Quaternary Glaciation of Gurla Mandhata (Naimon’Anyi) 57 3 58 4 A,* B C a 59 5 Lewis A

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1 56 2 Quaternary glaciation of Gurla Mandhata (Naimon’anyi) 57 3 58 4 a,* b c a 59 5 Lewis A. Owen , Chaolu Yi , Robert C. Finkel , Nicole K. Davis 60 6 a Department of Geology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221, USA 61 7 b Institute for Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China 62 c 8 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 95064 USA and Centre Européen de Recherche et d’Enseignement des Géosciences de 63 l’Environnement, 13545 Aix en Provence Cedex 4, France 9 64 10 65 11 66 article info abstract 12 67 13 68 Article history: The Quaternary glaciation of Gurla Mandhata (Naimona’nyi), an impressive, isolated dome-shaped massif 14 69 Received 21 December 2009 situated in a remote region of southern Tibet, was examined using glacial geomorphic methods and 15 70 Received in revised form dated using 10Be terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides. The oldest moraines, representing an expanded ice cap 25 March 2010 16 that stretched w 5 km into the foreland of the Gurla Mandhata massif, likely formed during marine 71 Accepted 30 March 2010 17 isotope stage (MIS) 10 or an earlier glacialPROOF cycle. Another glacial expansion of coalescing piedmont type 72 18 occurred during the early part of the last glacial cycle or the penultimate glacial cycle, after which 73 19 glaciers became restricted to entrenched valley types. Impressive latero-frontal moraines at the mouths 74 20 of most valleys date to the early part of the last glacial cycle and MIS 3. A succession of six sets of 75 21 moraines within the valleys and up to the contemporary glaciers show that glaciers advanced during the 76 22 Lateglacial, Early Holocene, Neoglacial and possibly Little Ice Age. The change of style of glaciation 77 23 throughout the latter part of the Quaternary, from expanded ice caps to deeply entrenched valley 78 fl 24 glaciers, might re ect: (1) climatic controls with reduced moisture supply to the region over time; and/or 79 (2) tectonic controls reflecting increase basin subsidence due to detachment faulting and enhanced 25 80 valley incision. 26 Ó 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 81 27 82 28 83 29 84 30 1. Introduction mapping and examination of glacial and associated landforms, and 85 31 we date glacial landforms using 10Be terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide 86 32 Gurla Mandhata (Naimona’nyi) is an impressive isolated dome- (TCN) surface exposure dating methods. 87 33 shaped massif situated in a remote region of southern Tibet (Figs. 1 88 34 and 2). The massif lies just north of the Greater Himalaya among 89 35 the source waters of four major Himalayan river systems: the Indus, 2. Study area 90 36 91 Sutlej, Ganges and Tsangpo-Brahmaputra. The glacial geologic 37 record of Gurla Mandhata has the potential to provide important Gurla Mandhata (30.4 N/81.2 E) is located in the Nalakankar 92 38 information on the nature of glaciation at the headwaters of these Himal in southern Tibet near the southeastern terminus of the 93 > 39 immense river systems, which in turn has important implications 1000-km long right-slip Karakoram fault, between the Main 94 40 for understanding past and predicting future hydrological changes Central Thrust and the Southern Tibetan detachment system to the 95 41 in a transforming climate. Furthermore, Gurla Mandhata is one of south and the South Kailas Thrust and the Indus-Yalu Suture Zone 96 w 42 the best examples of an evolving massif linked to a crustal-scale to the north. The massif rises from 3800 m above sea level (asl) to 97 43 detachment system along the HimalayaneTibetan orogen (Murphy the 34th highest mountain in the world, Gurla Mandhata, at 98 w 44 et al., 2002) and provides an excellent natural laboratory to 7694 m asl over a distance of 25 km, and is drained by the Karnali 99 fl 45 examine the relationships among tectonics, climate, glaciation, River, which ows south along the west side of the massif and turns 100 46 erosion and landscape development. To develop a framework for abruptly east before crossing the divide of the Greater Himalaya 101 UNCORRECTED fl ’ 47 glacial geologic, geomorphic, and paleoclimate studies in this into Nepal where it ows into the Seti River. Two large lakes, La nga 102 48 region, we examine the glacial geologic record of the massif and Co (4572 m asl; also called Raksas) and Mapam Yum Co (4586 m 103 w 49 determine the timing of past glaciation using remote sensing, field asl; also called Manasarovar) are located 5 km north of the 104 50 mountain. Today there are cirques, valley glaciers, and a small ice 105 51 cap on the massif. 106 e 52 * Corresponding author. Fax: þ1 513 556 4203. Gurla Mandata is bounded to the west by a normal fault system 107 53 E-mail address: [email protected] (L.A. Owen). the Gurla Mandhata detachment system e which has exhumed 108 54 109 e Ó 55 0277-3791/$ see front matter 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 110 doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.03.017

Please cite this article in press as: Owen, L.A., et al., Quaternary glaciation of Gurla Mandhata (Naimon’anyi), Quaternary Science Reviews (2010), doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.03.017 ARTICLE IN PRESS JQSR2724_proof ■ 15 April 2010 ■ 2/14

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111 176 112 177 113 178 114 179 115 180 116 181 117 182 118 183 119 184 120 185 121 186 122 187 123 188 124 189 125 190 126 191 127 192 128 193 129 194 130 195 131 196 132 197 133 198 134 199 135 PROOF 200 136 201 137 202 138 203 139 204 140 205 141 206 142 207 143 208 144 209 145 210 146 211 147 212 148 213 149 214 150 215 Fig. 1. Digital elevation model (produced from ASTER data) of Gurla Mandhata showing the locations of the detailed study areas. (A) Ronggua valley foreland; (B) Muguru valley; (C) 151 Namarodi valley. Inset shows regional location of the study area. 216 152 217 153 mid-crustal rocks of the Greater Himalayan Crystalline Sequence evident from fresh fault scarps along the western margin of the 218 154 (Murphy et al., 2002) which core the massif. Using field mapping massif, widening the pull-apart basin west of the massif. 219 155 and geochronologic and thermobarometric analyses, Murphy et al. Glacial landforms record episodes of expanded ice cap glacia- 220 156 (2002) showed that Gurla Mandhata underwent major middle to tion, piedmont, and entrenched valley glaciation with glaciers 221 157 late Miocene east-west extension along the Gurla Mandhata extending to w4800 m asl (Ma, 1989). Ma (1989) showed that the 222 158 detachment system. The maximum fault slip occurred along a pair glacial geomorphology of the massif records changes in glacial style 223 159 of low-angle normal faults that have caused significant tectonic over time from expanded ice cap, to piedmont, and to entrenched 224 160 denudation of the Tethyan Sedimentary Sequence, resulting in valley glaciation, culminating in a phase of rock glacierization, but 225 161 juxtaposition of weakly metamorphosed Paleozoic rocks and he did not speculate on the cause for these changes in glacial style 226 162 Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the hanging wall over amphibolite- (Fig. 3; Table 1). Through correlation with other parts of the 227 163 facies mylonitic schist, marble, gneiss, and variably deformed bodies Himalaya and Tibet, Ma (1989) suggested ages for the four major 228 164 of leucogranite in the footwall. Murphy et al. (2002) argue for a total glaciations he recognized (Table 1). Contemporary glaciers are inset 229 165 slip of between 66 and 35 km acrossUNCORRECTED the Gurla Mandhata detach- into deep, box-shaped valleys (Fig. 2) and are largest on the eastern 230 166 ment system, comparable to estimates of slip on the right-slip slopes of the massif. In total there are 58 glaciers in the region 231 167 Karakoram fault system, to which it is interpreted to be kinemati- covering a total area of w80 km2, but none of these glaciers extend 232 168 cally linked. Together with the Karakoram Fault, the Gurla Mandhata below 5320 m asl (Ma, 1989). These are cirque or valley glaciers of 233 169 detachment system produced the Pulan Basin, which became filled cold-based continental type (Benn and Owen, 2002). 234 170 with Neogene sediments (Murphy et al., 2002). Cooling ages on The region has a cold arid continental climate. The only major 235 171 minerals within the massif and geochronologic data on the move- town in the region, Burang (w20 km SW of the summit of Gurla 236 172 ment of the Karakoram Fault indicate that the Gurla Mandhata Mandhata and at w3900 m asl), has a mean annual temperature of 237 173 massif has been forming over the last 10e20 Ma, and that the 3 C and a mean annual precipitation total of 176 mm from 1973 to 238 174 majority of the uplift had occurred by w8 Ma as a result of extension 1984 (Miehe et al., 2004). The mean monthly precipitation record 239 175 (Murphy et al., 2000, 2002). Normal faulting continues today, as is displays two peaks of approximately equal magnitude (w25 mm) in 240

