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Vol. IV No. 3

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The LIGHT of the DHAMMA

VOL. IV No. 3

2501 B.E.

July 1957 C.E. 3

THE LIGHT OF THE DHAMMA

1. Please regard this not just as a quarterly magazine but as a continuing service for Buddhism. Your frank criticism will be welcomed in a Buddhist spirit and if there are any questions pertaining to Buddhism that we can answer or help to answer, we are yours to command. 2. Any articles herein may be quoted, copied, reprinted and translated free of charge without further reference to us. Should you care to acknowledge the source we would be highly appreciative. 3 Foreign subscription. (including postage to any part of the world) is but the equivalent of sh 9/- (Nine Shillings) sterling per annum.

HOW TO REMIT

In any country subscribing to the International Postal Union, International Postal Certificates are obtainable from the post office. TRADING BANKS can usually advise, in other cases, how small remittances may be made. THE EDITOR, “THE LIGHT OF ThE DHAMMA” Union Buddha Sasana Council 16, Hermitage Road, Kokine Rangoon, Union 0f Burma 4

Vol. IV 2501B.E. July 1957 C.E. No. 3

CONTENTS

Editorial Page Power of Mindfulness...... Bhadanta Nyanaponika Thera 5 Buddhist Conception of Mind or Consciousness...... Bhadanta N±rada Mah±thera 29 Earnest Wish...... U Ohn Ghine 35 The Buddhist View of Race Relations...... Ven’ble Aggamah±paº¹ita U Thittila 38 A Remedy for World Suffering...... U Sobhana of Myiugyan 45 Eightfold Noble Path...... U Hla Maung 47 Nibb±na in the Light of the Middle Doctrine...... Bhadanta Nyanaponika Thera 51 Notes and News 63 Speeches and Messages delivered at the 2500th Buddha Jayanti Celebrations held in Thailand and Cambodia. 65 Obituary 74 Review 75 Also in the original issue: Niy±ma D²pan²...... Ven’ble Ledi Sayadaw An±p±nasati Sutta...... Translated by the Editors of “The Light of the Dhamma.” Dhammapada Commentary (The story of the Virtuous Lay-Disciple) ...... Translated by the P±li Department, University of Rangoon 5 The Power of Mindfulness An Inquiry into the Scope of Bare Attention and the Principal Sources of its Strength by Nyanaponika Thera Introduction Mental faculties of such a nature, like actual Is mindfulness actually a power in its own right personalities of a similar type, are often as claimed by the title of this essay? Seen from the overlooked or underrated. In the case of viewpoint of the ordinary pursuits of life, it does mindfulness, it required a genius like the Buddha not seem so. From that angle mindfulness, or to discover the “hidden talent” in the modest garb, attention, has a rather modest place among many and to develop the vast inherent power of that other seemingly more important mental faculties potent seed. It is, indeed, the mark of a genius to serving the purpose of variegated wish-fulfillment. perceive and to harness the power of the seemingly Here, mindfulness means just “to watch one’s small. Here, truly, it happens that “what is little steps” so that one may not stumble or miss a chance becomes much.” A revaluation of values takes in the pursuit of one’s aims. Only in the case of place. The standards of greatness and smallness specific tasks and skills is mindfulness sometimes change. Through the master mind of the Buddha, cultivated more deliberately, but here too it is still mindfulness is finally revealed as the Archimedean regarded as a subservient function, and its wider point where the vast revolving mass of world scope and possibilities are not recognized. suffering is levered out of its twofold anchorage Even if one turns to the Buddha’s doctrine, in ignorance and craving. taking only a surface view of the various The Buddha spoke of the power of classifications and lists of mental factors in which mindfulness in a very emphatic way: mindfulness appears, one may be inclined to regard “Mindfulness, I declare, is all-helpful” this faculty just as “one among many.” Again one (Samyutta, 46:55). may get the impression that it has a rather “All things can be mastered by mindfulness” subordinate place and is easily surpassed in (Anguttara, 8:83). significance by other faculties. Further, there is that solemn and weighty On first consideration, mindfulness in fact has, utterance opening and concluding the if we may personify it, a rather unassuming Satipaµµh±na Sutta, the Discourse on the character. Compared with it, mental factors such Foundations of Mindfulness: as devotion, energy, imagination, and intelligence, are certainly more colorful personalities, making “This is the only way, monks, for the an immediate and strong impact on people and purification of beings, for the overcoming of situations. Their conquests are sometimes rapid sorrow and lamentation, for the destruction of pain and vast, though often insecure. Mindfulness, on and grief, for reaching the right path, for the the other hand, is of an unobtrusive nature. Its attainment of Nibb±na, namely the four virtues shine inwardly, and in ordinary life most foundations of mindfulness.” of its merits are passed on to other mental faculties Bare Attention which generally receive all the credit. One must In ordinary life, if mindfulness, or attention, is know mindfulness well and cultivate its directed to any object, it is rarely sustained long acquaintance before one can appreciate its value enough for the purpose of careful and factual and its silent penetrative influence. Mindfulness observation. Generally it is followed immediately walks slowly and deliberately, and its daily task is by emotional reaction, discriminative thought, of a rather humdrum nature. Yet where it places its reflection, or purposeful action. In a life and feet it cannot easily be dislodged, and it acquires thought governed by the Buddha’s teaching too, and bestows true mastery of the ground it covers. mindfulness (sati) is mostly linked with clear 6 comprehension (sampajañña) of the right purpose reasons” are therefore proffered for the reader’s or suitability of an action, and other scrutiny. They are also meant as an introduction considerations. Thus again it is not viewed in to the general spirit of satipatthana and as pointers itself. But to tap the actual and potential power of to its wide and significant perspectives. mindfulness it is necessary to understand and Furthermore, it is hoped that he who has taken up deliberately cultivate it in its basic, unalloyed the methodical training will recognize in the form, which we shall call Bare Attention. following observations certain features of his own By bare attention we understand the clear and practice, and be encouraged to cultivate them single-minded awareness of what actually deliberately. happens to us and in us, at the successive moments of perception. It is called “bare” because it attends Four Sources of Power in Bare Attention to the bare facts of a perception without reacting We shall now deal with four aspects of bare to them by deed, speech or mental comment. attention, which are the mainsprings of the power Ordinarily, that purely receptive state of mind is, of mindfulness. they are not the only sources of its as we said, just a very brief phase of the thought strength, but they are the principal ones to which process of which one is often scarcely aware. But the efficacy of this method of mental development in the methodical development of mindfulness is due. These four are: aimed at the unfolding of its latent powers, bare attention is sustained for as long a time as one’s 1. The functions of “tidying-up” and strength of concentration permits. Bare attention “naming” exercised by bare attention. then becomes the key to the meditative practice 2. its non-violent, non-coercive procedure; of Satipaµµh±na, opening the door to mind’s 3. the capacity of stopping and slowing down; mastery and final liberation. 4. the directness of vision bestowed by bare Bare attention is developed in two ways: (1) attention. as a methodical meditative practice with selected objects; (2) as applied, as far as practicable, to the normal events of the day, together with a general 1. The Functions of “Tidying” and “Naming” attitude of mindfulness and clear comprehension. Tidying Up the Mental Household The details of the practice have been described If anyone whose mind is not harmonized and elsewhere, and need not be repeated here.1 controlled through methodical meditative The primary purpose of this essay is to training should take a close look at his own demonstrate and explain the efficacy of this everyday thoughts and activities, he will meet method, that is, to show the actual power of with a rather disconcerting sight. Apart from the mindfulness. Particularly in an age like ours, with few main channels of his purposeful thoughts and its superstitious worship of ceaseless external activities, he will everywhere be faced with a activity, there will be those who ask: “How can tangled mass of perceptions, thoughts, feelings, such a passive attitude of mind as that of bare and casual bodily movements showing a attention possibly lead to the great results claimed disorderliness and confusion which he would for it?” In reply, one may be inclined to suggest to certainly not tolerate in his living-room. Yet this the questioner not to rely on the words of others, is the state of affairs that we take for granted within but to put these assertions of the Buddha to the a considerable portion of our waking life and our test of personal experience. But those who do not normal mental activity. Let us now look at the yet know the Buddha’s teaching well enough to details of that rather untidy picture. accept it as a reliable guide, may hesitate to take First we meet a vast number of casual sense- up, without good reasons, a practice that just on impressions such as sights and sounds, passing account of its radical simplicity may appear strange constantly through our mind. Most of them remain to them. In the following a number of such “good vague and fragmentary; some are even based on 7 faulty perceptions and misjudgments. Carrying in the intense light of purposeful will and thought these inherent weaknesses, they often form the is not a reliable standard of the inner strength and untested basis for judgments and decisions on a lucidity of consciousness in its totality. He will higher level of consciousness. True, all these also see that the quality of individual casual sense impressions need not and cannot be consciousness cannot be judged by a few optimal objects of focused attention. A stone on the road results of mental activity achieved in brief, that happens to meet our glance will have a claim intermittent periods. The decisive factor in on our attention only if it obstructs our progress determining the quality of consciousness is self- or is of interest to us for some reason. Yet if we understanding and self-control: whether that dim neglect these casual impressions too often, we may awareness characteristic of our everyday mind and stumble over many stones lying on our road and the uncontrolled portion of everyday activity also overlook many gems. tends to increase or decrease. Besides the casual sense impressions, there It is the daily little negligence in thoughts, are those more significant and definite words and deeds going on for many years of our perceptions, thoughts, feelings and volitions life (and as the Buddha teaches, for many which have a closer connection with our purposeful existences), that is chiefly responsible for the life. Here too, we find that a very high proportion untidiness and confusion we find in our minds. of them are in a state of utter confusion. Hundreds This negligence creates the trouble and allows it of cross-currents flash through the mind, and to continue. Thus the old Buddhist teachers have everywhere there are “bits and ends” of unfinished said: “Negligence produces a lot of dirt. As in a thoughts, stifled emotions and passing moods. house, so in the mind, only a very little dirt collects Many meet a premature death. Owing to their in a day or two, but if it goes on for many years, it innately feeble nature, our lack of concentration will grow into a vast heap of refuse.”2 or suppression by new and stronger impressions, The dark, untidy corners of the mind are the they do not persist and develop. If we observe our hideouts of our most dangerous enemies. From own mind, we shall notice how easily diverted there they attack us unawares, and much too often our thoughts are, how often they behave like succeed in defeating us. That twilight world undisciplined disputants constantly interrupting peopled by frustrated desires and suppressed each other and refusing to listen to the other side’s resentments, by vacillations, whims, and many arguments. Again, many lines of thought remain other shadowy figures, forms a background from rudimentary or are left untranslated into will and which upsurging passions — greed and lust, hatred action, because courage is lacking to accept their and anger—may derive powerful support. practical, moral or intellectual consequences. If Besides, the obscure and obscuring nature of that we continue to examine more closely our average twilight region is the very element and mother- perceptions, thoughts or judgments, we shall have soil of the third and strongest of the three roots of to admit that many of them are unreliable. They evil (akusala m³la), ignorance or delusion. are just the products of habit, led by prejudices of Attempts at eliminating the mind’s main intellect or emotion, by our pet preferences or defilements — greed, hate and delusion — must aversions, by laziness or selfishness, by faulty or fail as long as these defilements find refuge and superficial observations. support in the uncontrolled dim regions of the Such a look into long-neglected quarters of mind; as long as the close and complex tissue of the mind will come as a wholesome shock to the those half-articulate thoughts and emotions forms observer. It will convince him of the urgent need the basic texture of mind into which just a few for methodical mental culture extending below golden strands of noble and lucid thought are the thin surface layer of the mind to those vast woven. But how are we to deal with that unwieldy, twilight regions of consciousness we have just tangled mass? Usually we try to ignore it and to visited. The observer will then become aware that rely on the counteracting energies of our surface the relatively small sector of the mind that stands 8 mind. But the only safe remedy is to face it — prejudices. Fearlessly it questions old habits often with mindfulness. Nothing more difficult is needed grown meaningless. It uncovers their roots, and than to acquire the habit of directing bare attention thus helps abolish all that is seen to be harmful. In to these rudimentary thoughts as often as possible. brief, bare attention lays open the minute crevices The working principle here is the simple fact that in the seemingly impenetrable structure of two thoughts cannot coexist at the same time: if unquestioned mental processes. Then the sword the clear light of mindfulness is present, there is of wisdom wielded by the strong arm of constant no room for mental twilight. When sustained meditative practice will be able to penetrate these mindfulness has secured a firm foothold, it will be crevices, and finally to break up that structure a matter of comparatively secondary importance where required. If the inner connection between how the mind will then deal with those the single parts of a seemingly compact whole rudimentary thoughts, moods and emotions. One become intelligible, they then cease to be may just dismiss them and replace them by inaccessible. purposeful thoughts; or one may allow and even When the facts and details of the mind’s compel them to complete what they have to say. conditioned nature are uncovered by meditative In the latter case they will often reveal how poor practice, there is an increased chance to effect and weak they actually are, and it will then not be fundamental changes in the mind. In that way, not difficult to dispose of them once they are forced only those hitherto unquestioned habits of the into the open. This procedure of bare attention is mind, its twilight regions and its normal processes very simple and effective; the difficulty is only as well, but even those seemingly solid, the persistence in applying it. indisputable facts of the world of matter — all Observing a complex thing means identifying will become “questionable” and lose much of their its component parts, singling out the separate self-assurance. Many people are so impressed and strands forming that intricate tissue. If this is intimidated by that bland self-assurance of applied to the complex currents of mental and assumed “solid facts,” that they hesitate to take practical life, automatically a strong regulating up any spiritual training, doubting that it can influence will be noticeable. As if ashamed in the effect anything worthwhile. The application of presence of the calmly observing eye, the course bare attention to the task of tidying and regulating of thoughts will proceed in a less disorderly and the mind will bring perceptible results — results wayward manner; it will not be so easily diverted, which will dispel their doubts and encourage them and will resemble more and more a well-regulated to enter more fully a spiritual path. river. The tidying or regulating function of bare During decades of the present life and attention, we should note, is of fundamental throughout millennia of previous lives traversing importance for the “purification of beings” the round of existence, there has steadily grown mentioned by the Buddha as the first aim of within each individual a closely knit system of Satipaµµh±na. This phrase refers, of course, to the intellectual and emotional prejudices, of bodily purification of their minds, and here the very first and mental habits that are no longer questioned step is to bring initial order into the functioning as to their rightful position and useful function in of the mental processes. We have seen how this is human life. Here again, the application of bare done by bare attention. In that sense, the attention loosens the hard soil of these often very commentary to the “Discourse on the Foundation ancient layers of the human mind, preparing thus of Mindfulness” explains the words “for the the ground for sowing the seed of methodical purification of beings” as follows: mental training. Bare attention identifies and “It is said: ‘Mental taints defile beings; mental pursues the single threads of that closely clarity purifies them.’ That mental clarity comes interwoven tissue of our habits. It sorts out carefully to be by this way of mindfulness (Satipaµµh±na the subsequent justifications of passionate magga).” impulses and the pretended motives of our 9 Naming by more pleasing and respectable labels which We said before that bare attention “tidies up” hide their true nature. Thoughts disposed of in or regulates the mind by sorting out and either of these two ways will strengthen the identifying the various confused strands of the accumulated power of ignoble tendencies in the mental process. That identifying function, like subconscious. Furthermore, these procedures will any other mental activity, is connected with a weaken one’s will to resist the arising and the verbal formulation. In other words, “identifying” dominance of mental defilements, and strengthen proceeds by way of expressly “naming” the the tendency to evade the issues. But by applying respective mental processes. the simple method of clearly and honestly naming or registering any undesirable thoughts, these two Primitive man believed that words could harmful devices, ignorance and camouflage, are exercise a magical power: “things that could be excluded. Thence their detrimental consequences named had lost their secret power over man, the on the structure of the subconscious and their horror of the unknown. To know the name of a diversion of mental effort will be avoided. force, a being or an object was (to primitive man) identical with the mastery over it.”3 That ancient When ignoble thoughts or personal belief in the magical potency of names appears shortcomings are called by their right names, the also in many fairy tales and myths, where the power mind will develop an inner resistance and even of a demon is broken just by facing him repugnance against them. In time it may well courageously and pronouncing his name. succeed in keeping them in check and finally eliminating them. Even if these means do not bring There is an element of truth in the “word- undesirable tendencies fully under control at once, magic” of primitive man, and in the practice of they will stamp upon them the impact of repeated bare attention we will find the power of naming resistance which will weaken them whenever they confirmed. The “twilight demons” of the mind — reappear. To continue our personification, we may our passionate impulses and obscure thoughts — say that unwholesome thoughts will no longer be cannot bear the simple but clarifying questions the unopposed masters of the scene, and this about their “names,” much less the knowledge of diffidence of theirs will make them considerably these names. Hence, this is often alone sufficient easier to deal with. It is the power of moral shame to diminish their strength. The calmly observant (hiri-bala) that has been mustered here as an ally, glance of mindfulness discovers the demons in methodically strengthened by these simple yet their hiding-places. The practice of calling them subtle psychological techniques. by their names drives them out into the open, into the daylight of consciousness. There they will feel The method of naming and registering also embarrassed and obliged to justify themselves, extends, of course, to noble thoughts and impulses although at this stage of bare attention they have which will be encouraged and strengthened. not yet even been subjected to any closer Without being given deliberate attention, such questioning except about their names, their wholesome tendencies often pass unnoticed and identity. If forced into the open while still in an remain barren. But when clear awareness is applied incipient stage, they will be incapable of to them, it will stimulate their growth. withstanding scrutiny and will just dwindle away. It is one of the most beneficial features of right Thus a first victory over them may be won, even at mindfulness, and particularly of bare attention, an early stage of the practice. that it enables us to utilize all external events and The appearance in the mind of undesirable inner mental events for our progress. Even the and ignoble thoughts, even if they are very unsalutary can be made a starting point for the fleeting and only half-articulate, has an unpleasant salutary if, through the device of naming or effect upon one’s self-esteem. Therefore such registering, it becomes an object of detached thoughts are often shoved aside, unattended to knowledge. and unopposed. Often they are also camouflaged 10 In several passages of the Satipaµµh±na Sutta rest or meditation will be felt more strongly and the function of naming or “bare registering” seems will have a longer-lasting impact if one reacts to it to be indicated by formulating the respective by resentment and anger and attempts to suppress statements by way of direct speech. There are no it. less than four such instances in the discourse: Thus, again and again, we meet with situations (1) “When experiencing a pleasant feeling, he in life where we cannot force issues. But there are knows ‘I experience a pleasant feeling’,” etc.; ways of mastering the vicissitudes of life and (2) “He knows a lustful (state of) mind, ‘Mind conflicts of mind without applications of force. is lustful’,” etc.; Non-violent means may often succeed where attempts at coercion, internal or external, fail. Such (3) “If (the hindrance of) sense desire is present a non-violent way of mastering life and mind is in him, he knows, ‘Sense desire is present in me’,” Satipaµµh±na . By the methodical application of etc.; bare attention, the basic practice in the (4) “If the enlightenment factor mindfulness development of right mindfulness, all the latent is present in him, he knows, ‘The enlightenment powers of a non-coercive approach will gradually factor mindfulness is present in me’,” etc. unfold, with the beneficial results and their wide In concluding this section, we briefly point and unexpected implications. In this context we out that the tidying-up and naming of mental are mainly concerned with the benefits of processes is the indispensable preparation for fully Satipatthana for the mastery of mind, and for the understanding them in their true nature, the task progress in meditation that may result from a non- of insight (vipassan±). These functions, exercised coercive procedure. But we shall also cast by bare attention, will help dispel the illusion occasional side glances at its repercussions on that the mental processes are compact (ghana- everyday life. It will not be difficult for a vinibbhoga). They will also help us to discern thoughtful reader to make more detailed their specific nature or characteristics, and to notice application to his own problems. their momentary rise and fall. The antagonistic forces that appear in meditation and that are liable to upset its smooth 2. The Non-coercive Procedure course are of three kinds: Both the world surrounding us and the world 1. external disturbances, such as noise; of our own minds are full of hostile and conflicting 2. mental defilements (kilesa), such as lust, forces causing us pain and frustration. We know anger, restlessness, dissatisfaction, or sloth, which from our own bitter experience that we are not may arise at any time during meditation; and strong enough to meet and conquer all these 3. various incidental stray thoughts, or antagonistic forces in open combat. In the external surrender to day-dreaming. world we cannot have everything exactly as we These distractions are the great stumbling want it, while in the inner world of the mind, our blocks for a beginner in meditation who has not passions, impulses, and whims often override the yet acquired sufficient dexterity to deal with them demands of duty, reason and our higher effectively. To give thought to those disturbing aspirations. factors only when they actually arise at the time We further learn that often an undesirable of meditation is insufficient. If caught unprepared situation will only worsen if excessive pressure is in one’s defence, one will struggle with them in a used against it. Passionate desires may grow in more or less haphazard and ineffective way, and intensity if one tries to silence them by sheer force with a feeling of irritation which will itself be an of will. Disputes and quarrels will go on endlessly additional impediment. If disturbances of any kind and grow fiercer if they are fanned again and again and unskillful reactions to them occur several by angry retorts or by vain attempts to crush the times during one session, one may come to feel other man’s position. A disturbance during work, utterly frustrated and irritated and give up further 11 attempts to meditate, at least for the present high above the crowd. Right meditation is not occasion. escapism; it is not meant to provide hiding-places In fact, even meditators who are quite well for temporary oblivion. Realistic meditation has informed by books or a teacher about all the details the purpose of training the mind to face, to concerning their subject of meditation often lack understand and to conquer this very world in which instruction on how to deal skillfully with the we live. And this world inevitably includes disturbances they may meet. The feeling of numerous obstacles to the life of meditation. helplessness in facing them is the most formidable 2. The Burmese meditation master, the difficulty for a beginning meditator. At that point Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw said: “In an many accept defeat, abandoning prematurely any unliberated worldling mental defilements are sure further effort at methodical practice. As in worldly to arise again and again. He has to face that fact affairs, so in meditation, one’s way of dealing with and know these defilements well in order to apply the “initial difficulties” will often be decisive for again and again the appropriate remedy of success or failure. Satipatthana. Then they will grow weaker, more When faced by inner and outer disturbances, short-lived, and will finally disappear.” To know the inexperienced or uninstructed beginner will the occurrence and nature of defilements is generally react in two ways. He will first try to therefore as important for a meditator as to know shove them away lightly, and if he fails in that, he the occurrence of his noble thoughts. will try to suppress them by sheer force of will. By facing one’s own defilements one will be But these disturbances are like insolent flies: by stirred to increase the effort to eliminate them. On whisking — first lightly and then with increasing the other hand, if out of a false shame or pride one vigor and anger — one may perhaps succeed in tries to avert one’s glance when they arise, one driving them away for a while, but usually they will never truly join issue with them, and will will return with an exasperating constancy, and always evade the final and decisive encounter. the effort and vexation of whisking will have By hitting blindly at them, one will only exhaust produced only an additional disturbance of one’s or even hurt oneself. But by observing carefully composure. their nature and behavior when they arise in one’s Satipaµµh±na, through its method of bare own mind, one will be able to meet them well attention, offers a non-violent alternative to those prepared, to forestall them often, and finally to futile and even harmful attempts at suppression banish them fully. Therefore meet your defilements by force. A successful non-violent procedure in with a free and open glance! Be not ashamed, mind-control has to start with the right attitude. afraid or discouraged! There must be first the full cognizance and sober 3. The third group of intruders disturbing the acceptance of the fact that those three disturbing meditator’s mind are stray thoughts and factors are co-inhabitants of the world we live in, daydreams. These may consist of various whether we like it or not. Our disapproval of them memories and images of the past, recent or remote, will not alter the fact. With some we shall have to including those emerging from subconscious come to terms, and concerning the others — the depths; thoughts of the future — planning, mental defilements — we shall have to learn how imagining, fearing, hoping; and the casual sense- to deal with them effectively until they are finally perceptions that may occur at the very time of conquered. meditation, often dragging after them a long trail 1. Since we are not the sole inhabitants of this of associated ideas. Whenever concentration and densely populated world, there are bound to be mindfulness slacken, stray thoughts or daydreams external disturbances of various kinds, such as appear and fill the vacuum. Though they seem noise and interruptions by visitors. We cannot insignificant in themselves, through their frequent always live in “splendid isolation,” “from the noise occurrence they form a most formidable obstacle, of men and dogs untroubled,” or “ivory towers” not only for the beginner, but in all cases when the 12 mind is restless or distracted. However, when these attention; they differ in the degree and duration invaders can be kept at bay, even long continuous of attention given to the disturbance. The guiding periods of meditation can be achieved. As in the rule here is: to give no more mental emphasis to case of the mental defilements, stray thoughts will the respective disturbance than is actually be entirely excluded only at the stage of required by circumstances. Arahatship, when the perfect mindfulness thereby 1. First, one should notice the disturbance obtained keeps unfailing watch at the door of the clearly, but lightly: that is, without emphasis and mind. without attention to details. After that brief act of If they are to shape our attitude, all these facts noticing, one should try to return to the original about the three kinds of disturbing factors must subject of meditation. If the disturbance was weak be given full weight and be fully absorbed by our or one’s preceding concentration fairly strong, one mind. Then, in these three disturbing factors, the may well succeed in resuming contemplation. At noble truth of suffering will manifest itself to the that stage, by being careful not to get involved in meditator very incisively through his own personal any “conversation” or argument with the intruder, experience: “Not to obtain what one wants is we shall on our part not give it a reason to stay suffering.” The three other noble truths should long; and in a good number of cases the also be exemplified by reference to the same disturbance will soon depart like a visitor who situation. In such a way, even when dealing with does not receive a very warm welcome. That curt impediments, the meditator will be within the dismissal may often enable us to return to our domain of Satipatthana. He will be engaged in original meditation without any serious the mindful awareness of the Four Noble Truths disturbance to the composure of mind. — a part of the contemplation of mental objects The non-violent device here is: to apply bare 4 (dhamm±nupassan±). It is characteristic of right attention to the disturbance, but with a minimum mindfulness, and one of its tasks, to relate the of response to it, and with a mind bent on actual experiences of life to the truth of the withdrawal. This is the very way in which the Dhamma, and to use them as opportunities for