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From Diphenylamine Antioxidant Usage to More Recent Approaches antioxidants Review Strategies to Preserve Postharvest Quality of Horticultural Crops and Superficial Scald Control: From Diphenylamine Antioxidant Usage to More Recent Approaches Cindy Dias 1 , Ana L. Amaro 1, Ângelo C. Salvador 2, Armando J. D. Silvestre 2,* , Sílvia M. Rocha 3 ,Nélson Isidoro 4 and Manuela Pintado 1,* 1 CBQF—Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina–Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Rua Diogo Botelho, 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal; [email protected] (C.D.); [email protected] (A.L.A.) 2 CICECO, Departamento de Química, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; [email protected] 3 LAQV-REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal; [email protected] 4 Cooperativa Agrícola dos Fruticultores do Cadaval, CRL (COOPVAL), Estrada Nacional 115, Km 26, 2550-108 Cadaval, Portugal; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] (A.J.D.S.); [email protected] (M.P.) Received: 2 April 2020; Accepted: 20 April 2020; Published: 24 April 2020 Abstract: Horticultural crops are vulnerable to several disorders, which affect their physiological and organoleptic quality. For about forty years, the control of physiological disorders (such as superficial scald) in horticultural crops, particularly in fruit, was achieved through the application of the antioxidant diphenylamine (DPA), usually combined with controlled atmosphere (CA) conditions. However, identification of DPA residues and metabolites in treated fruits, associated with their toxicity, banned the use of this antioxidant in Europe. This triggered the urgent need for novel and, ideally, natural and sustainable alternatives, combined with adequate storage conditions to protect cultivars from harmful agents. This review systematizes the state-of-the-art DPA application on several fresh cultivars, such as apples, pears, and vegetables (potatoes, spinach, etc.), as well as the possible mechanisms of the action and effects of DPA, emphasizing its antioxidant properties. Alternative methods to DPA are also discussed, as well as respective effects and limitations. Recent research on scald development molecular pathways are highlighted to open new non-chemical strategies opportunities. This appraisal shows that most of the current solutions have not lead to satisfactory commercial results; thus, further research aimed to understand the mechanisms underlying postharvest disorders and to design sustainable and safe solutions to improve horticultural products storage is needed. Keywords: postharvest treatments; diphenylamine; superficial scald; physiological disorders control 1. Introduction Postharvest physiological disorders control is crucial for the sector since these problems can be responsible for up to 50% of postharvest losses, depending on the crop quality, harvest method, time of storage, and shelving conditions. The physiological and organoleptic quality of horticultural products can be affected by numerous problems during postharvest storage, which often require the use of agrochemicals to preserve quality and extend shelf life [1]. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 356; doi:10.3390/antiox9040356 www.mdpi.com/journal/antioxidants Antioxidants 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24 products can be affected by numerous problems during postharvest storage, which often require the Antioxidants 2020, 9, 356 2 of 23 use of agrochemicals to preserve quality and extend shelf life [1]. Superficial scald is one of the most problematic postharvest problems, mostly associated with appleSuperficial and pear skin scald disorders. is one of theIt is most the result problematic of an oxidative postharvest process problems, induced mostly by cold associated stress, which with applecan cause and pearserious skin quality disorders. losses It isafter the resultlong-term of an refr oxidativeigerated process storage, induced and is by expressed cold stress, as whichbrown can or causeblack seriousareas on quality the fruit losses peel after [2–4]. long-term Generally, refrigerated the incidence storage, of superficial and is expressed scald depends as brown on or several black areasfactors, on such the fruitas fruit peel cultivar [2–4]. Generally,[5,6], harvest the time incidence [7], and of storage superficial conditions scald depends [8]. This on process several is factors,mainly suchtriggered as fruit by cultivarthe oxidation [5,6], harvest of α-farnesene, time [7], anda secondary storage conditions metabolite [8 ].present This process in the ispulp mainly and triggeredskin of a bywide the range oxidation of fruits. of α-farnesene, This hydrocarbon a secondary sesquiterpene metabolite present is chemically in the pulp unstable and skin and of oxidizes a wide range easily, of fruits.generating This