logo should show where manufactured using bioengineering (Forster, that this panel of experts has approved it. With this 2002). They are fighting for the right to know the information, people will see where the genes came truth about what they are really eating. from and exactly what it is that they do. In the case of The companies are fighting these requests with the salmon, people will be able to choose between the all their power. The reason is that currently about human origin gene and the fish origin gene, in which seventy percent of food sold in the US contains case the second is more likely to make them more at genetically modified ingredients. They claim that ease. This will more than likely restore people’s trust labeling will bring unwanted attention to the issue toward these products. Also, the companies should and that the products would then be rejected. The take Julie Forester’s advice and “better spend their biotech companies also claim that their product has money on [advertising] the benefits of genetically passed rigorous testing and is safe. However, “the U.S. modified food” rather than trying to fight the war Food and Drug Administration does not require safety on labeling it does not appear they can win (Forster, tests for transgenic food before it goes on the market. 2002). When it comes to genetic engineering, some- Instead, the biotech companies do their own testing” times the product’s safety is not enough to bring it (Charman, 2002). People do not know to what extent to the markets. There are also major environmental these products have infiltrated the markets and until issues that have to be evaluated. now, they trusted the Food and Drug Administration In the case of the transgenic salmon, there are to protect them from harmful products by their safety environmental risks too great to ignore that need to tests. Bill Hallman, a Rutgers University psychologist, be prevented at all costs. The event that is feared says that people “don’t think about where the food they by everyone is that a “Franken-fish” will escape into eat is from, as far as they’re concerned, it came from a natural population of salmon, or even just escape the supermarket” (Public uninformed, unconcerned, into the wild. Female salmon first look at size when 2001). This is precisely the attitude that the biotech they choose a mate. It is obvious that if an engineered companies rely on. They know that with the labeling salmon of five hundred pounds infiltrated a natural laws, and once people know what products contain population, it would have a great advantage over all genetically engineered ingredients, and know the the normal males of that population. The females safety tests have been conducted by the companies would choose this super fish for their mate. This could themselves, this view will change. People may try to create great problems (Aken, 2000). avoid the products, including the fish. If the people Scientists have done experiments to try to predict mistrust the companies, and these companies are doing exactly what would happen if this scenario were true their own safety tests while trying to sell their products and the outlook is not good. There is a theory called and get rich, how do these companies expect to gain the Trojan gene theory. This theory shows, through sci- people’s trust and sell their products? entific tests, that the offspring of the modified salmon The answer lies in educating the people and get- have disadvantages, such as poor muscles and less ting people to put their confidence in the products. swimming ability than their natural counterpart. For For this particular product, as well as for any other, this reason, and many others, their survival rate is low “what is required to allow commercial harnessing [...] (Golden & Thompson, 2000). A computer-generated is careful scrutiny by an expert panel of the compo- model predicted that in about forty generations, the nents of the construct of the gene, [...]. Such a panel native salmon population infiltrated by GM salmon should be international, or at least [...] multinational” could be destroyed completely. According to this theo-

. 37 > ry, it would take only a few genetically engineered fish their regular cages to save some money (Aken, 2000). to cause the extinction of entire populations (Aken, The truth is, complete control of every single fish farm 2000). Considering that the salmon populations are that use the genetically modified fish is almost impos- already on a precarious balance, some having already sible. Even with laws in place, breeches in protocol been put on the endangered species list because of our have happened with genetically engineered specimens over fishing and the lack of food, scientists and envi- in the past, and they will continue to happen no mat- ronmentalists are worried (Atlantic salmon homepage, ter how much scientists try to control it. Also, once n.d.). We cannot afford to let a catastrophe of this these fish hit the markets, the world will have access size hit the salmon populations. Precautions must be to these eggs, or fish, to start farming for themselves. taken and the highest levels of care taken in order to Will other countries make the efforts to contain the avoid this happening. modified fish, or will they care solely about the money Also, salmon along with most of the other fish they will make? that are being genetically modified, such as carp, trout, Scientists also propose another method of ensuring catfish, tilapia, and others, are predators. Doubling a that the escape of these fish does not devastate the fish’s size most likely means doubling its appetite. Tests environment. They propose to submit the eggs to high have shown that the modified fish are more aggressive radiation to render them infertile. This may work for than their natural counterparts. This shows that not most of the eggs, but it is impossible to make sure that only its own population, but also the populations of the every single egg has been rendered infertile (Aken, fish they prey upon would be affected. The food sup- 2000). It only takes one fish’s escape and damage plies for the salmon population would be depleted in a will be done. Therefore, we see that although these matter of no time. Also, because of its sheer size, the methods will help isolate the altered populations, they natural predators of these fish might also be reduced may still be insufficient. If these fish are ever approved and this could quickly turn into a case of an invasive for sale and farming, we will need to think on a global species dominating its surroundings and becoming the scale as to how to control the farming of these fish. sole occupant (Aken, 2000). The fish do not need to Therefore, it is clear that people need to get in- escape into a population of salmon to do damage to volved in order to make a difference. The companies the ecosystem, but simply escape. Predicting exactly are working in the shadows, selling products people do what would happen is almost impossible in a wild not even know are out there. The truth is, if people habitat, but many scientists agree that disaster would knew what was out there and what they where eating, be the ultimate outcome if one of these genetically many would be angry. For these reasons, and others enhanced fish were to escape into the wild. Therefore, as important, such as the environment, we need to it is imperative that this should never happen. make them hear us. It is true that in the future, with Traditional salmon farming is done in cages off the the population growing at this speed, there will be a coast itself and millions of eggs and fish escape into need for more food, but there are many other ways to the wild constantly. This is why environmentalists grow and harvest more food. We do not need to add fear greatly this will happen with the modified salmon. environmental risks to the equation. These risks, in Scientists working for the companies developing this the case of the transgenic salmon are great. Can we idea promise to eliminate the risks by farming these afford a catastrophe of this size to hit our waters? There fish in isolated tanks located inland. The problem is, is no doubt that once these fish hit the markets, it is farming inland is expensive and if the fish eggs hit the only a matter of time before some escape, or careless market to be sold to fish farmers, certain farmers might farmers just discard them into the wild. Too many not consider the risks and farm the transgenic fish in species and ecosystems have already perished and been

. 38 > destroyed due to our carelessness and our destruction. We need to make an effort to save these ones, because today, it may be salmon that are at risk, but who knows what it could be tomorrow.

This essay was written as a research paper for ESL 100.

REFERENCES

Aken, J. (2000). Genetically engineered fish: swim- ming against the tide of reason. Retrieved Novem- ber 15, 2002 on the World Wide Web: salmon.html http://www.greenpeace.org/~geneng Atlantic salmon homepage. Retrieved November 2, Charman, Karen. (2002). Genetically engineered 2002 on the World Wide Web: food: promises & perils. Mother Earth News, 194, 74. http://www.atlanticsalmontrust.org/

Forster, J. (2002, November 11). GM foods: why Public uninformed, unconcerned about bioengi- fight labeling. Business Week, 3807, 44. neered food. (2001). Medical Letter on the CDC & FDA, p. 16. Golden, F., & Thompson, D. (2000, June 3). Make way for frankenfish!. Time, 155, 62. Summit underway on the dangers of genetic en- gineering. (1999). Retrieved November 2, 2002 Laight, R., & Maclean, N. (2000). Transgenic fish: on the World Wide Web: http://www.mansfieldct. an evaluation of benefits and risks. Fish and Fisheries, org/school/mms/staff/hand/genendanger.htm 1, 146-172.