its Buddha himself dealt with inopportune visitors, practical realization. Already at the preliminary as described in the Mah±suññat± Sutta (Majjh. stage devoted to the shaping of a correct and 122): “...with a mind bent on seclusion... and helpful attitude, we have the first successful test withdrawn, his conversation aiming at dismissing of our peaceful weapons: by understanding our (those visitors).” Similar was Shantideva’s advice adversaries better, we have consolidated our on how to deal with fools: if one cannot avoid position which was formerly weakened by an them, one should treat them “with the indifferent emotional approach; and by transforming these politeness of a gentleman.” adversaries into teachers of the truths, we have 2. If, however, the disturbance persists, one won the first advantage over them. should repeat the application of bare attention If we are mentally prepared by a realistic view again and again, patiently and calmly; and it may of these three factors antagonistic to meditation, be that the disturbance will vanish when it has we shall be less inclined to react at once by spent its force. Here the attitude is to meet the irritation when they actually arise. We shall be repeated occurrence of a disturbance by a reiterated emotionally in a better position to meet them with “No,” a determined refusal to be deflected from the non-violent weapons of which we shall now one’s course. This is the attitude of patience and speak. firmness. The capacity for watchful observation There are three devices for countering has to be aided here by the capacity to wait and to disturbances that arise in meditation. The three hold one’s ground. should be applied in succession whenever the These two devices will generally be successful preceding device has failed to dispose of the with incidental stray thoughts and daydreams, disturbance. All three are applications of bare which are feeble by nature, but the other two types 13 of disturbances, the external ones and defilements, culmination of non-violent procedure. It is a may also yield quite often. device very characteristic of the spirit of 3. But if, for some reason, they do not yield, Satipaµµh±na , to make use of all experiences as one should deliberately turn one’s full attention aids on the path. In that way enemies are turned to the disturbance and make it an object of into friends; for all these disturbances and knowledge. Thus one transforms it from a antagonistic forces have become our teachers, and disturbance to meditation into a legitimate object teachers, whoever they may be, should be regarded of meditation. One may continue with that new as friends. object until the external or internal cause for We cannot forego to quote here a passage from attending to it has ceased; or, if it proves a noteworthy little book, The Little Locksmith satisfactory, one may even retain it for the rest of by Katherine Butler Hathaway, a moving human that session. document of fortitude and practical wisdom For instance, when disturbed by a persistent acquired by suffering: noise, we should give the noise our undivided “I am shocked by the ignorance and attention, but we should take care to distinguish wastefulness with which persons who should know the object itself from our reaction to it. For example, better throw away the things they do not like. if resentment arises, it should be clearly recognized They throw away experiences, people, marriages, in its own nature whenever it arises. In doing so situations, all sorts of things because they do not we shall be practicing the contemplation of mind- like them. If you throw away a thing, it is gone. objects (dhamm±nupassan±) according to the Where you had something you have nothing to following passage of the Satipaµµh±na Sutta; “He work on. Whereas, almost all those things which knows the ear and sounds, and the fetter (e.g., get thrown away are capable of being worked over resentment) arising through both.” If the noise is by a little magic into just the opposite of what intermittent or of varying intensity, one will easily they were... But most human beings never be able to discern the rise and fall (udayabbaya) remember at all that in almost every bad situation in its occurrence. In that way one will add to one’s there is the possibility of a transformation by which direct insight into impermanency (aniccat±). the undesirable may be changed into the The attitude towards recurrent mental desirable.” defilements such as thoughts of lust and We said before that the occurrence of the three restlessness, should be similar. One should face disturbing elements cannot always be prevented. them squarely, but distinguish them from one’s They are parts of our world, and their coming and reaction to them, e.g., connivance, fear, resentment, going follows its own laws irrespective of our irritation. In doing so, one is making use of the approval or disapproval. But by applying bare device of “naming,” and one will reap the benefits attention we can avoid being swept away or mentioned above. In the recurrent waves of dislodged by them. By taking a firm and calm passion or restlessness, one will likewise learn to stand on the secure ground of mindfulness, we distinguish gradually phases of “high” and “low,” shall repeat in a modest degree, but in an their “ups and downs,” and may also gain other essentially identical way, the historic situation helpful knowledge about their behavior. By that under the Bodhi Tree. When Mara, the Evil One, procedure, one again remains entirely within the at the head of his army, claimed the soil on which range of Satipaµµh±na by practicing the the future Buddha sat, the latter refused to budge. contemplation of the state of mind Trusting in the power of mindfulness, we may (citt±nupassan±) and of mind-objects confidently repeat the Bodhisatta’s aspiration on (dhamm±nupassan±: attention to the hindrances). that occasion: M± Ma½ th±n± acavayi! “May he This method of transforming disturbances to (M±ra) not dislodge me from this place” (Padh±na meditation into objects of meditation, as simple Sutta). as it is ingenious, may be regarded as the 14 Let the intruders come and go. Like all the 3. Stopping and Slowing Down other members of that vast unceasing procession For a full and unobstructed unfoldment of the of mental and physical events that passes before mind’s capacities, the influence of two our observant eyes in the practice of bare attention, complementary forces is needed: activating and they arise, and having arisen, they pass away. restraining. That twofold need was recognized by Our advantage here is the obvious fact that the Buddha, the great knower of mind. He advised two thought moments cannot be present at the that the faculties of energy (viriy’indriya) and of same time. Attention refers, strictly speaking, not concentration (sam±dh’indriya) should be kept to the present but to the moment that has just equally strong and well balanced.5 Furthermore, passed away. Thus, as long as mindfulness holds he recommended three of the seven factors of sway, there will be no “disturbance” or “defiled enlightenment (bojjhaªga) as suitable for rousing thought.” This gives us the chance to hold on to the mind, and three for calming it.6 In both cases, that secure ground of an “observer’s post,” our among the spiritual faculties and the own potential “throne of enlightenment.” enlightenment factors, it is mindfulness that not By the quietening and neutralizing influence only watches over their equilibrium, but also of detached observation as applied in our three activates those that are sluggish and restrains those devices, the interruptions of meditation will that are too intense. increasingly lose the sting of irritation, and thereby Mindfulness, though seemingly of a passive their disturbing effect. This will prove to be an act nature, is in fact an activating force. It makes the of true vir±ga (dispassion), which literally means mind alert, and alertness is indispensable for all “decoloring.” When these experiences are stripped purposeful activity. In the present inquiry, however, of the emotional tinge that excites towards lust, we shall examine how it makes for aversion, irritation and other defilements of the disentanglement and detachment, and how it mind, they will appear in their true nature as bare positively helps in the development of the mental phenomena (suddha-dhamm±). qualities required for the work of deliverance. The non-violent procedure of bare attention In practicing bare attention, we keep still at endows the meditator with the light but sure touch the mental and spatial place of observation, amidst so essential for handling the sensitive, evasive, the loud demands of the inner and outer world. and refractory nature of the mind. It also enables Mindfulness possesses the strength of tranquillity, him to deal smoothly with the various difficult the capacity for deferring action and applying the situations and obstacles met with in daily life. To brake, for stopping rash interference and for illustrate the even quality of energy required for suspending judgment while pausing to observe attaining to the meditative absorptions, The Path facts and to reflect upon them wisely. It also brings of Purification (Visuddhimagga) describes a test a wholesome slowing down in the impetuosity of which students of surgery in ancient days had to thought, speech and action. Keeping still and undergo as a proof of their skill. A lotus leaf was stopping, pausing and slowing down — these will placed in a bowl of water, and the pupil had to be our key words when speaking now of the make an incision through the length of the leaf, restraining effect of bare attention. without cutting it entirely or submerging it. He An ancient Chinese book states: who applied an excess of force either cut the leaf “In making things end, and in making into two or pressed it into the water, while the things start, there is nothing more glorious timid one did not even dare to scratch it. In fact, than keeping still.” something like the gentle but firm hand of the surgeon is required in mental training, and this In the light of the Buddha’s teaching, the true skillful, well-balanced touch will be the natural “end of things” is Nibb±na which is called the outcome of the non-violent procedure in the “stilling of formations” (saªkh±r±na½ v³pasamo), practice of bare attention. that is, their final end or cessation. It is also called 15 “the stopping” (nirodha). The “things” or improvement, it will generally be wisest to choose “formations” meant here are the conditioned and the line of least resistance. If we turn too quickly impersonal phenomena rooted in craving and against those shortcomings deeply rooted in old ignorance. The end of formations comes to be by habits or in powerful impulses, we might suffer the end of “forming,” that is, by the end of world- discouraging defeat. We should pay attention first creating kammic activities. It is the “end of the to our blemishes of action and speech and our world” and of suffering, which the Buddha errors of judgment caused by thoughtlessness and proclaimed cannot be reached by walking, rashness. Of these there are many. In our lives there migrating or transmigrating, but can be found are numerous instances where one short moment within ourselves. That ‘end of the world’ is heralded of reflection might have prevented a false step, by each deliberate act of keeping still, stopping, and thereby warded off a long chain of misery or or pausing. “Keeping still,” in that highest sense, moral guilt that started with a single moment of means stopping the accumulation of kamma, thoughtlessness. But how can we curb our rash abstaining from our unceasing concern with reactions, and replace them by moments of evanescent things, abstaining from perpetually mindfulness and reflection? To do so will depend adding to our entanglements in samsara — the on our capacity to stop and pause, to apply brakes round of repeated birth and death. By following at the right time, and this we can learn by practicing the way of mindfulness, by training ourselves to bare attention. In that practice we shall train keep still and pause in the attitude of bare attention, ourselves “to look and wait,” to suspend reactions we refuse to take up the world’s persistent or slow them down. We shall learn it first the easy challenge to our dispositions for greed or hatred. way, in situations of our own choice, within the We protect ourselves against rash and delusive limited field of experiences met with during the judgments; we refrain from blindly plunging into periods of meditative practice. When facing again the whirlpool of interfering action with all its and again the incidental sense impressions, inherent dangers. feelings or stray thoughts which interrupt our “He who abstains from interfering is concentration; when curbing again and again our everywhere secure” desire to respond to them in some way; when succeeding again and again in keeping still in (Sutta Nip±ta, v.953) face of them — we shall be preparing ourselves to “He who keeps still and knows where to preserve that inner stillness in the wider and stop will not meet danger” unprotected field of everyday life. We shall have (Tao-Te-Ching, Chapter 44) acquired a presence of mind that will enable us to The Chinese saying quoted earlier states in its pause and stop, even if we are taken by surprise or second part that there is nothing more glorious in are suddenly provoked or tempted. making things start than in keeping still. Our present remarks refer to those blemishes Explained in the Buddhist sense, these things of conduct liable to arise through thoughtlessness effectively started by keeping still are “the things and rashness, but which may be more or less easily (or qualities) making for decrease of kammic checked through mindfulness. Dexterity in accumulation.” In dealing with them, we may dealing with these will also affect those more follow the traditional division of mental training obstinate deviations from moral conduct rooted into morality (or conduct), concentration (or in strong passionate impulses or in deeply tranquillity) and wisdom (or insight). All three are ingrained bad habits. The increased tranquillity decisively helped by the attitude of keeping still of mind achieved in keeping still for bare attention cultivated by bare attention. will restrain the impetuosity of passions. The 1. Conduct. How can we improve our conduct, acquired habit of pausing and stopping will act as its moral quality and its skill in taking right a brake to the ingrained habits of indulging in decisions? If we earnestly desire such an unwholesome deeds. 16 By being able to keep still for bare attention, consequences must be experienced in their full or to pause for wise reflection, very often the first impact. But still, if even after the completion of temptation to lust, the first wave of anger, the first the evil act, one stops for reflection, it will not be mist of delusion, will disappear without causing in vain. For the mindfulness that arises in the form serious entanglement. At which point the current of remorseful retrospection will preclude a of unwholesome thought process is stopped will hardening of character and may prevent a depend on the quality of mindfulness. If repetition of the same action. mindfulness is keen, it will succeed at a very early The Exalted One once said to his son, Rahula point in calling a stop to a series of defiled (Majjhima 61): thoughts or actions before we are carried along by “Whatever action you intend to perform, by them too far. Then the respective defilements will body, speech or mind, you should consider that not grow beyond their initial strength, less effort action... If, in considering it, you realize: ‘This will be required to check them, and fewer kammic action which I intend to perform will be harmful entanglements, or none, will follow. to myself, or harmful to others or harmful to both; Let us take the example of a pleasant visual it will be an unwholesome action, producing object which has aroused our liking. At first that suffering, resulting in suffering’ — then you liking might not be very active and insistent. If at should certainly not perform that action. this point the mind is already able to keep still for “Also while you are performing an action, by detached observation or reflection, the visual body, speech or mind, you should consider that perception can easily be divested of its still very action... If, in considering it, you realize: ‘This slight admixture of lust. The object becomes action which I am performing is harmful to myself, registered as “just something seen that has caused or harmful to others or harmful to both; it is an a pleasant feeling,” or the attraction felt is unwholesome action, producing suffering, sublimated into a quiet aesthetic pleasure. But if resulting in suffering’ — then you should desist that earliest chance has been missed, the liking from such an action. will grow into attachment and into the desire to possess. If now a stop is called, the thought of “Also after you have performed an action, by desire may gradually lose its strength; it will not body, speech or mind, you should consider that easily turn into an insistent craving, and no actual action... If, in considering it, you realize: ‘This attempts to get possession of the desired object action which I have performed has been harmful will follow. But if the current of lust is still to myself, or harmful to others, or harmful to both; unchecked, then the thought of desire may express it was an unwholesome action, producing itself by speech in asking for the object or even suffering, resulting in suffering — then you should demanding it with impetuous words. That is, in the future refrain from it.” unwholesome mental kamma (akusala-mano- 2. Tranquillity. We shall now consider how kamma) is followed by unwholesome verbal stopping for bare attention also helps one to attain kamma (akusala-vac²-kamma). A refusal will cause and strengthen tranquillity (samatha) in its double the original current of lust to branch out into sense: general peace of mind and meditative additional streams of mental defilements, either concentration. sadness or anger. But if even at that late stage one By developing the habit of pausing for bare can stop for quiet reflection or bare attention, attention, it becomes increasingly easier to accept the refusal, and renounce wish-fulfillment, withdraw into one’s own inner stillness when further complications will be avoided. However, unable to escape bodily from the loud, insistent if clamoring words are followed by unwholesome noises of the outer world. It will be easier to forego bodily kamma (akusala-kay±-kamma), and if, useless reactions to the foolish speech or deeds of driven by craving, one tries to get possession of others. When the blows of fate are particularly the desired object by stealth or force, then the hard and incessant, a mind trained in bare attention kammic entanglement is complete and its will find a refuge in the haven of apparent passivity 17 or watchful non-action, from which position it to the level of the meditative mind. This is an will be able to wait patiently until the storms have important point because often too wide a gap passed. There are situations in life when it is best between these two mental levels repeatedly to allow things to come to their natural end. He frustrates attempts at mental concentration and who is able to keep still and wait will often succeed hinders the achievement of smooth continuity in where aggressiveness or busy activity would have meditative practice. been vanquished. Not only in critical situations, In the sequence of the seven factors of but also in the normal course of life, the experience enlightenment, we find that the enlightenment won by observant keeping still will convince us factor of tranquillity (passaddhi sambojjhaªga) that we need not actively respond to every precedes that of concentration (sam±dhi- impression we receive, or regard every encounter sambojjhaªga). Expressing the same fact, the with people or things as a challenge to our Buddha says: “If tranquilized within, the mind interfering activity. will become concentrated.” Now in the light of By refraining from busying ourselves our previous remarks, we shall better understand unnecessarily, external frictions will be reduced these statements. and the internal tensions they bring will loosen 3. Insight. It has been said by the Exalted One: up. Greater harmony and peace will pervade the “He whose mind is concentrated sees things as life of every day, bridging the gap between normal they really are.” Therefore, all those ways by which life and the tranquillity of meditation. Then there bare attention strengthens concentration also will be fewer of those disturbing inner provide a supporting condition for the reverberations of everyday restlessness which, in development of insight. But there is also a more a coarse or subtle form, invade the hours of direct and specific help which insight receives meditation, producing bodily and mental unrest. from keeping still in bare attention. Consequently, the hindrance of agitation Generally, we are more concerned with (uddhacca-n²varaºa), a chief obstacle to handling and using things than with knowing concentration, will appear less often and will be them in their true nature. Thus we usually grasp in easier to overcome when it arises. haste the very first few signals conveyed to us by By cultivating the attitude of bare attention a perception. Then, through deeply ingrained as often as opportunity offers, the centrifugal habit, those signals evoke a standard response by forces of mind, making for mental distraction, will way of judgments such as good-bad, pleasant- peter out; the centripetal tendency, turning the unpleasant, useful-harmful, right-wrong. These mind inward and making for concentration, will judgments, by which we define the objects in gather strength. Craving will no longer run out in relation to ourselves, lead to corresponding pursuit of a variety of changing objects. reactions by word or deed. Only rarely does Regular practice of sustained attention to a attention dwell upon a common or familiar object continuous series of events prepares the mind for for any longer time than is needed to receive the sustained concentration on a single object, or a first few signals. So, for the most part, we perceive limited number of objects, in the strict practice of things in a fragmentary manner and thence meditation. Firmness or steadiness of mind, misconceive them. Further, only the very first phase another important factor in concentration, will of the object’s life-span, or a little more, comes likewise be cultivated. into the focus of our attention. One may not even Thus, the practice of keeping still, pausing be consciously aware that the object is a process and stopping for bare attention, fosters several with an extension in time — a beginning and an salient components of meditative tranquillity: end; that it has many aspects and relations beyond calmness, concentration, firmness, and reduction those casually perceived in a limited situation; of the multiplicity of objects. It raises the average that, in brief, it has a kind of evanescent level of normal consciousness and brings it closer individuality of its own. A world perceived in this 18 superficial way will consist of shapeless little dissolves the false conceptions of unity created lumps of experiences marked by a few subjectively under the influence of the egocentric attitude. Self- selected signs or symbols. The symbols chosen reference uncritically overrides diversity; it lumps are determined mainly by the individual’s self- things together under the preconceptions of being interest; sometimes they are even misapplied. The a self or belonging to a self. But bare attention shadow-like world that results includes not only reveals these sham unities as impersonal and the outer environment and other persons, but also conditioned phenomena. Facing thus again and a good part of one’s own bodily and mental again the evanescent, dependent and impersonal processes. These, too become subjected to the same nature of life-processes with and without, we will superficial manner of conceptualization. The discover their monotony and unsatisfactory Buddha points out four basic misconceptions that nature: in other words, the truth of suffering. Thus, result from distorted perceptions and unmethodical by the simple device of slowing down, pausing attention: taking the impure for pure, the and keeping still for bare attention, all three of the impermanent for lasting, the painful and pain- characteristics of existence — impermanence, bringing for pleasant, and the impersonal for a suffering, and non-self — will open themselves to self or something belonging to the self. When the penetrative insight (vipassan±). seal of self-reference is thus stamped again and again upon the world of everyday experience, the Spontaneity basic misconception, “This belongs to me” (attaniya) will steadily put forth roots into all the An acquired or strengthened habit of pausing bodily and mental factors of our being. Like the mindfully before acting does not exclude a hair-roots of a plant, these will be fine, but firm wholesome spontaneity of response. On the and widespread — to such an extent, in fact, that contrary, through training, the practice of pausing, the notions of “I” and “mine” will hardly be shaken stopping, and keeping still for bare attention will by mere intellectual convictions about the non- itself become quite spontaneous. It will grow into existence of self (anatt±). a selective mechanism of the mind that, with an increasing reliability and swiftness of response, These grave consequences issue from that can prevent the upsurge of evil or unwise impulses. fundamental perceptual situation: our rush into Without such a skill we may intellectually realise hasty or habitual reactions after receiving the first those impulses to be unwholesome, but still few signals from our perceptions. But if we muster succumb to them due to their own powerful the restraining forces of mindfulness and pause spontaneity. The practice of pausing mindfully for bare attention, the material and mental serves, therefore, to replace unwholesome processes that form the objects of mind at the given spontaneity or habits by wholesome ones moment will reveal themselves to us more fully grounded in our better knowledge and nobler and more truly. No longer dragged at once into intentions. the whirlpool of self-reference, allowed to unfold themselves before the watchful eye of mindfulness, Just as certain reflex movements automatically they will disclose the diversity of their aspects protect the body, similarly the mind needs and the wide net of their correlations and spontaneous spiritual and moral self-protection. interconnections. The connection with self- The practice of bare attention will provide this interest, so narrow and often falsifying, will recede vital function. A person of average moral standards into the background, dwarfed by the wider view instinctively shrinks from thoughts of theft or now gained. The processes observed display in murder. With the help of the method of bare their serial occurrence and in their component attention, the range of such spontaneous moral parts a constant birth and death, a rise and a fall. brakes can be vastly extended and ethical Thereby the facts of change and impermanence sensitivity greatly heightened. impress themselves on the mind with growing In an untrained mind, noble tendencies and intensity. The same discernment of rise and fall right thoughts are often assailed by the sudden 19 outbreak of passions and prejudices. They either round of work. succumb or assert themselves only with difficulty For the purpose of meditative development, after an inner struggle. But if the spontaneity of slowing-down serves as an effective training in the unwholesome is checked or greatly reduced, heedfulness, sense-control, and concentration. But as described above, our good impulses and wise apart from that, it has a more specific significance reflections will have greater scope to emerge and for meditative practice. In the commentary to the express themselves freely and spontaneously. Satipaµµh±na Sutta, it is said that the slowing down Their natural flow will give us greater confidence of movements may help in regaining lost in the power of the good within us; it will also concentration on a chosen object. A monk, so we carry more conviction for others. That spontaneity read, had bent his arm quickly without of the good will not be erratic, for it will have remembering his subject of meditation as his rule deep and firm roots in previous methodical of practice demanded. On becoming aware of that training. Here appears a way by which a omission he took his arm back to its previous premeditated good thought (sasaªkh±rika-kusala) position and repeated the movement mindfully. may be transformed into a spontaneous good The subject of meditation referred to was probably thought (asaªkh±rika-kusala-citta). According to “clearly comprehending action,” ( sampaj±na-k±ra) the psychology of the Abhidhamma, such a as mentioned in the Satipaµµh±na Sutta: “In thought, if combined with knowledge, takes the bending and stretching he acts with clear first place in the scale of ethical values. In this comprehension.” way we shall achieve a practical understanding of The slowing-down of certain bodily a saying in The Secret of the Golden Flower:7 “If movements during strict meditative training is one attains intentionally to an unintentional state particularly helpful in gaining insight-knowledge one has comprehension.” This saying invites a (vipassan±-ñana), especially the direct awareness paraphrase in Pali terms: Sasaªkh±rena of change (anicca) and non-self (anatt±). To a great asaªkh±rika½ pattabba½, “by premeditated extent, it is the rapidity of movement that intentional effort spontaneity can be won.” strengthens the illusions of unity, identity, and If the numerous aids to mental growth and substantiality in what is actually a complex liberation found in the Buddha’s teaching are evanescent process. Therefore, in the strict practice wisely utilized, there is actually nothing that can of Satipaµµh±na, the slowing down of such actions finally withstand the Satipatthana method; and as walking, bending and stretching, so as to discern this method starts with the simple practice of the several phases of each movement, provides a learning to pause and stop for bare attention. powerful aid for direct insight into the three characteristics of all phenomena. The meditator’s Slowing-down contemplation will gain increasing force and significance if he notices clearly how each partial Against the impetuosity, rashness and phase of the process observed arises and ceases by heedlessness of the untrained mind, the practice itself, and nothing of it goes over or of pausing and stopping sets up a deliberate “transmigrates” to the next phase. slowing-down. The demands of modern life, however, make it impracticable to introduce such Under the influence of pausing for bare a slow-down of function into the routine of the attention, the average rhythm of our everyday average working day. But as an antidote against actions, speech and thoughts will also become the harmful consequences of the hectic speed of more quiet and peaceful. Slowing down the hurried modern life, it is all the more important to cultivate rhythm of life means that thoughts, feelings, and that practice in one’s leisure hours, especially in perceptions will be able to complete the entire periods of strict Satipatthana practice. Such length of their natural lifetime. Full awareness will practice will also bestow the worldly benefits of extend up to their end phase: to their last greater calm, efficiency and skill in one’s daily vibrations and reverberations. Too often that end 20 phase is cut off by an impatient grasping at new method will prove beneficial from the worldly impressions, or by hurrying on to the next stage of point of view as well. a line of thought before the earlier one has been Here, however, we are chiefly concerned with clearly comprehended. This is one of the main the psychological aspects of mindfulness and their reasons for the disorderly state of the average mind, significance for meditative development. which is burdened by a vast amount of indistinct Sustained attention, helped by slowing-down, will or fragmentary perceptions, stunted emotions and affect the quality of consciousness mainly in three undigested ideas. Slowing-down will prove an ways: (a) in intensifying consciousness; (b) in effective device for recovering the fullness and clarifying the object’s characteristic features; and clarity of consciousness. A fitting simile, and at (c) in revealing the object’s relatedness. the same time an actual example, is the procedure (a) An object of sustained attention will exert called for in the practice of mindfulness of a particularly strong and long-lasting impact on breathing (±n±p±nasati): mindfulness has to cover the mind. Its influence will be felt not only the whole extent of the breath, its beginning, throughout the thought-series immediately middle and end. This is what is meant by the following the particular perception, but may also passage in the sutta, “Experiencing the whole extend far into the future. It is that causal efficacy (breath-) body, I shall breathe in and out.” Similarly, which is the measure of the intensity of the entire “breath” or rhythm of our life will consciousness. become deeper and fuller if, through slowing- down, we get used to sustained attention. (b) Sustained attention leads to a fuller picture of the object in all its aspects. Generally, the first The habit of prematurely cutting off processes impression we gain of any new sense-object or of thought, or slurring over them, has assumed idea