highly hydrocarbon reactive sesquiterpene conjugated trienols is chemically (CTs) unstable(Figure 1) and [9]. oxidizes These CTs easily, react generating with lipids highly and reactiveproteins conjugatedaffecting cell trienols membranes (CTs) (Figure integrity1)[ 9[10];]. These thus, CTs allowing react with the lipidscontact and between proteins oxidative affecting cellenzymes membranes (i.e., polyphenol integrity [ 10oxidase,]; thus, PPO, allowing and theperoxi contactdase, between POX) and oxidative their respective enzymes substrates, (i.e., polyphenol which oxidase,cause the PPO, typical and fruit peroxidase, peel necrosis POX) andand theiroff-flavors respective production substrates, [11–13]. which Thus, cause it the is typicalwidely fruitaccepted peel necrosisthat the control and off -flavorsof superficial production scald [disorder11–13]. Thus, requires it is the widely maintenance accepted of that a good the control antioxidant of superficial system scaldthroughout disorder storage, requires mainly the maintenance to avoid α-farnesene of a good oxidation. antioxidant system throughout storage, mainly to avoid α-farnesene oxidation. Figure 1. Schematic of α-farnesene auto-oxidation. Step represented by arrows indicates α-farnesene auto-oxidationFigure 1. Schematic into conjugated of α-farnesene trienes, auto-oxidation. auto-oxidation Step into represented conjugated by trienols arrows and indicates auto-oxidation α-farnesene into conjugatedauto-oxidation 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one into conjugated trienes, (MHO). auto-oxida R = OHtion represents into conjugated conjugated trie trienenols and and R auto-oxidation= H represents conjugatedinto conjugated trienols. 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one 3E-Conjugated trienols (MHO). (CT 281) R (3E-7,11-trimethyl-1,3,5,10-dodecatetraene-7-ol)= OH represents conjugated triene and R = H isrepresents one of the conjugated most abundant trienols. trienols 3E-Conjugate resultingd from trienolsα-farnesene (CT 281) auto-oxidation. (3E-7,11-trimethyl-1,3,5,10- Adapted from Luriedodecatetraene-7-ol) et al. [14]. is one of the most abundant trienols resulting from α-farnesene auto-oxidation. Adapted from Lurie et al. [14]. For approximately 40 years, treatments that included chemicals, such as diphenylamine (DPA)—a liposolubleFor approximately organic antioxidant 40 years, (Figure treatments2)—were the that main included e ffective chemicals, solutions used such to controlas diphenylamine postharvest disorders(DPA)—a (namely liposoluble storage organic scald inantioxidant fruits and vegetables),(Figure 2)—were before itthe was main banned effective in many solutions countries used [7,14 to]. Antioxidants 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24 control postharvest disorders (namely storage scald in fruits and vegetables), before it was banned in many countries [7,14]. Figure 2. ChemicalChemical structure structure of diphenylamine (DPA). Before the advent of the commercial use of DPA, the conventional method for superficial scald control was through the use of oil wraps around fruit, or ventilation inside storage containers, to reduce the concentration of α-farnesene in the fruit tissue [15]. However, it was shown that DPA was able to control scald more effectively than these traditional practices [16]. These findings led to the approval of the commercial use of DPA (dips or drenches), typically at 1 to 2 g L−1 in the early 1960s. Due to its low cost, simple application, and presumed low toxicity, it rapidly spread to many other countries [17–20]. Although superficial scald was considered to be effectively controlled using DPA, the detection of toxic and carcinogenic residues and metabolites of this compound in horticultural crops generated insecurity about its use. Besides, the rising alarms about the effects of synthetic chemicals on human health and the environment generated hesitation in the long-term future use of DPA [21–23]. Consequently, its use has been banned by the European Commission, all existing authorizations for the application of plant protection products containing DPA have been withdrawn, and DPA can only be present in products at the detectable Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) of 0.1 mg kg−1 [24]. This ban challenged the scientific community to search for novel non-chemicals, such as low-oxygen and dynamic atmosphere treatments for long-term storage [25]. For example, the prohibition of DPA use led the ‘Rocha’ pear sector to face significant product losses (about 15 to 30%). The ‘Rocha’ pear is a Portuguese pear variety, with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), representing about 93% of the national production of pear. The DPA use restriction is quite serious given that, without this antioxidant, the conservation of ‘Rocha’ pears and some varieties of apples
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