Moore, Rick. (n.d). The spawning of a new era: GM super salmon and the wisdom of tinkering with fish. Retrieved November 2, 2002 on the World Wide Web: http://www1.umn.edu/urelate/kiosk/12.00text/

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INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION: A MUSICAL INFLUENCE Wendell Keani Kaleimamahu

Within each person resides their own cultural heritage, (446). Our self-image is the foundation upon which parental lineage, and a self-concept that is unique. is built man’s intrapersonal communication. In our As people constantly debate and ponder life’s every intrapersonal communication, we analyze and decide day questions, their thoughts and attitudes are influ- what we want to express, show, and perceive to oth- enced by many experiences and natural events. Music ers. plays a very important part in man’s intrapersonal Besides, music has much influence in man’s intra- communication. Intrapersonal communication, the personal communication. Music affects feelings, emo- self-talk that occurs within everyone, is influenced tions, thoughts, and opinions. Mary Louise Serafine greatly through music. Music, the melodious sounds states, “[m] usic is a part of every culture, every class, of nature or the classical strings of culture, plays an and every age” (1-2). For many people, music is a great important role within the inner feelings of mankind. stress reliever and a favorite way to relax. It can calm The self-concept is how man perceives himself, and your nerves and sweep away anxiety. On the contrary, it also influences how people express their feelings. in people who are emotionally weak or unstable, mu- Music comes in many forms; whether it sings in a sic can bring about hate or depression. It truly affects gentle breeze that flows over the forest trees, to the man’s internal communication. The rhythmic sound of ancient drum beats and songs that have entwined hu- music can conjure up forgotten memories, both posi- man culture for thousands of years. Music can have a tive and negative, while altering one’s emotions and positive or negative influence on man’s intrapersonal feelings. It is an excellent catalyst for the beginnings communication. of one’s intrapersonal communication. A moment of For example, intrapersonal communication is the mental relaxation does wonders to a tired and stressful communication that occurs within each person. It is mind. A confused and busy mind has a difficult time the silent thinking, the inner voice, and the self-talk to communicate and reason with itself. Many ideas are that drives or prohibits each one of our thoughts and born and manipulated according to one’s mood at the actions. It is the way man reasons out his thoughts time music is heard. Music is interpreted in many ways and emotions, and the outcome of his interpersonal by each person’s own concept. It can be the rhythmic communication can be seen in one’s attitude, one’s pitter-patter of raindrops falling steadily on the roof, actions and one’s self-concept. According to Harold or the classical compositions that enrich the theaters Barrett, “to be congruent is to act in a way that is and concert halls around the world. As the mind fol- consistent with your beliefs and attitudes…free to act lows the melodious sounds of music, emotions surge and be as you believe (12). This concept is made up of and questions arise, sometimes causing an emotional self-esteem and our self-image. Self-esteem, according tug of war within the interior of one’s inner mind. to Myers, is “one’s feelings of high or low self worth” Also, music can be used medically and therapeuti- cally as a way to relieve a variety of illnesses and condi- tions that effect one’s mental reasoning and attitude. . 41 > Bunt reaffirms this by stating “music can clearly influ- attitude in life and in the interpersonal relationships ence clients in medical, psychoanalytical, behavioral with others. However, there are those who have a and more general humanistic terms…” (264). Music low self-esteem, and by listening to certain kinds of is also used as a stimulant to arouse emotions. music, which emphasizes the negativity in life, they According to Hargreaves and North, “research can feel brave and motivated to perform mischievous has been dominated by the related concepts of affect, and dangerous acts. Everyone must learn to be their arousal, emotions and mood, and music is seen to own person, for in a world that is forever changing contribute to social influence by virtue of its capacity progress waits for no one. We must make time for the to induce affect” (74). Music also affects the psycho- well being and our mental state of mind. Children logical process, including the way decisions are made, must be raised to believe in strong values and a strong and how man forms an impression about one’s self and cultural identity, so that social influence will be seen others. Attitude and one’s self-esteem play’s a huge role as a complement to their traits and beliefs, not as a in how mankind intrapersonally and interpersonally replacement for them. relates to himself and others in the community. Finally, music has a strong influence on a person’s Similarly, man’s individual self-concept is greatly emotional state. It is a great motivator in mankind’s affected by music, which has a strong affect on one’s intrapersonal communication, which then is expressed emotions. Rap music, rock-n-roll and music videos through one’s interpersonal communication with have a strong influence on people, especially the another. Music is the individual’s own concept. It youth. Each individual reacts and processes their own can be heard in natural or man-made sounds. If one’s thoughts according to their own self-concept. Self emotional state is out of balance, music will create an –concept is how man views his self. It is the individual’s emotional tug of war within their mind. Their actions own unique social and cultural traits that form the base will be a reflection of their self-concept, whether it of one’s perception. One’s own self-concept is strongly is good or bad. Music can greatly influence thoughts instilled from birth till one’s teen years, and continues and feelings, especially if someone has a low self-es- to evolve as man progresses in life. If people have a teem, low self-image, or low self-concept. The values positive self-concept, then music will have a positive that people carry within themselves will be how they reaction on their intrapersonal communication and perceive life’s challenges. Relaxation through music so their actions will reflect their attitude and feelings. comes in a variety of sounds, and a person’s self-con- If one possesses a negative self-concept, music can cept plays a major role in his intrapersonal commu- enhance their negative feelings and the intrapersonal nication and the ability to express one’s interpersonal communication within themselves. Their negative communication with others. Music can make the best actions will be a display of their own self-image. out of a dreary situation, or the worst out of a good Furthermore, I believe that each one of us is influ- one. It all depends on the self-concept that is instilled enced in his or her way by music. Musical recordings of in each person. nature such as the echo of waves gliding over the sand, the rustling of leaves in the wind, or the melodious This essay was written for SpCom 151. The assignment was sounds of flowing water, assist in pleasure, relaxation, a research paper. and motivation. Positive intrapersonal communica- CITED WORKS tion with one’s self will enable one to display a positive Barrett, Harold. Practical Uses Of Speech Communica- tion. San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,

. 42 > 1977.

Bunt, Leslie “ Clinical and Therapeutic Uses Of Mu- sic.” The Social Psychology of Music. Ed. Hargreaves and North. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. 2 6 4 .

Gambel, Teri and Michael Gambel. Communication Works. New York: The McGraw- Hill/Irwin, 2002

Myers, David G. Exploring Psychology fifth edition. New York: Worth Publishers, 2002.

Serafine, Mary Louise. Music as Cognition The De- velopment of Thought in Sound. New York: Colombia University Press, 1988.

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THE ‘ SKIPPER EFFECT ’ DEBATE Kirsten Mollegaard

How do anthropologists study folk models? The term ñ the so-called ‘skipper effect’ (ibid:519). This model ‘folk model’ can, as Pelto and Pelto point out, be has the long term effect of ranking skippers, enhancing used as a “synonym for the term theoretical system” their personal prestige and hence their professional (1978:11). It is in this sense that Palsson and Durren- careers. Top skippers are backed by financial support berger (1983) investigate the folk models surrounding and entrusted with the largest vessels, the best gear, fishing success in Iceland. Do folk models authentically and have the most experienced crews (ibid:516). represent reality, or are they in fact misrepresentations Given their superior equipment and manpower they whose origins must be tracked through the complex can search for schools independently with a higher of Iceland’s specific social, economic, and historical likelihood of success, since lower ranking skippers context? Palsson and Durrenberger’s data leads them tend to fish “in clusters so as to dissipate the blame of to conclude the latter. However, as they are careful possible failure” (ibid.). Palsson and Durrenberger thus to point out, their study reveals only one component argue that catch size is a direct result of fishing strategy, of a complex set of factors concerning Icelandic folk which in turn is a result of the skipper’s rank. In other attitudes towards fishing, and they explicitly refrain words, rank and fishing success are inter-linked entities from ‘proving’ the folk model true or false (1990:134). independent of any supernatural powers. In this way, they follow a standard methodological Palsson and Durrenberger do not go into detail approach, which Pelto and Pelto also recommend, regarding the (in their view) more or less self-ex- namely to test the effectiveness of theories “by means planatory “commonsense” folk model, which they of empirical research” (10). describe as an “accurate representation of differential In the first part of their paper, Palsson and Durren- success” (ibid.526). But they challenge the ‘skipper berger (1983) examine two folk models that informants effect’ model by examining statistical fishing records use to explain varying fishing success in the Icelandic of skippers’ herring and cod catches in the golden years cod and herring fisheries. The “commonsense model” between 1959 and 1961, before over-fishing had neces- accounts for short term comparisons between the daily sitated government-imposed quotas. Using statistical catches of several boats and explains the differences in methods introduced by Barth and Heath, they find catch sizes in terms of “material factors” such as types no strong correlation between skipper and catch size of gear used (trawl, purse seine), boat size, weather and conclude that “there is no skipper effect” (ibid: conditions, electronic navigation equipment, etc. 517). (1983:513). The second folk model - the “stereotypi- However, although Palsson and Durrenberger find cal model” - attributes differential fishing success to the ‘skipper effect’ to be a false notion in explaining the individual skipper and his “supernatural” powers fishing success, they insist it should be understood as to locate the fishing schools and ensure a good catch an ideological product of Iceland’s colonial past. In the