will be its most striking feature; it is this aspect serious proportions in the man of modern urban of the object which captures our attention up to civilization. Restlessly he clamors for ever new the culminating point of the impact. But the object stimuli in increasingly quicker succession just as also displays other aspects or characteristics, and he demands increasing speed in his means of is capable of exercising other functions, than those locomotion. This rapid bombardment of we initially notice. These may be less obvious to impressions has gradually blunted his sensitivity, us or subjectively less interesting; but still, they and thus he always needs new stimuli, louder, may be even more important. There will also be coarser, and more variegated. Such a process, if cases where our first impression is entirely not checked, can end only in disaster. Already we deceptive. Only if we sustain our attention beyond see at large a decline of finer aesthetic that first impact will the object reveal itself more susceptibility and a growing incapacity for fully. In the downward course of the first genuine natural joy. The place of both is taken by perceptual wave the prejudicing force of the first a hectic, short-breathed excitement incapable of impact lessens; and it is only then, in that end giving any true aesthetic or emotional satisfaction. phase, that the object will yield a wider range of “Shallow mental breath” is to a great extent detail, a more complete picture of itself. It is responsible for the growing superficiality of therefore only by sustained attention that we can “civilized man” and for the frightening spread of obtain a clearer understanding of an object’s nervous disorders in the West. It may well become characteristic features. the start of a general deterioration of human consciousness in its qualitative level, range and (c) Among the characteristic features of any strength. This danger threatens all those, in the object, physical or mental, there is one class we East as well as in the West, who lack adequate often overlook due to hasty or superficial attention, spiritual protection from the impact of technical and therefore needs to be treated separately. This civilization. Satipatthana can make an important is the relatedness of the object. The object’s contribution to remedying this situation, in the relatedness extends back to its past — to its origin, way we have briefly indicated here. Thus the causes, reasons, and logical precedents; it also 21 extends outward to embrace the total context — characteristics, then when it fades from immediate its background, environment, and presently active awareness, it will not be so easily lost in the vague influences. We can never fully understand things contents of the subconscious or dragged by if we view them in artificial isolation. We have to passionate biases into false subconscious see them as part of a wider pattern, in their associations. (c) The correct comprehension of the conditioned and conditioning nature; and this can object’s relatedness similarly will protect the be done only with the help of sustained attention. experience from being merged with indistinct subconscious material. Perceptions or thoughts of enhanced intensity and clarity, absorbed into The influence of slowing down and sustained the subconscious, remain more articulate and more attention on subconsciousness, memory and accessible than contents originating from hazy or intuition “stunned” impressions. It will be easier to convert The three ways of heightening consciousness them into full consciousness and they will be less just discussed are evidently of prime importance accountable in their hidden effects upon the mind. for the development of insight (vipassan±). When If, through an improvement in the quality and consciousness is intensified, and its objective field range of mindfulness, the number of such matured clarified and discerned in its relational structure, impressions increases, the results might be a subtle the ground is prepared for “seeing things according change in the very structure of subconsciousness to reality.” But besides its obvious direct itself. influence, this threefold process also has an 2. It will be evident from our earlier remarks indirect influence which is no less powerful and that those impressions which we have called important: it strengthens and sharpens the mind’s “matured” or “more accessible and convertible” subliminal faculties of subconscious organization, lend themselves more easily and more correctly memory and intuition. These again, on their part, to recollection — more easily because of their nourish and consolidate the progress of liberating greater intensity, more correctly because their insight. The insight aided by them is like the clearly marked features protect them from being mountain lake of the canonical simile: it is fed distorted by false associative images or ideas. not only by the outside rains, but also by springs Remembering them in their context and welling up from within its own depths. The insight relatedness works both ways — it promotes both nourished by these “underground subliminal easier and more correct recollection. Thus sati in resources of the mind” will have deep roots. The its meaning and function of mindfulness helps to meditative results that it brings cannot be lost strengthen sati in its meaning and function of easily, even with unliberated worldlings memory. (putthujjana) who are still subject to relapse. 3. The influence of sustained attention on the 1. Perceptions or thoughts which have been subconscious and on memory brings a deepening objects of sustained attention make a stronger and strengthening of the faculty of intuition, impact on the mind and reveal their characteristic particularly the intuitive insight which chiefly features more distinctly than when attention is concerns us here. Intuition is not “a gift from the slack. Thus, when they sink into the subconscious, unknown”. Like any other mental faculty, it arises they occupy there a special position. This holds out of specific conditions. In this case the primary true for all three ways of enhancing the conditions are latent memories of perceptions and consciousness of an object. (a) In a process of thoughts stored in the subconscious. Obviously, consciousness, if attention is as strong in the end the memories providing the most fertile soil for phase as in the earlier phases, then when the the growth of intuition will be those marked by process is finished and the mind lapses back into greater intensity, clarity, and wealth of distinctive subconsciousness, the latter will be more amenable marks; for it is these that are most accessible. Here, to conscious control. (b) If an impression or idea too, the preserved relatedness of the impressions has been marked by numerous distinct will contribute much. Recollections of that type 22 will have a more organic character than memories the intuitive moment too might gain that fuller, of bare or vague isolated facts, and they will fall slower, and stronger rhythm. This being the case, more easily into new patterns of meaning and its impact will be strong and clear enough to allow significance. These more articulate memory for full use of that flash of intuitive insight. It images will be a strong stimulation and aid for the might even be possible to lead its fading vibrations intuitive faculty. Silently, in the hidden depths of upward again to a new culmination, similar to the the subliminal mind, the work of collecting and rhythmic repetition of a melody rising again in organizing the subconscious material of harmonious development out of the last notes of experience and knowledge goes on until it is ripe its first appearance. to emerge as an intuition. The break-through of The full utilization of a single moment of that intuition is sometimes occasioned by quite intuitive insight could be of decisive importance ordinary happenings. However, though seemingly for one’s progress toward full realization. If one’s ordinary, these events may have a strong evocative mental grip is too weak and one lets those elusive power if previously they had been made objects moments of intuitive insight slip away without of sustained attention. Slowing-down and pausing having utilized them fully for the work of for bare attention will uncover the depth liberation, then they might not recur until many dimension of the simple things of everyday life, years have passed, or perhaps not at all during the and thus provide stimuli for the intuitive faculty. present life. Skill in sustained attention, however, This applies also to the intuitive penetration will allow one to make full use of such (paµivedha) of the Four Noble Truths that opportunities, and slowing-down and pausing culminates in liberation (arahatta). The scriptures during meditative practice is an important aid in record many instances of monks who could not acquiring that skill. arrive at intuitive penetration when engaged in Through our treatment of pausing, stopping the actual practice of insight meditation. The flash and slowing-down, one of the traditional of intuition struck them on quite different definitions of mindfulness found in the Pali occasions: when stumbling against a rock or scriptures will have become more intelligible in catching sight of a forest fire, a mirage, or a lump its far-reaching implications: that is, its function of froth in a river. of anapilapanata, meaning literally, “not floating We meet here another confirmation of that (or slipping) away.” “Like pumpkin-pots on the seemingly paradoxical saying that “intentionally surface of water,” add the commentators, and they an unintentional state may be won.” By continue: “Mindfulness enters deeply into its deliberately turning the full light of mindfulness object, instead of hurrying only over its surface.” on the smallest events and actions of everyday Therefore, “non-superficiality” will be an life, eventually the liberating wisdom may arise. appropriate rendering of the above Pali term, and Sustained attention not only provides the a fitting characterization of mindfulness. nourishing soil for the growth of intuition, it also makes possible the fuller utilization and even 4. Directness of Vision repetition of the intuitive moment. Men of inspiration in various fields of creative activity “I wish I could disaccustom myself from have often deplored their common experience; everything, so that I might see anew, hear anew, the flash of intuition strikes so suddenly and feel anew, Habit spoils our philosophy.” vanishes so quickly that frequently the slow G.C. Lichtenberg (1742-1799) response of the mind hardly catches the last In an earlier section we spoke about the glimpse of it. But if the mind has been trained in impulsive spontaneity of the unwholesome observant pausing, in slowing-down and (akusala). We have seen how stopping for bare sustained attention, and if — as indicated above and sustained attention is able to counter, or — the subconscious has been influenced, then reduce, our rash impulsive reactions, thus allowing 23 us to face any situation with a fresh mind, with a an occasional indulgence, a passing whim may directness of vision unprejudiced by those first by repetition become a habit we find difficult to spontaneous responses. uproot, a desire hard to control, and finally an By directness of vision we understand a direct automatic function we no longer question. view of reality, without any coloring or distorting Repeated gratification turns a desire into a habit, lenses, without the intrusion of emotional or and habit left unchecked grows into compulsion. habitual prejudices and intellectual biases. It It sometimes happens that, at an early time, means: coming face to face with the bare facts of we regard a particular activity or mental attitude actuality, seeing them as vividly and freshly as if as without any special personal importance. The we were seeing them for the first time. activity or attitude may be morally indifferent and inconsequential. At the start we might find it easy to abandon it or even to exchange it for its The Force of Habit opposite, since neither our emotions nor reason Those spontaneous reactions which so often bias us towards either alternative. But by stand in the way of direct vision do not derive repetition, we come to regard the chosen course of only from our passionate impulses. Very frequently action or thought as “pleasant, desirable, and they are the product of habit. In that form, they correct,” even as “righteous”; and thus we finally generally have an even stronger and more identify it with our character or personality. tenacious hold on us — a hold which may work Consequently, we feel any break in this routine to out either for our good or for our harm. The be unpleasant or wrong. Any outside interference influence habit exercises for the good is seen in with it we greatly resent, even regarding such the “power of repeated practice.” This power interference as a threat to our “vital interests and protects our achievements and skills — whether principles.” In fact at all times primitive minds, manual or mental, worldly or spiritual — against whether “civilized” or not, have looked at a loss or forgetfulness, and converts them from stranger with his “strange customs” as an enemy, casual, short-lived, imperfect acquisitions into the and have felt his mere non-aggressive presence as more secure possession of a quality thoroughly a challenge or threat. mastered. The detrimental effect of habitual At the beginning, when no great importance spontaneous reactions is manifest in what is called was ascribed to the specific habit, the attachment in a derogative sense the “force of habit”: its that gradually formed was directed not so much deadening, stultifying and narrowing influence to the action proper as to the pleasure we derive productive of compulsive behavior of various from the undisturbed routine. The strength of that kinds. In our present context we shall be concerned attachment to routine derives partly from the force only with that negative aspect of habit as impeding of physical and mental inertia, so powerful a and obscuring the directness of vision. motive in man. We shall presently refer to another As remarked earlier, habitual reactions cause for attachment to routine. By force of habit, generally have a stronger influence upon our the particular concern — whether a material object, behavior than impulsive ones. Our passionate an activity, or a way of thinking — comes to be impulses may disappear as suddenly as they have invested with such an increase of emotional arisen. Though their consequences may be very emphasis, that the attachment to quite grave and extend far into the future, their influence unimportant or banal things may become as is in no way as long lasting and deep reaching as tenacious as that to our more fundamental needs. that of habit. Habit spreads its vast and closely Thus the lack of conscious control can turn even meshed net over wide areas of our life and thought, the smallest habits into the uncontested masters trying to drag in more and more. Our passionate of our lives. It bestows upon them the dangerous impulses, too, might be caught in that net and power to limit and rigidify our character and to thus be transformed from passing outbursts into narrow our freedom of movement — lasting traits of character. A momentary impulse, 24 environmental, intellectual and spiritual. Through loom as a grave danger at the horizon of our atomic our subservience to habit, we forge new fetters for age. ourselves and make ourselves vulnerable to new Due to that will to dominate inherent in many attachments, aversions, prejudices and types of consciousness, a passing whim may grow predilections; that is, to new suffering. The danger into a relatively constant trait of character. If still for spiritual development posed by the not satisfied with its position, it may break away dominating influence of habit is perhaps more entirely from the present combination of life forces serious today than ever before; for the expansion until finally, in the process of rebirths, it becomes of habit is particularly noticeable in our present the very center of a new personality. There are age when specialization and standardization within us countless seeds for new lives, for reach into so many varied spheres of life and innumerable potential “beings,” all of whom we thought. should vow to liberate from the wheel of sa½ s± ra, Therefore, when considering the Satipatthana as the Sixth Zen Patriarch expressed it.9 Sutta’s words on the formation of fetters, we should Detrimental physical or mental habits may also think of the important part played by habit: grow strong, not only if fostered deliberately, but “...and what fetter arises dependent on also if left unnoticed or unopposed. Much of what both (i.e., the sense organs and sense objects), has now strong roots in our nature has grown from that he knows well. In what manner the minute seeds planted in a long-forgotten past (see arising of the unarisen fetter comes to be, the Simile of the Creeper, Majjhima 45). This that he knows well.” growth of morally bad or otherwise detrimental In Buddhist terms, it is preeminently the habits can be effectively checked by gradually hindrance of sloth and torpor (th²na-middha developing another habit: that of attending to them n²varaºa) which is strengthened by the force of mindfully. If we now do deliberately what had habit, and it is the mental faculties such as agility become a mechanical performance, and if prior to and pliancy of mind (k±ya and citta-lahut±, doing it we pause a while for bare attention and mudut± etc.)8 that are weakened. reflection — this will give us a chance to scrutinize the habit and clearly comprehend its purpose and This tendency of habits to extend their range suitability (s±tthaka and sapp±ya-sampajañña). It is anchored in the very nature of consciousness. It will allow us to make a fresh assessment of the stems not only from the aforementioned passive situation, to see it directly, unobscured by the force of inertia, but in many cases from an active mental haze that surrounds a habitual activity with will to dominate and conquer. Certain active types the false assurance: “It is right because it was done of consciousness, possessing a fair degree of before.” Even if a detrimental habit cannot be intensity, tend to repeat themselves. Each one broken quickly, the reflective pause will counter struggles to gain ascendancy, to become a center its unquestioned spontaneity of occurrence. It will around which other weaker mental and physical stamp it with the seal of repeated scrutiny and states revolve, adapting themselves to and serving resistance, so that on its recurrence it will be weaker that central disposition. This tendency is never and will prove more amenable to our attempts to quite undisputed, but still it prevails, and even change or abolish it. peripheral or subordinate types of consciousness exhibit the same urge for ascendancy. This is a It need hardly be mentioned that habit, which striking parallel to the self-assertion and has been rightly called “the wet-nurse of man,” domineering tendency of an egocentric individual cannot and should not disappear from our life. Let in his contact with society. Among biological us only remember what a relief it is, particularly in analogies, we may mention the tendency toward the crowded day and complex life of a city-dweller, expansion shown by cancer and other to be able to do a great number of things fairly pathological growths; the tendency toward mechanically with, as it were, only “half-powered repetition we meet in the freak mutations which attention.” Habit brings considerable 25 simplification to our life. It would be an unbearable Associative Thought strain if all our little humdrum activities had to be Mental Habituation to standard reactions, to done with deliberate effort and close attention. In sequences of activity, to judgments of people or fact, many operations of manual labor, much of things proceeds by way of associative thinking. the technique in art, and even standard procedure From the objects, ideas, situations and people that in complex intellectual work, generally bring we encounter, we select certain distinctive marks, better and more even results through skilled and associate these marks with our own response routine performance. Yet that evenness of habitual to them. If these encounters recur, they are performance will also reach its end point. Unless associated first with those marks selected earlier, enlivened by the creation of new interest, it will and then with our original or strongest response. show symptoms of fatigue and start to decline. Thus these marks become a signal for releasing a Of course it would be absurd to advocate that standard reaction, which may consist of a long all our little habits be abolished, for many are sequence of connected acts or thoughts familiar innocuous and even useful. But we should through repeated practice or experience. This way regularly ask ourselves whether we still have of functioning makes it unnecessary for us to apply control over them, whether we can give them up new effort and painstaking scrutiny to each single or alter them at will. We can answer this question step in such a sequence. The result is a great for ourselves in two ways: by attending to our simplification of life, permitting us to release habitual actions mindfully for a certain period of energy for other tasks. In fact, in the evolution of time, and second, by actually giving them up the human mind, associative thinking was a temporarily in cases where this will not have any progressive step of decisive importance. It enabled harmful or disturbing effects upon ourselves or us to learn from experience, and thus led up to the others. If we turn on them the light of direct vision, discovery and application of causal laws. looking at them or performing them as if for the Yet along with these benefits, associative first time, these little routine activities, and the thinking can also bring many grave dangers if it is habitual sights around us, will assume a new glow applied faultily or thoughtlessly and not carefully of interest and stimulation. This also holds good controlled. Let us draw up a partial list of these for our professional occupation and its danger points: environment, and for our close human 1. Associative thinking, recurring again and relationships if they should have become stale by again in similar situations, may easily perpetuate habit. The relationship to one’s marriage partner, and strengthen faulty or incomplete initial to friends, to colleagues, may thus receive a great observations, errors of judgment, and emotional rejuvenation. A fresh and direct vision will also prejudices such as love, hate and pride. reveal that one can relate to people or do things in a different and more beneficial way than one did 2. Incomplete observations and restricted before by force of habit. viewpoints in judgment, sufficient to deal with one particular situation, may prove quite An acquired capacity to give up minor habits inadequate and entail grave consequences if will prove its worth in the fight against more mechanically applied to changed circumstances. dangerous proclivities. It will also come to our aid at times when we are faced with serious changes 3. Due to misdirected associative thinking, a in our life which forcefully deprive us of strong instinctive dislike may be felt for things, fundamental habits. Loosening the hardened soil places or persons which in some way are merely of our routine behavior and thoughts will have an reminiscent of unpleasant experiences, but enlivening effect on our vital energy, our mental actually have no connection with them. vigor, and our power of imagination. But what is These briefly-stated instances show how vital most important, into that loosened soil we shall it is for us to scrutinize from time to time the mental be able to plant the seeds of vigorous spiritual grooves of our associative thoughts, and to review progress. the various habits and stereotype reactions 26 deriving from them. In other words, we must step misapprehensions, progressing steadily towards out of our ruts, regain a direct vision of things, the direct vision of things as they really are. and make a fresh appraisal of our habits in the light of that vision. The Sense of Urgency (sa½vega) If we look once again over the list of potential One who has clear and direct vision, stirred to dangers deriving from uncontrolled associative a sense of urgency (samvega) by things which are thinking, we shall better understand the Buddha’s deeply moving, will experience a release of energy insistence upon getting to the bedrock of and courage enabling him to break through his experience. In the profound and terse stanzas called timid hesitations and his rigid routine of life and “The Cave,” included in the Sutta Nipata, the thought. If that sense of urgency is kept alive, it Buddha says that the “full penetration of sense will bestow the earnestness and persistence impression (phassa) will make one free from greed” required for the work of liberation. and that “by understanding perception (sañña), one will be able to cross the flood of sa½s±ra” Thus said the teachers of old: (stanza 778 f.).10 By placing mindfulness as a “This very world here is our field of action. guard at the very first gate through which thoughts It harbors the unfoldment of the holy path, enter the mind, we shall be able to control the And many things to break complacency, incomers much more easily, and shut out unwanted Be stirred by things which may well move the heart, intruders. Thus the purity of “luminous And being stirred, strive wisely and fight on!” consciousness” can be maintained against Our closest surroundings are full of stirring “adventitious defilements” (Aªguttara, 1:51). things. If we generally do not perceive them as such, that is because habit has made our vision TheSatipaµµh±na Sutta provides a systematic dull and our heart insensitive. The same thing training for inducing direct, fresh, and undistorted happens to us even with the Buddha’s teaching. vision. The training covers the entire personality When we first encounter the teaching, we receive in its physical and mental aspects, and includes a powerful intellectual and emotional stimulation; the whole world of experience. The methodical but gradually the impetus tends to lose its original application of the several exercises to oneself freshness and impelling force. The remedy is to (ajjhatta), to others (bahiddh±), and alternatingly constantly renew it by turning to the fullness of to both, will help uncover erroneous conceptions life around us, which illustrates the Four Noble due to misdirected associative thinking and Truths in ever new variations. A direct vision will misapplied analogies. impart new lifeblood even to the most common The principal types of false associative experiences of every day, so that their true nature thinking are covered, in the terminology of the appears through the dim haze of habit and speaks Dhamma, by the four kinds of misapprehension to us with a fresh voice. It may well be just the or perverted views (vipall±sa), which wrongly long accustomed sight of the beggar at the street take (1) what is impermanent for permanent, (2) corner, or a weeping child, or the illness of a friend, what is painful, or conducive to pain, for which startles us afresh, makes us think, and stirs happiness, (3) what has no self and is unsubstantial our sense of urgency in treading resolutely the for a self or an abiding substance, and (4) what is path that leads to the cessation of suffering. impure for beautiful. These perverted views arise We know the beautiful account of how Prince through a false apprehension of the characteristic Siddhattha first came face to face with old age, marks of things. Under the influence of our illness and death while driving his chariot through passions and false theories, we perceive things the royal city after a long period of isolation in a selectively in a one-sided or erroneous way, and make-believe world. This ancient story may well then associate them wrongly with other ideas. By be historical fact, for we know that in the lives of applying bare attention to our perceptions and many great men common events often gain a impressions, gradually we can free them from these symbolic significance and lead to major 27 consequences far beyond their ordinary experience are very useful in their place; but if appearance. Great minds find significance in the they interrupt the meditative practice of bare seemingly commonplace and invest the fleeting attention, they tend to “shove aside” or dispose of moment with far-reaching efficacy. But, without the particular fact, by saying, as it were: “It is contesting the inner truth of that old story, we nothing else but this.” Generalizing thought may reasonably believe that the young prince had inclines to become impatient with a recurrent type, actually seen before, with his fleshly eyes, old and after having it classified, soon finds it boring. people, sick people, and those who had succumbed Bare attention, however, being the key to death. However, on all these earlier occasions, instrument of methodological insight, keeps to he would not have been touched very deeply by the particular. It follows keenly the rise and fall of these sights — as is the case with most of us most successive physical and mental processes. Though of the time. That earlier lack of sensitivity may all phenomena of a given series may be true to have been due to the carefully protected, artificial type (e.g., inhalations and exhalations), bare seclusion of his petty, though princely, happiness, attention regards each of them as distinct, and the hereditary routine of his life into which his conscientiously registers its separate birth and father had placed him. Only when he broke through death. If mindfulness remains alert, these the golden cage of easy-going habits could the repetitions of type will, by their multiplication, facts of suffering strike him as forcibly as if he had exert not a reduced but an intensified impact on seen them for the first time. Then only was he the mind. The three characteristics — stirred by them to a sense of urgency that led him impermanence, suffering, and voidness of self- out of the home life and set his feet firmly on the inherent in the process observed, will stand out road to enlightenment. more and more clearly. They will appear in the The more clearly and deeply our minds and light shed by the phenomena themselves, not in a hearts respond to the truth of suffering manifest in borrowed light, not even a light borrowed from the very common facts of our existence, the less the Buddha, the peerless and indispensable guide often shall we need a repetition of the lesson and to these experiences. the shorter will be our migration through samsara. These physical and mental phenomena, in The clarity of perception evoking our response their “self-luminosity,” will then convey a growing will come from an undeflected directness of vision, sense of urgency to the meditator: revulsion, bestowed by bare attention (sati); and the depth dissatisfaction, awareness of danger, followed by of experience will come from wise reflection or detachment — though certainly joy, happiness, clear comprehension (sampajañña). and calm, too, will not be absent throughout the practice. Then, if all other conditions of inner The Road to Insight maturity are fulfilled, the first direct vision of final liberation will dawn with the stream-winner’s Directness of vision is also a chief (sotapanna) indubitable knowledge: “Whatever characteristic of the methodical practice of insight has the nature of arising, has the nature of meditation. There it is identified with the direct or vanishing.” experiential knowledge bestowed by meditation, as distinguished from the inferential knowledge Thus, in the unfoldment of the power of obtained by study and reflection. In the meditative mindfulness, Satipatthana will prove itself as the development of insight, one’s own physical and true embodiment of the Dhamma, of which it was mental processes are directly viewed, without the said: interference of abstract concepts or the filtering “Well-proclaimed is the Dhamma by the screens of emotional evaluation. For in this context Blessed One, visible here and now, not these only obscure or camouflage the naked facts, delayed, inviting inspection, onward- detracting from the strong immediate impact of leading, to be directly experienced by the reality. Conceptual generalizations from wise.” 28 Notes : A note on the source of this article 1. See Nyanaponika Thera, The Heart of The Power of Mindfulness was first published Buddhist Meditation (London; Rider & Co., in The Light of the Dhamma in three parts in 1962). 1956 and 1957. In 1968 The Buddhist Pblication Society 2. Comy. to Sutta Nipata v. 334. published it as Wheel 121/122. 3. Anagarika B. Govinda, The Psychological The preceding was downloaded from the Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy (London: Access to Insight website. This version differs Rider & Co., 1961). from the original in that many sentences were 4. The Way of Mindfulness, Bhikkhu Soma rephrased and more suitable words chosen in (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975), p. some cases. 83. We have attempted to follow some of the 5. See Path of Purification, p. 135 f. original formatting and so have changed it slightly from the Access to Insight version. 6. Ibid, pp. 136 ff. The three rousing factors are investigation, energy and rapture; the three calming ones, tranquillity, concentration and Source: The Wheel Publication No. 121/122 equanimity. (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1968). 