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241 306 242 307 243 308 244 309 245 310 246 311 247 312 248 313 249 314 250 315 251 316 252 317 253 318 254 319 255 320 256 321 257 322 258 323 259 324 260 325 261 326 262 327 263 328 264 329 265 PROOF 330 266 331 267 332 268 333 269 334 270 335 271 336 272 337 273 338 274 339 275 340 276 341 277 342 278 343 279 344 280 345 281 346 282 347 283 348 284 349 285 350 286 351 287 352 288 353 ’ ¼ 289 Fig. 2. Views of Gurla Mandhata. (A) Google Earth image viewed E/NE showing foreland, and La nga Co (Co lake) and Mapam Yum Co. (B) View of the western slopes showing 354 glaciated foreland; and (C) view E/SE across Gurla Mandhata illustrating deeply entrenched glacial valleys. 290 355 291 356 292 357 293 MarcheApril and AugusteSeptember. The precipitation that occurs studies were undertaken in three areas: (i) the Ronggua valley 358 294 in late winter is likely transported to the area by the westerly winds, foreland; (ii) the Muguru valley; and (iii) the Namarodi valley 359 295 while the late summer precipitationUNCORRECTED is most likely carried inland by (Fig. 1). These regions were chosen based on their logistical and 360 296 the monsoon. In contrast, precipitation is significantly higher to the political accessibility, and to provide some areal coverage of the 361 297 south and east, and to the west because of the influence of the massif. The chronology of Ma (1989) was examined and evaluated. 362 298 monsoon and the mid-latitude westerlies, respectively. Moraines of the Naimona’nyi (oldest) and Rigongpu glaciations 363 299 were very distinctive and we call these M1 and M2, respectively. 364 300 3. Methods Individual moraines within the Naimona’nyi glacial moraines were 365 301 further subdivided into M1a, M1b and M1c to differentiate distinct 366 302 3.1. Field methods moraine ridges for sampling. Moraines of Ma’s (1989) Namorangre 367 303 glaciation were subdivided into M3 and M4 based on relative 368 304 The geomorphology of the region was studied in the field, aided position and morphostratigraphy. M4 moraines were further sub- 369 305 by interpretation of Google Earth and ASTER imagery. Detailed divided into M4a, M4b and M4c to differentiate distinct moraine 370

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371 436 372 437 373 438 374 439 375 440 376 441 377 442 378 443 379 444 380 445 381 446 382 447 383 448 384 449 385 450 386 451 387 452 388 453 389 454 390 Fig. 3. Reconstructions of the former extents of glaciation on Gurla Mandhata (after Ma, 1989). 455 391 456 392 457 ridges for sampling. The Neoglacial moraines of Ma (1989) also recorded. The angle from the sampling sites to the horizon was 393 458 comprise at least six sets of moraines and we subdivide these recorded to make corrections for topographic shielding. 394 459 sequentially from M5 to M10 (youngest). Moraines with the same 395 460 number in different regions correlate with each other. Glacial and PROOF 396 3.3. Laboratory methods for TCN dating 461 associated landforms were mapped in the field and sedimentary 397 462 deposits were examined using the methods summarized in Benn 398 Rock samples were crushed and sieved to obtain the 463 and Owen (2002). e m 399 250 500 m size fraction. This fraction was chemically leached 464 > 400 using a minimum of four acid leaches: aqua regia for 9h;two5% 465 10 w 401 3.2. Sampling for Be TCN dating HF/HNO3 leaches for 24 h; and one or more 1% HF/HNO3 leaches 466 w 402 each for 24 h. A heavy liquid (lithium heteropolytungstate) 467 10 fi 403 Samples for Be TCN surface exposure dating were collected separation was used after the rst 5% HF/HNO3 leach. The pure 468 404 from moraines in each of the three study areas and from bedrock in quartz that was obtained was spiked with a Be carrier that had 469 e 10 9 15 405 the Namarodi valley (Figs. 4 9). The geomorphic characteristics of a Be/ Be ratio of 2.99 0.22 10 . The spiked quartz was dis- 470 406 the boulders, moraines, and the sample sites, including boulder solved in concentrated HF and then fumed three times with 471 407 size, degree of weathering, whether surfaces had glacial polish/ perchloric acid. Samples were then passed through anion and cation 472 408 striations, and the degree of burial within sediment, were noted to exchange columns to separate the Be fraction. Ammonium 473 409 assess whether there might have been any post-depositional hydroxide was added to the Be fractions to precipitate beryllium 474 fi 410 modi cation of the exposed surfaces. The lithology and thickness of hydroxide gel. Be(OH)2 was oxidized by ignition at 750 C for 5 min 475 411 the sample, and if applicable, the dip of the sample surface were in quartz crucibles. The resultant BeO was mixed with Nb powder 476 10 9 412 and loaded in steel targets for the measurement of the Be/ Be 477 ratios by accelerator mass spectrometry at the Center for Accelerator 413 Table 1 478 414 ’ Mass Spectrometry at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. 479 Geomorphic description and inferred ages for Ma s (1989) four major glaciations of 10 415 the Gurla Mandhata massif. All Be TCN ages for boulder samples were calculated by applying 480 the Lal (1991) and Stone (2000) time-independent model using 416 Glacial stage Geomorphic character Proposed age 481 the CRONUS Earth 2.2 calculator (Balco et al., 2008b; http://hess.ess. 417 ’ 482 Naimona nyi Morainic platform in the Middle Pleistocene based on washington.edu/math/), with a production rate of 4.5 0.3 10Be 418 foreland of the massif correlation with moraine 483 419 extending to w4400 m asl. This platforms on the north slope of atoms/gram of quartz/year and isotope ratios were normalized to 484 10 420 is characterized by scattered the West Kunlun that had Be standards prepared by Nishiizumi et al. (2007) with a value of 485 e 12 10 6 421 erratics and gravel rich a thermoluminescence age of 2.85 10 , and using a Be half life of 1.36 10 years and rock 486 surfaces with soil developed to 333 46 ka. density of 2.7 g/cm3. 422 > 487 a depth of 20 cm The two oldest samples, NA1 and NA7, were used to calculate 423 Rigongpu Less extensive till sheet with Early Late Pleistocene based on 488 424 scattered erratics in the radiocarbon dating of calcium erosion rates using the methods of Lal (1991) to provide a weighted 489 425 foreland of the massif thatUNCORRECTEDcarbonate taken from piedmont mean erosion rate of 1.2 m/Ma. Erosion rates of 1.2 m/Ma would 490 extend from 4600 m asl and moraines (presumably < 426 cause an age of 1 ka to be underestimated by 0.5%, 10 ka age 491 fan-shaped moraines (of cements) that had radiocarbon by w1%, 20 ka age by w2%, 40 ka age by w4%, 100 ka by w10%, 427 492 piedmont glacier type) at ages of 40.1 1 ka, 33.25 w w 428 w4800 m asl. 0.75 ka and 32.9 0.8 ka. 200 ka by 21% and 400 ka by 58%. 493 429 Namorangre End moraines, containing large Late Pleistocene, no 494 430 boulders, some of which extend explanation given, but likely 4. Study area descriptions 495 into foreland and others are based on correlation with 431 confined to valleys/cirques. moraines elsewhere in Tibet. 496 432 Neoglacial Three sets of small end Holocene, no explanation given, 4.1. Ronggua Gorge foreland 497 433 moraines, mostly confined to but likely based on correlation 498 434 valleys and cirques with moraines elsewhere in The Ronggua Gorge foreland study area is situated along the 499 Tibet. 435 western slopes of Gurla Mandhata and transverse the main normal 500