. 45 > second part of the paper, they suggest that the ‘skip- “regression artifacts” (ibid.) and concludes that it is per effect’ evolved in response to historical changes impossible to assess the ‘skipper effect’ adequately in the social and “capitalist relations of production” given Palsson and Durrenberger’s methodology. He (ibid: 526). This part of the paper reiterates Icelandic then proceeds to venture a “hunch”, namely that the fishing lore and history with focus on control and ac- catches in 1959-61 represent a decline in the volume cess to the means of production in the overall fishing of fish caught and that the top skippers of this period economy. simply represent a statistical “tail subset” on an inter- Gatewood’s (1984) and McNabb’s (1985) critical com- val level statistics curve (ibid.). ments to the paper both deal with the way in which Suspecting that their work is being “misinter- Palsson and Durrenberger calculated and interpreted preted” (1985:544), Palsson and Durrenberger reply their statistical data. to McNabb in great detail, including three statistical Gatewood’s commentary focuses on the statistical tables in their answer, and carefully address each of basis for their conclusions (1984). He argues that the his points. For example, they compare the use of correlation between skipper and catch size is indeed Pearson and Spearman’s methods and defend their strong and suggests that their statistical analysis is interpretation of Barth. They dismiss McNabb’s focus flawed because they do not account for the “regres- on rank as a measurable entity, arguing that “catch is sion artifacts” (ibid: 378) in non-randomly selected a much more precise measure of rank than rank-order; subsamples. He interprets Barth and Heath’s material it ranks by kilogram” (ibid.). They refute McNabb’s differently and encourages Palsson and Durrenberger hunch regarding declining catch sizes by demonstrat- to reexamine their data, while suggesting that they ing statistically that their research covers the prime look into comparative ethnographic data from other years of Icelandic herring fishing, not the tail end fishing studies. He feels convinced that the ‘skipper ef- of it. Furthermore, they recognize from the critique fect’ “does have some grounding in fact” (ibid: 379). that there “may be some confusion as to just what In addressing Gatewood’s criticisms, Palsson and the ‘skipper effect’ is” (ibid.) and go on to discuss the Durrenberger recap their position and their interpre- theoretical implications of how the ‘skipper effect’ as tation of Barth, which they do not change. They do, an ideology relates to the mode of production and the however, allow that “the issue is not settled and that historical moment. it warrants further research” (1984: 380) and speculate Five years later, Palsson and Durrenberger (1990) on the possibilities of the ‘skipper effect’ in different readdress these implications in another paper in which societies. they evaluate developments in this field of research McNabb (1985) offers critique from a slightly dif- and answer further criticisms. In contrast to their ferent angle. He is mainly concerned with the issue initial paper (1983), this paper goes into a much of rank and criticizes Palsson and Durrenberger for more detailed discussion of what the ‘skipper effect’ not explaining this issue in greater detail, but instead is, first from a statistical point of view and next from a focusing their statistical analysis on the correlation sociological point of view, thus stressing the difference between skipper and catch size. He argues that their use “between measurement and social discourse” (ibid: of “Pearson’s correlation coefficient, an interval-level 131). Additionally, they argue that the ‘skipper effect’ statistic” (ibid: 543) obscures rank-order relations and has limited comparative value because “researchers suggests that they instead should use “Spearman’s rho using it have not always been talking about the same or another rank-order measure, which will detect rank- phenomena” (ibid.). A section on research concepts ing effects even if absolute catch volumes or weights and context clarifies many of the murkier points in the vary” (ibid.). He agrees with Gatewood regarding the first paper by referring to the works of, for example,

. 46 > Ortner and Durkheim. This establishes a theoretical and Durrenberger’s insistence on socio-economic framework, in which the readers can appreciate Pals- causal relationships between folk belief and histori- son and Durrenberger’s positions, past and present. The cal development leaves many questions about the second paper rounds off the debate with the weighty ‘skipper effect’ unanswered. For example the fact authority of insight gained through constructive criti- that folk belief credits Icelandic skippers as individuals cism and the reinterpretation of data. with successful catches in which many men actually As we can see from this summary, the ‘skipper participate. How does this tie in with notions about effect’ debate never led to a refutation of Palsson and individual agency in social discourse? Can we assume Durrenberger’s original paper, but it did raise important that such celebration of individuality has no effect on questions about the use of statistical data in support the persistence of the myth of the ‘skipper effect’? In of social phenomena and the methodology involved. fact, is the ‘skipper effect’ an ideology per se or a myth Obviously, Palsson and Durrenberger needed to clarify within a specific cultural myth-making tradition? their way of calculating tables and establishing sound As I see it, Palsson and Durrenberger’s narrow field correlation between skipper and catch size. Both Gate- of inquiry isolates the ‘skipper effect’ from the rich wood and McNabb made these their greatest points of body of folk beliefs elsewhere in Iceland. These beliefs disagreement. Palsson and Durrenberger also needed deal with the unpredictable outcome of endeavors to account more explicitly for their terminology and outside the immediate control of human action. By to make clearer distinctions between analytical levels isolating one such belief and computing its validity of abstraction, i.e. computation of statistics on the one in gross tons, the researchers structure and measure hand, and systems of production and social discourse this belief as a phenomenon in a way that strips it of on the other hand. its cognitive, cultural context. After showing that the Overall, however, the debate did not pay much ‘skipper effect’ has no basis in ‘reality’, Palsson and attention to the ‘skipper effect’ as an example of a folk Durrenberger link its persistence to Iceland’s socio- model and to the ideological implications inherent in economic past as a Danish colony. I find this part of using this term. Palsson and Durrenberger discuss it their argument dogmatic, deterministic, and not well from the point of view of social discourse and systems integrated with the first part. It appears to me that the of production, but fail to establish the connection writers’ effort at establishing a causal link between between cognitive change and reproduction in “au- capitalist world economy via Icelanders’ various ac- thoritative systems” (1990: 139), which they appear cesses to the means of production over time becomes to believe accounts for the presence of an historically a reductionist tautology. The validity of this approach out-moded ideology (or folk model) in today’s Iceland. as an interpretative tool remains obscure. Comparative One might argue that “survivals” (Moore 1997: 23) are studies clearly demonstrate that the ‘skipper effect’ can inherent in any social discourse as “older condition[s] exist independently of Iceland’s specific socio-eco- of culture out of which a newer has been evolved” nomic history (Palsson and Durrenberger 1983:524- (ibid.), and that swearing by the ‘skipper effect’ there- 5). Therefore, Icelandic history does not explain the fore is no more unique to Icelanders than the belief in ‘skipper effect’ as a phenomenon. trolls and elves. All in all, however, this debate shows how impor- However, Palsson and Durrenberger evidently tant it is for researchers to publicize their work in order choose not to analyze the ‘skipper effect’ within the to receive both negative and positive feedback from wider social discourse of Icelandic folk beliefs, but other experts. Constructive criticism prompts new merely in relation to the means of production. While investigations and reveals possible inconsistencies. this choice neatly limits the field of inquiry, Palsson As we can see from Palsson and Durrenberger’s latest

. 47 > paper (1990), the debate has helped them sharpen logic and acknowledging problem areas. The fact that their focus and clarify points and terms while at the they follow up on this debate shows—beside their own same time it has allowed them to reexamine their commitment—the long-term benefits of discussing original data from other perspectives. In responding research data to promote general understanding of a to Gatewood and McNabb’s criticisms they admirably field of inquiry. avoid polemic sidetracking and adhere to their original agenda, defending their interpretations with consistent This essay was written for Anthropology 475. The as- signment was a research paper.