7. A treatise of Chinese Taoism, strongly Transcribed from the print edition in 1994 by influenced by Mahayana. Maureen Riordan under the auspices of the 8. About these important qualitative DharmaNet Dharma Book Transcription constituents of good, wholesome (kusala) Project, with the kind permission of the consciousness, see the author’s Abhidhamma Buddhist Publication Society. Studies (Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1965), pp. 51 f. Copyright 1968 Buddhist Publication Society Access to Insight edition 1994 9. This may be a somewhat ironical reference For free distribution. This work may be by that great sage to the fact that the well-known republished, reformatted, reprinted, and Mahayanic Bodhisattva vow of liberating all redistributed in any medium. It is the author’s beings of the universe is often taken much too wish, however, that any such republication light-heartedly by many of his fellow Mahayanists. and redistribution be made available to the 10. Compare also the passage on the public on a free and unrestricted basis and that significance of sense impression (or contact) in translations and other derivative works be the concluding section of the Brahmajala Sutta clearly marked as such. (Digha 1). 29 BUDDHIST CONCEPTION OF MIND OR CONSCIOUSNESS (CITTA) Bhadanta N±rada Mah±thera Mind or consciousness, the essence of the so- or consciousness, and not from a psychological called being, plays the most important part in the point of view. Buddhism, it may be mentioned, complex machinery of man. It is mind that either teaches a psychology without a psyche. defiles or purifies one. Mind in fact is both the The P±¼i terms applied to mind or bitterest enemy and the greatest friend of consciousness are Citta, Ceta, Mana M±nasa, “oneself”. N±ma. Viññ±na, and so forth. They are used as In the Dhammapada we learn synonymous terms. ‘What harm a foe may do to a foe, or a hater to Citta is derived from Citi, to think. The a hater — an ill-directed mind can do one still traditional interpretation of the term is that which greater harm.’ (S.42) is aware of an object (cinteti or vijan±ti).* Actually ‘What good neither mother nor father, nor any it is not that which thinks of an object as the term other relative can do — a well-directed mind does, implies. If it could be said ‘it thinks’ as one says in and thereby elevates one.’ (S.43) English ‘it rains’, it would be more in consonance with the Buddha’s teaching. From an ultimate point ‘Mind foreruns deeds — mind is chief, and of view Citta may be defined as the awareness of mind-made are they. If, therefore, one speaks or an object, since Buddhism denies a subjective acts with a wicked mind — pain pursues one, even agent like a soul. No distinction is made between as the wheel follows the draught ox.’ (S.1) mind and consciousness which are used as ‘Mind foreruns deeds — mind is chief, and equivalents for P±¼i “Citta”. mind-made are they. If, therefore, one speaks or The term Citta is usually employed in acts with a pure mind, happiness follows one, even Buddhist philosophy to denote different classes as one’s shadow.’ (S.2) of consciousness. In isolated cases, in the ordinary And in the Sa½yutta Nik±ya sense of mind, both Citta and Mana (derived from ‘By mind the world is led, by mind is drawn man, to think) are frequently used without any distinction. And all men own the sovereignty of mind.’ N±ma means that which turns towards an ‘This mind, monks, is luminous, but it is object. This term is used in connection with two defiled by taints that come from without. But this constituant parts of the so-called being— mind the uneducated manyfolk understands not as it and matter (N±ma-R³pa). really is. Wherefore for the uneducated manyfolk there is no cultivation of the mind, I declare. Viññ±ºa, derived from vi: + º±, to know, frequently occurs both in the Abhidhamma and That mind, monks, is luminous, but it is Sutta Piµakas, and it should be understood in cleansed of taints that come from without. This accordance with the context. the educated noble disciple understands as it really is. Wherefore for the educated noble disciple there ‘Whilst referring to the five ‘Groups’ is cultivation of the mind, I declare.’ (pañcakkhandha), the five aspects in which the Buddha has summed up all the physical and mental The complete purification of the mind is the phenomena of existence, and which appear to the ultimate aim of Buddhism. “Citta½ vimucci me” ignorant man as his Ego, or personality, N±ma is — my mind is delivered — was the paean of joy substituted by Viññ±ºa to denote consciousness. uttered by all Arahats. Here the prefix vi’ has no special meaning. It does It is from this ethical point of view that not connote superiority of ѱªa. In the Paµicca Buddhists interest themselves in the study of mind Sammup±da, Viññ±ºa, which is conditioned by 30 moral and immoral activities (saªkh±ra paccay± when any moral deed is done by them. This last viññ±ºa½), is to be understood as the rebirth- type is called Kiriya, literally deed or action, consciousness one experiences at the moment of because it is causally ineffective. conception (paµisandhi viññ±ºa). Here Kiriya is used in the sense of resultless In the Abhidhamma, Viññ±ºa is also used in action i.e. producing no result to the doer. connection with the five kinds of sense-door* Each consciousness a person experiences consciousness (dvipañca Viññ±ºa), and in one performs a definite function. Certain types of isolated case, Mano-viññ±ºa is applied to denote consciousness perform several functions, under a particular class of consciousness. In some places different circumstances, in various capacities. in the Sutta Piµaka it is stated ‘whatever suffering There are fourteen specific functions performed that arises is conditioned by viññ±ºa; with its by them all. cessation suffering ceases.’ Paµisandhi Citta. In the Abhidhamma there are mentioned 89 types of consciousness. Of them 81 are mundane Every living being at the very moment of (lokiya) and 8 are supra-mundane (lokuttara). The conception experiences a consciousness which mental object of the latter is Nibb±na. in combination with the sperm and ovum cells provided by the parents, tends to form the fetus. Consciousness is divided into four classes This potential initial consciousness is conditioned with respect to its nature. by the past Kammic force of that particular person. They are as follows It also inherits the accumulated impressions, 1. Immoral types of consciousness which are characteristics and so forth of that particular life- associated with attachment (lobha), aversion or flux just as the infinitesimally small cell, about 1/ illwill (paµigha) and ignorance (moha). 120th part of an inch across, inherits more or less the physical characteristics of its parents and its 2. Moral types of consciousness which are ancestors. This consciousness which links the past associated with non-attachment (alobha), goodwill with the present is regarded as the source of the (adosa), and wisdom (amoha). present life stream. In the course of one particular The immoral are regarded as unwholesome as life there is only one relinking consciousness. It is they produce undesirable effects (aniµµha vip±ka), also called rebirth consciousness (patisandhi citta). the moral as wholesome since they produce Buddhism does not state that mind is evolved desirable effects (iµµha vip±ka). Both immoral and from matter or that matter is evolved from mind. moral types of consciousness constitute what in Nor does Buddhism make any dogmatic statement P±¼i, are known as Kamma. with regard to the ultimate origin of mind or matter. 3. Those types of consciousness that arise as With the present as the basis Buddhism argues the the inevitable results of these moral and immoral past and future mainly with the object of types of consciousness are called resultant types discovering the cause or causes that condition of consciousness (Vip±ka). this ever-recurring cycle of birth and death. As a seed sown on fertile soil germinates and There are two other types of consciousness fructifies sooner or later, according to its own similar to this relinking consciousness, though intrinsic nature, even so moral and immoral types functionally they differ. They are so treated because of consciousness produce their desirable and the mental contents and the objects of these three undesirable effects here or hereafter. are identical. 4. The fourth type of consciousness is called One of them is called Bhavaªga and the other Kiriya which, for want of a better term, is rendered Cuti. ‘inoperative’ or ‘ineffective.’ As the actions of Bhavaªga (Bhava—aªga) means factor of life, Buddhas and Arahats lack reproductive power, it or indispensable cause or condition of existence. is such types of consciousness they experience 31 When a person is fast asleep and is in a initial thought-moment of life, so is Cuti the final dreamless state, he experiences a kind of thought-moment. They are the entrance and exit consciousness which is more passive than active. of one particular life stream. Cuti functions as a It is similar to the consciousness one experiences mere passing away from life. at the moment of conception and at the final Death occurs immediately on the Cuti moment of death. The Buddhist philosophical consciousness. Though with death the physical term for this type of consciousness is Bhavaªga. body disintegrates and consciousness temporarily Arising and perishing every moment, it flows on ceases, yet the life stream is not annihilated as the like a stream, not remaining for two consecutive Kammic force that propels it remains. Death is moments the same. only a prelude to birth. We experience this class of consciousness not Javana. only in a dreamless state but also in our waking state. In the course of our life we experience Another type of consciousness that should be Bhavaªga thought-moments more than any other clearly understood is the Javana consciousness. types of consciousness. Hence Bhavaªga is an Ordinarily the term Javana is employed in the sense indispensable condition of life. of swift. Javana hamsa, for example, means swift swan ; Javana paññ± means swift wisdom. In Some scholars identify Bhavaªga with sub- Buddhist philosophy it is used in a purely consciousness. According to the Dictionary of technical sense. Philosophy sub-consciousness is ‘a compartment of the mind alleged by certain psychologists and Here Javana means running. It is so called philosophers to exist below the threshold of because in the course of a thought-process it runs consciousness.’ In the opinion of Western consecutively for seven thought moments, or five philosophers sub-consciousness and with an identical object. The mental states consciousness co-exist. But Buddhist philosophy occuring in all these thought moments are similar, says no two types of consciousness co-exist. Nor but the potential force differs. is Bhavaªga a sub-plane. It does not correspond This Javana stage is the most important from to F.W. Myer’s ‘subliminal consciousness’ either. an ethical point of view. It is at this psychological There does not seem to be any place for Bhavaªga stage that good or evil is actually done. in Western Philosophy. Perhaps we may be using Irrespective of the desirability or the undesirability these philosophical terms with different meanings. of the object presented to the mind it is possible Bhavaºga is so called because it is an essential for one to make the Javana process moral or condition for continued subjective existence. immoral. If for, instance, one meets an enemy, a thought of hatred will arise automatically. An Radhakrishnan writes : ‘Bhavaºga is understanding person, might, on the contrary, subconscious existence, or more accurately harbour a thought of love towards him. This is the existence free from waking consciousness. reason why the Buddha states in the Dhammapada Bhavaºga is subconscious existence when subjectively viewed, though objectively it is ‘By self is evil done, sometimes taken to mean Nibb±na.’ By self is one defiled, This certainly is not Buddhist. Bhavaºga By self is evil not done, occurs in the waking consciousness, too, By self is one purified. immediately after a thought process, and is never Both defilement and purity depend on oneself, identified with Nibb±na. Life continuum has been No one is purified by another.’ suggested as the closest English equivalent for S 165 Bhavaºga. It is an admitted fact that environment, Cuti or Decease Consciousness. circumstances, habitual tendencies and so forth As Paµisandhi or rebirth consciousness is the condition our thoughts. On such occasions 32 freewill is subordinated to the mechanistic course It must not be understood that consciousness of events. There is also the possibility to overcome is chopped up in bits and joined together like a those external forces and produce moral and train or a chain. But on the contrary, ‘it constantly immoral thoughts exercising our own freewill. flows on like a river receiving, from the tributary A foreign element may be instrumental, but streams of sense, constant accretions to its flood we ourselves are directly responsible for our and ever dispensing to the world around it the actions. We create our own heavens. We create thought stuff it has gathered up by the way. It has our own hells. birth for its source and death for its mouth.’ It is extremely difficult to suggest a suitable Here we find a juxtaposition of fleeting states rendering for Javana. of consciousness but not a superposition of such states as some appear to believe. No state once Apperception is suggested by some. Impulse gone ever recurs none is absolutely identical with is suggested as an alternate rendering, which seems what goes before. These states constantly change, to be less satisfactory than apperception. It is best not remaining for two consecutive moments the to retain the P±¼i term. same. Worldlings, veiled by the web of illusion, Buddhist philosophy shows that there is no mistake this apparent continuity to be something moment when we do not ordinarily experience a eternal and go to the extent of introducing an particular kind of consciousness, hanging on to unchanging soul (the supposed doer and observer some object — whether physical or mental. The of all actions) to this ever changing consciousness. time limit of such a consciousness is termed one Though consciousness is a unit in itself it thought-moment. Each thought-moment is consists of fleeting mental states. There are 52 followed by another. Time is thus the sine qua such mental concomitants that arise in different non of the succession of mental states. The types of consciousness in varying degrees. rapidity of the succession of such thought- moments is hardly conceivable to human One of them is feeling (vedan±) ; another is knowledge. perception (saññ±). The remaining 50 are collectively called volitional activities (saºkh±r±), Each unit of consciousness consists of three a rendering which does not exactly convey the minor instants (khaºas). They are arising or genesis meaning of the P±¼i term. Of them volition or (upp±da), static or development (th²ti) and cetan± is the most important mental factor. cessation or dissolution, (bhaºga). Feeling is a more appropriate rendering for Immediatedly after the cessation stage of a ved±n± than sensation. It is an essential property thought-moment there occurs the genesis stage of of every consciousness and it may be pleasurable, the sbsequent thought-moment. Each momentary painful or neutral. consciousness of this ever-changing life-process, on passing away, transmits its whole energy, all Feeling is like a master who enjoys a dish the indelibly recorded impressions to the prepared by a cook. It is feeling that experiences successor. Each fresh consciousness thus consists the desirable or undesirable fruits of an action of the potentialities of its predecessors and done in this or a previous birth. Apart from this something more. mental state there is no permanent soul or any other agent to experience the result of the action. There is therefore a continuous flow of consciousness like a stream without any ‘Kammassa k±rako natthi vip±kassa ca vedako interruption. The subsequent thought-moment is Suddhadhamm± pavattanti eveta½ samma neither absolutely the same as its predecessor — dassana½.’ since its composition is not identical — nor ‘No doer is there who does the deed, entirely different — being the same stream of life. Nor is there one who eats the fruit; There is no identical being, but there is a continuity in process. Constituent parts alone exist 33 This verily is the right view. Cetan± plays a prominent part in all moral Visuddhi Magga. and immoral actions. The most significant mental Strictly speaking, there is no actor apart from state in the mundane (lokiya) consciousness is action, no perceiver apart from perception, or, in this cetan±, whilst that in the supramundane other words, no conscious subject behind (lokuttara) is paññ±, wisdom or insight. Mundane consciousness. thoughts tend to accumulate kamma. Supramundane thoughts, on the contrary, tend to Professor James is quite Buddhistic when he eradicate kamma. Hence cetan± in the says — ‘Thoughts themselves are the thinkers.’ supramundane consciousness does not constitute It should be understood that the bliss of kamma. Nibb±na is not associated with any kind of feeling. It is this cetan± that is alluded to as saºkh±ra In conventional terms the Buddha says — and kammabhava in the paµicca samupp±da. Nibb±na½ parama½ sukha½ — Nibb±na is the Whilst dealing with the Five ‘Groups’, highest bliss. It is bliss supreme because it is not a saºkh±akkhandha (mental formations) is used to kind of happiness that is experienced by the senses. denote the fifty mental states excluding feeling, It is a positive blissful state of relief. It is not the and perception, with volition as the foremost. enjoyment of any pleasurable object. From a psychological point of view, volition In the Majjhima Nik±ya the Buddha says ‘The determines the activities of the mental states Exalted One does not recognize bliss because of a associated with it. From an ethical point of view, pleasurable sensation; but wheresoever bliss is it determines their inevitable consequences. Hence attained, there and there only does the where there is no volition there is no kamma. Accomplished One recognize bliss.’ Of the fifty-two mental states, seven are Saññ±, the second factor, means simply sense- common to all types of consciousness. The first in perception. It is Saññ± that enables one to recognize order is phassa or contact. an object that has once been perceived by the mind. It should be understood that perception is For any sense-impression to occur, three factors not used here in the sense employed by early are essential, namely — consciousness, receptive modern philosophers such as Bacon, Descartes, sense, and the object. For instance, one perceives Spinoza, and Leibnitz. an object with the consciousness through the eye as its instrument. It is still more correct to say that Memory is due to this perception. perception is a combination of these three factors. Cetan± or volition is the most important of all When an object presents itself to the saºkh±ras or volitional activities. consciousness through one of the six senses there Both cetan± and citta are derived from the same arises the mental state—contact. It should not be root citi, to think. In the case of citta, mind or understood that mere collison is contact (na consciousness, the root assumes the meaning of sangatimatto eva phasso). discernment (vij±nana), whilst in cetan± it is used Like a pillar which acts as a strong support to in the sense of co-ordination (abhisandh±na) and the rest of the structure, even so is contact to the accumulation (±y³hana). co-existent mental states. Cetan± is that which co-ordinates the mental Feeling is the second, perception, the third, states associated with itself on the object of and volition, the fourth. consciousness. Like a chief disciple, or like a foreman carpenter who fulfils his duties and Ekaggat± or one-pointedness is the fifth regulates the work of others as well, so does cetan± mental state. It is concentration on one object or fulfil its own function and regulate the function focusing the mind on one object. It is compared to of other concomitants associated with itself. a steady lamp-flame in a windless place; to a firmly fixed pillar that cannot be shaken by the wind; to 34 water that binds together several substances to This stream of consciousness flows ad form one compound. That mental state tends to infinitum as long as it is fed by the muddy waters prevent its co-adjuncts from dissipation. of ignorance and craving. When these two are This one-pointedness is one of the five Jh±na completely cut off, then only does the stream of factors. When it is developed and cultivated it is consciousness cease to flow. An ultimate designated ‘sam±dhi’. ‘It is the germ of all beginning of this stream of consciousness cannot attentive, selected, focused, or concentrated be determined, as a stage cannot be perceived when consciousness.’ this life-force was not fraught with ignorance and craving. J²vitindriya or psychic life is the sixth mental state. J²vita means life and indriya, controlling This uninterrupted flux or continuity of or faculty or principle. It is called j²vita because it consciousness, conditioned by Kamma has no sustains its co-associates. Although volition perceptible source in the beginningless past nor determines the activities of mental states it is an end to its continuation in the future, except by j²vitindriya that vitalizes volition and other the Noble Eightfold Path. There is no permanent concomitants. As lotuses are sustained by water, ego or eternal soul as postulated in some religious an infant is sustained by a nurse, so are mental systems. states sustained by jivitindriya. THE SEAT OF CONSCIOUSNESS Death is regarded as the destruction of this It is clear that the Buddha has not definitely psychic life. Immediately after, due to the power assigned a specific basis for consciousness as He of Kamma, another psychic life arises in the has done with the other senses. It was the cardiac subsequent life at the moment of conception. theory that prevailed in His time, and this was The seventh universal mental state is evidently supported by the Upanishads. The manasik±ra or attention. The literal meaning of Buddha could have adopted this popular theory, the term is ‘making in the mind.’ Turning the mind but He did not commit Himself. In the Paµµh±na, towards the object is the chief characteristic of the Book of Relations, the Buddha refers to the manasik±ra. It is like the rudder of a ship, which is basis of consciousness in such indirect terms as indispensable to take her directly to her “ya½ r³pa½ niss±ya,’ depending on that material destination. Mind without manasik±ra is like a thing. What that material thing was, the Buddha ruderless ship. Manasik±ra is also compared to a did not positively assert. But according to the charioteer with close attention on two well-trained views of commentators like venerable horses (mind and object) as regards their Buddhaghosa and Anuruddha the seat of rhythmical movements. conciousness is the heart (hadayavatthu). One wonders whether one is justified in presenting the Attention is the closest equivalent to cardiac theory as Buddhist when the Buddha manasik±ra, although the P±¼i term does not fully Himself neither rejected nor accepted this popular connote the meaning attached to the English word theory. from a strictly philosophical point of view. As a mental state it is mere spontaneous attention. In NOTE: manasik±ra, as in attention, there is no peculiar The purely mechanical side is, of course, the vividness or clarity. To perception may be brain, but that is merely a tool, the most complex attributed this vividness to some extent. machine-tool imaginable. It is this tool that “mind” Manasik±ra is an aid to memory as it is uses and one should not with “blind disbelief” common to all types of consciousness. reject the cardiac theory on purely material evidence, since none really exists. 35 THE EARNEST WISH Ohn Ghine Much confusion is caused in the minds of can contact is in continual change and subject some Westerners when in their Buddhist reading to the same disadvantages thereby as they or in conversation with Buddhists of Asia they themselves are. come across terms. which express, for them, So the meaning of ‘prayer’ is important. For concepts they cling to as part of their theist prayer is merely an earnest wish that is usually outlook or, on the other hand, have recently but not necessarily addressed to one who has, it discarded as ‘mere superstition’. There is much is supposed, the ability to make that wish come talking at cross purposes in this. The Asian whose true. The word is from the Latin ‘precarius’, mother tongue is not English means something ‘obtained by prayer’ and the Romans were realist slightly different to the concept he evokes when enough to use the same word (our modern he speaks of ‘priests’ and ‘prayer’ and ‘religion’ ‘precarious’) for ‘doubtful’, and they derived the for instance. There is no excuse really for using word from ‘precor’ meaning both ‘to entreat’ and the word ‘priest’ since a priest is an intermediary ‘to wish for’, just as our P±¼i word pattheti has between a supposed God or Angel and man, and both these meanings. there can be nothing in Buddhism even approximating that spiritual brokerage whereby And in Buddhism it is as an ‘Earnest Wish’ a man buys or barters his way to ‘Heaven’. that we most often use the word ‘Prayer’. Even then we could perhaps be a little more positive But in the use of ‘prayer’ there is often a and term it, as it often has been termed, ‘An Act misunderstanding on the part of the Westerner of Truth’. who is blinded by his concept of ‘prayer’ as a theist instrument and is not always aware of the One often finds in the old Scriptures the ‘Act subtle nuances of meaning of the word. To a of Truth’ and this Act of Truth is remarkably theist or an ex-theist, ‘prayer’ is associated with potent. It has died out in the world to a great an earnest request or petition to a supposed extent with the dying out of the resolute courage supernatural Being, able and, given the right that is necessary for the telling of truth and for mood and the right supplication and, sometimes, making a vow that one must keep at all costs; the right sacrifice, willing to grant a boon or and with the partial dying out of the courage avert a threatened danger. necessary for shouldering one’s own burdens and responsibilities, the Act of Truth has When a non-Buddhist is told that there is no degenerated into slavish prayers or petitions to ‘God’ in Buddhism, or anywhere else, in the supposed Divine Beings for ‘ever-present help sense of an all-powerful Creator, and that all the in time of trouble’. responsibility for one’s actions can not be bartered for submissiveness, he says: ‘But Avery beautiful instance of the Act of Truth Buddhists do pray, I’ve heard them say they pray is given in the Majjh²ma Nik±ya where the former and I’ve read of them praying: to whom, then, bandit-murderer, Angulim±la, desires to help a do they pray?’, he is somewhat puzzled if he devout woman lay-disciple in difficult and receives the reply that if Buddhists pray (as dangerous childbirth. The Buddha tells him to some, it must be admitted, sometimes do) they recite parittas (help- giving stanzas) after pray to themselves as the theists do; but the making the Act of Truth : ‘Earnestly wishing by Buddhists usually know that their prayers are the virtue of the fact that I have not in my whole really addressed to themselves and not to a life harmed anybody by word, thought or deed, postulated ‘God’ projected forth from their that the devout laywoman may come safely personalities as something separate and distinct, through her ordeal.’ Taken aback, Angulim±la and changeless. They know that anything they pointed out the murders he had committed in 36 the past. Then the Buddha told him to make an take it all in with his eye and to make the earnest Act of Truth that never since he had been reborn wish : ‘May I, as I am sincere and hard-working, by entering the Noble Order and changing some day be the sole owner of this buikling and himself by gaining the stages of the Path, had he may my fortune grow as long as I own it.’ He harmed any being. This joyfully done, confided this to some of his few friends who Angulim±la’s efforts were successful. were inclined to jeer at ‘the future millionaire’. To the old-fashioned ‘materialist’ this and One day, taking a brief rest against some bales other Acts of Truth, earnest wishes based on and of goods piled on the jetty, he pondered his fate made the more earnest by an appeal to Truth and his position and came closer than he had itself, may sound fanciful and superstitious; yet ever been to complete discouragement and that will only prove him really vulnerable to the defeat. He was following an occupation that epithet ‘old-fashioned’, since the painstaking killed men young, and he was nearing middle team of scientists in the Parapsychology age. Department of Duke University in U.S.A. (to He made the earnest wish ‘By my sincerity mention only one band of workers in this field) and hard work, if my future is ever to change has had results that at least go a very long way may it change now, before it is too late.’ In that towards proving the truth of psychokinesis, the moment of exaltation, his sharpened hearing and action of ‘mind’ on ‘matter’ at a distance. attention took in what had been just the drone But even apart from psychokinesis there are of voices coming from the other side of the bales normal psychological values that come into play of goods. An itinerant fortune-teller was and a rather amusing instance in real life and on consoling a customer, a comfortably-off a somewhat mundane plane is worth relating if Burmese widow: ‘You need not despair, madam, only to show the interaction of these several although your daughter is not as beautiful or as factors. young as some, she is sure to obtain a good husband who will be kind to her and who will The story was told me by one of the younger make your small fortune into a great one, though actors in the comedy and as he has since died at he may be poor to start with.’ The poor boatman a ripe age the telling can harm no-one. immediately walked round the pile of goods and In the latter half of the last century there lived exclaimed to the astonished trio: ‘Indeed the in Rangoon a poor and uneducated Chinese who fortune-teller is a wise man and speaks truth. I earned a meagre living by plying a sampan on am the man who will marry your daughter as he the swift-flowing Rangoon river, struggling with foresaw and I can make your small fortune into a goods or passengers to manipulate, his sweep very great one’. All eventually agreed that it and steer his frail craft for the few small coins must be so and he married the girl to whom he that served but to keep him alive. was a very good husband. One of the first things he did was to buy the building he had vowed to He had ambition, courage, initiative, a strong buy and he became one of the richest men in will and a good physique but could not make Burma. The building in later years seemed small enough, though he worked long hours at his and mean to his son, but never could he be arduous occupation, to raise himself above persuaded to part with it. subsistence level and gain even a small capital to carry on trade on his own account though he The Chinese friend who told me the story felt certain he could make his fortune at it. related how, when he was an impecunious youngster of ten, he, with others who had heard He had often noticed a fine brick building the story in popular gossip, used to choose a not far from the foreshore which, though not time when the owner was outside the building large by some standards, was, to his vision, a and walk ceremoniously round it, if they could palace, and he was one day inspired to walk dodge the caretaker who was paid to drive them round the building, to gaze longingly at it and 37 away, and say earnestly ‘May I some day be the well in the folk-lore of most peoples where the owner of this building’. The now wealthy man who gets his wish finds that it brings Chinese owner, who had come up the hard way, disaster. would never spend a copper coin that he could And many a man who has said ‘I’ll be avoid spending, let alone give anything away, damned if I do it’ and then does it, damns himself yet he would at once offer money to the young for a period in actuality. Indeed, benediction, blackmailers to take back their words. the speaking of good wishes, and malediction, Now to put the whole case down to ‘chance the speaking of bad wishes or cursing, has been plus psychology’ does not explain everything used by almost every man who has ever lived. as the old man knew when he paid blackmail to The ancients had a sure instinct which has been the youngsters. He was as hard-headed a realist practically lost in the mad whirl of the modern as any that has traded in the world, and he had world, of the potency of these, which are both proved the efficacy of the ‘Earnest Wish’. earnest wishes. Although an earnest wish can In just the same manner any man can prove change outside circumstances, it the more its efficacy, especially if he makes it an Act of quickly and the more surely changes the one Truth. But in making the Act of Truth and the who wishes. Earnest Wish one should be very careful that There is really only one Earnest Wish that is there is a moral motive behind it. Otherwise there at all worth the making, since all things change can be the danger of obtaining one’s desire at a and all times are dangerous times. That is the time when one no longer desires it, and that has Earnest wish ‘May I, by virtue of my past good proved, at times, calamitous. This is shown very deeds and my earnest striving, attain Nibb±na’.