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501 566 502 567 503 568 504 569 505 570 506 571 507 572 508 573 509 574 510 575 511 576 512 577 513 578 514 579 515 580 516 581 517 582 518 583 519 584 520 585 521 586 522 587 523 588 524 589 525 PROOF 590 526 591 527 592 528 593 529 594 530 595 531 596 532 597 533 598 534 599 535 600 536 601 537 602 538 603 539 604 540 605 Fig. 4. Google Earth images showing the glacial landforms and sampling locations for 10Be TCN dating for the Ronggua valley foreland. 541 606 542 607 543 608 544 fault system of the Gurla Mandhata detachment system (Figs. 1 have scattered glacial boulders inset into the surface and the boul- 609 545 and 4). The westernmost extent of the study area borders ders are deeply weathered. We call these moraines M2 and sampled 610 546 impressive terraces that Murphy et al. (2002) interpreted as boulders on one of the ridges for 10Be dating (Figs. 4 and 5D). 611 547 eroded Neogene valley fill deposits. The main study area is Two sets of moraines are present near the stream that exits the 612 548 traversed by an impressive stream that forms a deep canyon within mountain front. Ma (1989) assigns these moraines to the Namor- 613 549 the main Gurla Mandhata massif. The oldest glacial deposits angre glaciation (our M3 and M4). The older and more extensive 614 550 comprise the “morainic platform” of the Naimona’nyi glaciation moraine (M3) forms a prominent ridge rising several tens of meters 615 551 (Ma, 1989) and form a till sheet with large (2 m diameter) glacial above and along the contemporary valley (Figs. 4 and 5E). Meter- 616 552 boulders scattered across the landscape. This till sheet is charac- size boulders are abundant on this moraine. The boulders are 617 553 terized in part by very subdued ridges that broadly follow the weathered, but few exhibit cavernous weathering. Boulders on the 618 554 outline of the present mountain front. We call these the M1 dominant ridge were sampled for 10Be dating (Figs. 4 and 5E). 619 555 moraines and we collected samplesUNCORRECTED for 10Be dating from large A series of small end moraines are present at the mouth of the 620 556 boulders at three separate locations (M1a, M1b and M1c; Figs. 4 main stream at the mountain front. These moraines rise w10e20 m 621 557 and 5AeC). Glacial boulders from the M1 moraines are well inset above the stream and are displaced by normal faults (M4a, M4b and 622 558 into the substrate and are well weathered, with cm-deep cavernous M4c). Boulders present on these moraines exhibit slight granular 623 559 weathering voids, and some boulders have rims weathered flat to weathering. Boulders on all three moraines were sampled for 10Be 624 560 the surface (Fig. 5C), while other boulders are completely weath- dating (Figs. 4 and 5FeH). 625 561 ered flush to the surface. 626 562 Nearer to the mountain front, subdued ridges are present radi- 4.2. Muguru valley 627 563 ating from the mountain front valley exit. Ma (1989) interpreted 628 564 these as moraines formed by piedmont glaciers that advanced into The Muguru valley faces NW and contains two valley glaciers 629 565 the foreland during the Rigongpu glaciation. These moraine ridges that extend to 5500 m asl (Fig. 6). The valley contains at least seven 630

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631 696 632 697 633 698 634 699 635 700 636 701 637 702 638 703 639 704 640 705 641 706 642 707 643 708 644 709 645 710 646 711 647 712 648 713 649 714 650 715 651 716 652 717 653 718 654 719 655 PROOF 720 656 721 657 722 658 723 659 724 660 725 661 726 662 727 663 728 664 729 665 730 666 731 667 732 668 733 669 734 670 735 671 736 672 737 673 738 674 739 675 740 676 741 677 742 678 743 679 744 680 745 681 746 682 747 683 748 684 749 685 UNCORRECTED 750 686 Fig. 5. Glacial landforms in the Ronggua valley foreland. (A) Views looking E across the M1A moraine towards Gurla Mandhata. (B) View of typical sampled boulder (sample NA7) on 751 687 the M1B moraine. (C) Intensely weathered boulder (sample NA23) on M1C. (D) View NE looking up the M2 moraine. (E) View E along M3 moraine. (F) View SW along the M4A 752 moraine. (G) View of typical sampled boulder (sample NA31) on the M4B moraine. (H) View along M4C moraine showing the location of boulder sample NA9. 688 753 689 754 690 755 691 sets of latero-frontal moraines, which we number M4 through M10. dating (Fig. 7A). Ma (1989) assigned this moraine to the Namorangre 756 692 The oldest moraine (M4) forms an arc-shaped ridge at the mouth of glaciation. The next moraine up valley (M5) is very subdued and has 757 693 the valley, which rises about 15e20 m above the main valley ﬂoor few boulders on its surface and was not sampled for 10Be dating. 758 694 (Figs. 6 and 7A). The moraine has large boulders on its crest that Further up valley are three sets of latero-frontal moraines that rise 759 695 exhibit slight granular disintegration, which were sampled for 10Be between 10e20 m above the valley ﬂoor. These are the Neoglacial 760

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761 826 762 827 763 828 764 829 765 830 766 831 767 832 768 833 769 834 770 835 771 836 772 837 773 838 774 839 775 840 776 841 777 842 778 843 779 844 780 845 781 846 782 847 783 848 784 849 785 PROOF 850 786 851 787 852 788 853 789 854 790 855 791 856 792 857 793 858 794 859 795 860 796 861 797 862 798 863 799 864 800 865 801 866 802 867 803 868 804 Fig. 6. Google Earth images showing the glacial landforms and sampling locations for 10Be TCN dating along the Muguru valley. 869 805 870 806 871 807 moraines of Ma (1989) and we number them M6, M7 and M8 (Fig. 6). glaciers of the Namorangre glaciation of Ma (1989). These 872 808 The surfaces of these moraines contain scattered boulders that moraines rise several tens of meters above the foreland and are 873 809 exhibit very slight granular weathering (Fig. 8BeD). Boulders on all comprised of multiple ridges. Abundant meter-size boulders are 874 810 three were sampled for 10Be dating. present on these moraines, which exhibit slight granular weath- 875 811 Two sets of moraines are present within a few hundred meters ering. Boulders on both sets of moraines were sampled for 10Be 876 812 of the contemporary glaciers, comprising sharp crested latero- dating (Figs. 8, 9A and B). 877 813 frontal moraines with abundant unweathered, meter-sized boul- Small rock glaciers and rock glacierized slopes are abundant 878 814 ders on their surfaces (Figs. 6, and 7E and F). These moraines were between the mouth of the Namarodi valley to w5500 m asl. 879 815 numbered M9 and M10, and bouldersUNCORRECTED for 10Be dating were Glacially polished bedrock surfaces and a subdued moraine are 880 816 collected from both. Impressive rock glaciers are present down present at w5000 m asl, just to the east of Namarodi Tso (Figs. 8 881 817 valley between M8 and M10. and 9C), which we call M5 and Ma (1989) assigned to the Neo- 882 818 glacial. Samples for 10Be dating were collected from boulders on 883 819 4.3. Namarodi valley this moraine and from the glacially eroded bedrock surfaces (Figs. 8 884 820 and 9C). 885 821 The Namarodi valley study area stretches from the east side of An impressive end moraine (M6) is present on the west side of 886 822 Namarodi Tso (Tso means Lake) to the foreland of the Gurla Namarodi Tso several hundred meters from the contemporary 887 823 Mandhata massif south of Mapam Yum Co (Fig. 8). Two sets of glacier, rising w30 m above the lake, (Figs. 8, 9E and F). Abundant 888 824 impressive moraines (M4a and M4b) are present at the mouth of meter-size boulders, some of which exhibit granular weathering, 889 825 the Namarodi valley at w4800 m asl representing piedmont are present on the moraine. These were sampled for 10Be dating. 890