WORKS CITED

Gatewood, John B. Is the ‘skipper effect’ really a false Palsson, Gisli and E. Paul Durrenberger. ideology? 1983 Icelandic foremen and skippers: the structure 1984 American Ethnologist 12:378-9. and evolution of a folk model. American Ethnologist 10: 511-27. McNabb, Steven L. A final comment on measure- 1984 Reply to Gatewood. ment of the ‘skipper effect’. American Ethnologist 12:379-80. 1985 American Ethnologist 11:543-4. 1985 Reply to Steven L. McNabb. American Etnologist 11:544-5. Moore, Jerry D. 1990 Systems of Production and Social Discourse: 1997 Visions of Culture. An Introduction to An- The Skipper Effect Revisited. thropological Theories and Theorists. American Anthropologist 92: 130-40. London: Altamira Press. Pelto, P. and Pelto, G. Anthropological Research: The Study of Inquiry. 2nd Ed. 1978 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

. 48 > A HOMO-EROTIC READING OF WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE’S HAMLET M. Tracey Chesler

According to M.H. Abrams, “queer theory is of use to This paper will investigate the validity of inter- designate the combined area of gay and lesbian studies preting the character of Hamlet as a homosexual. and criticism. The term ‘queer’ was originally deroga- There are scenes in the play one can choose to read tory, [but] since the 1990’s it has been increasingly from a queer perspective. This homo-erotic reading adopted by gays and lesbians themselves as a non- will demonstrate that some Renaissance writers have invidious term to identify a way of life and an area for often written in code to reveal and conceal socially scholarly inquiry” (254). Today, some of the leading prohibited behavior and that a good portion of Renais- queer theorists are Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Alan Bray, sance audiences understood the meaning. The paper Teresa de Lauretis, and Alan Sinfield. In what Abrams will discuss homosexual behavior in Shakespeare’s time describes as “parallel movements to feminist and Af- and will also look at the play from a queer scholar’s rican-American liberation studies, the queer scholar’s point of view. It will also reference John Gielgud’s 1929 major endeavor is to identify and reclaim the works of theatre interpretation of Hamlet, a 1921 Danish film non-heterosexual writers from Plato to Walt Whitman, interpretation of the play where Hamlet is played by Proust, Gide, Auden, and James Baldwin, and from a female actor, and homo-erotic scenes portrayed in the Greek poet Sappho of Lesbos to Virginia Woolf, two recent film versions of the play, one directed by Adrienne Rich, and Audre Lourde. The list includes Kenneth Branagh, the other by Michael Almereyda. writers who represent homo-erotic subject matter, This essay will interpret lines from the play that dem- but whose own sexuality the available biographical onstrate homosexual affection. evidence leaves uncertain.” Abrams cites as examples A homo-erotic reading of Hamlet has not become Christina Rossetti and William Shakespeare (255). a generally accepted idea. In fact, the possibility Scholars have interpreted William Shakespeare’s that Hamlet is a homosexual has been denied and play, Hamlet, Prince of Denmark for hundreds of years. suppressed for years. Generally speaking, any queer The character Hamlet is one of the most compelling in analysis of any beloved literary classics has experienced all of literature. Students and dramatists are intrigued several reactions in scholarly circles. In the preface to by his divided character and the tragedy of his destruc- his book, editor Byrne R. S. Fone writes, “the title of tion. Film and stage directors speculate as to whether this book, The Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature, Hamlet and Gertrude were incestuous lovers. Freud- will no doubt (even at this late date in the history ians insist that Hamlet was acting upon an unresolved of debates about nomenclature) move many readers Oedipal complex. In the context of understanding —mostly academic ones—to anxious or irritated ob- that homosexual behavior has been noted as far back jection or to satisfied agreement” (xxix). People refuse in history as the Greeks, Hamlet is one play that can to see the homosexual possibilities in the text of such be read from a homo-erotic point of view. literary works as Hamlet; if they do they keep quiet

. 49 > about the content or drop it like a hot potato. This was believe that “England was very open about sexuality, not true, however in the Renaissance period. Writers but in fact, they were just ignoring it [homosexual- such as Christopher Marlowe, Rafael Holinshead, and ity]. Lower class men did not think anything between William Shakespeare wrote in code to express their two consenting males was bad at all and they were intentions to the audience, who were open enough to rather more concerned with crimes such as theft and read between the lines. adultery” (Jeffries 1). If it was commonplace for both Renaissance writers Christopher Marlowe and upper and lower class males to indulge in same sex Rafael Holinshead wrote versions of the play Edward II. relations, Shakespeare’s use of coding was genius. His The play is the “story of Edward II and Piers Gaveston ideas came across to audiences, both made up of royalty that illustrates the variety of categories through which and groundlings, without the threat of imprisonment love between men might be perceived” (Hammond or worse, the closing of a play due to censorship. 47). In Holinshead’s play, Gaveston is referred to as In Hamlet, the homo-erotic relationships can be “the King’s dearly beloved familiar - a word which had approached through Hamlet’s critically well accepted a range of meanings from a member of the household to Oedipal complex. According to queer theorist Eve intimate friend to attendant demon” (Hammond 49). Sedgwick, homo-eroticism, if not homosexuality, According to Paul Hammond, Holinshead’s version underlies the psychological struggles that occur in of the play provides “homosexual behavior available the natural maturation of human beings. In her book as a meaning but it is not made explicit” where as in Between Men: English Literature and Male Homo-social “Marlowe’s version the audience is made to understand Desire Sedgwick writes that Freud “suggests homo- that the relationship is more than that of master to and heterosexual outcomes in adults to be the result servant or friend to friend: it is overtly erotic” (48). of a complicated play of desire for and identification Coding can be found in several of Shakespeare’s with the parent of each gender: the child routes its plays and sonnets. Hammond writes that “Shakespeare desire/identification through the mother to arrive at explores love between men and often accentuated a role like the father’s or vice versa” (22-23). those passionate relationships between men which A later manifestation of this theory, according he found in his sources, working into these stories an to Paul Hammond in his book Love Between Men in interest in the complexities of male/male passions.” English Literature is the idea of the erotic triangle or Shakespeare respects the “renaissance meaning of love the Oedipal triangle. The males usually rival each between men” and treats the subject with awareness other for the female’s affection, when in reality, the and sensitivity. He goes on to say that “only once in female is simply an object used to disguise the latent the entire [Shakespeare] canon is homosexual desire or forbidden sexual feelings between the men. These ridiculed, and that mockery comes from the scurrilous men cannot openly express their erotic feelings, so Thersites in Troilus and Cressidil, to whom everything a fierce Oedipal competition develops. Some classic is filth” (58). Shakespearian erotic triangular relationships appear in Coding was necessary as homosexuality in the mid the plays Romeo and Juliet, between Romeo, Mercutio, 1500’s to 1600’s was forbidden. It was punishable by and Juliet; Othello, between Desdemona, Othello, and death. It did, however, exist. “Sodomy [and buggery] Iago; and in perhaps the most compelling triangle in all was often considered a luxury only people at court of Shakespeare, in Julius Caesar, among the characters could afford; buggery being the offense of sodomy but of Cassius, Brutius, and Caesar. These cleverly written usually including bestiality and sodomy being defamed examples exclude the female element and reinforce as sexual license of any kind being either heterosexual the homo-social bonds and erotic intensity between or homosexual” (Jeffries 1). Some scholars tend to men (59-61).