“The burden is indeed the fivefold mass: The seizer of the burden, man: Taking it up is sorrow in this world: The laying of it down is bliss.

If a man lay this heavy burden down, And take not any other burden up: If he draw out that craving, root and all, No more an-hungered, he is free.”

—Sa½yutta-Nik±ya xxii, Sec. 22. 38 THE BUDDHIST VIEW ON RACE RELATIONS By Venerable Aggamahdpandita U Thittila The problem of race, of the idea of approach, the problem has been treated from superiority of race, of race prejudice, of “colour almost every quarter. It is here, however, that we bar” and consequently of the implementation, so often find how far man is from appreciating in the fullest and broadest sense of the word, of the utterly uncompromising dicta of an absolute the Charter of Human Rights, is one which, apart morality, how, in obedience to his desire, man from some of its terms of reference, is not new. will construct an opinion, a relative morality, Neither does it appear from its latest forms of quite inconsistent with the principles of his expression to be nearer to solution than on any outwardly accepted canons of moral teaching. previous date. That the problem as such may be Here, of course, our duty is to deal with the settled on paper by making use of the data (or distinct problem of race, but it is clearly to be lack of it) available from the many scientific observed that such matters arise fundamentally bodies concerned with such matters, is proved from an attitude of mind which is intolerant of beyond all possible doubt. That the problem the smallest difference between individuals. still remains, however, regardless of its apparent Differences in habit, appearance, gesture, speech, theoretical solution, is a matter of grave concern. outlook or opinion of another individual as It indicates that an aspect of the problem has genetically and anatomically related to one as either not been appreciated, or if appreciated one’s own brother can cause this intolerance to has not been approached with anything other arise. Extend this and we witness, within the than prejudice or a complete lack of confines of what is called a race, the religious understanding of the fundamentals of the persecutions of the earlier centuries based on a psychology of beings in general and of human relative morality prescribed by political beings in particular. Before enlarging on these necessity founded on a desire for power and fundamentals, however, let us examine briefly position. Extend this and we witness the true what would, in the more usual sense of the word, race prejudice, born of a relative morality urged be considered the scientific approach to the in the name of true religion, which spread over subject. Let us satisfy ourselves again that by areas of the South American continent, See, means of this approach we have clearly proved though, how this arose from a deceptive state of to ourselves without a shadow of doubt the mind which cloaked its desire to explore, to groundlessness of race prejudice. Let us show become rich and powerful, with the majesty of by means of our scientific knowledge that there the “Word of God” carried to “the benighted— is no basis whatever on which we can say, on the heathen, the pagan, the inferior—the any pretext, that, given suitable environment, coloured man.” A man fit only to be killed if he there is the slightest evidence of a difference of stood in the way of—what ?— The Word of God, ability between racial groups. or Desire. Besides the scientific method, and before it To return to the scientific aspect of this very in matter of time, is the literary approach, dealing important problem. Here is an occasion to as it does with considerations of historical observe with what care and with what objectivity background and the authoritative opinion of the the individual scientist has pursued his task. ancients. Then there is the religious attitude Whether his task was originally framed to prove shown, in principle, as the statement or an absolute and fundamental race difference, or command of a humanly-created “Almighty God” whether to indicate conclusively, once and for or, in extenso, as the “Law of the Prophets” and all, that all men are brothers, he has pursued it. the commentarial elucidations of the scholar— Regardless of this task, however, data has been teachers. Morally, as an aspect of the literary collected; data which, according to the bias of 39 the statistician, has been formulated in such a Nevertheless, where one system may by manner that political necessity has been able to persistent and detailed examination of elevate one group to the level of master race and experimental data fail to perceive differences condemn another to extermination on the which could be interpreted as sufficient grounds grounds of racial inferiority. for racial prejudice, the other will show and prove beyond all doubt that the individual is Only the completely unprejudiced mind can the only unit. This latter system will show that examine statistics and discover in that data the root structure is invariably comparable, and that knowledge it seeks. There have been many such behaviour and performance are matters of who have laboured honestly and tirelessly at environment coupled with personal, not parental the very detailed and complicated tasks of or racial, tendency. collecting and editing anthropological, genetical, psychological, historical, Professor Otto Klineberg in his excellent sociological, political and cultural material with little pamphlet “Race and Psychology”, deals the true aim of discovering why one group of with the problem of possible racial differences individuals should show prejudice against in a helpful and systematic manner. He groups another. the various aspects of the experimental approach to the question in an all-embracing and logical Let us then review, summarize and try to draw fashion. He shows that tests imposed on a conclusion from some of the aspects analysed individuals intended to illustrate difference of by researchers in their various fields. Psychology ability are almost always inconclusive, since by is perhaps a good aspect on which to begin, since far the greater part of an individual’s reaction to it is a subject of growing importance in the any test is dominated by the effect of his examination of human behaviour. A subject environmental background. Moreover, tests which has been approached by Western workers however cleverly devised can never quite be in a manner quite different from that traditional freed from such deficiencies owing to their to the Eastern hemisphere. The Western method having been framed initially on the basis of seeks to analyse individuals in terms of the another environmental background. He does results arising from their behaviour and reaction show, however, and this is important, that when to set problems and stimuli associated, to a members of different ethnic groups are subject greater or lesser degree, with the environment of to the same environmental conditions their I.Q.’s the subject, that of the researcher, or in terms of (intelligence quotients) show only the expected an artificial set of conditions by which neither individual difference, never superiority or side is unduly affected. The Eastern method, and inferiority of ethnic group. Now it is clear that particularly the Buddhist approach, seeks to people exhibit considerable physical difference, interpret the very thought of the individual in differences which give to the popular mind the terms of a root structure bearing in its very nature idea of race. He shows, however, that variations the tendency and bias which will warp the such as white skin, black skin, yellow skin, absolute clarity of experience. A warping which straight hair, woolly hair, blue eyes, black eyes, renders us all, to a greater or lesser degree, what long heads, broad heads, etc., in their many one might in Western terminology call combinations and permutations exhibit no “psychopathic”. Psychopathic when equated greater tendency to variation than is with the universal yard-stick of ethical purity, demonstrated between the individuals showing unbiased perception and equanimity. (The dominance of one particular characteristic. That Buddha it was who said: “Putthujjano is, they never show a mental capability or uinmattako”: All ordinary men are mad.) The deficiency associated with a physical approaches to this subject are clearly quite characteristic. He indicates that tests designed different, and the results may at first sight appear to demonstrate the upper limit of ability among sometimes to be at variance with each other. 40 the various ethnic groups show that every such the prejudices of others and resulting in inferior group possesses roughly the same percentage of environmental conditions. high I.Qs. Moreover, he says, it is quite evident When the subject of race and individual that race mixture as such never of itself brings capability is dealt with in accordance with the about inferiority. It is the environmental methods of genetical study, it would appear that conditions built largely on the prejudices of the case for non-discrimination becomes greater others which cause these groups so often to even than is shown by Western psychological become degraded and to be of apparently lower studies. According to the theories of geneticists mental standard. It would appear also that in which have grown and been expanded from the matters such as rate of mental growth, of specific original experimental work of Gregor Mendel, ability, of temperament and differences of it would appear that the hereditary characteristics personality, the factor showing controlling of an individual are the result of the influence is again environment. If this factor is combinations and permutations of innumerable not taken into account the resulting tests have discrete particles called genes. Each of these only the effect of showing how “white” a genes transmits without change, except in the particular ethnic group may be. It can readily be specific case of mutation, a characteristic and appreciated how misleading, and dangerous, deterministic quality in the overall growth and data of this kind may become if used by the structure of a new individual from the moment unscrupulous to satisfy personal, political and of conception onward throughout his life. It also nationalistic ends. One may go much further enables him in turn to propagate a gene structure than this and say how misleading data of this which will again determine the detailed form of kind has been in the past and still is at this very a further being in accordance with these moment, and how it continues to be used for individually unchanged but variously these same personal, political and nationalistic combined ultra-microscopic bodies. To what ends. On paper, however, this short extent the gene theory can be observed in the psychological analysis shows that no difference mental structure and behaviour of related beings in expected performance between ethnic groups is, however, another matter. One will appreciate may be found, provided the environmental basis that it is often easy to perceive a physical is a constant in the experiment. Remove this similarity between parents and their children, constant and we can prove how black, white, or nevertheless it is usually readily realizable, by yellow a man is in just the same way as in the honest self examination, that one’s own mental well known school algebraic problem the student characteristics are quite different from those of is asked to express ‘‘b’’ and ‘‘c’’ in terms of ‘‘a’’, one’s parents, similarities being the result of or ‘‘a’’ and “c” in terms of “b”. Several times the education and environment. The basic, term “ethnic group” has been used in the underlying and governing bias of one’s character foregoing, perhaps in the sense of its having is clearly a feature quite peculiar to the some specific meaning. It may seem as though individual. This, however, departs from the point one were speaking of a pure race with decided somewhat. It was intended to show, on the characteristics and in which the individuals findings of geneticists, that dominant physical could be said to be comparable in their major characteristics may be perceived locally, due to and minor details. Such, however, is by no means the perpetuation of certain gene combinations the case, for although the main and usually by environmentally selective mating, that these quoted feature of skin colour may be a fairly same genes may be present in any individual on constant aspect of human grouping, inter- the globe and may be transmitted freely and in breeding between the various groups may be accordance with regular laws between and is practised without any degrading effect individuals of any other gene structure whatever, either mentally or physically. The only whatsoever. This would prove again that the so- effects are those produced purely artificially by called racial characteristics are, as such, only 41 the result of a few of the many thousands of individuals may be subjected, either singly or genes which according to modern theory in groups, it becomes very clear that unless these determine the detailed physical and operative backgrounds were swept away in every detail, structure of the individual. however small, and replaced by one in which every detail were identical—even On paper, therefore, it can, as previously geographically and climatically—there would stated, readily be proved that there is no physical always arise what would eventually be called or mental foundation whatsoever for these very different “cultures”. This is not to say that if prevalent racial prejudices. Yet, despite all this, such an impossible thing could be achieved we the fact remains that they are still strong and would have “one universal culture”. Far from it, show too little sign of abating. Consequently but we shall deal with this when we speak of we must turn our attention in other directions to Kamma. Since the stabilizing of environment see what aspect has been left unexamined which on a common basis is fundamentally an might give a clue to the problem. It may be that impossibility, and a contradiction of the very this problem is one which from its very nature order of things, the environmental solution on a cannot be solved in anything other than an general basis would in any case be useless. individual manner. However, the possibility of general solution must not be abandoned at this Now we speak of culture in broad terms such stage for lack of examination. as Eastern culture, Western culture, European culture, Chinese culture, Asian culture and so Two things remain to be spoken of, they are on, thereby signifying basic differences of what environment and mental nature. The first of these we personally either approve or disapprove, to a two has been mentioned frequently in degree depending on our own knowledge, connection with every kind of examination of education and perception. Does not this very the point at issue, whether it be psychological, point then give the clue to the whole problem of genetical, anthropological, historical or literary. race prejudice, a clue not to be found in any of It is, admittedly, an aspect of the greatest the physical studies made, or in what one might importance, for it points the way to what could— call psycho-physical examinations of if it were so desired—be a general solution to representative subjects. Does not the the question. It would appear from all the tests explanation, and the elucidation, of this great made, however efficient or inefficient they may question lie in the individual’s own attitude to have been, that provided a being is subject to a the way of life, habits and customs of other particular kind of environment from a very early individuals or groups. His attitude to their culture age he will react to that environment and develop and to their environment in terms of his own a mental outlook influenced by it. Moreover, he experience and in accordance with the will be comparable with any other individual of underlying structure of his own mental process. whatever group one may choose who has been His mental process, that personal bias or habitual subject to the same environment. If, therefore, form of mind, which, quite irrespective of the the tests are formulated by a member of one theoretical proof of a problem in physical terms, particular set of dominant environmental will strike an attitude depending upon whether conditions, beings who are examined in he likes or dislikes the local characteristics and accordance with that series of tests will show a habits of other beings. The great teaching of greater or lesser aptitude and could be awarded Dependent Origination of the Buddha is: a higher or lower quotient of intelligence accordingly as their own environmental “Phassa paccay± vedan± background approximated to, or deviated from, Vedan± paccay± taºh± that dominating the test. As it is clearly Taºh± paccay± up±d±na½ observable that there are many varying Up±d±na paccay± bhavo” environmental backgrounds to which 42 Freely translated this says that from the These three roots are roots in full reality. They contact we make with various objects there arise go deep down in the very fibres of our being, in us feelings, which are either painful, pleasant they are thus part of what we call “Us”, “I”, or neutral. From these feelings there arise “Personality”, for animals as well as for humans cravings either to possess the object or to have and Devas. it removed. From these cravings there arise Even in the “colour bar” we are considering, positive graspings which make one wish not we find that this goes deeper than thought, down only to possess but to retain, not only to remove to the depths of our emotionality, our instinct. the undesirable but to keep it away at all times. Put a Black Orpington hen in with some White In this manner existence proceeds based on an Leghorns or vice versa and you will see an instant ignorance of the real nature of things, and, by mass attack against the intruder of another this latent bias of ignorance, expressing itself in colour. In the animal world the instinct to attack, the type of feeling arising after contact with an to destroy that which shows a difference, even if object and proceeding to craving and grasping, it is one of the herd in other respects, can be the cycle of laying down the bias for future life noticed. For “difference” spells “danger” to the (and opinion) proceeds. herd instinct. If we are to solve the race problem at all there A truly civilised man is one who has is but one way in which it can be done. What is succeeded to some extent in controlling his that way ? It is by the examination of one’s own instincts. Full control of the instincts and of the biases and characteristics. It is by the gradual mind is prerequisite to Arahatship or Supreme extirpation of those biases and characteristics Buddhahood, one of which is the goal of every with the consequent disappearance of the Buddhist. conceit which says, “I am the better man.” To be subject to an environment is in the very nature The worm, the God, the man, none is free of things, but, by persistent analysis and from instinct, and none is free from the roots of understanding, to free oneself mentally from the Craving, Aversion and Ignorance. bonds of that or any other environment is the That it is that hinders the acceptance of solution to the problem. It is not a mass solution, logical, scientific proofs that colour or shape of but it answers the question, “Can the race the head make no final difference, in the mass problem be solved?” by the simple answer, “Yes, (though it is still true that individual differences if you wish it to be solved, now, here, and for can make great differences in the world: as yourself “. Pascal said: “If Cleopatra’s nose had been shorter, The very small saying given above the whole face of the earth would have been regarding contact, feeling, craving and grasping, changed.”) In every ethnic group there are, on is but a tiny fraction of the Buddhist attitude to the one hand, outstanding individuals and, on the questions of race, individual and existence, the other, individuals repressed economically so it would be profitable in the following pages and culturally. There are Negro Prime Ministers to examine this attitude in greater detail. It is an who dine and dance with white royalty and attitude which shows that the problem can be ‘‘poor whites’’ who could never get that solved, not by legislation, not by research into opportunity, which shows that political and the characteristics of others, but by gaining economic considerations leap the “colour bar”. understanding of oneself and thereby of the true Why this should be so is a “Divine mystery’ underlying cause of the trouble. What is the to the believers in “Divine Providence” but cause? The three roots which dominate the quite understandable to those who have a existences of us all : Greed, Hatred and knowledge of Kamma and Rebirth. Indeed even Ignorance. if one accepts the idea of Kamma and Rebirth as 43 a theory merely, it still remains the only theory outcaste’s in so far as its impure stinking that will fit the facts and give any sort of logical nauseating repulsiveness is concerned.” reason and “raison d’etre” to the world. Also, in the Agañña Sutta of the D²gha Before entering on a further consideration Nik±ya, the Buddha showed that some people of this, let us consider some other aspects of the of the ‘highest caste’ performed good actions Buddhist view on race and colour prejudice and thereby after the death of their present generally. bodies, manifested in better realms, while there were those of the same caste who performed evil This is not the place to moralise on the actions which caused their manifestation in modern manifestations in various countries of worlds of greater suffering. Similarly there were colour prejudice nor to prophesy as to the those of the despised castes or ‘outcastes’ whose ultimate fate of those “systems” based on this deeds took them to higher or lower existences; and of the countries that cling tenaciously to while in the S±maññaphala Sutta of the D²gha them, but to quote what the Buddha said so long Nik±ya, He showed that even in this world the ago king himself would pay reverence to a man of “Not by birth is one an outcaste, Not by birth low caste if that man became a monk. This, by is one a noble; the way, shows that there was not the rigidity of the caste system which grew up later. But by deeds is one an outcaste, And by deeds is one a noble.” In the Majjh²ma Nik±ya we find that the Buddha treated of caste pretensions in two —Khuddaka-Nik±ya, Suttanip±ta, Vasala- separate Sermons. In the Ass±l±yana Sutta He Sutta, Verse 142. pointed out that the fire produced by a person And in the Visuddhimagga it is put very pretending to kingly rank and high caste and plainly : “This is the body’s nature: it is a using for the purpose of making fire, the costliest collection of bones plastered over with pieces of sandal wood, would differ in no respect from of flesh, enveloped in moist inner skin, enclosed the fire produced by a poor man of ‘low caste’ in the outer cuticle, with orifices here and there, using the castor-plant stubble from pig-sties as constantly dribbling and trickling like a grease regards the production of heat and light. In the pot, inhabited by a community of worms, the Madhura Sutta, He drove this idea home by home of disease, the basis of painful states, showing that spiritual advancement of both rich perpetually oozing from the nine orifices like a and poor, those claiming high caste and those chronic open carbuncle, from both of whose eyes despised as of low caste, differed in no respect eye-filth trickles, from whose ears ear-filth, from whatsoever. The ‘spiritual fire’ is the same. And whose nostrils snot, from whose mouth food and both types will, pass away according to their bile and phlegm and blood, from whose lower deeds, since both types produce evildoers and outlets excrement and urine, and from whose the doers of good. pores the broth of stale sweat seeps, with blue- KAMMA AND REBIRTH bottles and their like buzzing round it, which when untended with tooth sticks and mouth- ‘Men are heirs of their Kamma’: said the washing and head-anointing and bathing and Buddha. Kamma means deeds and therefore men underclothing and dressing would, judged by are the heirs of their deeds, the deeds done in the the universal repulsiveness of the body, make remote past as well as in the present ‘life’. even a king, if he wandered from village to Adefinite knowledge of this or, in those cases village with his hair in its natural wild disorder, where there is no definite knowledge, a belief in no different from a flower-scavenger or an this, is natural to Buddhists since it was stated outcaste or what you will. So there is no so unequivocally and so often by the Buddha. distinction between a king’s body and an 44 Here we must digress a little to show how cloth, and strokes that rock, and so at the end of ‘beliefs’ are held by Buddhists, since otherwise another hundred years, and another hundred we may be accused of ‘blind belief’ and ‘dogma’ years. At the end of each hundred years this both of which are foreign to Buddhism. happens and there is nothing else to wear away Naturally one doesn’t call oneself a the mountain. Sooner would this mountain be Buddhist’ unless one accepts the Teaching of worn away thus, said the Buddha, than would the Buddha, which has been so well preserved an aeon pass, and of such aeons, there have been in the P±¼i Canon, that never contradicts itself many hundreds, many thousands, since this and that is susceptible of proof in every world system began and there will be many particular. hundreds, many thousands before this world system is destroyed to give place to another. This is where ‘belief’ must come in and where Against such a background the pretensions of there is ‘dogma’ in the sense of the word that superiority of an individual or a,class seem as means ‘strongly-held opinions’. But these childish as they really are. beliefs are to be taken, until there is full knowledge and realisation, as working Then there is the Buddha’s dynamic teaching hypotheses, and not as ‘dogmas’ in the sense of Mett± Bh±van±. This has been’ translated best that they must be blindly believed in and must as ‘Meditation of Loving-kindness’ and that not be disputed. Knowledge and full realisation seems to be the best translation that one can are attained only by fitting oneself to perceive give in English. But these words express the Truth. merest fraction of the full meaning. It is a dynamic, intense radiation of a positive force So in the case of Kamma and Rebirth, one that even the words ‘loving-kindness’, can attain to unshakable realisation of this truth, ‘benevolence’ and ‘goodwill’ only faintly but even if one accepts it merely as a hypothesis, express. This Mett± is radiated with a it is the only hypothesis that fits all the known concentrated mind to the front, to the right, to facts and has been such for twenty-five centuries. the rear, to the left, above and below, through And if it is still ‘unproven’ for some, it has also, the whole universe with no sense of ‘I’ am in all that time, never been disproved. radiating Mett± but one IS Mett±. There can be, Acceptance, then, in whichever way one does then no mental reservation to exclude a supposed accept it, of the facts of Kamma and Rebirth, ‘enemy’ or ‘inferior’ and this at-oneness with all naturally precludes the type of thought that gives ineffable peace and well-being and there would allow the opinion, ‘“I” am superior is neither ‘higher’ nor ‘lower’ nor ‘equal’, neither because of my colour; or the shape of my head.’ ‘individual’ nor ‘race’. Yet it is not, as the Buddha It is so clear that one has been in so many families pointed out, annihilation except the and so many castes, even in the lower spheres of annihilation of ‘Self’ and of ‘Craving’. animals etc., and will probably be so again in no All this lays the foundation for the Buddhist long time unless one has gained at least the first outlook on caste and colour there is no difference stage on the Path of Enlightenment. This and should be no distinction. The great teaching essential part of the teaching of the Buddha thus of Mett±, of loving-kindness to everything that deals a death-blow to all pretensions of lives and breathes, to humans with different superiority. customs and different ideologies as well as to This is all against the background of eternity, those of the same herd, precludes in a Buddhist pictured by the Buddha in His famous parable any compromise with the ignorant error of a of the mountain, seven leagues high and seven significant difference because of colour or leagues through each way, of pure ironstone, cranial configuration. In this respect the with no crack or cranny, and with nothing to Buddhist is at one with the English mystic and weather it away. At the end of a hundred years a poet William Blake ‘Everything that lives is man comes with a fine handkerchief of Benares holy’. 45 A REMEDY FOR WORLD SUFFERING By U Sobhana of Myingyan The Exalted One, the great spiritual physician conflict. In Bhavan± these are fused into one saw that the world was sick with Suffering and mighty dynamic force. Various methods are used prescribed the only possible remedy: His remedy to attain this state of mental equipoise. is the method of Meditation—the development The P±¼i texts speak of Kammaµµh±nas and of systematic thinking to take one to the farthest Kasiºas, used to attain this state of mental limits of thought and beyond thought. The journey tranquillization. Kammaµµh±nas are topics on of religious life, as descrioed in the Piµakas, is at which attention should be focussed and Kasiºas once a progress of increasing peace and of are external objects which engross the attention. increasing intellectual power and activity, which The Suttas also recommend the practice; in the is induced by meditation. It is real intellection, Mah±r±hulov±da Sutta, Majjh²ma Nik±ya, the not the “turning round and about” that sometimes Buddha says : “Cultivate, R±hula, the meditation passes for thought. of mindfulness on inhaling and exhaling. This, Bh±van± is the term used in the P±¼i Canon, R±hula, when constantly cultivated brings about and it means the developing or the cultivation of manifold advantages.” These breathing exercises the mind. Meditation is taught in a methodical are used to calm and concentrate the mind and and scientific way in the Buddhist texts. S²¼a or provide a point of focus. At the beginning of the moral conduct is the starting point in the progress discussion on Adhi-citta, in the Visuddhimagga, of mental enlightenment. It is the right control of Buddhaghosa enumerates forty subjects for mental, physical and vocal actions. Anyone who meditation. The ten impurities (Asubha- Bh±van±), has secured a firm footing on the ground of the four sublime states (Brahma-vihara), namely, morality becomes a fit person to embark upon the Lovingkindness (Mett±), Compassion (Karuº±), higher practice of Bh±van± the control and culture Sympathetic joy (Mudit±) and Equanimity of the mind. (Upekkh±), and the four formless states There are two kinds of Bh±van±—Sam±dhi (Arupajjh±na) are some of the subjects Bh±van± and Vipassana Bh±van±. In the former recommended. Taking one of these topics, the the meditator acquires mental fixity in the sense disciple, mindful and self-possessed should of perfect poise free from wavering and enjoys concentrate his attention on it, and be fully inward peace. In the C³¼avedalla Sutta, Majjh²ma absorbed in it, till he finally reaches one- Nik±ya, we get a good discussion of Sam±dhi pointedness of mind. Bh±van±. Here the lay disciple Vis±kha questions From this complete absorption, the ‘Jh±nas,’ the Bhikkhun² Dhammadinn± in this wise: are sometimes translated as ‘absorptions’. As a “What, sister, is rapt concentration ? What result of successful Sam±dhi-Bh±van±, on one of cultivates it ?“ these subjects, the disciple experiences four “Rapt concentration is the focussing of the blissful states of consciousness, called the Jh±nas. mind; its phenomena are the fourfold mustering Successful Sam±dhi-Bh±van± leads the disciple of mindfulness, its requisites are the four right to experience the Ecstatic (Jh±na) states in exertions ; the practice, the cultivation and succession. increase of these states of consciousness develop In the first blissful state the mind will be rapt concentration”, replies the Bhikkhun² impregnated with joy and a sense of physical and Dhammadinn±. This passage emphasises the mental well-being — rapture — is experienced. importance of mental power and activity to reach Present in the First Jh±na are the qualities of this state of one-pointedness of mind. Certain analysis, investigation, joy, happiness and “philosophies” speak of “the head and the heart”, concentaration. In each Jh±na, the mind becomes “emotion and the will” and often in terms of progressively more concentrated and consciousness becomes more and more subtle. 46 The second blissful state is described in the to remember past births, insight into the mental S±maññaphala Sutta—D²gha-Nik±ya thus: “By processes or thoughts of others, and various allaying analysis and investigation, with inner psychic powers. These supernormal powers are faith, the mind concentrated and one-pointed, he described in great detail in the P±¼i texts, but the enters on and abides in this stage, which is without Master expressly states that they are not essential analysis, without investigation, is born of to attain Nibb±na, which is the true Goal of all contemplation (Sam±dhijam), and is rapture and Buddhist meditation. happiness. Reaching the fourth Ecstatic state, the pilgrim, The third Ecstatic state is characterised by on his path of progress, should turn his mind equanimity, mindfulness and ease. towards Vipassan±-bh±van±. Sam±dhi-bh±van± In the fourth blissful state of meditation, this merely inhibits the passions, which can be feeling of ease is allayed and there is only a sense completely annihilated only by Vipassan±- of equanimity, a state of mind which, rising above bh±van± through which the meditator experiences hedonistic views, is yet positive and not merely an intuitive vision of Reality. He begins to see life the negation of interest and desire. When the as it really is, and also acquires Right Knowledge. meditator reaches this state, his mental Thereby he comes to understand the three development is such that he experienences neither characteristics of phenomenal life, as transiency, suffering nor happiness and his condition is suffering and non-self. Everywhere he sees these described as the utter purity of mindfulness, which three characteristics standing out in bold relief. is indifference. In this state the meditator He comprehends that life is merely a flux, a experiences transcendental, blissful and complete continuous undivided movement. To him, every tranquillization of body and mind. The Buddha form of pleasure is only a prelude to pain. He is describes the mental state of such a person, in the detached from all conditioned things and has S±maññaphala Sutta as “with his mind thus serene, neither attachment nor aversion for anything in made pure, translucent, cultured, void of evils, the world. He has a clear vision of the true nature supple, ready to act, firm and impenetrable”, and of the world. As he is deeply absorbed in proceeds to give us an idea of the serenity of mind meditation, he perceives an aura emanating from left after the fourth Ecstatic state is reached. his body and he experiences a serenity, hitherto unknown. As he develop insight, he becomes In these blissful states there is no suggestion even-minded and strenuous, his attention is of trance, but of enhanced vitality. By wrongly perfected, and his intellect becomes translating “Jh±na” as “trance” much extraordinarily keen. misunderstanding has been caused by some scholars who had not themselves experienced the Reaching this state of mental culture, he Jh±nas. To imagine that experiencing them is equal meditates on one of the three characteristics and to Arahatship is condemned as a deadly heresy in continues intently to reflect on it till to his great the Brahmaj±la Sutta, D²gha Nik±ya. The joy a flash of Insight dawns upon him, which gives Ariyapariyesana Sutta, Majjh²ma Nik±ya shows him the first glimpse of Nibb±na. that the Buddha rejected the doctrines of Alara The possibility of light is within us, it can be K±l±ma and Uddaka R±ma-Putta, because they kindled and made to shine forth by meditation. made this the aim of their teaching. As such, these The highest state of bliss, which is Nibb±na, the Ecstatic states are only the means to an end, but Peace Eternal, can be achieved only by Vipassan± not the end in itself. After the fourth Jh±na, even meditation as shown by the Enlightened One. higher mental states can be attained, for instance, Thus the Buddha gives the only permanent the Pañca±bhiñña, which are five profound cure—Supreme Nibb±na where one never ails intellectual attainments. They are classified as again and where all diseases cease for evermore. supernormal vision, supernormal hearing, ability 47 THE ESSENTIALS OF BUDDHISM The Eightfold Noble Path:—The Middle Way U Hla Maung, B.A., B.E.S. (Retd.) The Eightfold Noble Path enshrines the eight Noble Path is shut out to ordinary people. For these desiderata or factors for a succesful and effective latter, there is the preparatory Middle Way for treading of the Middle Way. The farer on the Middle wholesome social living in town and village. Living Way is to be lighted along by eight beacons. What is the home-life and tasting as many of the Mangalas as this Middle Way ? It is a way which lies mid-way possible, the earnest and sincere will naturally between one which is not at all productive of any progress to the fuller and fuller practice of the Middle positive good and another which is fruitful of much Way in its highest key. So the Eightfold way of life is positive evil. It is thus a way which is not characterised for every one, Bhikkhu or layman, who shuns a life by barrenness and sterility or by the stink of a charnel- characterised by ignorance, sensuality and house. It is clean, wholesome, fragrant and fruitful of worldliness on the one hand and a life characterised blessings. by frenzied and misdirected asceticism of the old Is it a hard way? That depends upon the rate of type and the equally misdirected ideologies and ‘isms’ speed with which one wishes to reach the goal. Some of the present. may slip or dally by the way, but others may and can Here is the Good Life, the heroic and the grand, push on and on. The Middle Way is more than “Plain laid down by the Enlightened One, who had trodden living and high thinking”. There is a definite ultimate. it through thousands of lives and had discovered the For those who wish to develop into the highest solution to the problem of Becoming, the only disciples of the Buddha it demands nothing less than solution possible. He exhorts us to lift ourselves out the highest stage or standard of S²la (morality), of our besetting ignorance, to cleanse ourselves Sam±dhi (mental purity and development) and Paññ± entirely of the delusion “Self” and “Soul”. The pristine (wisdom). This ultimate was attained to by thousands Dhamma will then unfold itself to our hearts and of Arahats during the lifetime of the Enlightened One. minds. Accepting the law of Kamma and the fact of Who knows how many have silently climbed the re-birth, we can rest assured that way-faring in accord pinnacle since the Master’s passing away to Nibb±na with the Mangalasutta or the Noble Eightfold Path ? The Dhamma is still vigorous and fresh. The path will make our future lives more and more blessed and remains clear, precise and inviting. Arahatship is still auspicious until Arahatship is eventually reached, attainable. If the West has produced Newtons, by those who are ripe and can develop or arrive at a Rutherfords and Einsteins of Science, why can she constant mindfulness of Anicca (impermanence), not produce her own S±riputtas and Moggallanas? Dukkha (sorrow) and Anatt± (absence of a Soul). The glory of this path is the grand adventure that now Whether we consider the Noble Eightfold Path beckons to the West. in the context of the Four Noble Truths or the latter in So much for the ultimate. Below this ideal there terms of the former, we should learn or habituate is ample room and range for treading the way ourselves to do so against the background of Anicca, according to one’s Kamma and one’s moral equipment Dukkha, Anatt±, that is, “All is Impermanence”— and development. Those readers, who will please ”All is Sorrow”—” All is without Soul”. The turn their attention back to the way of life indicated background is the sad and solemn truth of the universe in the Mangalasutta or the Sutta of Thirty-eight Great because we have made it such through our ignorance, Blessings, will find the range of the Middle way in cravings and attachments. To the degree that this sad, those blessings. Remember that the Tath±gata solemn truth permeates our constitution to that degree preached the Mangalasutta way of life for all Devas we are nearing perfection and deliverance. and men whereas the Four Noble Truths and the Noble So we now see the implications of the Noble Eightfold Path were addressed, in the first, instance, Eightfold Path and how the truth of Anicca, Dukkha, to bhikkhus. This, of course does not mean that the 48 and Anatt± together with the Four Noble Truths make enlightenment and Nibb±na. It is the way of the up the solemn theme of the Buddha-Dhamma, Eightfold Noble Path comprising Right Views, Right incomparable in its starkness, profound, unique and Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Action, Right overriding the fetters and the flatteries of “I”, the child Livelihood, Right Efforts, Right Mindfulness and of delusion and ignorance. Right Concentration.” And what are the assurances given by the Master These’eight ingredients are usually divided into in respect of the Noble Eightfold Path? We have three interlinked groups, namely (i) factors of morality already read how the Tathagata spoke of the Four (ii) of mindfulness and concentration, and (iii) of Noble Truths in terms of His Enlightenment: “Then wisdom. Right Understanding and Right Aspiration, there arose in me the eye to see, vision, knowledge the two wisdom factors, are placed foremost in the list and understanding, insight, wisdom and light. We as one cannot arrive at full wisdom unless one begins have to note that the realisation of the great truths initially with some degree of Right Understanding involves very much more than mere intellection and and Right Aspiration. These two should govern the mundane thinking. The Noble Pathis an avenue to practice of morality if it is to be sincere and deep and the higher and purer mind, buttressed by mindfulness not merely an eye-wash and a sign of respectability. and tranquillity and concentrated on perfection. To attain Mindfulness and Sam±dhi, our attitude must In propounding the Grand Path the Buddha said, be sound and the understanding must be sure and “The Middle Way which has been fathomed by me properly directed so that we can get true light, which in conjunction with the Four Noble Truths is verily is the main objective of Sam±dhi. Thus understanding pregnant with deliverance; for it gives wisdom, it and aspiration pave the way and accompany our brings clarified knowledge, it is productive of peace, efforts. develops higher wisdom, it brings enlightenment and Morality is conjoined with Right Speech, Right the attainment of Nibb±na.” Such are the grand words Actions and Right Livelihood and these are summed of assurance the distinctive qualities of the Middle up in Pañca Sila or the Five Precepts. Looking at Way. these precepts in their full import and intent, we see The Middle Way, in the words of the Buddha is that we are taught to cease from all sins, to practise this : “There are two extremes which should not be virtue and to make our hearts pure. followed and acted upon by one who is not enamoured Not to kill; not to steal; not to indulge in of the worldly life and has taken up the supramundane unchastity; not to indulge in falsehood; and not to (Lokuttara) way.” excite or stupefy our minds with intoxicants and drugs. “What are these two extremes ?“ They are:—(l) These are abstinences from interfering with the rights the extreme of a worldly life steeped in sensual and freedoms of others. They are equally abstinences indulgence, a life of low worth, vulgar, ignoble, from all that which degrades us. They require us to be harmful and deserving of censure by the wise and (ii) free from anger, hatred, ill-will, greed, passion, and the extreme of senseless asceticism, of self-torture incontinence. They, if followed understandingly, and penances, which is painful, devoid of nobleness bring about the aspiration to be kind, loving and and hence unprofitable. respectful to all. The crowning position of these abstinences is comprised in truth, purity and “Between these two extremes is the truly noble, compassion. Middle Way which induces vision, which gives knowledge, which is conducive of peace, which The remaining three ingredients are Right Effort, promotes higher wisdom and ensures enlightenment Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. and Nibb±na.” Such are the sweet words of assurance Mindfulness is, we may say, a moment to moment of the Master. business sustained by steadfast endeavour. Only strenuous endeavour can lead to Sam±dhi or “Between these two extremes is the truly noble singleminded intentness. The understanding must and peace-giving Middle Way leading straight to be tuned up to fruitful discrimination, thus:— This is 49 Matter. This is Mind. Both are fluxes; both are ‘Now, O Bhikkhus, as long as my knowledge impermanent. This is Subject and this is Object. Both and insight of each of the Four Noble Truths under are fluxes and impermanent. There is no ‘I’ in or their three aspects and twelve modes, was not clear to behind the Subject or the Object. Gradually the me in their essential nature—so long, O Bhikkhus, I awareness of impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and refrained from professing that I had gained the no Self will ripen in degree till our insight-knowledge incomparable and Supreme Enlightenment. Only (Ñaºadassana) of these aspects of the phenomenal when I had attained to the full insight of that wisdom, world is strongly entrenched. which is unsurpassed in the heavens or on earth, I felt Thus the Noble Path reaches down to the dynamic fully qualified to proclaim my Enlightenment together processes of life. It helps us to get the right vantage with the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Path—the ground from which to view the life scene in its proper Middle Way.’ perspective. It is a guided path, but for that reason it is Secondly, the Buddha also made the solemn no less exploratory. Prayers, rites, ceremonies and declaration as to how the Four Truths arose in Him, sacrifices are the shibboleths of other ways and creeds each under their three aspects and, therefore, in twelve but not of the Buddha’s Truth of Suffering: “This is modes. He prefaced this declaration by emphasising the Noble Truth of Suffering. It ceases with the that the Four Truths were not among those doctrines complete cessation of Tanh± or Thirst—a cessation that were handed down through revelation or which consists in the absence of every passion with otherwise. They were among those never heard before. the abandoning of this Thirst, with the doing away This was how the Buddha expounded the truths with it, with the deliverance from it and with its elaborately showing that at each step He rose to destruction. Enlightenment. It is a remarkable fact that, the Buddha did not A. The Noble Truth of Sorrow and Suffering. begin His mission as the Enlightened One by putting forth some doctrine which was not at variance with 1. This is the Noble Truth concerning Suffering: the popular and optimistic belief, and which, Birth is painful; decay and disease are painful; death appealing more to the emotions than to the head, was and its attendant griefs are painful. Union with the more palatable. On the contrary, His very first unpleasant, the disharmonious, the undesirable and discourse, was on the Four Noble Truths and His the unloved is painful. Separation from the pleasant, congregation consisted of the Pañcavaggiya or five the loved and the desirable is painful. In brief, the five ascetics, His erstwhile companions who had broken aggregates of body and mind, which spring from away from Him for giving up extreme asceticism. attachment and from belief in individuality, and their causes are painful. It is recorded that immediately after the attainment of Buddhahood, the Buddha hesitated to propound By virtue of this veritable truth there arose in me the doctrine of Sorrow and its cessation—a doctrine the seeing eye, vision, knowledge and understanding; which He knew to be difficult and profound for further there arose in me wisdom, insight, and there shallow and worldly minds. He, however, remembered arose in me light concerning things unknown before. the Pañcavaggiya and to them, in the Deer Park at 2. Then there came the thought that the Truth of Sarnath, He preached His first sermon, the Suffering has to be understood. Thereof there arose in Dhammacakka Pavattana Sutta or the Turning of the me again the seeing eye, vision, knowledge, Wheel of the Law. understanding and wisdom ; there arose insight and With wonderful solemnity and impressiveness light. the Buddha affirmed the Four Great Truths and He, in 3. Then there came the thought that the Truth of the same manner, made clear His eminent Suffering has been understood by me. Thereof there qualification for speaking so assuredly. He assured arose in me the seeing eye, vision, knowledge, His listeners, firstly, in these words: understanding and wisdom; there arose insight and light. 50 B. The Noble Truth concerning the Origin of D. The Noble Truth of the Eightfold Path leading Suffering. to the Cessation of Suffering. 1. I saw the Noble Truth that Suffering has its 1. Then there arose in me the Noble Truth of the origin and source. Verily the Origin of Suffering is Path leading to the cessation of Suffering. Verily the that Thirst or Craving for existence and the renewal cessation of Suffering is provided for by the Eightfold of existence craving for sensual delight; seeking of Noble Path— the path of Right Views, Right satisfaction now here and now there, that is to say, Aspiration. Right Speech, Right Actions, Right craving for the gratifications of sensuality and Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and passions, craving for success and craving for Right Concentration. everlasting life or annihilation. Then there arose in me the seeing eye, vision, By virtue of this veritable truth there arose in me knowledge, understanding and wisdom; there arose the seeing eye, vision, knowledge, understanding insight and light. and wisdom; there arose insight and light. 2. Thereof there arose in me the thought that 2. Then there arose in me the thought that this this Noble Path has been nobly culitvated. Thereon origin of Suffering has to be eliminated or eradicated. there arose in me the seeing eye, vision, knowledge, Thereon there arose in me the seeing eye, vision, understanding and wisdom; there arose insight and knowledge, understanding and wisdom; there arose light. insight and light. At the end of the exposition of the Four Noble 3. Then there arose in me the satisfying thought Truths in their respective aspects and modes, the that this origin of Suffering has indeed been Buddha made the supreme declaration that by virtue eradicated. Thereof, there arose in me the seeing eye, of the wisdom, insight and light gained by Him, He vision, knowledge, understanding and wisdom; there became supremely confident: ‘Sure and unshakable arose insight and light. is the deliverance of my heart and mind. This is my C. The Noble Truth concerning the Destruction last birth. There is no more Becoming for me’. of the Causes of Suffering and thereby its Cessation. Thus spoke the Buddha and the five Bhikkhus, 1. Then there arose in me the Noble Truth of the glad and serene at heart, joyfully approved of the cessation of Suffering. Verily it lies in the destruction Blessed One’s words. And Kondañña was the first of of this very Thirst till no passions remain; the laying the five to attain the pure and stainless eye of Truth, aside of, the getting rid of, the being free from and the namely the truth that everything that has the nature harbouring no longer of this Thirst. Then there arose of arising has also the nature of cessation. And the in me the seeing eye, vision, knowledge Buddha made this utterance: understanding and wisdom; there arose insight and ‘Kondañña has indeed understood! Kondañña light. has indeed understood!’ 2. Thereof, there arose in me the thought that The reader will have seen that the cessation of Suffering was nobly to be realised. Then BuddhaDhamma is not a creed of despondency and thereon arose in me the seeing eye, vision, knowledge, despair. It recognises and maintains that all existence understanding and wisdom; there arose insight and is Sorrow. But if with Thomas Hardy we can see: ‘.... light. the Dreaming, Dark Dumb Thing, that turns the handle 3. Thereof, there arose in me the thought that of this Idle Show’, we may with absolute reliance on the cessation of Suffering has been nobly and worthily the Noble Path say: achieved. Thereon there arose in me the seeing eye, vision, knowledge, understanding and wisdom; there There is a Grand Way out of the Dark Abyss of arose insight and light. Life and we can emerge into glorious light and supreme peace. 51 NIBBANA IN THE LIGHT OF THE MIDDLE DOCTRINE By Nyanaponika Thera “This world, Kacc±na, usually leans upon a duality upon (the belief in) existence or non-existence.. . . Avoiding these two extremes, the Perfect One shows the doctrine in the middle Dependent on Ignorance are the Kamma-formations... By the cessation of Ignorance, Kamma-formations cease.” (Sa½yutta-Nik±ya 12, 15)