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891 956 892 957 893 958 894 959 895 960 896 961 897 962 898 963 899 964 900 965 901 966 902 967 903 968 904 969 905 970 906 971 907 972 908 973 909 974 910 975 911 976 912 977 913 978 Fig. 7. Glacial landforms in the Muguru valley. (A) View of typical sampled boulder (NA76) on the M4 moraines. (B) View looking west along the M6 moraine showing sampled 914 979 boulder NA70. (C) View E up the M7 moraine. (D) View E at the latero-frontal moraine of the M8 moraine. (E) View of sampled boulder NA55 on the M9 moraine with the M10 915 moraine in the distance. (F) View of sampled boulder (NA9) on the M10 moraine. PROOF 980 916 981 917 5. Dating results date moraines in the Himalaya and Tibet, and elsewhere, has been 982 918 discussed in detail in previous work (e.g. Hallet and Putkonen, 983 919 The 10Be dating results are shown in Table 2. Problems associ- 1994; Benn and Owen, 2002; Owen et al., 2002, 2003a, 2005, 984 920 ated with the application of surface exposure dating methods to 2006a, 2008, 2009; Putkonen and Swanson, 2003; Putkonen and 985 921 986 922 987 923 988 924 989 925 990 926 991 927 992 928 993 929 994 930 995 931 996 932 997 933 998 934 999 935 1000 936 1001 937 1002 938 1003 939 1004 940 1005 941 1006 942 1007 943 1008 944 1009 945 UNCORRECTED 1010 946 1011 947 1012 948 1013 949 1014 950 1015 951 1016 952 1017 953 1018 954 1019 955 Fig. 8. Google Earth images of glacial landforms and sampling locations for 10Be TCN dating along the Namarodi valley. 1020

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1021 1086 1022 1087 1023 1088 1024 1089 1025 1090 1026 1091 1027 1092 1028 1093 1029 1094 1030 1095 1031 1096 1032 1097 1033 1098 1034 1099 1035 1100 1036 1101 1037 1102 1038 1103 1039 1104 1040 1105 1041 1106 1042 1107 1043 1108 1044 Fig. 9. Glacial landforms in the Namarodi valley. (A) View NW across M4A moraine showing a boulder that was sampled (NA96). (B) M4B moraine viewed looking south into the 1109 Namarodi valley. (C) View SW across the M5 moraine with Namarodi in the distance. The boulder in the foreground was sampled for 10Be dating (sample NA106). (D) M6 moraine 1045 viewed eastward looking down valley, showing sampled boulder NA115. (E) View looking S/SW at M6 atPROOF the western end of Namarodi. (F) View of the M6 moraine showing young 1110 1046 moraines, possibly historical, around the contemporary glacier. 1111 1047 1112 1048 O’Neal, 2006; Seong et al., 2007, 2008, 2009; Putkonen et al., 2008). the range of ages in Fig. 10 and list the maximum age, average and 1113 1049 These problems include uncertainty introduced in the calculation range of ages per moraine in Table 3. We assign our best estimate of 1114 1050 of the production rate of TCNs and geologic complexities affecting the age of the moraine given the distribution of ages on each 1115 1051 surfaces such as weathering, exhumation, prior exposure and moraine and by examining the morphostratigraphic context of each 1116 1052 shielding of the surface by snow and/or sediment. Balco et al. moraine in relation to its adjacent moraines (Table 3). 1117 1053 (2008a, b) and Owen et al. (2008) highlighted the large uncer- The oldest moraines, of Ma’s (1989) Naimona’nyi glaciation and 1118 1054 tainty associated with different scaling models for low-latitude and our M1aec moraines, were sampled in the foreland of the Ronggua 1119 1055 high-altitude locations such as the Himalaya and showed that there Gorge, and included three distinct moraines. These had exposure 1120 1056 may be as much as 40% difference between scaling models over the ages that ranged from 78e482 ka, but have an average of 1121 1057 last glacial. Much of this difference is due to the uncertainty in 281 116 ka (error ¼ 1s). M1b and M1c have 4 and 5 boulders older 1122 1058 correcting for variations in the geomagnetic field intensity, and than 300 ka, respectively, while M1 has one older than 300 ka. 1123 1059 currently there is much debate regarding the appropriate scaling Given the deep weathering of most of the boulders on these 1124 1060 model that should be used. Given these problems, we apply the Lal moraines and the large number of boulders older than 300 ka, we 1125 1061 (1991) and Stone (2000) time-independent models, but recognize argue that these moraines are very much older than 300 ka, but 1126 1062 the uncertainty in our calculated ages and use caution when cannot assign a precise age to its formation, suffice to say that they 1127 1063 assigning our numerically dated moraines to particular climatos- might have formed during marine isotope stage (MIS) 10 or earlier. 1128 1064 tratigraphic times. 10Be ages for boulders on Ma’s(1989)Rigongpu moraines, our 1129 1065 The geologic factors that complicate dating moraines often M2 moraines, range from 62 to 107 ka, with an average of 1130 1066 overshadow those associated with production rates, especially 79 17 ka. We suggest that these formed in the early part of the last 1131 1067 when the moraines are of great antiquity (many 100s of thousands glacial cycle, or the penultimate glacial cycle if we consider the 1132 1068 of years old). These factors generally reduce the concentration of younger ages to be the result of weathering and/or erosion and older 1133 1069 TCNs in rock surfaces, which results in an underestimate of the true 10Be ages to be more representative of the true of the landform. 1134 1070 age of the landforms and can result in a large spread in apparent Boulder ages for M3, Ma’s (1989) Namorangre glaciation, at the 1135 1071 exposure ages on a landform. Episodes of prior exposure of rock mouth of the Ronggua Gorge range from 28 to 64 ka and show that 1136 1072 surfaces are an exception and result in an overestimate of the true it formed during the early part of the last glacial cycle. However, the 1137 1073 age of the moraine. Putkonen and Swanson (2003) argued, large spread of ages does not allow us to distinguish whether it 1138 1074 however, that only a few percent of dated moraine boulders have formed during MIS 4 or MIS 3. 1139 1075 had prior exposure. These effects canUNCORRECTED be partially assessed by col- The 10Be ages for boulders on latero-frontal moraines, M4aec, at 1140 1076 lecting multiple samples on a surface that is being dated and the mouth of the Ronggua Gorge all cluster reasonably well with 1141 1077 assigning an appropriate age based on the distribution of TCN ages. a mean age of 40 9 ka. M4a at the mouth of the Namarodi valley 1142 1078 However this is another area of debate and contention, since some provides a similar age at 52 2 ka. In contrast, M4b has young ages, 1143 1079 researchers argue that the oldest age in a cluster of ages on w15 ka, and given their context and the degree of erosion it is likely 1144 1080 a moraine (e.g. Briner et al., 2005) is the most appropriate measure these ages reflect exhumation or toppling of boulders. Given that 1145 1081 of the true age of the landform, while others suggest that statisti- weathering rates of 1 m/Ma would only affect the age by a few 1146 1082 cally analyzing the clustering of the ages, such as applying the mean percent, we argue that the M4 moraines formed during MIS 3. 1147 1083 square of weighted deviates method (e.g. Dortch et al., in press), is 10Be ages (w15e0.1 ka) for boulders on Ma’s (1989) Neoglacial 1148 1084 more appropriate. In an attempt to be objective, we plot all our ages moraines, our M5e10 moraines, show that the moraines span 1149 1085 for each moraine as stacked probability distribution plots and show a longer duration than the Neoglaciation. Exposure ages from M5 1150