. 50 > It is not just queer theorists who have noted homo- 3). erotic material in Hamlet. The homosexual elements Another memorable and controversial production in Hamlet have been exploited in several well known of Hamlet was the 1921 film, starring Danish actress early 20th century productions of the play. There Asta Neilsen as Hamlet. This production was “loosely are a number of performances of the play Hamlet. based on Shakespeare’s Hamlet and on a popular book One which emphasized the homosexual relationship at the time that said Hamlet was actually a girl forcibly between Hamlet and Horatio was produced on the raised as a boy in order to provide an heir to the Danish London stage in 1929. The part of Hamlet was acted throne” (Morris 4). Asta Neilsen’s Hamlet forced on by Sir John Gielgud. “At 26, he was the first actor the screen the homosexual friendship between Hamlet under 40 years of age to play the part, and over the and Horatio “who caress and coddle each other in years he made it his own” (Knitting Circle 1). Gielgud what appeared to viewers at the time as a gay tryst” played his Hamlet with sensitivity to the male-male (Morris 4). The article by Gary Morris goes on to state relationship. Gielgud was by no means a gay activist, that the actress “imparts the gender-unstable nature of but he read the text as homo-erotic and saw the pos- character in these scenes with Horatio and others with sibilities of a romance between Horatio and Hamlet. Fortinbraus, whose encounters with Hamlet are also His performance and interpretation of the character clearly coded as gay” (4). This amazing interpretation included insights into the homosexual content ex- was way ahead of its time, yet the idea was explored plored in this paper. In a later New York production in a creative and sensitive way. of the play with Richard Burton as Hamlet, Gielgud Once the homosexual elements are recognized, was noted commenting on the performance as being “a a director who wishes to emphasize them will focus manly Hamlet” (Jeffries 1), which Gielgud’s was not. on several key sequences. For example, in Michael This interpretation disturbed Gielgud. Critics noticed Almereyda’s 2000 film version of Hamlet the following a different Hamlet as well. Howard Taubman wrote in lines between Laertes and Ophelia clearly show the a review for The New York Times, “Richard Burton’s idea that Laertes’s caution to his sister about her own Hamlet is notable for its masculinity, [...] full of the sexual involvement with Hamlet does indeed reveal temperament of a man in prime physical and mental his first hand knowledge of Hamlet’s sexual inclina- health, [...] a Hamlet of such tempestuous manliness” tion: (1). The actor who played Horatio to Burton’s Ham- ...Then if he says he loves you, let got little if any acclaim and as “Taubman prais[es] It fits your wisdom so far to believe it Burton’s performance he simultaneously invalidates As he in his particular act and place other readings of the part” (Jeffries 1). May give his saying deed, which is no further Burton’s testosterone inflated production may Than the main voice of Denmark goes with- have been in reaction to the earlier arrest of John al... Gielgud for “homosexual importuning in Chelsea, Fear it, Ophelia, fear it, my dear sister(1.3.24- 1953” (Knitting Circle 2). Gielgud’s “humiliation 33). became very public and painful”; however following Almereyda chooses to have his Laertes (played his arrest, audiences of his current play, N. C. Hunter’s by Liev Schreiber) whisper this closely into Ophelia’s A Dav by the Sea gave the actor a standing ovation (Julia Stiles) ear; as he does this he takes a clip from “when he made his first entrance” (Knitting Circle 2). her hair. The scene illustrates a sexual response to At the time of the Burton Hamlet, John Gielgud had words. This is an example of an erotic triangle. This met “Martin Hensler, who [remained] his companion warning to Ophelia to watch out for Hamlet’s sexual for forty years until he died in 1999” (Knitting Circle advances could be motivated by Laertes own former

. 51 > love/sexual experience with Hamlet or information he scenario of two men set at odds by a woman clearly has regarding Hamlet and other men. Laertes speaking fascinated Shakespeare, according to Bruce R Smith as Ophelia’s brother seems inordinately concerned for in his book, Homosexual Desire in Shakespeare’s England his sister’s virginity. (66). It is an example of sexual tension between men, The implied relationship between Laertes and pushing, struggling, being expressed in an apparently Hamlet could be exploited by a director in two ad- socially accepted way. ditional scenes by Shakespeare. First, when Polonius Within the text, there are obvious lines from dif- enters in Act I Scene III, we are privy to a touching fa- ferent characters that imply general knowledge of the ther/son moment. Polonius advises Laertes in manners homo-erotic by key characters. Within Shakespeare’s and manliness, they say good bye, and Laertes leaves coding he has sprinkled homo-social references that for France. Polonius then goes to Reynaldo in Act II these other characters are well aware of Hamlet’s Scene I, and asks him to spy on Laertes and spread reputation among men. Claudius’ straightforward line, rumors about him among his friends and acquaintances “ ’tis unmanly grief,” (1.2.94), may be interpreted to in France, including that he makes use of prostitutes, demonstrate that Claudius knows something about “drabbing” (2.1.25). Polonius’ motivation for this Hamlet’s sexual preference for men. He is basically action might be to smear his son’s name to avoid the calling Hamlet a girl or a sissy because he has carried shame his family might endure if Laertes’ homosexual on in his sorrow over his father’s death. Hamlet does nature were revealed. Polonius instructs Reynaldo not respond to the King’s blatant challenge to his to make it known that Laertes is a man’s man. He masculinity. This coded message to the audience points swears, drinks, gambles, fights, and visits “brothel[s]” out that there may be more to Hamlet’s discontent (2.1.59). All of this is done with the intent to protect than his depression over current events. Laertes’ reputation as well as Polonius’ position in the Queen Gertrude also has a coded line that can be kingdom. read as a clue to Hamlet’s homo-erotic true nature. The second scene in the play that illustrates the The Queen expresses her hope that perhaps Hamlet erotic-love triangle is when Hamlet and Laertes physi- is madly in love with Ophelia. She says: cally fight in Ophelia’s grave. Each one claims that he And for your part, Ophelia, I do wish loved her more than the other. Laertes has leaped into That your good beauties be the happy cause the grave and Hamlet challenges his sincerity as he Of Hamlet’s wildness. So shall I hope your vir- jumps into the grave and they begin to fight. Hamlet tues cries in despair, “I lov’d Ophelia. Forty thousand broth- Will bring him to his wonton ways again, ers / Could not with all their quantity of love / Make To both your honors. (3.1.36-41) up my sum. What wilt thou do for her” (5.1.269-71). Gertrude may instinctually suspect Hamlet’s sexual A director might illustrate this scene by positioning preference and continues to hope that it is not true. the two characters in an intimate physical struggle that Here, she exposes a mother’s desire for her son to be spells out a clearly dominant homo-erotic theme. A di- heterosexual, marry a lovely woman, avoid possible rector might even push the point by zooming in on one imprisonment and scandal, produce heirs, and make or the other’s face as one man licks the other’s throat her a proud and happy grandmother. This coded mes- or cut to both of their faces as they near exhaustion sage can be recognized by many of the savvy men in or a climax in the “struggle.” The rest of the funeral the audience as their own mothers’ concern for their mourners would be watching and direction would cut welfare. to those faces that look as if they knew the unmention- The characters Guildenstem and Rosencrantz able truth or history about Hamlet and Laertes. The have a more flagrant exchange with Hamlet. Upon