The saying of the Buddha quoted here, speaks that there is also no absolute i.e. independent of the duality (dvayat±) of existence (atthit±) existence, no static Being per se, but only an and non-existence (natthit±). These two terms evanescent arising of phenomena, dependent on refer to the theories of eternalism (sassata-diµµhi) likewise evanescent conditions. and annihilationism (uccheda-diµµhi) which are Dependent Cessation excludes the belief in the basic misconceptions of actuality that occur absolute and permanent Existence, and shows, again and again, and in many variations, in the on the other hand, that there is no automatic history of human thought. Eternalism is the lapse into Non-existence, but that the cessation belief in a permanent substance or entity, be it of relative existence is likewise a conditioned conceived as a multitude of individual souls or occurrence. selves (created or not), as a monistic world-soul, a deity of any description, or as a combination Thus these teachings of Dependent of any of these notions. Annihilationism, on the Origination and Dependent Cessation are a true other hand, believes in the temporary existence Doctrine in the Middle, transcending the of separate selves or personalities, which are extremes of Existence and Non-existence. entirely destroyed or dissolved after death. Thinking by way of such conceptual Accordingly, the two key words of the text contrasts as Existence and Non-existence, has, quoted above, refer (1) to the absolute, i.e. however, a powerful hold on man because that eternal, existence of any assumed substance or way of thinking is perpetually nourished by entity, and (2) to the ultimate, absolute several strong roots, deeply embedded in the annihilation of separate entities conceived as human mind. The strongest of them is the impermanent, i.e. their nonexistence after the practical and theoretical assumption of an Ego end of their life-span. These two extreme views or self, the existence of which as a separate entity stand and fall with the assumption of something is taken for granted. It is the powerful wish for a static of either permanent or impermanent preservation and perpetuation of the personality nature. They will lose their basis entirely if life (or a refined version of it), which is at the is seen in its true nature, as a continuous flux of background of all the numerous varieties of material and mental processes arising from their eternalistic belief. But even with people who appropriate conditions—a process which will have discarded eternalistic creeds or theories, cease only when these conditions are removed. the instinctive belief in the uniqueness and This will explain why our text introduces here importance of their particular personalities is the formula of Dependent Origination (paµicca- still so strong that for them the end of the samupp±da), and its reversal, Dependent personality, i.e. death, is tantamount to complete Cessation. annihilation or non-existence. Thus the belief Dependent Origination, being an unbroken in a self is responsible not only for eternalism process, excludes the assumption of an absolute but also for the annihilationist view (uccheda- Non-existence, or Naught, that is supposed to diµµhi) which may express itself either in the terminate, by necessity, individual existence; popular unphilosophical materialism (“death is while the qualifying word dependent indicates the end of it”), or in elaborate materialist theories. 52 There are also other contributory roots of Nibb±na which has been declared to be these notions of existence and non-existence supramundane (lokuttara) and beyond which, however, are closely connected with the conceptional thinking (atakk±vacara). main root of Ego-belief. There is, for instance, a In the early days, when knowledge of linguistic root, consisting in the basic structure Buddhist teachings had just reached the West, of language (subject and predicate, noun and most of the writers and scholars took Nibb±na as adjective) and its tendency to simplify non-existence, pure and simple, with a few affirmative and negative statements for the sake exceptions like Schopenhauer and Max Mueller. of easy communication and orientation. The Consequently, Western writers all too lightly structural features of language and linguistic condenmed Buddhism as a nihilistic doctrine, habits of simplified statements have exercised a teaching annihilation as its highest goal, which subtle, but strong influence on our way of these writers described as philosophically thinking, making us inclined to assume that absurd and ethically reprehensible. Similar “there must be a thing, if there is a word for it.” statements can be read also nowadays in For holding these one-sided views, there may prejudiced non-Buddhist literature. The be also emotional reasons, expressive of basic pendular reaction to that view was the attitudes to life. They may reflect the moods of conception of Nibb±na as existence, in the sense optimism and pessimism, hope and despair, the of Pure Being, Pure Consciousness, Pure Self, or wish to feel secure through metaphysical any other metaphysical concept, seeing it in the support, or the desire to live without inhibitions light of religious and metaphysical notions in a materialistically conceived universe. The familiar in the West and in the East alike. theoretical views of eternalism and But even Buddhist thought could not always annihilationism may well change during life- keep clear of a lop-sided interpretation of time, together with the corresponding moods or Nibb±na. This happened even in early times: emotional needs. the sect of the Sautrantikas had a rather There is also an intellectual root: the negativistic view of Nibb±na, while the speculative and theorizing preoccupation of Mahayanistic conceptions of Buddha-fields certain minds1 creating various and elaborate (Buddha-ksetra), Primordial (¾di-) Buddha, philosophical systems in which these and other Tath±gatagarbha, etc., favoured a positive- conceptual opposities are played off against each metaphysical interpretation. other with an ingenuity that provides great It is therefore not surprising that both these satisfaction to those engaged in these thought- extremes are also advocated by modern Buddhist constructions. authors. In Buddhist countries of the East, From these brief remarks, one will be able to however, there is, as far as is known to the writer, appreciate the strength and variety of the forces not a single Buddhist school or sect that favours which induce man to think, feel and speak in now a nihilistic interpretation of Nibb±na. the way of these opposites, the belief in either Contrary to erroneous opinions, voiced mainly absolute existence or absolute non-existence. It by uninformed or prejudiced Western authors, was, therefore, with good reason that the Buddha Therav±da, i.e., the tradition prevalent in Burma, said, in our introductory passage, that men Ceylon, Thailand, etc., is definitely averse to a usually lean upon that duality. Hence we need view that regards Nibb±na as mere extinction. not be surprised that even Nibb±na, the The first main section of this essay will Buddhist’s goal of deliverance, has been wrongly substantiate this statement. interpreted in the sense of either of these For reasons mentioned earlier, it is not easy, extremes: existence or non-existence. But these indeed, to steer always clear of those two rigid conceptual terms cannot do justice to the opposite views of existence and non-existence, dynamic’ nature of actuality, and still less to and to keep closely to the Middle Path shown 53 by the Buddha, that is, the teaching of incorporates material that may well go back to Dependent Origination and Dependent the earliest times of the teaching. Cessation. Until that way of thinking has been In that work, in the chapter on the Faculties fully absorbed in the texture of one’s mind, and Truths, in the section dealing with the 3rd constant watchfulness will be required against Noble Truth, we find a lengthy disquisition on the mind slipping unawares into either of the Nibb±na. It is striking that the polemical part of two extreme views of eternalism and it is exclusively directed against what we have annihilationism, or coming too close to them. called the “nihilistic-negative extreme” in the When discussing these questions, there is the interpretation of Nibb±na. We cannot be sure danger of being carried away by one’s arguments about the reason for that limitation, since there and countering one extreme by its opposite. is no explicit statement on it. It is, however Therefore, in the treatment of that problem, great possible that the Venerable Buddhaghosa (or caution and self-criticism is required lest one perhaps already the traditional material he used) may lose sight of the Middle Path. was keen that the Therav±da teachings on that It is therefore the primary purpose of this subject should be well distinguished from those treatise to offer material for a clear demarcation of a prominent contemporary sect, the of the Buddha’s doctrine of Nibb±na from both Sautrantikas, which, in other respects, was close misinterpretations of it. It is not the intention of to the general standpoint of Therav±da. It these pages to encourage any speculations on belonged to that group of schools which we the nature of Nibb±na, which are bound to be suggest should be called S±vakay±na (following futile and may even prove to be detrimental to the early Mahayanist nomenclature), instead of the endeavours for an actual attainment of it. the derogatory H²nay±na. The Therav±dins Nibb±na is to be realized (sacchik±tabba½), not obviously did not want to be included in the to be understood (as the first Truth), nor to be accusation of nihilism, raised b.y the developed (as the fourth Truth). It will also be Mahayanists against the Sautrantikas. This improper if the material presented here is used might have been the external reason for the in a one-sided manner as arguments in favour of Visuddhi-magga’s emphasis on the rejection of one of the extremes against the other one. Each the nihilistic conception of Nibb±na. As to the of the two main sections of this treatise requires positive-metaphysical view, the Venerable the other for its qualification and completion. It Buddhaghosa thought it, perhaps, sufficiently is hoped that the material from canonical and covered by the numerous passages in the commentarial sources collected in these pages Visuddhi-magga dealing with the rejection of will at least reduce the point of conflict between the eternity-view and of a transcendental Self. the opposing interpretations, by clarifying the However that may be, also nowadays Buddhism, position of Therav±da. and Therav±da in particular, is quite often wrongly accused of nihilism. It is therefore apposite to reproduce here extracts from the I. The nihilistic-negative extreme respective arguments found in the Visuddhi- § 1 magga, followed (in 2) by additions from the We shall first consider the basic work of post- commentary to that work.2 Many of the passages canonical Therav±da literature “The Path of from the Suttanta which are relevant to a Purification” (Visuddhi-rnagga), compiled in the rejection of nihilism, are quoted in both these 5th Century C.E. by the great commentator, extracts, making it unnecessary to deal with Bhadant±cariya Buddhaghosa. This them separately. monumental work furnishes a comprehensive In the aforementioned chapter of the and systematic exposition of the principal Visuddhi-magga, the argument proper is Buddhist doctrines, derived from the P±¼i Canon preceded by a definition of Nibb±na, by way of and ancient commentarial literature which partly 54 three categories usually employed in “(Q.3.) Then is the absence of present commentarial literature for the purpose of (aggregates) as well Nibb±na?..... definition: “(A.) That is not so. Because their absence is “Nibb±na has peace as its characteristic. Its an impossibility (being self-contradictory), since function is not to die; or its function is to comfort. their absence means that they are not present. It is manifested as the signless [i.e., without the (Besides if Nibb±na were absence of present “signs, or marks, of greed, hatred and delusion]; aggregates too,) that would entail the fault of or it is manifested as non-diversification.” excluding the arising of the Nibb±na element [The first assertion about Nibb±na as non- with result of past clinging left existence, which follows now, is not a view [sopadisesanibb±na; i.e. Nibb±na during about the nature of Nibb±na, but a simple denial lifetime], at the path moment which has present of it, on account of the alleged illogical nature aggregates as its support. of the conception itself:] “(Q.4.) Then will there be no fault if it is “(Question 1.) [Is it not true that] Nibb±na is non-presence of defilements (that is Nibb±na)? non-existent because it is unapprehensible like “(A). That is not so. Because it would then the hare’s horn? follow that the noble path was meaningless. For “(Answer.) That is not so, because it is if it were so, then, since defilements (can be) apprehensible by the (right) means. For it is non-existent also before the moment of the noble apprehensible by some, (namely the Noble Ones) path [of arahantship, e.g., temporarily, in every by the right means, in other words, by the way profitable (kusala) state of mind], it follows that that is appropriate to it, (the way of virtue, the noble path would be meaningless. concentrxtion, and understanding).... Therefore “(Q.5) But is not Nibb±na destruction it should not be said that it is non-existent (khaya), because of the passage beginning ‘That, because unapprehensible; for it should not be friend, which is the destruction of greed .... (of said that what the foolish ordinary man does not hate .. of delusion .. is Nibb±na)’ (S.IV, 251) ? apprehend is unapprehensible.” ‘(A.) That is not so, because it would follow [And for those who are followers of the that arahantship, also, was mere destruction. For Dhamma, it is added:] that, too is described in the (same) way “Again it should not be said that Nibb±na beginning ‘That, friend, which is the destruction does not exist. Why not? Because it then follows of greed .. (of hate .. of delusion .... is 3 that the way would be futile. For if Nibb±na were arahantship)’ (S. IV, 252) non-existent, then it would follow that the right “And what is more, the fallacy then follows way, which includes the three Aggregates that Nibb±na would be temporary, etc.; for if it beginning with Virtue and is headed by right were so, it would follow that Nibb±na would be understanding, would be futile. And it is not temporary [being limited to the moment of the futile because it reaches Nibb±na. destruction of greed, etc.], formed [conditioned “(Q.2) But futility of the way does not follow (saºkhata); because the destruction of greed, etc. because what is reached is absence [which has is a conditioned phenomenon, but not Nibb±na] been aspired for] (that is, absence of the five “...... Because [Nibb±na] serves, figuratively aggregates, consequent upon the cutting off of speaking, as decisive-support (upanissaya) for the defilements)? the kind of destruction called ‘cessation “(A.) That is not so. Because, though there is consisting in non-arising’ (anuppattinirodha), [always] absence of past and future (aggregates), that (Nibb±na) is called ‘destruction’ (khaya) as there is nevertheless no reaching of a metaphor for it. Nibb±na(simply because of that). * * * * 55 “(Q.7.) Why is Nibb±na not described in its as regards its nature in the ultimate sense own nature [but only circumlocutions and (paramatthena n±ijjam±na½ sabh±vato negations] ? nibb±na½); for this is said ‘Bhikkhus, there is “(A.) Because of its extreme subtlety. And an unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, an its extreme subtlety is established because it unformed’ (It. 37; Ud.80).” inclined the Blessed One to inaction (that is, to § 2. not teaching the Dhamma see M.I, 186) and Taking up the last quotation, the because a Noble One’s eye is needed to see it Commentary to the Visuddhi-magga (M.I, 510). It is not shared by all because it can (Paramattha-mañjus±)6 says: only be reached by one who is possessed of the path. And it is uncreated because it has no first + “ By these words the Master proclaimed beginning. the actual existence of Nibb±na in the ultimate sense. But he did not proclaim it as a mere “(Q.8.) Since it is, when the path is, then isn’t injunction of his [i.e. as a creedal dogma], saying: it not uncreated ? ‘I am the Lord and Master of the Dhamma’; but, “(A.) That is not so, because it is not in his compassion for those to whom intellectual arousable by the path; it is only reachable, not understanding is the highest (attainable; arousable, by the path; that is why it is uncreated. padaparama), he also stated it as a reasoned It is because it is uncreated that it is free from conclusion (yuttito), in the continuation of the ageing and death. It is because of the absence of passage quoted above (Ud.80): “If, bhikkhus, its creation and of its ageing and death that it is there were not the unborn, etc., an escape from permanent. what is born, etc., could not be perceived (na “....The Buddhas’ goal is one and has no paññ±yetha). But because, bhikkhus, there is an plurality. But this (single goal, Nibb±na,) is firstly unborn, etc., an escape from what is born, etc., called ‘with result of past clinging left’ (sa- can be perceived.” This is the meaning: if the up±disesa) since it is made known together with Unformed Element (asañºkhata-dh±tu= the (aggregates resulting from past) clinging still Nibb±na), having the nature of being unborn, remaining (during the Arahant’s life), being thus etc. did not exist, no escape from the formed (or made known in terms of the stilling of defilement conditioned; saºkhata). i.e., the five aggregates, and the remaining (result of past) clinging that could be perceived in this world; their final are present in one who has reached it by means coming-to-rest (i.e. cessation) could not be of development. But (secondly, it is called perceived (na paññ±yeyya), could not be found ‘without result of past clinging left’ (or apprehended; na upalabheyya), would not [anup±disesa]) since after the last consciousness be possible (nasambhaveyya). But if Right of the Arahant, who has abandoned arousing Understanding and the other path factors, each (future aggregates) and so prevented kamma performing its own function, take Nibb±na as from giving result in a future (existence), there object, then they will completely destroy the is no further arising of aggregates of existence, defilements. Therefore one can perceive here a and those already arisen have disappeared. So getting-away, an escape from the suffering of the (result of past) clinging that remained is non- existence in its entirety. existent; and it is in terms of this non-existence, “Now in the ultimate sense the existingness in the sense that ‘there is no (result of past) of the Nibb±na-element has been demonstrated clinging here’ that that (same goal) is called by the Fully Enlightened One, compassionate ‘without result of past clinging left’ (see It. 38). for the whole world, by many Sutta passages “Because it can be arrived at by distinction such as “Dhammas without condition,” of knowledge that succeeds through untiring “Unformed dhammas” (see Dhammasaºgani), perseverance, 4 and because it is the word of the “Bhikkhus, there is that sphere (±yatana) where Omniscient One5, Nibb±na is not non-existent neither earth”....(Ud.80), “This state is very hard 56 to see, that is to say, the stilling of all formations, “There is an unborn”, ..“There is that sphere the relinquishing of all substance of becoming” where neither earth..”. It is not meant to convey (D.II, 36; M.I, 167), “Bhikkhus, I shall teach you the meaning of “existence” in the strict sense, the unformed and the way leading to the which should be kept restricted to “the five unformed” (S.IV, 362), and so on, and in this aggregates or any of them”. Nibb±na is Sutta “Bhikkhus, there is an unborn..” (It.87; indescribable in the strictest sense (avacan²ya, Ud.80) avy±kata). ‘.... the words “Bhikkhus, there is an unborn, Our extracts from such an authoritative work an unbecome, an unmade, an unformed” and so as the Visuddhi-magga will have shown how on, which demonstrate the existingness of emphatically the Therav±da tradition has Nibb±na in the ultimate sense, are not rejected a nihilistic conception of its highest misleading [or: have not an ambiguous meaning; ideal, Nibb±na. This fact may perhaps help to avipar²tattha] because they are spoken by the remove one of the points of controversy among Omniscient One, like the words “All formations modern writers and Buddhist schools: the are impermanent, all formations are painful, all prejudice that Therav±da, or even the P±¼i dhammas (states) are not-self” (Dh. 277-9; A.I, Canon, advocates a form of annihilation as its 286; etc.). highest goal. + ”If Nibb±na were mere non-existence (or There is, however, another principal point absence; abhavamatta½ eva), it could not be of difference in the interpretation of Buddhism, described by terms as “profound [deep, hard to and of the P±¼i Canon in particular which is see, hard to comprehend, peaceful, lofty, likewise closely connected with the conception inaccessible to ratiocination, subtle, to be known of Nibb±na. It is the question of the range of by the wise]” etc.; or as ‘the unformed, [the validity, or application, of the Anatt± doctrine, cankerless, the true, the other shore],’ etc. 7 ; or as i.e. the docrine of impersonality. It applies not ‘kammically neutral, (without condition, only to the world of conditioned phenomena, unincluded [within the three realms of but also to Nibb±na. The denial of its application existence],’ etc.” 8 to the latter falls under the heading of the § 3. “positive-metaphysical extreme” which will be treated in the following section. The references to Sutta-texts, quoted in the extracts from the Visuddhi-magga and its commentary, make it quite clear that the Buddha II. The positive-metaphysical extreme declared Nibb±na to be an attainable entity (see §1. § 1, Q.l, §8) and did not conceive it as the mere fact of extinction or cessation (see § 1, Q.5). All In India, a country so deeply religious and negatively formulated statements on Nibb±na philosophically so creative, the far greater should be understood in the light of the Sutta danger to the preservation of the Dhamma’s passages quoted here, and do not admit an character as a “Middle Way”, consisted, in interpretation contradictory to these texts. Any identifying, or connecting, the concept of forced or farfetched interpretation of them will Nibb±na with any of the numerous theistic, be contrary to the whole straightforward way of pantheistic or other speculative ideas of a the Buddha’s exposition. positive-metaphysical type and, chiefly, with various conceptions of an abiding self. If we have spoken above of Nibb±na as an “entity”, it should be taken just as a wordlabel According to the penetrative analysis in the meant to exclude “non-existence”. It is used in Brahmaj±la Sutta (D²gha Nik.l), all these various the same restricted sense of a linguistic notions of a self (and this applies also to other convention as the emphatic words in the Udana: metaphysical or theological statements) arise from either of two sources 57 (1) from a limited and misinterpreted views might differ in details, according to their meditative experience (where we may also being influenced either by Theosophy, Ved±nta include supposed revelations, prophetic or Mah±y±na (the latter, with varying degrees of inspirations, etc.), or (2) from bare reasoning justification). 9 (speculative philosophy, and theology without (2) The assumption that the transcendental personal experiential basis). But as the driving “selves” of the Arahants, freed from the force behind all these metaphysical and aggregates, enter Nibb±na which is regarded as theological productions of the human mind their “eternal home” and as “the only state looms the powerful urge in man to preserve, in adequate to them”. Nibb±na itself is admitted to some way or other, his belief in an abiding be not-self (anatt±), which the Holy Ones individuality, or in any mental projection of that (Arahants) are supposed to retain “in Nibb±na” urge which he can invest, by proxy, with all his some kind of individuality, in a way unexplained longings for permanency, security, eternal and unexplainable. This view is, to our happiness, etc. It is therefore not surprising that, knowledge, advocated in such a way only by yielding to that powerful, instinctive urge for Dr. Georg Grimm and his followers. “self”-preservation, and under the influence of long-cherished and widely held views, there are § 2. also nowadays advocates of the positive- (a) Common to both views is the assumption metaphysical interpretation of Nibb±na and of an eternal self supposed to exist beyond the Anatt±, who sincerely believe themselves to be five aggregates (khandh±) that make up true Buddhists; and among them are many who personality and existence in its entirety. The have a genuine devotion towards the Buddha supposition that the Buddha should have taught and a fair appreciation of other aspects of his anything like that, is clearly and sufficiently teachings. With these views we shall now be refuted alone by the following saying: concerned. “Any ascetics or br±hmans who conceive In the spirit of the Middle Way, the following manifold (things or ideas) as the self, all of them refutation of the positive-metaphysical extreme conceive the five aggregates (as the self) or any is also meant to guard against any metaphysical among them.” conclusions which may be wrongly derived from Ye hi keci bhikkhave samaº± v± br±hmaº± our rejection of nihilism, in the first section of v± anekavihita½ att±na½ samanupassam±n± this essay. In the reverse, that first section may samanupassanti, sabbe te serve to counter an excessive ‘defence-reaction” pañcup±d±nakkhandhe samanupassanti etesa½ against the metaphysical views to be treated now. va aññatara½. (Sa½yutta-Nik±ya 22, 47) The positive-metaphysical extreme in the This textual passage also excludes any interpretation of the Buddhist conception of misinterpretation of the standard formulation of Nibb±na consists in the identification, or the Anatt± doctrine: “This does not belong to metaphysical association, of a refined or purified me, this I am not, this is not my self.” Some writers self (att±) with what, in the context of the believe that this statement permits the respective view, is held to be Nibb±na. Two main conclusion that the Buddha supposed a self to types of the metaphysical view can be exist outside, or beyond, the five aggregates to distinguished which are already implied in the which the above formula usually refers. This preceding sentence. wrong deduction is finally disposed of by the (1) The assumption of a universal and unitary words of the Buddha quoted above, which (non-dual and non-pluralistic) principle with clearly say that all the manifold conceptions of which a purified self, i.e. one thought to be a self can have reference only to the five liberated from the aggregates (khandh±), either aggregates or to any one, or several, of them. merges, or is assumed to be basically one. These How else could any idea of a self or a personality 58 be formed, if not from the material of the five should it be ,O Lord, than a perfectly foolish aggregates and from a misconception of them? doctrine.” On what else could notions about a self be based The first sentence of that text expresses, in a alternatively? This fact about the only possible manner as simple as emphatic, the fact pointed way how ideas of a self can be formed was out before: that the assumption of a self requires expressed by the Buddha Himself, in the also something ‘belonging to a self’ (attaniya), continuation of the text quoted above: i.e. properties by which that self receives its “There is, bhikkhus, an uninstructed distinguishing characteristics. To speak of a self worldling . . He regards corporeality as self, or devoid of such differentiating attributes, having the self as possessing corporeality, or the therefore nothing to characterize it and to give corporeality as being within the self, or the self meaningful contents to the word, will be entirely within corporeality [similarly with the four senseless and in contradiction to the accepted mental aggregates].10 In this way he arrives at usage of these terms “self”, “ego”, etc. But this that very conception ‘I am’ (iti ayañ-c’eva very thing is done by those who advocate the samanupassan± asmi’ti c’assa adhigata½ hoti)” first of the two main-types of the “positive- (Sa½y. 22, 47). metaphysical extreme”: that is, the assumption Further it was said : “If there are corporeality, of a “great, universal, or over-self (Mah±tman) feeling, perception, formations and supposed to merge, or be basically identical with, conciousness; on account of them and a universal and undifferentiated (nirguºa) dependent on them arises the belief in metaphysical principle which is sometimes individuality and speculations about a self “. equated with Nibb±na. Those who hold these (Sarhy. 22, 154. 155). views are sometimes found to make the bold claim that the Buddha wanted to deny only a (b) If the words “I”, “ego”, “personality”, “separate self”, and that, in none of His self”, etc., should have meaning at all, any form utterances, He rejected the existence of a of an ego-conception, even the most abstract “transcendental self”. What has been said before and diluted one, must necessarily be connected in this section, may serve as an answer to these with the idea of particularity or separateness, beliefs. i.e. with a differentiation from what is regarded as not “ego”. But from what could that Those views, however, which we have particularity or differentiation be derived if not assigned to the second category, insist on the from the only available data of experience, i.e. separate existence of liberated, transcendental the physical and mental phenomena which have “selves” within the Nibb±na-element. They been comprised by the Buddha under the leave quite a number of issues unexplained: how classification of the five agregates ? they arrive at any idea of separateness without reference to the world of experience; in what In the Discourse called “The Simile of the that “separateness” actually consists and how it Serpent” (Majjh.22), it is said: “If ,bhikkhus, can be said to persist in the Nibb±na -element, there is a self, will there also be something which, by definition, is undifferentiated belonging to a self?”—“ Certainly, Lord.” — “If (nippapañca), that is, the very reverse of there is something belonging to a self, will there separateness. also be (the view) ‘My self’?”—“Certainly, Lord.”— “But since, bhikkhus, a self and Both varieties of individuality belief wish anything belonging to a self cannot truly and to combine various conceptions of self with the really be found, is it not a perfectly foolish Buddhist teaching of Nibb±na. They are, at the doctrine to hold the point of view ‘This is the very outset, refuted by the philosophically very world. This is the self. Impermanent, abiding, significant statement in the Discourse on the eternal and immutable shall I be after death, in “Simile of the Serpent”, implying that I and Mine, eternal identity shall I persist’?”—“What else owner and property, substance and attribute, 59 subject and predication are inseparable (b) Since the concept of a self is necessarily correlative terms, which, however, lack reality linked with that of an ownership of qualities in the ultimate sense. and possessions (see II, §2 b), both main-types § 3 come under the following headings of the 20 kinds of individuality-belief (sakk±yadiµµhi; see The two main-types of a positive- II, §2 a): metaphysical interpretation of Nibb±na can be easily included in a considerable number of false “He regards the self as possessing views, mentioned, classified and rejected by the corporeality .. as possessing feeling .. Buddha. A selection of applicable classifications perception...formations .. consciousness. will be presented in what follows. This material, This applies, in particular, to the second additional to the fundamental remarks in the main-type advocated by Dr. Georg. Grimm who preceding sections, will furnish an abundance expressly speaks of the five aggregates as of documentation for the fact that not a single “attributions” (“Beliegungen”) of the self. It does eternalistic conception of self and Nibb±na, of not make here any difference that these any conceivable variety, is reconcilable with the “attributions” are regarded by Grimm as teachings of the Buddha as found in their oldest “incommensurate” to the self and as capable of available presentation, in the P±¼i Canon. being discarded. What matters, here, is the fact (a) In the Sa½yutta Nik±ya (22,86; 44,2) we that such a relationship between the self and the read: “Do you think, Anur±dha, that the Perfect aggregates is assumed, and this justifies the One is apart from corporeality (aññatra r³p±).. inclusion of that view in the aforementioned apart from consciousness?” 11 — “Certainly not, type of individuality-belief. 0 Lord.”—” Do you think that the Perfect One is (c) From the “Discourse on the Root Cause” someone without corporeality (ar³p²) .... (M³lapariy±ya Sutta; Majjh. 1), the following someone without consciousness?”12 — categories apply to both types: “Certain1y not, O Lord.” —”Since the Perfect “He thinks (himself) different from (or: One, Anur±dha, cannot, truly and really, be found beyond) the four material elements, the heavenly by you even during lifetime, is it befitting to worlds, the uncorporeal spheres; from anything declare: seen, heard, (differently) sensed and cognized; ‘He who is the Perfect One, the highest being from the whole (universe; sabbato), to the second .., that the Perfect One can be made known type: “He thinks (himself) in Nibb±na outside of these four possibilities: (nibb±nasmi½) or as different from Nibb±na The Perfect One exists after death .. does not (nibb±nato maññati; that is, he believes the exist.. exists in some way and in another way liberated self supposed to enter the Nibb±na not .. neither can be said to exist nor not to element, as different from it).” exist?” —“Certainly not, 0 Lord.” (d) In the Sutta “All Cankers” (Sabb’±sava This applies to both main-types which Sutta; Majjh. 