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1151 Table 2 1216 10 1152 Sample locations, descriptions, chemistry and Be ages. 1217 1153 Sample Landform Latitude Longitude Altitude Boulder size Sample Shielding 10Be atoms 104 Agea (ka) External 1218 b 1154 number ( N) ( E) (m asl) a/b/c axis (cm) thickness (cm) correction per g of SiO2 error (ka) 1219 1155 Ronggua Gorge Foreland 1220 1156 Na24 M4c 30.3791 81.1844 4433 190/170/90 1 1 254.2 5.97 37.7 0.9 3.4 1221 1157 Na25 M4c 30.3792 81.1843 4432 100/100/80 0.5 1 280.05 5.45 41.5 0.8 3.7 1222 Na26 M4c 30.3789 81.1844 4433 170/100/70 3 1 304.7 10.24 46.1 1.6 4.3 1158 Na27 M4c 30.3792 81.1845 4438 130/100/45 1.5 1 148.12 2.71 21.9 0.4 2.0 1223 1159 Na28 M4c 30.3794 81.1847 4438 130/60/50 1 1 281.81 5.50 41.8 0.8 3.8 1224 1160 Na29 M4c 30.3792 81.1845 4431 140/130/110 2 1 234.86 4.12 35.2 0.6 3.1 1225 1161 Na30 M4b 30.3773 81.1825 4398 140/120/60 2 1 284.47 4.90 43.4 0.8 3.9 1226 Na31 M4b 30.3775 81.1821 4387 330/260/160 2 0.9664 290.74 4.11 46.1 0.7 4.1 1162 1227 Na32 M4b 30.3774 81.1819 4385 240/210/140 2 1 257.47 5.58 39.5 0.9 3.6 1163 Na33 M4b 30.3775 81.1819 4378 320/200/140 2 1 290.43 5.09 44.7 0.8 4.0 1228 1164 Na34 M4b 30.3775 81.1815 4383 200/150/100 1 1 253.38 6.14 38.6 0.9 3.5 1229 1165 Na10 M4a 30.3817 81.1759 4515 200/160/40 1.5 1 188.66 4.82 27.0 0.7 2.5 1230 1166 Na11 M4a 30.3817 81.1760 4504 190/130/60 2.5 1 186.46 4.70 27.0 0.7 2.5 1231 Na12 M4a 30.3816 81.1760 4500 150/120/70 5 1 364.95 8.60 54.5 1.3 5.0 1167 Na13 M4a 30.3815 81.1757 4504 135/80/40 1 1 117.55 3.11 16.8 0.4 1.5 1232 1168 Na14 M4a 30.3812 81.1755 4501 450/400/400 1 1 62.30 1.37 8.9 0.2 0.8 1233 1169 Na15 M4a 30.3813 81.1757 4505 110/70/50 3 1 346.24 6.79 50.7 1.0 4.6 1234 1170 Na35 M3 30.3799 81.1736 4452 190/150/70 1 1 316.52 7.46 46.7 1.1 4.3 1235 1171 Na36 M3 30.3794 81.1730 4456 140/90/50 3 1 185.16 4.38 27.6 0.7 2.5 1236 Na37 M3 30.3791 81.1726 4460 350/300/170 2 0.9818 196.48 4.88 29.5 0.7 2.7 1172 Na38 M3 30.3788 81.1723 4460 170/140/80 1 1 433.12 8.89 63.9 1.3 5.8 1237 1173 Na39 M3 30.3780 81.1715 4446 200/190/120 6 1 352.67 8.42 54.5 1.3 5.0 1238 1174 Na40 M3 30.3778 81.1713 4436 190/110/110 1 1 431.43 8.76 64.4 1.3 5.8 1239 1175 Na41 M2 30.3789 81.1703 4444 150/75/40 1.5 1 472.63 6.83 70.7 1.0 6.3 1240 Na42 M2 30.3789 81.1695 4448 140/130/110 1PROOF 1 715.45 15.11 107.3 2.3 9.9 1176 Na43 M2 30.3791 81.1694 4445 190/170/70 3 1 584.97 8.94 89.0 1.4 8.0 1241 1177 Na45 M2 30.3806 81.1698 4453 110/100/130 2 1 457.35 9.13 68.3 1.4 6.2 1242 1178 Na46 M2 30.3796 81.1699 4454 110/80/60 1.5 1 414.34 8.76 61.5 1.3 5.6 1243 1179 Na47 M2 30.3795 81.1697 4456 160/110/60 3 1 496.92 9.84 74.9 1.5 6.8 1244 1180 Na18 M1c 30.3801 81.1657 4442 500/450/150 2 1 2082.40 24.07 334.4 4.2 31.9 1245 Na19A M1c 30.3809 81.1664 4445 550/480/170 1.5 1 2354.63 24.77 380.4 4.4 36.7 1181 Na19B M1c 30.3809 81.1664 4445 550/480/70 2 1 1975.17 18.26 315.2 3.2 29.9 1246 1182 Na20 M1c 30.3813 81.1677 4453 200/150/70 3 1 745.84 9.56 113.7 1.5 10.3 1247 1183 Na21 M1c 30.3832 81.1667 4455 320/250/130 1 1 2935.25 24.71 481.6 4.6 47.6 1248 1184 Na22 M1c 30.3832 81.1666 4459 380/180/160 1 1 2680.08 22.31 433.8 4.0 42.4 1249 Na23A M1c 30.3814 81.1681 4461 340/270/130 2 1 2183.51 19.16 348.8 3.3 33.3 1185 Na23B M1c 30.3814 81.1681 4461 340/270/0 1.5 0.9199 1656.79 16.62 281.5 3.0 26.5 1250 1186 Na1 M1b 30.3736 81.1591 4385 470/310/130 2 1 2642.20 42.59 448.6 8.1 44.5 1251 1187 Na2 M1b 30.3743 81.1593 4388 300/200/140 2 1 1931.93 31.21 317.1 5.6 30.4 1252 1188 Na3A M1b 30.3753 81.1595 4401 240/220/150 1 1 1477.31 16.59 234 2.8 21.8 1253 1189 Na3B M1b 30.3753 81.1595 4401 240/220/150 1.5 1 1430.04 14.40 227.1 2.4 21.1 1254 Na4 M1b 30.3786 81.1598 4435 500/230/120 1 1 2577.80 27.61 420.8 5.0 41.1 1190 Na5 M1b 30.3792 81.1603 4439 ? 2 1 1081.99 16.46 166.9 2.7 15.4 1255 1191 Na6 M1b 30.3784 81.1592 4427 280/220/100 1.5 1 1763.49 18.23 280.2 3.1 26.3 1256 1192 Na7 M1b 30.3760 81.1583 4404 600/500/170 2 1 2712.17 23.36 457.2 4.4 44.9 1257 1193 Na8 M1b 30.3779 81.1567 4413 200/170/90 1.75 1 803.63 9.26 123.9 1.5 11.2 1258 Na82 M1a 30.3957 81.1477 4373 200/95/85 1.5 1 501.63 11.99 77.7 1.9 7.1 1194 Na83 M1a 30.3963 81.1466 4379 240/120/55 1 1 805.71 10.91 125.5 1.8 11.4 1259 1195 Na84 M1a 30.4000 81.1479 4395 190/170/80 2 1 1210.87 17.22 191.9 2.9 17.7 1260 1196 Na85 M1a 30.4008 81.1485 4394 270/200/70 2 1 1035.89 14.40 163.0 2.4 15.0 1261 1197 Na86 M1a 30.4003 81.1493 4402 550/400/190 2 1 1942.33 15.47 316.3 2.7 29.9 1262 1198 Na87 M1a 30.4009 81.1496 4403 600/400/140 2 1 1388.12 17.60 220.7 3.0 20.5 1263 1199 Muguru valley 1264 1200 Na48 M10 30.4633 81.2169 5508 170/65/50 2 0.9464 2.90 0.41 0.28 0.04 0.05 1265 1201 Na49 M10 30.4634 81.2168 5506 130/120/30 1 0.9464 22.99 0.65 2.2 0.1 0.2 1266 1202 Na50 M10 30.4634 81.2169 5509 170/80/60 1.5 0.9464 0.75 0.27 0.07 0.03 0.03 1267 Na52 M10 30.4640 81.2170 5514 140/100/25 1.5 0.9519 28.09 0.69 2.7 0.07 0.2 1203 1268 Na53 M10 30.4638 81.2159 5509 240/180/70 2 0.9554 1.78 0.12 0.17 0.01 0.02 1204 Na54 M9 30.4637 81.2157 5503 120/100/60 1 0.9474 2.98 0.39 0.28 0.04 0.05 1269 1205 Na55 M9 30.4635 81.2157UNCORRECTED 5520 160/90/75 1.5 0.9474 3.09 0.55 0.29 0.05 0.1 1270 1206 Na56 M9 30.4629 81.2157 5509 220/150/70 2 0.9282 4.09 0.36 0.40 0.04 0.1 1271 1207 Na57 M9 30.4632 81.2155 5508 150/100/50 1 0.9331 6.69 0.86 0.65 0.08 0.1 1272 Na58 M8 30.4683 81.2064 5325 110/90/50 5 1 38.41 1.64 3.9 0.17 0.4 1208 Na59 M8 30.4683 81.2050 5325 180/160/80 1 1 29.51 0.83 2.9 0.1 0.3 1273 1209 Na64 M7 30.4704 81.2058 5195 100/100/40 2 0.98 26.5 0.66 2.8 0.1 0.3 1274 1210 Na66 M7 30.4711 81.2056 5159 210/120/100 5 0.9777 82.78 2.37 9.2 0.3 0.8 1275 1211 Na67 M7 30.4712 81.2056 5154 130/120/50 2 0.9777 57.37 2.22 6.2 0.2 0.6 1276 Na68 M7 30.4712 81.2056 5154 130/70/40 1 0.9777 62.51 1.84 6.7 0.2 0.6 1212 1277 Na70 M6 30.4726 81.2044 5089 100/90/50 2 1 106.00 2.73 11.6 0.3 1.1 1213 Na71 M6 30.4725 81.2044 5096 120/100/80 2.5 0.9777 3.41 0.79 0.38 0.09 0.1 1278 1214 Na75 M4 30.4744 81.1944 4842 150/125/60 3 1 431.87 5.72 53.9 0.7 4.8 1279 1215 1280