. 52 > greeting each other the three of them speak of For- According to Hammond, renaissance men did verbal- tune: ize their love to one another, share beds and openly Guil. [...] on Fortune’s [cap] we are not the very express affection. He writes: button the renaissance male was brought up in a society Ham. Nor the soles of her shoe? where many of his most important relationships Ros. Neither, my lord. were with other men, and within this mascu- Ham. Then you live about her waist, or in the line culture the bonds of affection, loyalty, and middle of her favors? obligation were often passionate (27). Guil. Faith, in her privates we. Rosencrantz acts confused by Hamlet’s behavior while Ham. The secret parts of Fortune? 0, most true, at Castle Elsinore because he has been accustomed to she is a strumpet. What news? (2.2.229-36) Hamlet’s affections in other circumstances. In cases These are low puns regarding the female body, and of unrequited love, the one who is rejected is often they abuse her reputation by calling her a baft1ed by the rejection of the love interest. strumpet. If you look at this exchange as boys being In his 1997 film version of Hamlet, actor/director boys, it may seem perfectly innocent; however, their Kenneth Branagh makes use of low puns to create a tone is crude and vulgar. If Shakespeare intended provocative homo-erotic scene. Hamlet is speaking to to fool audiences with this type of banter, then his Guildenstem and Rosencrantz and he takes a recorder coded exchange goes unnoticed and the play moves from one of the players and asks Guildenstem, “... Will along. My reading is that these three “school chums” you play upon this pipe” (3.2.350). The exchange are objectifying a fictitious woman in an attempt to between the men in this scene is played openly daring overcompensate for, or to cover up, their own homo- and suggesting familiarity with oral sex. It becomes sexual desires. evident that Hamlet has the power in this relationship The term hyper masculinity applies to this exchange and he is forcing Guildenstem into submission. between the “school chums”. In Many of Ophelia’s lines can be interpreted as reaction to conscious or unconscious homo-erotic coded, too. In her madness she becomes overtly sexual feelings, males sometimes express masculine traits that to Claudius. She sings a bawdy song and her manner- they think will mask their desire. Hyper masculinity isms exaggerate the lyrics. can be expressed verbally, physically, and frequently Over the years, this has been interpreted as alluding violently. In this case, the males discuss a female with to the fact that Hamlet has in fact been her lover crudities. There is another term that is often associated and she is now gone over the edge as he has rejected with hyper masculinity which is, homosexual her. It can be read as she is simply exhibiting a sort panic. This is best described as reacting to actions of of sexual frustration and is mocking the King and homosexual desire or sexual activity with panic and Queen because she knows Hamlet is not interested horror. Once the sexual act has been consummated, in her sexually. If only he were interested, but this is the fear and horror of social ostracism and realization of not the case. ones’ behavior cause the male/female to deny or escape In an earlier discussion, Hamlet tells Ophelia from the situation, end the friendship, physically abuse to her face that her body, being female, means very the sexual partner or accept one’s nature. little to him. As they are about to watch ‘The Mouse Later in the play, Rosencrantz and Hamlet have a Trap’, Hamlet asks, “lady, shall I lie in your lap” (3.2. verbal exchange, where Rosencrantz is not quite sure 12). This is rude. He means to embarrass her. Then how to read Hamlet’s mood. He appeals to Hamlet he clarifies his intention by being worse, “I mean, my by saying, “My lord, you once did love me” (3.2.335). head in your lap” (3.2 4). He puts his head in Ophelia’s

. 53 > lap and asks her, “Do you think meant country mat- speare teases audiences with obstacles to marriage in ters” (3.2.116)? Ophelia attempts to maintain some several of his plays. “Marriage is postponed in The sort of dignity as there are people within ear shot and Merchant of Venice Much Ado About Nothing Twelfth replies, “I think nothing, my lord” (3.2 16). Hamlet Night”, Othello is separated from his bride in Othello, further humiliates her in saying, “That’s a fair thought ‘’as he still belongs to the male world of the army”, to lie between maids’ legs” (3.2.117-19). At this point and “ the arrival of women is said to have fractured Ophelia is tired of the game and she replies, “what is, the pastoral world of male innocence in The Winter’s my lord” (3.2.120) and he says, “Nothing” (3.2.121). Tale” (Hammond 64-5). In Hamlet’s case he cannot It is evident that Hamlet is referring to Ophelia’s propose marriage to Ophelia until he avenges his genitalia and has no desire for it. Hamlet also denies father’s death. Ascribing to queer knowing Ophelia; therefore she becomes an object, or theory, Hamlet, the hero, loves another, and that other worse yet, nothing. is a male. There will be no marriage between Hamlet To further abuse Ophelia, Hamlet denies giving and Ophelia. her “remembrances” (3.1.92) and then tells her “I did Ophelia herself is befuddled. After Hamlet has love you once” (3.1. 114). Ophelia responds by saying visited Ophelia, Polonius questions her about the that she believed he loved her and he cruelly says, content of their conversation. She describes Hamlet “You shouldn’t have believed me ... I lov’d you not” as disheveled and of speaking horrible things to her. (3 .1.116-118). This theme is repeated in the text Polonius asks, “[is he] mad for thy love?”(2.1.82). Oph- where the play has begun, and Hamlet is anxious for elia answers, “my lord I do not know” (2.1.83). One the prologue to finish. When Ophelia tells him to be minute she may think one thing and the next another; patient, the prologue “ ’tis brief ...” he curtly replies she is not getting a straight answer from Hamlet and ‘’As woman’s love”(3.2.153-54). This coded line may does not know how to respond to her father. Hamlet mean that love between men is everlasting. Hamlet is an enigma, conflicted and selfish; this is part of his is a bachelor, after all. appeal to audiences, actors, directors, students, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick writes extensively about scholars. the role of the bachelor in Victorian fiction and some Horatio is another key character that Shakespeare of her ideas can be applied to Hamlet the bachelor. utilizes to express homosexual love and desire. Horatio Hamlet’s behavior is irrational. We do not know if he speaks loving and endearing lines to Hamlet through- is mad or if he is pretending to be. Sedgwick claims, out the play. He refers to Hamlet as “[...] sweet lord “... male homosexual panic was acted out as a some- [...] and my dear lord”(3.2.53-56). Shakespeare pushes times agonized sexual anesthesia that was damaging the point one step further by having Hamlet die in to both its male subjects and its female non-objects” Horatio’s arms. Horatio is Hamlet’s closest confidant. (188). Certainly, Hamlet is agonizing over several is- In the same homo-social vein as the recorder scene sues and he spares no one, male or female. She further with Guildenstem, one cannot read the following explains “...the bachelor hero is selfish, he bitches, he section in the play without a phallic interpretation of has been suicidally inclined and is a hypochondriac” the lines. Hamlet has seen his father’s ghost and he, (189). These traits apply to the Hamlet hero as well. Horatio, and Marcellus are still in the woods. Hamlet Why doesn’t Hamlet marry Ophelia? It seems as wants the men to swear to secrecy about the happen- if we’re lured to the theatre with the ings of the evening and they comply. As if their word expectation of seeing a royal wedding. For centuries, is not enough Hamlet asks the men to swear it “upon people have cited Hamlet and Ophelia as my sword”(1.5.147). When the men agree, Hamlet some of the great theatrical lovers of all time. Shake- once again demands that they “swear by my sword”, a

. 54 > symbol of masculinity (1.5.154). Then he commands them to “lay your hands again upon my sword. / Swear In an article titled, “Gay Content In Hamlet, “ by my sword” (1.5.158-59). As if this is not enough, Joseph E. Jeffries discusses this scene and says, “there is Shakespeare shoves the pun into our faces by having a deep love here, revealed further as Horatio calls out the ghost of Hamlet’s father shout out from beneath to his ‘sweet prince,’ that especially coming from the the stage, “swear by his sword” (1.5.161). mind of a queer author, could have a valid homosexual As Hamlet’s “best friend”, Horatio is able to reading” (Jeffries 1). Horatio not only calls Hamlet a accompany Hamlet to social and family functions “sweet prince”, he says his heart is broken, “now cracks without alerting suspicion. In one such instance, a noble heart” (5.2.359-60). Horatio is with Queen Gertrude when Ophelia comes Shakespeare did it again. He entertained us and to confront the Queen regarding Polonius’ death. The provided us with enough material to last a lifetime. We Queen refuses to see Ophelia. Horatio thinks about do not know what he intended; we can only imagine. it and advises the Queen to see her. Horatio states, “ This paper has explored one way to read one of his ‘Twere good she were spoken with, for she may strew plays. It has provided the reader with a general defini- / Dangerous conjectures in ill-breeding minds” tion of queer theory and looked at the text through (4.5.13-15). This implies Ophelia has the power to scholars, directors, and actors eyes. It has provided spill the beans about Hamlet being gay. In her grief, evidence that the world of academia continues to confusion and rejection will she expose the secret read Shakespeare’s work closely. It have taken an she has kept? We will never know, but Horatio seems uncommon concept and walked through a reading of overly concerned. Hamlet, which just has not been widely embraced as Ophelia, Gertrude, Claudius, and Laertes are of yet, but it may with hope. Was Shakespeare him- dead and Shakespeare has secured Horatio, Hamlet’s self gay? Who cares! His brilliance has stretched our significant other, in the right place at the right time minds and guided our way to understanding the human to comfort his lover as he lies dying. Poetic justice condition on many levels. His works have given us an has been asserted by the playwright for the true lovers opportunity to look at all kinds of love as just that, who otherwise have to hide their love from the world. love. As Hamlet dies in Horatio’s arms, he asks him to tell his story to the “unsatisfied” (5.2.340). Horatio call The paper was for ENG 462 Shakespeare. The assignment himself “an antique Roman” (5.2.341) and considers was a general term research paper, 8-10 pages. The topic drinking the remaining poisoned wine. Hamlet speaks was the student’s choice. these beautiful words to comfort and give his lover the strength to go on without him: WORKS CITED As th’ art a man, Give me the cup. Let go! By heaven, I’ll ha’t! O God, Horatio, what a wounded name, Things standing thus unknown, shall I leave behind me! If thou didst ever hold me in thy heart, Absent thee from felicity a while, And in this harsh world draw thy breath in pain To tell my story ( 5.2.342-49).