2), the following instances of assume a self beyond the aggregates. It deserves unwise and superficial thinking (ayoniso to be mentioned here that the Commentary manasik±ra) are mentioned and rejected: paraphrases the words “the Perfect One” Six theories about the self, from which the (tath±gato) by “living being” (satto). That is following are applicable here: “I have a self”, probably meant to convey that the statements in “By the self I know the self” *. the text are valid not only for the conventional Sixteen kinds of doubt about the existence term “the Perfect One”, but that they hold true and nature of the self, with reference to the past, also for any other terms designating an present and future, e.g.: “Am I or am I not?”, individuality. “What am I?”, “Shall I be or not?”, “What shall I be?” 60 Hereby any speculation about an alleged self III. Transcending the extremes is rejected. If we examine the utterances on Nibb±na, in (e) In the Brahmaj±la Sutta (Digh.1), the the P±¼i Canon, we find that it is described (or theories about a self are specified as to their better: paraphrased) in positive and negative details. Those, however, who advocate the two terms. Statements of a positive nature are, e.g., main-types of the positive-metaphysical designations like “the profound, the true, the extreme, with which we are here concerned, pure, the permanent, the marvellous,” etc. (Sa½y. generally avoid or reject detailed statements on 43; see I, § 2); further texts such as those quoted the nature of Nibb±na and the self. But if, by above I, §2): them, an eternal and transcendental self is “There is that sphere ..”, “There is an unborn assumed, it must be thought as being of a passive ..”, etc. Statements of a negative character are, nature (PãIi: vañjho, barren, unproductive) and e.g., definitions of Nibbàna as “the destruction motionless, i.e. immutable. For, any creative or of greed, hatred and delusion”, as “cessation of other relationship to the world would involve existence” (bhavanirodha; Sa½y. 12, 68). If the an abandonment of the transcendental state Buddhist doctrine of Nibb±na is to be assumed. Therefore both main-types fall under understood correctly, one will have to give full the eternalist view, characterized in the weight to the significance of both types of Brahmaj±la Sutta as follows: utterance. If one were to quote only one group “Eternal are self and world; barren (vañjho), of them, as a vindication of one’s own one-sided motionless like a mountain peak, steadfast like opinion, it would result in a lop-sided view. a pillar.” To the utterances of positive character we (f) The rejection of any belief in a self (as may ascribe the following purposes: abiding or temporarily identical) and of the (1) to exclude the nihilistic extreme, (2) to extremes of existence and non-existence cannot allay the fears of those who are still without an be better concluded then by quoting the adequate grasp of the truths of Suffering and continuation of the saying that forms the motto Anatt±, and consequently shrink back from the of this treatise: final cessation of suffering, i.e., of rebirth, as if “For him, Kacc±na, who considers, according recoiling from threatening fall into a bottomless to reality and with true wisdom, the origination abyss, (3) for showing Nibb±na as a goal capable of [and in] the world, there is not what in the of attainment and really worthwhile. world [is called] ‘nonexistence’ natthit±). For The emphatic “There is” that opens the two him, Kacc±na, who considers, according to well-known texts on Nibb±na, in the Ud±na, reality and with true wisdom, the cessation of leaves no doubt that Nibb±na is not conceived [and in] the world, there is not what in the world as bare extinction or as a camouflage for an [is called] ‘existence’ (atthit±). This world, in absolute Zero. But, on the other hand, as a general, Kacc±na, is fettered by propensities, precaution against a metaphysical clingings and biases. But he [the man of right misinterpretation of that solemn enunciation understanding, samm±-diµµhi], concerning these “There is .... (atthi)”, we have that likewise propensities, clingings, fixed mental attitudes, emphatic rejection of the extremes of existence biases and deep-rooted inclinations, he does not (atthit±) and non-existence (natthit±). come near, does not cling, does not have the mental attitude ‘I have a self’ (n’adhiµµh±ti att± But even those utterances on Nibb±na which me’ti). He has no doubt or uncertainty that it is are phrased positively, include mostly also suffering, indeed, that arises, and suffering that negative terms: ceases. Herein has he knowledge does not rely “There is that sphere where there is neither on others. In so far, Kacc±na, is one a man of earth . . neither this world nor the next, neither right understanding”. (Sa½y 12, 15). coming nor going ..” 61 “There is an unborn, an unbecome..” it is this which matters most. These words on the “I shall teach you the Unformed .. the overcoming of greed, hatred and delusion set a Profound .. , and the way to it. What now is the clear and convincing task which can be taken Unformed .. the Profound .. ? It is the destruction up here and now. Further they not only point to of greed, the destruction of hatred, the a way that is practicable and, worthwhile for its destruction of delusion.” own sake, but they also speak of the lofty goal itself which likewise can be experienced here These texts, combining positive and and now, and not only in an unknown Beyond. negative statements, illustrate our earlier remark For it has been said: that both the positive and the negative utterances on Nibb±na require mutual qualification, as a “If greed, hatred and delusion have been precaution against sliding into an extremist completely destroyed, insofar is Nibb±na visible position. here and now, not delayed, inviting of inspection, and directly experiencible by the wise” Negative utterances are meant to emphasize (Aºguttara Nik. III, No.55). the supramundane and undepictable nature of Nibb±na that eludes any adequate description That visible Nibb±na has been lauded by in positive terms. Our language is basically those who attained to it, as an unalloyed and unsuited for it, since it is necessarily related to unalienable happiness, as the highest solace, as our world of experience, and its structure and the unspeakable relief of being freed from burden terms are derived from it. Therefore the positive and bondage. A faint foretaste of it may be statements in the Suttas cannot be more than experienced in each act of joyful renunciation allusions or metaphors (pariy±yadesan±), and in moments of serene detachment. To know making use of emotional values intelligible to oneself, if but temporarily and partially, free from us, and of experiences and reactions known to the slavery of passions and the blindness of self- those who have trodden the path to the Pathless. deception; to be master of oneself and to live In brief, they are evocative, and not truly and think in the light of knowledge, if but for a descriptive, but they have nevertheless great time and to a limited extent—these are truly not practical value for the reasons mentioned above. “mere negative facts”, but are the most positive Negative statements, however, are quite sound and elevating experiences for those who know and legitimate in themselves. They relate more than the fleeting and deceptive happiness Nibb±na to the world of experience only by of the senses. “There are two kinds of happiness, negations. The negating method of approach O monks: the happiness of the sense-pleasures, consists in a process of eliminating what is and the happiness of renunciation. But the inapplicable to Nibb±na and incommensurate greater of them is the happiness of renunciation.” with it. It enables us to make much more definite (Afºguttara-Nik±ya, Duka-nip±ta). and useful statements about the supramundane Thus, these seemingly negative words of the state of Nibb±na than abstract terms, the positive destruction of greed, hatred and delusion, will character of which can be only metaphorical. convey to the thoughtful and energetic a stirring Negative statements are also the most positive message: of a way that can here be appropriate and reverential form to speak of that trodden, of a goal that can here be reached, of a which has been called the Marvellous happiness that can here be experienced. (acchariya) and the Extraordinary (abh³ta). That aspect of a lofty happiness attainable Negative ways of expressions have also here and now should, however, not be allowed another important advantage. Statements like to cover for us the fact that the attainment of those defining Nibb±na as “the destruction of Nibb±na is the end of rebirth, the cessation of greed, hatred and delusion”, at the same time, becoming. This end or cessation is, however, in indicate the direction to be taken, and the work no way the destruction or annihilation of to be done, for actually reaching Nibb±na. And anything. What actually takes place is the 62 ending of new origination owing to the stopping 6 The paragraphs beginning with a plus sign of its root-causes: ignorance and craving. (+) are translated by the author; those without, He who sees the Truth of Suffering deeply by Bhikkhu ѱºamoli (taken from the notes to and thoroughly, is “no longer carried away by his translation of the Visuddhi-magga). the unreal, and does no longer shrink back from 7 These are some of the altogether 33 the real”. He knows, “It is suffering indeed, that designations of Nibb±na, in Sar½utta Nik±ya arises, it is suffering that ceases”. With a mind 43. 12-44. unswerving, he strives after the deathless state, 8 This refers to Abhidhammic classifications the final cessation of suffering— Nibb±na. in which Nibb±na is included, occurring, for “The Holy Ones know it as bliss; the instance, in the Dhamrnasaüºgaºi. personality’s cessation; 9 The Theosophical variant is, e.g., Repugnant to the worldly folk, but not to represented by neo-buddhistic groups in Britain, those who clearly see. which otherwise have done good work in What others count as highest bliss, as pain introducing Westerners to Buddhism or to their regard it Holy Ones; conception of it.—The Ved±ntic influence is conspicuous. e.g., in utterances of well-meaning What those as painful do regard, is for the Indians, among them men of eminence, Holy Ones sheer bliss.” maintaining the basic identity, or similarity, of (Sutta-nip±ta, Verses 76 1/2) the Ved±ntic and Buddhistic position concerning NOTES ¾tman. This is, by the way, quite in contrast to the opinion on that subject, expressed by the 1 They correspand to the diµµhi-carita, the great classical exponents of Ved±nta.— theorizing type of character, in Buddhist Mah±y±nistic influence may be noticeable in Psychology. some representatives of the former two variants. 2 The rendering in the extracts from both But also in Mah±y±na literature itself, the works has mainly been taken, with a few positive-metaphysical extreme is met with, in alterations, from the excellent new translation varying degrees: ranging from the M±dhyamika of the VisM, by Bhjkkhu Ñaºamoli (“The Path scriptures where it is comparatively negligible, ofPurificatjon”; XLIX, 886 pp; pubt. by R. up to the Yog±vacara school where Asaºga uses Semage, 1956; available at Lake House even the terms mah±tma and param±tma in an Bookshop, Colombo, Ceylon). Explanatory approving sense (see Mah±y±na-s³tr±laºk±ra- additions by the writer are in [square brackets]: s±stra and Asaºga’s own commentary). while those by Bhikkhu Ñaºamoli are in (curved 10 These are the twenty kinds of brackets). individuality-belief (v²sati sakk±ya-diµµhi). 3 But,” says the commentary, “Arahantship is 11 That is, outside the aggregates taken singly. certainly not mere destruction, since it consists in the four mental aggregates having the highest 12 That is, outside the aggregates as a whole. fruition (of arahantsbip) as their foremost.” 13 Pali: attan±’va att±na½ sañjan±mi. This 4 Corny: “This is to show that, for Arahants, refers to vedantic conceptions. Quite similar Nibb±na is established by their own experience formulations are found already in the Sa½hita, (paccakkhasiddhata½).“ the pro-Buddhist Upanisads, and, later in the Bhagavadg²ta. 5 Corny: “For others it is established by inference [based on the words of the Master: anum±na-siddhata½.] 63 NOTES AND NEWS WESAK IN PARIS The “Friends of Buddhism” held Wesak celebra- three Ambassadors pronounced their speeches, unit- tions in Paris on Sunday, May I2th and Monday, ing us in thought with the magnificent celebrations May 13th. taking place at the same time in their far-away lands. Like last year, the Meditation Room was open Professor P. Mus, of the Collage de France, gave a during seven hours to all those wishing to offer to the short speech which was followed by a religious Bud- Buddha the homage of their meditation, and many dhist chant recorded in India. Four of our members, more people than last year came to meditate before Mr. Goury, Mr. Barbarin, Mr. Coulon and Mr. Marc, the statue of the Buddha, surrounded with flowers then read passages from the Suttas on the Birth, the and light. It was a homage of pure and noble dignity. Enlightenment and the Parinibb±na of the Buddha, along with messages sent by Mah±thera N±rada and Venerable Amritananda Thera of Nepal gave the Professor J. Filliozat who, as the guest of the Royal Precepts twice during the afternoon and also a lesson Government of Cambodia, was taking part in the to the constant flow of people who came to meditate celebrations in Phnom Penh. Then followed a beau- in the Meditation Room. At 9 p.m. Venerable Dr. tiful Song for Wesak sung by a group of Thai stu- Rahula came and gave the Precepts again and ad- dents. After the recitation of the three Homages by dressed a few words to those present. Some of our the Venerable Bhikkhus our President, Miss G. Con- members remained all afternoon and evening medi- stant Lounsbery B. Sc. expressed her heartfelt thanks tating or reading in our library. It was, for many, a day for the collaboration given us by the Embassy of of profound and sincere homage to the Buddha. Thailand in organizing’ the meeting and for the help On the evening of Monday, May 13th, at 9 p.m., extended to Madame La Fuente by Mr. P. Maolarion we held a public meeting in the big lecture hall of the and Mr. Watanakun and for the songs and recitations, Musee Guimet under the auspices of His Excellency by the young Thai students. Our President also grate- Major Oeneral Chai Prathipasen, Ambassador of Thai- fully thanked the Government of Thailand which, land in Paris. The 2500th anniversary of the Buddha on the request of His Excellencey the Ambassador, was celebrated this year by Cambodia, Laos and Thai- sent us for this beautiful Fete of Wesak, a generous land. The three diplomatic representatives of these gift to enable us to publish the second volume of the countries were asked to speak. French translation of the Suttas of Majjhima Nik±ya, On the platform a beautiful bronze statue of the the first volume having been already published Buddha, kindly lent for the occasion by the Directors through the generosity of the Royal Government of of the Museum, Mr. P. Stern and Miss J. Auboyer, was Thailand. surrounded by yellow roses and in front of Him, as on The evening closed by the recitation of the Mett± an altar in Thailand, were placed candlesticks and a Sutta in Pa¼² by a choir of young Thai students, young bowl of rice containing tapers of incense, and a tray boys and girls whose sweet voices filled the hall sing- of flowers among the garlands of white and orange ing the noble words of the Sutta. flowers. To the right of the statue were Venerable Among the many distinguished guests of the Amritananda Thera of Nepal, Venerable Shin Kelasa evening were the Minister of Burma and the First and Venerable Dr. W. Rahula. To the left of the statue, Secretary U Ba Yi, the Charge d’ Affaires of Ceylon, near His Excellency the Ambassador of Thailand, Mr. W. L. B. ‘Mendis and Mrs. Mendis, Mr. R. Jeudy who presided, were His Excellency the Ambassador from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Henry Hol- of Laos and Mr. Poc Thieun, Charge d’Affaires of the land of the Australian Embassy, the First Secretary of Cambodiam Embassy. the Indian Embassy, Mr. and Mrs. A. Bareau, Mr. Ph. The flower offering was presented by a charming Stern, Director of the Musee Guimen, together with young Thai girl, Miss Nuanchan Watanakun, and our members and our many friends. We are very happy received by the three Venerable Bhikkhus. Then the that Wesak has once again been, celebrated in France in deep sincerity and beauty. 64 65 BUDDHA JAYANTI MESSAGES Message of the Union of Burma Buddha Council, and Hon’ble Justice Thado Mah± Thray S±sana Council to the 2500th Buddha Jayanti S²thu U Chan Htoon, Honorary General Secre- Celebrations in Thailand. tary of the Buddha S±sana Council, was sent to We the members of the Union Buddha S±sana Thailand on the 3rd. May 1954 to request the Council most respectfully send this Message of Sangha, the Government and the people of Thai- cordial Greetings on the occasion of the Cel- land to depute Bhikkhu and lay Delegations to ebrations held in Thailand to mark the 2500th the proceedings of the Sixth Great Buddhist Buddha Jayanti. Synod and this Mission was received and treated in brotherly fashion. Our two countries are akin in all ways of the same race and religion, of culture and manners, After the despatch of that Buddhist Good- and in geographical situation next-door will Mission to Thailand, Burma achieved ad- neighbours. vantages not only in respect of the Chaµµha Sang±yan± but basing on this pure and sublime In helping to establish Buddhism firmly for S±sana mentality, the diplomatic relations be- another 2500 years we acted together as one, tween the two countries have been much im- thereby inseparably joining our fate and our for- proved. tunes for great good and in great goodwill. To- gether we have established the Pariyatti S±sana, Apart from Thailand’s and Burma’s sending the foundation of the whole S±sana, by holding their Goodwill Missions to each others’ coun- the Chaµµha Sang±yan±, a joint effort of the five tries, the Union of Burma Buddha S±sana Coun- Buddhist countries in which Thailand’s partici- cil has been subsidising the Thai Bhikkhus and pation made possible the production of an au- nuns who are prosecuting their studies in Bud- thentic edition of the Tipiµaka. dhist literature in Burma for the promotion of the Pariyatti and Paµipatti S±sanas. In addition, His Holiness the Sanghar±j± of Thailand pre- branch Meditation Centres of the Venerable sented to the Ov±d±cariya Sanghan±yaka Mah±si Sayadaw have been successfully opened Organisation of the Union of Burma the in Thailand. Chulalongkorn edition of Pa¼² Texts printed and published by H. M. the King of Thailand after it We firmly believe that the Aµµhakath± was edited and re-edited by Thai Piµakattayaseka Sang±yan± now being held in Burma will be Piµakakovida Mah±theras, proficient and well brought to a successful conclusion, just as was versed in the Scriptures. the Chaµµha Sang±yan±, owing to the whole- hearted support of the Sangha, the Government There was the heartiest co-operation from and the people of Thailand. the Sangha, the Government and the people of Thailand, both in the preparations for the hold- In conclusion, we earnestly wish that not only ing of the Sixth Great Synod and the actual hold- may ‘the 2500th Buddha Jayanti Celebrations’ ing of it., now held in Thailand be brought to a successful conclusion, but also that, henceforth, we may ABuddhist Goodwill Mission from Burma see enduring perfection in, comprising Venerable Aggamah±paº¹ita Anisakhan Sayadaw, a member of the Sangha (a) Thai-Burma cordial relations based on Supreme Council, Venerable Aggamah±paº¹ita the S±sana, U Visuddha, Honorary Secretary of the Sangha (b) The cordial relations between all Supreme Council, Hon’ble Justice Thado Thin Buddhisf countries basing on the S±sana, and Thudhamma, Agga Mah± Thray S²thu U Thein (c) Peace of the world as the result of the Maung, Chief Justice of the Union and Vice- endeavours of the Bhikkhus, the Government President, Union of ‘Burma Buddha S±sana and the peoples of all Buddhist countries. 66 An Address of Veneration at the 25(10th (Paµivisodhaka); two scholarly Mah±theras acted Buddha Jayanti Celebrations in Thailand by as the members of the Board of Final Proof Read- Hon’ble Justice Thado Thin Thudhamma,Agga ers (Os±na Sodheyyapatta P±µhaka); three emi- Mah± Thray S²thu U Thein Maung, Chief Jus- nent Mah±theras from Thailand acted as the tice of the Union and Vice-President of the Union Chaµµha Sang²ti Mah±n±yakas (Chairmen) of the of Burma Buddha S±sana Council. Proceedings during the Sixth Great Synod ; The Presiding Mah±thera of the 2500th Bud- while seventy-nine Sang²ti-k±raka Bhikkhus dha Jayanti Celebrations, Thailand, and Vener- from Thailand participated in the proceedings able Bhikkhus. of the Sixth Great Synod which was held in five sessions. Most Respectfully, Bhante, Of the five sessions of this Great Synod, the By the nature of the Teaching of the Omnis- Fourth Session (Siy±ma Sannip±ta) which lasted cient Buddha, it is evident that, of the three parts for 54 days commencing on 16-12-55 and ter- of the Good left by the Buddha 2500 years ago, minating on 16-2-56, was enabled to be suc- comprising Pariyatti (Learning), Paµipatti (Prac- cessfully held owing to the leadership of the tice) and Paµivedha (Realisation), Pariyatti is the Sangha and the Government of Thailand. pivot around which the other two revolve. As a mark of respect and veneration and in For the purpose of preserving the Pariyatti recognition of the valuable part played by Thai- S±sana in its pristine purity, the First Great Bud- land in the deliberations of the Sixth Great dhist Council was held at R±jagaha, the Second Synod, 32 sets of Tipiµaka in Burmese charac- at Ves±l², the Third at P±ta¼iputta, the Fourth at ters are being presented one to each of 32 mon- Ceylon, and the Fifth at Mandalay Burma. asteries in Thailand from which Sang²ti-k±raka Five years ago, the Bhikkhu and lay leaders Bhikkhus attended the Chaµµha Sang±yan±. A of the various Buddhist Organisations in the set each has already been presented to six such Buddhist countries decided to convene the Sixth other monasteries. Great Buddhist Council, before the completion Similarly, as a mark of respect and venera- of the 2500th S±sana year. tion and in recognition of the valuable part The Preparations for the holding of the played by the Paµivisodhaka (Text Re-editors), Chaµµha Sang±yan± which lasted for about two Os±nasodheyyapatta P±thaka (Final Proof Read- years and the actual holding of the Council ers) and Sang²ti-k±raka Bhikkhus from Thailand, which lasted for two years, were eminently suc- Testimonials acknowledging their valuable help cessful due in large measure to the ardent and are offered to these 91 Mah±theras. whole-hearted support of the Sangha. the Gov- Bhante, we ardently hope that Thailand will ernment and the people of Thailand. be able to participate with Burma throughout For the purpose of editing and re-editing the all the remaining sessions of the Aµµhakath± P±¼i Texts which task was the most essential in Sang±yan±, just as the Thai Bhikkhus headed the proceedings of the Chaµµha Sang±yan±, His by Venerable Bhadanta Sudassanamuni partici- Holiness the Sanghar±ja of Thailand presented pated in the First Session of the Great Recital of to the Ov±d±cariiya Sanghan±yaka Organisation the Commentaries. of the Union of Burma, a set of Tipiµaka In conclusion, I earnestly wish that all the (Chulalongkorn Edition) printed and published peoples of the world may be able to follow the under the authority of His Majesty the King of Teaching of the Buddha, practise the Dhamma Thailand. and enjoy the fruits of Realisation derived there- Also, seven learned Thai Mah±theras acted from. as the members of Boards of Revisors 67 68 An Address of Veneration delivered by the neighbouring countries)—, the Sixth Great Bud- Hon’ble U Nu, Prime Minister of the Union of dhist Council was able to be convened in Burma Burma at the Ceremony for the Burma in 2500 B.E., under the sponsorship of the Government’s presentation of titles and certifi- A.F.P.F.L. Government as hosts, and with the co- cates, held in Thailand in 1957 C.E. operation and collaboration of all the five Venerable Mah±theras of Thailand who pos- Theravadin countries—Thailand, Burma, Ceylon, sess the inherent quality of the Sangha, Cambodia and Laos, for the purpose of the recen- Suppaºipanna (practising well the Buddha- sion of the Pa¼² Texts—the five Nik±yas. The Dhamma) and honourable friends. Aµµhakath± Sang±yan± is now being held in Burma. Two thousand five hundred years ago, after the Mah±parinibb±na of the Omniscient Buddha, Bhante, of all the eminmt personages who His great disciples such as Arahat Mah± Kassapa, strove their best to discharge the S±sana duties Arahat ¾nanda and Arahat Up±li convened the such as the holding of the Chaµµha Sang±yan±, First Great Buddhist Council in order that the His Holiness Somdet Phra Vaj²rayaññ±vongs, Su- Buddha S±sana might endure for a great length of preme Patriarch of Thailand is one of those of time, and they taught the Buddha-Dhamma to whom it has been said “Puggala viseso j±nitabbo” their disciples. “Distinguished persons should be known,” and therefore, the highest S±sana title in the Union of After that, Venerable Arahat Mah± Yasa and Burma, of Abhi Dhaja Mah± Raµµha Guru is of- Venerable Arahat Mah± Moggalliputtatissa con- fered to His Holiness. vened the Second and the Third Buddhist Coun- cils with the support of King K±l±soka and Em- Again, the title of Agga Mah± Paº¹ita the sec- peror ¾soka respectively, for the purpose of en- ond highest ecclesiastical title in Burma is of- abling the Buddha S±sana to last for a great length fered to His Holiness Somdej Phra Vanarat of tine, and they, after teaching the Buddha- Kittisobhana, the Sanghan±yaka (Ecclesiastical Dhamma to their disciples deputed Buddhist Mis- Premier) of Thailand for his outstanding work in sions to nine different places. bringing the proceedings of the Chaµµha Sang±yan± to its successful conclusion. Also the As the result of those Missions, the Buddha Government of the Union of Burma as a token of S±sana began to shine brilliantly in Thailand, cordial friendship with the Thai Government is Ceylon, Burma, Cambodia and Laos almost at the presenting to the Thai Government a specially same period. bound set of Tipitaka as “Asadisa paºº±k±ra” (the Later, in the Island of Lanka (Ceylon), during highest Dhamma gift). the reign of King Vaµµag±maºi, the Fourth Great The Venerable Mah±theras of Thailand who Buddhist Council was held under the leadership are preserving the Teaching of the Buddha have of Arahat Dhammarakkhita and the Teaching of participated in the holding of the Sixth Great the Buddha was first committed to writing. Again, Buddhist Council, thus making it possible to hold during the reign of King Mindon in Burma, the the Chaµµha Sang±yan± in the 2500th S±sana year, Fifth Buddhist Council was held, and the Bud- have made it possible for their disciples to learn dha-Dhamma was inscribed on marble slabs. Thus the Tipiµaka by heart, and have taught the defini- the disciples of the ancient Mah±theras taught the tions, expositions and etymology of the P±¼i Texts. Buddha-Dhamma to their disciples so that the In accordance with the phrase “Purisa viseso n±ma Buddha S±sana might endure for a long time. ñ±tabbo” “A man endowed with special talents Bhante, in accordance with the Declaration should be understood as such”, these exalted made by the Mah±theras at the Third Great Bud- ecclesiastical titles are offered them. dhist Council— “Paccantimesu janapadesu, In conclusion, Bh±nte, I most respectfully and s±sana½, suppatiµhita½ bhavissati” (In future, the earnestly wish that for the purpose of making the Buddha S±sana will be well established in the Buddha S±sana to endure for a great length of 69 time the Bhikkhus and Up±sak± and Up±sik±yo On the other hand, if one aims at becoming in may practise the Threefold Sikkh± (Training), and future existences a rich man, king, emperor or that the Buddha S±sana may remain free from all universal monarch, a Deva or Brahm±, he is on the blemishes and last for another 2500 years. Wrong Way. He will not be able to attain Nibb±na, Jina s±sana½ nimmala½, cira½ loke tiµµhatu. but will, have to wander in the Round of Rebirths, experiencing various kinds of suffering. May the S±sana of the Conqueror remain free from all blemishes and last in the world for a great D±na, S²la and Bh±van± practised by many length of time. people nowadays are mostly on the Wrong Way because they see themselves as powerful beings moving in higher circles and not as renouncing Speech delivered by the Hon’ble U Nu, Prime all worldly things and attaining Nibb±na. Minister of the Union of Burma, at the 2500th One thing we should remind ourselves of is Buddha Jayanti Celebrations held in Thailand. that while we are in contact with the Buddha- I am very happy indeed to have this oppor- S±sana, we should endeavour our utmost to attain tunity to greet my friends at the 2500th Buddha ‘Nibb±na in this very, life failing which we should Jayanti Celebrations in Thailand and also to say a aim at attainment in one of our future existences few words on the Buddha-Dhamma. during the remaining 2500 S±sana years and if we The people of Thailand and the people of the feel that we may fail in this, should so orient our Union of Burma, both Buddhist and both striving thoughts and practise that we may be certain to for the common spiritual goal—Nibb±na, are in- attain Nibb±na during the period when the next deed, friends and brothers who are co-travellers Buddha, Buddha Metteyya arises. on this way of Sa½s±ra and are co-partners in ful- The holding of the 2500th Buddha Jayanti filling the Perfections and performing meritori- Celebrations in Buddhist countries and in par- ous deeds. ticular this Ceremony in the great Buddhist coun- Buddhists perform wholesome actions to at- try, Thailand, reminds us all that of the 5000 S±sana tain Nibb±na, which is devoid of all the years half has already gone and we have not yet unsatisfactoriness of life. There are briefly three attained the Real Freedom we aim at, and that we kinds of such wholesome actions, (1) D±na (giv- should strive our best to attain that Freedom dur- ing), (2) S²la (observing moral precepts) and (3) ing the remaining 2500 S±sana years. Bh±van± (mental development). One will not be In conclusion, my ardent and earnest wishes able to attain Nibb±na by practising D±na, S²la or are Bh±van± alone, but will have to practise all the (1) May all beings be able to practise D±na, three, of which D±na is the simplest, S²la is some- S²la and Bh±van± according to the Right Way! what higher and Bh±van± is the highest. A person with meagre saddh± (confidence of heart and faith (2) May every Buddhist be able to attain the in the teachings of the Buddha) will not be able to spiritual goal he aims at! perform all of them; only a person with good (3) May the tie of friendship between Thai- saddh± will be able to perform all these whole- land and the Union of Burma remain firm and some actions. Some also are not able to attain unshakably cemented till this world-system comes Nibb±na although they strive earnestly, because to an end! there are two methods. They are (1) Samm±- (4) May the Buddha-Säsana shine brilliantly paµipad± (Right Way) and (2) Micch±-paµipad± as the sun and the moon! (Wrong Way). In giving bountifully, in observing moral precepts and in practising Vipassana- (5) May the whole world enjoy Peace and bh±van±, one should aim at Nibb±na only. This is Happiness by the Grace of the Buddlia-S±sana! Samm±-paµipad± and by this Right Way only will one be able to attain Nibb±na. 70 71 IN CAMBODIA The English translation of the speeeh given by both countries be prosperous and may the Buddha the Hon’ble U Ba Saw, Minister for Religious Affairs S±sana be long lasting and illumine the whole World. & Social Welfare on behalf of the Government of the Union of Burma at the Buddha Jayanti Celebrations, The speech given by the Hon’ble U Ba Saw, Venerable Theras, Your Majesty, Hon’ble Prime Minister for Religious Affairs & Social Welfare, on Minister and People of Cambodia. behalf of the Government of the Union of Burma, at I feel it a great privilege to address, on behalf of the ceremony of the conferring of titles, in Cambo- the Government of the Union of Burma, this august dia. gathering of monks and laymen on such an auspi- Your Holiness and Venerable Theras. cious occasion as the Buddha Jayanti Celebration, commemorating the 2500th year of the Buddha May the S±sana shine supreme for ever. S±sana. May I on behalf of the Government of the Union This celebration is a most remarkable one in con- of Burma, be permitted to deliver an address at this nection with the S±sana. and is well attended by great great ceremony. personalities, such as the Sanghar±ja, leading the It is a great honour for me to pay my homage to monks, and His Majesty the King, leading the people His Holiness the Sanghar±j± and the Theras of Cam- and guests from Therav±din countries. bodia. At this celebration, the Government of the Union This is a Celebration specially held for confer- of Burma has the honour to present the precious gift ring titles by the Government of the Union of Burma. of a special set of the Chaµµha Sang±yan± Tipiµaka. This tradition of conferring titles has existed since Though our two countries are geographically the time of the Buddha. Such titles are conferred on divided, yet our friendship tie has been quite firm those of outstanding virtues and learning. The Bud- and strong since time immemorial because of the dha Himself conferred etadagga-ship on S±riputta for similarity in religion, race and culture. wisdom, on Moggall±na for supernormal powers and on R±hula. for discipline. When the 6th Great Synod was held in Burma, the Venerable Sanghar±j± and great Theras of Cam- Following this long-standing tradition of the bodia, and also His Majesty the King, the Hon’ble Buddha and the Buddhist Kings, the Government of Prime Minister and people of Cambodia attended the Union of Burma also confers titles. the Celebration. It shows that our two countries are His Holiness the Ven’ble Sanghar±j± Jotaññ±no, co-workers in the fulfilment of the P±ram²s and in the who is very virtuous, well-disciplined and greatly propagation of the S±sana for the attainment of learned, took part in the Sixth Great Synod in Burma, Nibb±na. which is the most remarkable event in the history of Such meritorious deeds can only be carried out Buddhism. Because of his great service for the pro- because we are living during the period of the S±sana. motion of Buddhism in the world, the Government It is believed that any meritorious deed done during of the Union of Burma is pleased to confer on His such a period of S±sana will bear abundant fruit, as Holiness the highest title of Abhidhaja Mah± seeds sown in a fertile soil. Raµµhaguru; the conferring of other titles and the pre- sentation of 8 sets of Tipiµaka are also made to other In conclusion, may I request all Buddhists to fol- Theras’ of Cambodia for their active participation in low the maxim of “Make hay while the sun shines” the Sixth Great Synod. and while we are living in the S±sana period practise the Teachings of the Buddha for the attainment of In conclusion, may I earnestly wish that these Magga, Phala and Nibb±na. meritorious deeds be the strong support for the at- tainment of Nibbãna. May the friendship tie between Cambodia and the Union of Burma be strong and firm for ever. May 72 Message of the Union of Burma Buddha The part played by Cambodia, famous for its S±sana Council to the 2500th Buddha Jayanti learned and virtuous Bhikkhus, was no mean Celebrations in Cambodia. one. The Presiding Mah±thera of the 2500th Bud- Bhante, the presentation to Burma by His dha Jayanti Celebrations, Cambodia, and Ven- Holiness the Sanghar±j± of Cambodia of a set of erable Bhikkhus. Tipiµaka which was edited by himself and about Most Respectfully, Bhante, to be published, testifies to the fact that Cambo- dia co-operated with the other Buddhist coun- We the members of the Union of Burma Bud- tries in discharging a very effective work relat- dha S±sana Council most respectfully send this ing to the ChaµµhaSang±yan±, and this is only Message of cordial Greetings on the occasion of one instance. the Celebrations held in Cambodia to mark the 2500th Buddha Jayanti. Bhante, we ever remember the fact that dur- ing the five Sessions of the ChaµµhaSang±yan± Bhante, we have noticed that only after a which lasted for two years, Cambodia partici- long duration is a Sang±yan± for the purpose of pated in the proceedings from the beginning to the recension of the Piµaka Texts able to be held, the end, and also that the Third Session of the and during a period of 2500 years, only six ChaµµhaSang±yan± was convened under the pa- Sang±yan± s have been possible. tronage of Cambodia and Laos and was known We have been inseparably joined in friend- as the Cambodia-Laos Session of the ship, love and truth by having the great good ChaµµhaSang±yan±. fortune to be able to hold, together, the May Cambodia and Burma which are akin ChaµµhaSang±yan±. This great synod and recen- in racial stock, geographical situation, culture sion of the Scriptures would have been impos- and religion, be able to discharge all mundane sible for one country to bring to a successful and supramundane affairs with similar loving- conclusion and it was performed only by the kindness and co-operation from this day on- joint efforts of all the five Buddhist countries. wards.