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1281 Table 2 (continued ) 1346

1282 Sample Landform Latitude Longitude Altitude Boulder size Sample Shielding 10Be atoms 104 Agea (ka) External 1347 b 1283 number ( N) ( E) (m asl) a/b/c axis (cm) thickness (cm) correction per g of SiO2 error (ka) 1348 1284 Na76 M4 30.4745 81.1943 4838 620/600/180 1 1 441.56 10.41 54.3 1.3 5.0 1349 1285 Na78 M4 30.4744 81.1940 4838 150/150/120 2 1 343.66 5.28 42.5 0.7 3.8 1350 1286 Na79 M4 30.4745 81.1933 4821 150/110/45 1 0.9774 288.70 5.87 36.4 0.7 3.3 1351 1287 Na80 M4 30.4751 81.1924 4786 190/110/90 1 1 355.01 5.83 44.6 0.7 4.0 1352 Na81 M4 30.4758 81.1921 4766 120/70/45 2 1 3.98 0.33 0.5 0.04 0.1 1288 1353 1289 Manarodi Valley 1354 1290 Na113 M6 30.4298 81.4180 5531 400/200/300 2 1 143.90 3.21 13.1 0.3 1.2 1355 1291 Na114 M6 30.4302 81.4178 5533 160/100/40 2 1 136.15 3.27 12.4 0.3 1.1 1356 Na116 M6 30.4316 81.4168 5540 220/110/90 3 1 222.54 4.53 20.3 0.4 1.8 1292 1357 Na104 M5 30.4365 81.4479 5499 230/200/40 2 1 132.16 3.34 12.2 0.3 1.1 1293 Na105 M5 30.4364 81.4475 5501 220/140/70 1 1 79.56 2.02 7.2 0.2 0.7 1358 1294 Na106 M5 30.4363 81.4484 5499 200/170/80 2.5 1 137.55 3.55 12.7 0.3 1.2 1359 1295 Na107 M5 30.4365 81.4488 5500 340/180/60 2 1 165.76 4.02 15.3 0.4 1.4 1360 1296 Na108 M5 30.4373 81.4464 5497 220/180/40 1 0.9893 125.31 3.15 11.6 0.3 1.0 1361 Na111 bedrock 30.4380 81.4464 5511 n/a 2 0.9884 119.29 2.01 11.0 0.2 1.0 1297 Na112 bedrock 30.4379 81.4464 5515 n/a 2 0.9884 132.80 2.34 12.3 0.2 1.1 1362 1298 Na88 M4b 30.5397 81.4231 4802 210/130/80 2 1 120.12 2.67 15.0 0.3 1.4 1363 1299 Na89 M4b 30.5387 81.4238 4815 220/140/130 2.5 1 120.91 2.13 15.1 0.3 1.3 1364 1300 Na96 M4a 30.5422 81.4280 4762 160/100/70 3 1 390.86 7.52 50.6 1.0 4.6 1365 1301 Na97 M4a 30.5421 81.4280 4764 220/120/40 2 1 418.43 10.10 53.7 1.3 4.9 1366 1302 a The error is the internal uncertainty, which only takes into account the measurement uncertainty. 1367 b 1303 The external uncertainty includes all uncertainties including the production rate uncertainty. 1368 1304 and M6 in the Namarodi valley (12.4e15.3 ka) span the Lateglacial, valley have Neoglacial ages. 10Be ages on M8 show that it likely 1369 1305 but the clustering of boulders was not sufﬁcient to assign them to formed severalPROOF thousand years ago. The TCN ages on M9 and M10 1370 1306 a speciﬁc time during the Lateglacial. M7 in the Muguru valley has show that they likely formed sometime between 0.1 ka and 2.7 ka. 1371 1307 ages that cluster around 6.3 ka and we suggest that this moraine Given the position of M10 right next to the active glacier and that its 1372 1308 formed during the Early Holocene. M8 through M10 in the Muguru ages are younger that M9, we argue that this moraine represents 1373 1309 1374 1310 1375 1311 1376 1312 1377 1313 1378 1314 1379 1315 1380 1316 1381 1317 1382 1318 1383 1319 1384 1320 1385 1321 1386 1322 1387 1323 1388 1324 1389 1325 1390 1326 1391 1327 1392 1328 1393 1329 1394 1330 1395 1331 1396 1332 1397 1333 1398 1334 1399 1335 UNCORRECTED 1400 1336 1401 1337 1402 1338 1403 1339 1404 1340 1405 1341 1406 1342 1407 1343 1408 Fig. 10. Stacked probability distributions for 10Be TCN surface exposure ages for each moraine in (A) the Ronggua valley foreland; (B) the Muguru valley; and (C) the Namarodi 1344 valley. The smaller graphs in part (A) are for each of the individual moraines dated for M1 and M4. The probability plots are constructed using the age and external error for each 1409 1345 sample. Each plot has a relative scale based on the data examined therein. 1410