. 55 > Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999. Knitting Circle: Drama, The. (Arthur) John Gielgud 1999. 22 Oct 2002. Hawke, Julia Stiles, Liev Schreiber. Miramax Films, 2000. Morrism Gary. “Asta Nielsen”. 22 Oct. 2002. . Branagh, Kenneth, dir. Hamlet. Perf. Kenneth Branagh, Kate Winslet. Columbia Tristar Home Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Between Men: English Lit- Video, 1997. erature and Male Homosocial Desire. Ed. Carolyn G. Heilbrun and Nancy K. Miller. Columbia UP: New Bray, Alan. Homosexuality in Renaissance England. York, 1985. New York: Columbia UP, 1995. —. Epistemology of the Closet. Berkeley: U of Califor- Burt, Richard. Unspeakable Shaxxxspeares: Queer nia P, 1990. Theory and American Kiddie Culture. New York: St. Martin’s, 1998. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. 1601. Eds. G. Blake- more Evans and J. J. M. Tobin de Lauretis, Teresa. The Practice of Love: Lesbian Sexuality and Perverse Desire. Bloomington: Indiana The Riverside Shakespeare: The Complete Works. 2nd, UP, 1994. ed. Boston: Houghton, 1997.

—. Technologies of Gender: Essays on Theory. Film. Sinfield, Alan. Cultural Politics: Queer Reading. and Fiction. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1987. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania Press. 1 994

Hammond, Paul. Love Between Men in En21ish Lit- -. Out On Stage: Lesbian and Gav Theatre in the 20dl erature. St. Martin’s Press: New York, 1996. CentUrY. New Haven [Conn.]; London: Yale UP, 1999. Jeffiies, Joseph E. Gay Content in Hamlet. 22 Oct. 2002. . alism. Eds. Alan Sinfield and Jonathan Dollimore. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1994 —. Hamlet- Production and Criticism. 22 Oct. 2002. . Queer Movement. New York: Columbia UP, 1994.

—. Shakesoeare’s England. 22 Oct. 2002. cago P, 1991.

W. H. Controversy. The. 22 Oct. 2002.

. 56 > INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION AND SELF-CONCEPT Rupert Tripp Jr.

There I was back in school again, only this time it point to think positive and look at people, situations was college. I was very excited about being back in and myself with an open mind. I even began to talk school but in only the second week of school the to myself more with a positive attitude. questions began to run through my mind. Am I doing This paper is not to benefit just the college student, the right thing? Am I ready for college? Can I handle such as myself, but for everyone. Although I may be the schoolwork? Am I smart enough? What if I fail my referring to the student of all levels of academics, classes? What would my family and friends think if I the purpose of this paper is to inform all of how our fail? Besides, I already have two jobs to worry about thoughts can and will affect our attitude; which will and not to mention I’ve been out of high school for ultimately affect our behavior and our progress as a 20 years! And I wasn’t a very good student then! My student and in life in general. Also, how others, includ- family, my job, a higher education are all very impor- ing family, friends, and teachers, play a role in your tant to me. “Ok”, I said to myself, “I’m here in school success as a student. Let me begin by looking at what to get a better education so I can get a better job to it means when we think about and talk to ourselves, support my family.” Now that made sense to me. For and it’s effect on us. Then I’ll define and describe the comfort and a reassurance that I was doing the right self- concept or self-image/self-esteem, and what role thing, I would remind myself why I was going to school. it plays in the life of a student. And every now and again I would say aloud to myself, When we think about, talk with, learn about, “Think positive” or “I can do it” or “I’m not stupid” reason with, and evaluate ourselves, we are having or “Just do your best.” or “I’ll balance things out” or intrapersonal communication (#8). That’s exactly “Stay focused”. I was talking to myself a lot! And I was what was happening to me. I was having Intrapersonal beginning to think I was crazy, but according to psy- Communication and I’ve done it many times before, chologist and author Dr. David Bresler, “Having a good only now it had a name. Sometimes I’d do it without chat with yourself can solve your problems and banish even knowing it. We all do it. We all engage in a nearly depression” (#2). Well, maybe I wasn’t crazy after all, constant subconscious monologue or inner talk with but I was starting to doubt my academic abilities and ourselves. Sometimes we talk aloud, but self-talk is myself. And it was starting to affect my attitude in a often silent thinking of which we are scarcely aware negative way. That scared me a little, but it also made (#3). Awake or asleep you are constantly in touch with me look deeper into myself. In my research I learned yourself. You mumble, daydream, dream, fantasize, and that a student’s attitude about going to college, values, feel tension. These are all forms of inner speech. And sense of purpose and a sense of independence have a everything that you do begins as “self -talk” (#4). direct influence on academic achievement (#9). Im- A process that can allow you to get in touch with mediately I started to change my attitude. I made it a your inner voice is to relax, breathe deeply for fifteen

. 57 > minutes, tune out everything around you, and let your likely to respond in positive ways. When educators mind wander. This will give you a good appreciation believe that each student is a person of value, their of what you are feeding your mind. It is very impor- behavior will reflect their belief (#7). tant that you keep a positive frame of mind no matter As you can see, people such as teachers playa what’s happening in your life, especially as a struggling significant role in building your self-concept. Family student. It may keep you from going crazy! can play a significant role as well. Research indicates Your self-concept is your self-appraisal. Included students with involved supporting parents who set within it is everything you think and feel about yourself reasonable reachable expectations are more likely (#8 on reference page). Kinch defined the self-concept to have more positive self-concepts and do better in as being “...that organization of qualities that the in- school than students who’s parents are not supportive dividual attributes to himself’ (#5). and have unreasonable expectations for their child Self-concept is composed of two components: self- (#6). image, or the sort of person you perceive yourself to Research points out that not only is there a consistent be, and self-esteem, your feelings and attitudes about and moderately strong relationship between self -con- yourself, including how you like and value yourself cept and academic ability, but that these two variables (#8). We are not born with a self-concept but we do are highly interactive and reciprocal (#6). playa key role in building one. We create our self- Even though it may be quiet, Intrapersonal Com- concept in many ways. And to a large extent, your munication and its impact can be enormous on our environment and the people around you, including self-concept. “Your behavior, your feelings, your self- your parents, relatives, teachers, supervisors, friends esteem and even your level of stress are influenced and co-workers, shape your self-concept. The image by your inner speech.” Remember, everything that that other people have of you, your experiences and you do begins as self talk. “Self talk shapes our inner self- evaluation, the expectations that you and oth- attitudes, our attitudes shape our behavior and of ers have of you, the roles you perform, your gender, course our behavior, what we do, shapes the results culture, and technological messages you internalize, we get.” “The subconscious will work for or against all playa role in developing your self-concept (#8). you. It’s up to you. Tell yourself you’re clumsy, can’t The way other people perceive you does have an ef- use a computer, or aren’t good with people and that fect on you as a student. In a study done by Brookover, is what you will probably be” (#4). Erickson, and Joiner, they conclude: “The hypothesis Gradually, it is becoming clear that many of the that students’ perceptions of the evaluations of their difficulties, which people experience in most areas academic ability by others (teachers, parents, and of life, are closely connected with the way they see friends) are associated with self-concepts of academic themselves and the world in which they live, including ability” (1967, p.110). Teachers’ attitudes and opinions you as a student. Brookover (1967) did an extensive regarding his or her students have a significant influ- research on self-image and achievement and found ence on their success in school (#6). When teachers that the assumption that human ability is the most have positive views of students’ abilities, students are important factor in achievement is questionable,