‘Monks, eleven advantages are to be looked for from the release of heart by the practice of amity, by making amity to grow, by making much of it, by making amity a vehicle and basis, by persisting in it, by becoming familiar with it, by well establishing it. What are the eleven ? One sleeps happy and wakes happy; he sees no evil dream; he is dear to human beings and non-human beings alike; the devas guard him; fire, poison, or sword affect him not; quickly he concentrates his mind; his complexion is serene; he makes an end without bewilderment; and if he has penetrated no further (to Arahatship) he reaches (at death) the Brahma-world. These eleven advantages are to be looked for from the release of the heart by the practice of amity...... by well establishing amity.’ Aºguttara-Nik±ya 73 74 OBITUARY Venerable Bhadant±cariya Nyanatiloka Mah±thera We have to record with deep sorrow the passing the word who was also a Buddhist in the fullest sense of one of the most venerated figures of this age, a of the word; a simple, unassuming, kind-hearted Westerner by birth who as a Buddhist Bhikkhu has Buddhist leader of keen intellect and logical brain. given more than fifty years of service to the world in He was a top-ranking P±¼i scholar and his transla- making known the Teachings of the Exalted One. tions in his mother-tongue, German, and in English Only in the last hundred years has there been any are authoritative. attempt at real Buddhist studies by the West and this He visited Burma from time to time and was a has produced a few outstanding Buddhist monks of great link between Burma and Lanka (Ceylon) espe- Western origin and a few outstanding Buddhist schol- cially, as well as between Asia generally and the West. ars. His ‘Guide through the Abhidhamma Piµaka’ is Absolutely pre-eminent among these was the late perhaps the most scholarly work of its kind that has Mah±thera Nyanatiloka. He was born on the 19th ever appeared, while his ‘Buddhist Dictionay’ of which February 1878 at Wiesbaden in Germany and at an a new, revised and enlarged edition has just appeared, early age his keen intellect and direct, logical mind is a real necessity to every Buddhist scholar. was attracted by Buddhist philosophy. In 1903 he went to Ceylon and later that year came to Burma His best-known book is ‘The Word of the Bud- where he received the lower ordination in the same dha’ which appeared first in German in 1906 and in year and the higher ordination in 1904. He remained English a year later, in Rangoon, and has run into 12 in the Noble Order, keeping the Vinay± Rules as they editions. This is so much a classic among the many should be kept. not very informed books on Buddhism by lesser men that we reproduce below a review which appeared in Quite a few ‘Buddhist scholars’ have been schol- these pages some time ago. ars but not Buddhists. Naturally they have not had that ‘feeling’ for the Teaching nor the oppportunity Sabbe Saºkh±r± anicc± All compounded things to test their ideas, nor the Insight that comes from are subject to decay. The great Mah±thera has passed practice and from living the life. In the Venerable but we can take some consolation in that his great Nyanatiloka we had a scholar in the fullest sense of works are living and will be of continuing benefit to the world while this civilisation lasts. “THE WORD OF THE BUDDHA” By VENERABLE NYANATILOKA MAH¾THERA Vital andinteresting as well as learned and The book was published originally in Ger- authoritative, this book is valuable to one be- man and the first English version was published ginning a study of Buddhism and as valuable to in 1917. This is the 11th edition which has been the Buddhist scholar. revised throughout with additions to the intro- The Author covers the whole ground in less duction and to the explanatory notes and with than 100 pages of a clear and simple exposition, some addition of Texts. clearly and simply and readably printed. Our copy is from the “WORD OF THE BUD- This is the Buddhism of the Buddha pre- DHA” Publishing Committee, “Asoka” 139 High sented by one of the Buddhist scholars, himself Level Road, Nugegoda, Ceylon, and the price is for many years now a Mah±thera (leading Bud- only Re. 1. (paper cover) or, bound in cloth, Rs. dhist Bhikkhu) who has brought his great at- 3. We understand that special rates are appli- tainments of mind and learning to the task and cable for orders above 25 copies. has produced a finished work of great interest and value. 75 BOOK REVIEW THE CAT IS OUT OF THE BAG. ‘The Goose is out’ by W. J. Gabb, The Buddhist Society, London, 9/6d. This curious and revealing book has a les- any or all of ,it, understanding it and being able son to teach. That lesson is that without some to explain it. There is also other evidence whose standard of judgment, some criterion, some place is not here. Now for some of the epic po- touchstone, the mind can work in devious ways ems composed, as is admitted even by their de- its wonders to perform, and those wonders, inso- vout followers, some seven hundred years after far as they have no secure base of Teaching, usu- the passing away of the Buddha, there is no such ally are of doubtful value to the owner of the proof that they enshrine the Word of the Bud- mind and to the world at large. dha. This is where one has to reiterate the distinc- The source, then, is P±¼i, and only by ever tion, which seems somewhat too subtle for some returning to the source can we be sure of the few undeveloped minds, between ‘dogmatic veracity of-the Teaching, of the Word of the authority’ and ‘an accepted standard of values’. Buddha. If we are to call ourselves ‘Buddhists’ we Professor Rhys Davids had occasion to show must have some confidence in the Buddha and how in one instance especially, a whole verse His Teaching, and some confidence that what lost its meaning completely when translated into we believe the Buddha taught really is, as close Chinese, so that the verse, in the as man can possibly evaluate, really what the Mah±parinibb±na Sutta, by a mistranslation in Buddha did teach. We must not accept in blind one clause and a grammatical blunder in an- faith and we must not expect others to accept in other, was changed as follows:— blind faith. We must scan the proofs and we must From the P±¼i be ready to furnish our proofs and our reasons; and we must be ready to examine evidence of- ‘They’re transient all, each being’s parts and fered by others for a contrary view and to accept powers, any proofs or reasons as long as they are proofs Growth is their very nature, and decay. and based on reason. That is surely neither dog- They are produced, they are dissolved again: matic nor authoritarian. And just as surely is it To bring them all into subjection— that is poles removed from any idea of a ‘Mother bliss.’ Church’. This became in the Chinese There is ample proof of the veracity of the P±¼i Canon, of its continued veracity through ‘Whatever exists is without endurance, the ages. It has enshrined the Word of the Bud- And hence the terms ‘flourishing’ and ‘de- dha from the beginning as a definite act of will caying’. and discipline. Groups of Bh±ºakas A man is born and then he dies. or Reciting Monks, Groups that still exist, Oh, the happiness of escaping from this con- have learned and recited their portions daily for dition.’ more than 25 centuries. That, to some, seems incredible as it seems incredible that any hu- It may be noted that the word ‘Dhamma’ as man could learn whole passages by rote without Rhys Davids points out, is an extremely diffi- error. Yet here in Burma there is a monk who cult word to translate, but it can never be ‘term’. knows the whole Canon (estimated at eleven When, added to certain mistranslations and times in volume the Old and New Testaments of misconceptions, there are the epic poems com- the Christians combined) and who can recite posed at so much later a date, with the quite 76 unverified assertion and, indeed, unverifiable The author of the book, in which is incor- assertion, that ‘secret transmission’ was handed porated some previous fragments he wrote for a down, privately whispered from one to another, ‘Buddhist’ magazine, tells how these, published this mixture can in nowise be accepted as ‘Bud- as ‘Tales of Tokuzan’ and in the style of the Japa- dhist’ except it be subjected to the ‘Great Au- nese fables, had deceived two well-known men, thority’ mentioned by the Buddha Himself:— whom he mentions, and how he felt a ‘puckish ’(Anything that is represented as the teaching of glee’ thereat. Well, this is not a serious matter in the Master) should be put beside the Suttas and ordinary journalism. It is certainly serious when compared with the Vinaya. If, when so compared, put up against the high standard of Truth de- they do not harmonize with the Suttas and do manded by that Discipline which is Buddhism. not fit in with the Vinaya, then you may come to Mr. Gabb then tells of how he performs mi- the conclusion:— ‘Verily this is not the Word of nor miracles by ‘affirmations’ (‘though’, he says the Exalted One.’ : ‘in point of fact I do nothing but act as go- Here, in this book under review, is a case, an between’) to, presumably some sort of Theo- extreme case admittedly, of the mind wandering sophical ‘Oversoul’. in underground realms with no real guide. When If we can believe his accounts of modern the Buddha gave His famous sermon to the ‘miracles’ he has performed by these ‘affirma- Kalamas, He told them what not to believe in. tions’, he has merely used a subconscious force He also told them what to believe in, and gave a which is not at all miraculous and which, since touchstone. He certainly did not tell them: it is always allied with Craving, really, always ‘Whatever comes into your mind, that believe’ kicks back. And it IS allied with craving even but exactly the opposite. That too needs re-stress- when the user thinks he is performing ‘miracles’ ing. He told them to realise things for themselves just to help friends’. and gave the basic moral teaching. ‘Above mere logic’ is the understanding of the sages but the Mr. Gabb’s first’ affirmation’ was when he Way thereto is ‘With reasoning and investiga- was practically penniless and he asked for a job tion going on the while’. That too needs re-stress- of a particular sort. He got the job, made pos- ing. sible by the advent of a war in which very many thousands of little children died horribly by Hitler, Mussolini and scores of others before bombing. A ‘loving God’ or, if you will them and some since, have attained to a sort of ‘Oversoul’, in other words, rescued Mr. Gabb ‘power’ as has, if he is to be believed, the author from poverty at his urgent plea by murdering of this book, though by his own evidence a much millions. That is not actually what did happen. lesser degree of ‘power’; and this bears about There is an old story of an Egyptian priest who the same relation to real power as does low cun- used to go and bathe his feet in the Nile every ning to real intellect. year, just before the Nile flooded. Finally he got The book shows, again taking for granted to believe that the Nile flooded because he the veracity of the author, what the mind, tap- bathed this feet there. But when “miracles” hap- ping the same subconscious source, can do with- pen as the result of what for want of a better out the guide of a full morality and reason, which phrase we must still call ‘subconscious force’; has been stressed as so necesssary by the Bud- something rather amoral when not immoral (and dha. the immorality is always there since it stems from For real power, and this is stressed in the Craving in the user’s mind), it lasts for a time Buddhist Teaching, one must have complete only. Take the case of the man who was saved by Truth, the unflinching facing of truth and tell- Mr. Gabb. The man was worried sick because he ing of truth. No lie, even for the sake of a joke, was about to go bankrupt and then, according can be even considered. The standard is, admit- to Mr. Gabb, by the manipulation of Mr. Gabb’s tedly, rather high for moderns. ‘affirmations’ he discovered that he really had 77 made a mistake in his accounts and had £3500 We use the Buddha’s ‘Great Authority’ and that he had presumably, failed to notice in add- put this against the Suttas and the Vinaya and ing up his ‘Profit and Loss.’ That man must die pronounce it non-Buddhist and anti-Buddhist, and lose his money and no God and no Mr. Gabb Tokuzan who is now revealed as a figment can save him permanently. Mr. Gabb tells how of Mr. Gabb’s imagination, says his ‘Tales of Tokuzan’ deceived a well-known psychiatrist. It is quite certain that the present ‘Life can be pleasurable. book would deceive no-one with the slightest Union with the pleasant is pleasurable. knowledge of psychology. Separation from the unpleasant is plea- The ‘Zen Tales’ (the imitations) have the surable. genuine flavour of Sadism. Whether the kicks And craving that is satisfied, that also is plea- and slaps are really administered and the legs surable. broken and the fingers cut off by the Abbots or Pleasure is caused by craving. whether these are mere ‘figures of speech’, the flavour of Sadism yet remains, and Sadism is the Pleasure more abundant is caused by culti- very opposite of the kind and firm teaching of vating the art of craving. the Buddha. The way to cultivate this art is the Eightfold The ‘back to front’ method of writing (analo- Path. gous to the ‘mirror-writing’ of certain psychotics, I call the path, “Right Play”. is also not Buddhist. The Buddha had said to a We use the Buddha’s ‘Great Authority’ and certain Brahman ‘There are those, Brahmin, who put this against the Suttas and the Vinaya and say that day is night and night is day. I say to pronounce it non-Buddhist and anti-Buddhist. you that day is day and night is night.’ * In showing what the mind can do when un- On page 69 of ‘The Goose is Out’ is a saying guarded by a standard, a Norm, and undisci- of an old master of ‘Zen’ Yoka-Daishi, (unless plined; and in showing how the petty magicks Mr. Gabb is pulling our leg again) as follows and makings of myths originated and were ‘Who has gone beyond learning and is not fobbed off as ‘Buddhism’, ‘The Goose is Out’ exerting himself in anything. lets the cat out of the bag with a vengeance. He neither endeavours to avoid idle thoughts We have a Norm, we have a touchstone, for nor seeks after the truth. which there is plenty of proof. Let the great Asian For he knows that ignorance in reality is the philosophers of the last eighteen centuries and Buddha-nature, their modern imitators flourish and flourish ex- ceedingly. Some of their work is better than some And that this empty visionary body is no of their other work. But let them not pass it off as less than the Dhamma-body.’ ‘Buddhism’ unless it agrees with the Suttas and the Vinaya as the Buddha Himself said it should.

I have preached the truth without making any distinction between exoteric and esoteric doctrine; for in respect of the truths, ¾nanda, the Tath±gata has no such thing as the closed fist of a teacher who keeps something back. Mah±parinibb±na Sutta.