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1411 Table 3 1476 10 1412 Moraine numbers, glaciations and Be data for each study area (MIS ¼ marine oxygen isotope stage). 1477 1413 Moraine name Glaciation name after Ma (1989) Sample size Average agea (ka) Maximum age (ka) Range of ages (ka) Assigned age (ka) 1478 1414 Ronggua Gorge foreland 1479 1415 M4c Namorangre 6 37 84622e46 MIS 3 1480 1416 M4b Namorangre 5 43 34638e46 MIS 3 1481 e 1417 M4a Namorangre 6 35 17 51 9 55 ka MIS 3 1482 All M4 Namorangre 17 40 9519e55 ka MIS 3 1418 M3 Namorangre 6 48 16 64 28e64 MIS-4/Early Last Glacial 1483 1419 M2 Rigongpu 6 79 17 107 62e107 Early Last Glacial or MIS 6 1484 1420 M1c Naimona’nyi 8 336 111 482 114e482 MIS 10 or older 1485 1421 M1b Naimona’nyi 9 297 123 457 124e457 MIS 10 or older 1486 M1a Naimona’nyi 6 204 83 316 78e316 MIS 10 or older 1422 1487 All M1 Naimona’nyi 23 281 116 482 78e482 MIS 10 or older 1423 1488 1424 Muguru valley 1489 M10 Neoglaciation 5 1.1 1.3 2.7 0.1e2.7 Little Ice Age 1425 M9 Neoglaciation 4 0.4 0.2 0.7 0.3e0.7 Neoglacial 1490 1426 M8 Neoglaciation 2 3.4 0.7 3.9 2.9e3.9 Neoglacial 1491 1427 M7 Neoglaciation 4 6.3 2.6 9.2 2.8e9.2 Early Holocene 1492 b 1428 M6? Neoglaciation 2 No average 11.2 n/a Lateglacial/Early Holocene 1493 e 1429 M4 Namorangre 6 46 8543654 MIS 3 1494 1430 Namarodi valley 1495 1431 M6 Neoglaciation 3 15.3 4.4 20.3 12.4e20.3 Lateglacial 1496 M5 Neoglaciation 5 12.9 1.6 15.3 7.2e15.3 Lateglacial 1432 1497 M5 (bedrock) Neoglaciation 2 11.7 0.9 12.3 11.1e12.3 Lateglacial 1433 M4b Namorangre 2 15.0 15.1 15.0e15.1 MIS 3 1498 1434 M4a Namorangre 2 522.2 54 51e54 MIS 3 1499 1435 All M4 Namorangre n/a PROOF 1500 1436 a Error expressed as 1s. 1501 1437 b Because the difference between the two ages is so considerable (w12 ka cf 0.4 ka) an average age was not deemed realistic. 1502 1438 1503 1439 a Little Ice Age advance, with its older TCN ages reflecting some Our 10Be dating shows that another glaciation (M2), the Rig- 1504 1440 inheritance of TCNs due to prior exposure. Clearly any slight ongpu glaciation of Ma (1989), with moraines ranging in age from 1505 1441 inheritance of 10Be TCNs would greatly influence the young boul- 62 to 107 ka, occurred during the early part of the last glacial cycle 1506 1442 der’s ages. In addition, the age may be affected by toppling and/or or if the younger 10Be ages in the distribution are the result of 1507 1443 exhumation as the moraine stabilizes after glacial retreat, which weathering and/or exhumation then this would formed during the 1508 1444 will result in younger ages than the true age of the moraine (cf. penultimate glacial cycle. During this glaciation the piedmont 1509 1445 Dortch et al., in press). glaciers extended a few kilometers beyond the mountain front and 1510 1446 coalesced with each other. The large time lag between the Nai- 1511 1447 6. Discussion mona’yni and Rigongpu glaciation (300 ka cf. w62e107 ka) is 1512 1448 intriguing. It suggests that either there was no significant advance 1513 1449 Glacial geologic evidence shows that glaciation on the Gurla during this time interval, or that we did not recognize evidence for 1514 1450 Mandhata massif changes from expanded ice caps to deeply a glaciation in this interval because glaciers did not advance beyond 1515 1451 entrenched valley glaciers over the latter part of the Quaternary the Riogongpu glacier limits and their evidence was destroyed by 1516 1452 (Figs. 1e3). Assigning ages to the moraines produced during each the later, more extensive Rigongpu glaciation. 1517 1453 glacial advance is challenging because of the problems associated The Rigongpu glaciation of Ma (1989) was followed by a change 1518 1454 with the application of TCN surface exposure dating methods. in glacial style to entrenched valley glaciers. The oldest two of these 1519 1455 Nevertheless, we can broadly assign ages to the glacial succession glacial advances (M3 and M4) occurred during the Namorangre 1520 1456 on the Gurla Mandhata massif as discussed in the previous section. glaciation of Ma (1989) when glaciers advanced to the mouths of 1521 1457 This shows that the oldest glaciation, Ma’s (1989) Naimona’nyi most valleys throughout the massif (Fig. 3). Boulders from M3 1522 1458 glaciation, produced moraines considerably older than 300 ka and glaciers range in age between 28 and 64 ka and two sets of M2 1523 1459 thus likely formed during MIS 10 or during an earlier glacial cycle. glacial boulders yield mean ages of 40 9 and 52 2 ka, dating to 1524 1460 The moraines of the Naimona’nyi glaciation are among the oldest the early part of the last glacial cycle and MIS 3. Numerous studies 1525 1461 glacial landforms dated in the HimalayaneTibetan orogen. have shown that glaciers advanced during MIS 3 throughout the 1526 1462 Moraines of similar age are present in the Indus Valley in Ladakh Himalaya and Tibet, and that these advances were more extensive 1527 1463 where extensive valley glaciers advanced to an elevation below than those associated with MIS 2 (e.g. Finkel et al., 2003; Owen 1528 1464 3250 m asl at >430 ka (Owen et al., 2006a). Old glacier successions et al., 2002, 2003a, 2005, 2006b, 2009; Seong et al., 2009). 1529 1465 are also present in Muztag Ata andUNCORRECTED Kongur Shan where Seong et al. A succession of at least six sets of moraines is present within the 1530 1466 (2009) dated an expanded ice cap that advanced into the massif’s valleys to the contemporary glaciers, which Ma (1989) attributes to 1531 1467 foreland prior to the penultimate glacial cycle, in the Tanggula Shan the Neoglacial. Our 10Be dating of these moraines shows that they 1532 1468 where Schäfer et al. (2001) and Owen et al. (2005) dated moraines represent a much longer duration of glacier oscillations extending 1533 1469 formed by an expanded ice cap to penultimate glacial cycle, and in from the Lateglacial to the Little Ice Age. 10Be ages on the M5 and 1534 1470 the Rongbuk valley, north of Mt Everest, where Owen et al. (2009) M6 in the Namarodi valley suggest that they formed sometime 1535 1471 dated erratics to >330 ka, which represented extensive valley during the Lateglacial. Similar Lateglacial advances have been 1536 1472 glaciers. In addition, Owen et al. (2006b), Chevalier et al. (2005) and recognized elsewhere in the Himalaya (Finkel et al., 2003; Owen 1537 1473 Schäfer et al. (2008) dated moraines that they argued formed et al., 2001, 2002, 2003a,b,c, 2005), but assigning any 10Be dated 1538 1474 during the penultimate or an earlier glacial cycle in the Ayalari moraine to a specific time during the Lateglacial is challenging 1539 1475 Range, Nyalam and Kunlun Shan, respectively. because the associated uncertainty with the age is quite large 1540