. 58 > and that the students’ attitudes limit the level of his REFERENCES achievement in school (#1). Although it has been argued by some that students 1. The Structure and Functioning of Academic Self first of all have to do well in school in order to have -Concept in Gifted and general Education students, a positive self -image about their academic abilities, By: McCoach, D.Betsy, Siegle, Del.Roeper Review, the position has always been taken that a positive 02783193, Winter 2002 self-image is a necessary prerequisite for doing well in school (#6). 2. Class handout, Article in Weekly World News by In this paper I used myself as an example because Kelly Turner by doing this research paper, it has helped me tremen- dously. It has opened my eyes to new ideas of how I can 3. Class handout. Ms. C Lee’s Spcom 151 Personal better myself. Being around positive people, keeping an Communication. January 2003. open mind, thinking more positively about people and more importantly about myself. Understanding that 4. Class handout. Berko, R., A. Wolvin, and D. others will influence my self-concept helps me to be Wolvin. 1995 Houghton Mifflin Co. wiser in choosing my friends or people I hang out with. pg.53 I’m constantly trying to better my life as a husband, an entertainer, a father, a “Born again” Christian, and 5. Enhancing Self Concepts in Early Childhood. Shirley of course now as a student. C. Samuels. 1977.Pg.23 As I explained earlier in this paper, we all experi- ence Intrapersonal Communication, all the time. We 6. Self-Concept and School Achievement. William W. can’t help but have “self talk”. And everything we do Purkey.1970. Pg.2 and pg.14 begins with inner speech. Sometimes we don’t even realize it. As for our self-concept, I explained that we 7. Inviting School Success. A Self-Concept Approach to don’t create our self-concept on our own, but others, Teaching and Learning. William Watson Purkey, and like teachers, friends, family, and our gender, culture, John M. Novak 1984. Pg.39 the roles we play, all playa part in developing our self -concept. It is difficult to find ways to help students do 8. Communication Works 7th Edition. by Teri Kwal better in school without also exploring ways to help Gamble and Michael Gamble, 2002, pg.9 them feel better about themselves as learners. Each affects the other (#3 on reference page). But the one 9. Self-Concept as a Predictor of College Freshman thing I’ve learned in doing this research paper is that Academic Adjustment by: Bolter, Lyn T., College Stu- attitude plays a big part of your success or failure in dent Journal, 01463934, June 2002, Vol. 36, Issue 2 school and in life in general. And remember what I said earlier, everything begins with “self talk”. And we all have a choice to think negatively or positively. Choose positive!

This essay was written for SpCom 151. The assignment was a research paper.

. 59 >

REASON AND FAITH CAN WORK TO- GETHER Kalyan V. Meola

The Sufis have a saying: Tie your camel and trust in Al- lah. Put into more modern language, this means that states, “ These are they who are drawn nigh (to Allah), we need to take care of what is important in our day to … They shall not hear therein vain or sinful discourse. day life on earth, with our ability to reason, and have Except the word peace, peace.” (pg. 190). By looking faith in the outcome by leaving it up to God (faith), or within, and trusting that voice and not relying solely the Universe, or Spirit—which is what I prefer to call on reason and the tangible, we shall find peace. it. This is a perfect example of how reason and faith I can not always find the answers I am seeking can work together. This is how I try to live my life, through reason alone. Instead I do what a friend once making decisions by using both my reasoning faculties called “taking the eighteen inch journey”. I allow and trusting in Spirit. what I think may be the right course of action to filter Having been raised in the Catholic faith, I know down into my heart, listen to that inner voice and if from experience that following faith blindly can lead it feels right, then I know it is right - for me. Then, to a lot of guilt and confusion. Now, in my later life, after acting on what is right, I trust that the outcome and after many years of studying Eastern philosophies will be in my best interest. and metaphysics, I have come to believe that Spirit is I think Antigone was using both her reason and not something outside of myself to be feared. There was being true to her faith when she defied Creon’s is not someone watching my every move, marking it decree not to bury her brother. She was acting with down in some book and waiting to reward or punish reason by showing respect for the dead and keeping me at the end of my life. Spirit is that part of me that the laws of her faith at the same time. She tells Creon, some call the soul, I think of it as my inner voice, “To show respect for a dead kinsman is nothing to be intuition or higher self. This is the part of me, along ashamed of… Be what may, Hades requires the rite of with my ability to reason, with which I create my life burial.”(pg. 114). She made a decision from her heart, for, better or worse. stood up to a bully and probably died doing so. There In the Sermon on the Mount, what did Jesus were others in the town who supported her action but mean when he said, “Ask and it shall be given you: they were too afraid of Creon to speak up. seek, and ye shall find: knock, and it shall be opened Creon used fear and intimidation to rule Thebes. unto you.”(pg.159)? My belief is that he was telling There are those today who use these same tactics in us to ask our inner voice for guidance, for there is the name of reason or faith. Our own leaders are feed- where the answers lie. Seek within our depths, for ing us a steady diet of fear and hatred to justify waging there is where we will find our higher selves. Knock war and chipping away at our freedoms. They tell us it on the door of our hearts, and they will crack open is reasonable for our own security. Ministers preach with compassion. fire and brimstone, distort scriptures to suit their own Likewise, the Koran echos this teaching when it purposes and promise a better life in heaven if we live

. 61 > by their rules, all in the name of God. This is why we people have this power from the gods, why is it that need to think for ourselves (reason), search our hearts they, “…have no ability to ward off any of the greatest for what is right for us and trust our decisions (have evils.”(pg. 147). Jim Jones claimed to have a superior faith). knowledge and he lived his life in fear as did the people I believe that we create our own heaven or our own who believed him. They also followed him blindly hell right here on earth by the choices we make every into death. day! We reap the benefits or the consequences of those There is some part of us that is lost if we rely choices. Cicero refers to this as the Natural Law and solely on reason or solely on faith to live our lives. although he gives this law the name “right reason” he In some extreme cases, we may even give up control says the law was put forth by God, thus he brings faith of our lives. This is why it is important to take care into the mix. Cicero tells us, “The man who will not of the details for ourselves and trust our decisions or obey it will abandon his better self, and, in denying the to paraphrase the Sufis: Put your car in gear and trust true nature of a man, will thereby suffer the severest of your heart! penalties, though he has escaped all the other conse- quences which men call punishment.”(pg.143). He This essay was written for History 151. The assignment was is telling us that by abandoning our better self (higher a primary source paper. self, soul) and denying that part of our self, we suffer the consequences of that choice no matter what other WORK CITED human punishments we may have bypassed. Having abandoned their better selves, all those Enron execu- Riley, Philip F., F. A. Gerome, R. L. Lembright, H. tives are not really happy. They are just trying to fill A. Myers, C. K. Yoon. The Global Experience: an empty place inside of themselves with greed. Readings in World History to 1550. Prentice Hall, By the same token, if we abandon our reason we Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 2002 leave ourselves open to someone who claims to have all the answers for us. Like those whom Hippocrates called the conjurors that, in his time, “…profess to be possessed of superior knowledge, and deceive mankind by enjoining lustrations and purifications upon them, while their discourse turns upon the divinity and the godhead.” Hippocrates goes on to note that if these

. 62 > Hawai’i Community College

This publication is available in alternate format upon request. UH Hilo/Hawai’i Community College are Equal Opportunity Affirmative Action Institutions.