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1541 (usually >10%). It is likely that some of the moraines represent progressive restriction of glaciation in Ladakh over the last 400 ka. 1606 1542 advances during the Lateglacial Interstadial and/or Early Holocene, However, drawing links between mountain uplift and changes in 1607 1543 representing times of increased moisture supply and thus positive regional climate is very tentative because it is not possible to define 1608 1544 glacier mass balances. the timing and magnitude of surface uplift for most mountain 1609 1545 Moraine M7 in the Muguru valley has 10Be ages that cluster ranges. In addition, the similar pattern of progressive restriction of 1610 1546 around 6.3 ka, which suggests that this moraine formed during the glaciation over the last w400 ka for the Transhimalaya (Owen et al., 1611 1547 Early Holocene. Glaciation during the Early Holocene is very 2005, 2006a, 2008) and the more arid areas of Tibet suggests that 1612 1548 pervasive throughout the Himalaya and Tibet and likely represents regional climate change rather than localized tectonics is respon- 1613 1549 positive glacier mass balances related to enhanced moisture supply sible for the pattern of glaciation. Furthermore, Owen et al. (2006a) 1614 1550 and increased cloudiness to the Himalaya during a time of and Seong et al. (2009) pointed out that in other mountain regions 1615 1551 increased insolation (Finkel et al., 2003; Owen et al., 2001, 2002, of the world, such as Tasmania, the Sierra Nevada, Alaska, the 1616 1552 2003a,b,c, 2005, 2006a,b, 2009; Seong et al., 2009; Zech et al., Peruvian Andes, Patagonia, and the Chilean Lake District, glaciation 1617 1553 2003; Rupper et al., 2009). has also become progressively less extensive over time. This 1618 1554 Moraines M8 through M10 in the Muguru valley have Neoglacial suggests that the decreasing extent of mountain glaciation globally, 1619 1555 ages. M8 likely formed several thousand years ago, while 10Be ages and specifically for Gurla Mandhata based on the chronology pre- 1620 1556 on M9 and M10 show that they possibly formed w1000 years ago. sented here, over at least the last 400 ka may be related to a global 1621 1557 M10, however, might have formed during the Little Ice Age. Owen pattern of climate change. The reason for this changing pattern of 1622 1558 (2009) discusses the nature of Neoglacial glacier fluctuations in the glaciation, however, has yet to be resolved. 1623 1559 Himalaya and Tibet and highlights the abundance of evidence for Muztag Ata and Kongur Shan, and Gurla Mandhata, however, add 1624 1560 significant Neoglacial advances in most regions, but also empha- an extra complexity to the argument for forcing due to climate 1625 1561 sizes the uncertainty in defining the age of the Little Ice Age in the change. Both areas are experiencing active detachment faulting that 1626 1562 Himalaya and Tibet, and also in assigning moraines to the Little Ice is resulting in the rapid exhumation of bedrock and adjacent basin 1627 1563 Age. Seong et al. (2009) showed that throughout the Lateglacial and formation (Arnaud et al., 1993; Murphy et al., 2000, 2002). The 1628 1564 Holocene, glaciers in Muztag Ata and Kongur Shan have likely been pattern of glaciation in these two regions, although separated by 1629 1565 responding to Northern Hemisphere climate oscillations (rapid >1000 kmPROOF at either end of the Karakoram Fault, is remarkably 1630 1566 climate changes), with minor influences from the south Asian similar in style. The rapid exhumation in both regions might be 1631 1567 monsoon. This might be the case for Gurla Mandhata, but more broadly equated to the growth of the two massifs, which initiated 1632 1568 numerical dating of the moraine successions is needed to test this glaciation as ice caps when the massifs became sufficiently high to 1633 1569 possibility. enhance orographic precipitation. As the adjacent basins deepened, 1634 1570 Explaining the change of style of glaciation from expanded ice during times of deglaciation, rivers rapidly incised deep valleys into 1635 1571 caps to entrenched valley glacier systems on Gurla Mandhata is Gurla Mandhata, which were then occupied by glaciers during later 1636 1572 difficult. Similar changes in the style of glaciation have been glacial times, resulting in entrenchment of the glaciers. Although the 1637 1573 recognized elsewhere in the HimalayaneTibetan orogen, including change in vertical relief is not well defined, it could be as much as 1638 1574 Tanggula Shan, and Muztag Ata and Kongur Shan (Owen et al., 500 m in the last 1 Ma based from the amount of extension deter- 1639 1575 2005; Seong et al., 2009). Owen et al. (2005) argued that the mined by Murphy et al. (2000, 2002). Whether this is enough to 1640 1576 regional patterns and timing of glaciation throughout the Hima- cause a change in the pattern of glaciation is not known. This 1641 1577 layaneTibetan orogen likely reflect temporal and spatial variability tectonic explanation for changing the style of glaciation does not 1642 1578 in the south Asian monsoon and, in particular, regional precipita- really explain the decrease in total ice volume over time. The pattern 1643 1579 tion gradients. Owen et al. (2005) believed that in zones of greater of glaciation we see in both the Muztag Ata and Kongur Shan, and 1644 1580 aridity, the extent of glaciation has become increasingly restricted Gurla Mandhata regions, however, might reflect a combination of 1645 1581 throughout the Late Quaternary leading to the preservation of old these regional climatic and tectonic geomorphic controls. 1646 1582 glacial landforms (100 ka), whereas in regions that are very These intriguing changes in patterns of glaciation clearly need to 1647 1583 strongly influenced by the monsoon (1600 mm a 1), the preserva- be examined more widely throughout the Himalaya and Tibet, and 1648 1584 tion potential of pre-Lateglacial moraine successions is generally our study leaves many questions open for debate, such as how 1649 1585 extremely poor. This is possibly because Lateglacial and Holocene important is local and regional tectonics, and/or topography are in 1650 1586 glacial advances may have been more extensive than earlier glaci- controlling glacial style, timing and extent. Our data, however, 1651 1587 ations and hence may have destroyed any landform or sedimentary provide the first comprehensive chronostratigraphy for the Gurla 1652 1588 evidence for the earlier glaciations. Furthermore, Owen et al. Mandhata massif, which in turn should help form a structure to 1653 1589 (2005) argued that the intense denudation, which characterizes understand the nature of glaciation in southern Tibet and the 1654 1590 these wetter environments results in rapid erosion and re-sedi- northernmost Himalaya. In addition, the glacial chronology that is 1655 1591 mentation of glacial and associated landforms, which also provided forms a framework for future studies that may examine 1656 1592 contributes to their poor preservation potential. the relationships among climate, glaciation, erosion, and landscape 1657 1593 Seong et al. (2009) suggested that the change in style of glaci- development in the HimalayaneTibetan orogen. 1658 1594 ation in Muztag Ata and Kongur Shan likely represents a significant 1659 1595 reduction over the last few glacial cyclesUNCORRECTED of the moisture flux to the 7. Conclusions 1660 1596 region that is needed to maintain positive glacier mass balances. 1661 1597 Similarly this could be the case in Gurla Mandhata. Furthermore, Ten sets of moraines have been dated using 10Be TCNs on the 1662 1598 Seong et al. (2009) went on to hypothesize that this might reflect Gurla Mandhata massif. The oldest moraines, produced during the 1663 1599 a change in regional climatic forcing that might be the result of the Naimona’nyi glaciation of Ma (1989), likely formed during MIS 10 1664 1600 progressive surface uplift of the adjacent mountain ranges that or an earlier glacial cycle by an expanded ice cap that stretched 1665 1601 restricted the supply of moisture by the monsoon and westerlies to w5 km into the foreland of the massif. This was followed by 1666 1602 the region. Although we cannot test this at present similar factors a glacial expansion resulting in piedmont glaciers extending a few 1667 1603 might have controlled the style of glaciation in Gurla Mandhata. kilometers beyond the mountain front. This glacial expansion is the 1668 1604 Similar arguments regarding uplift of mountains and reduced Rigongpu glaciation of Ma (1989) and occurred during the early 1669 1605 moisture supply were proposed by Owen et al. (2006a) for part of the last glacial cycle or the penultimate glacial cycle. This 1670

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1671 glaciation was followed by a change in glacial style to entrenched Ma, Q.H., 1989. Geomorphology and Quaternary glaciations in Naimona’nyi Peak 1739 fi 1672 valley glaciers that produced impressive latero-frontal moraines. region. In: Shidei, T. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Sino-Japanese Joint Scienti c 1740 Symposium Tibetan Plateau, vol. 2, pp. 41e54. 218e231. 1673 The oldest of these glacial advances in the Rigongpu glaciation Miehe, G., Winiger, M., Bohner, J., Yili, Z., 2004. Climatic Diagram Map of High Asia, 1741 1674 produced moraines that occur at the mouths of most valleys and 1:4,000,000. 1742 1675 date to MIS 6 or the early part of the last glacial cycle. This glacial Murphy, M.A., Yin, A., Kapp, P., Harrison, T.M., Durr, S.B., Ding, L., Guo, J., 2000. 1743 1676 Southward propagation of the Karakoram fault system, southwest Tibet: timing 1744 advance was followed by a later glacial advance, which is dated to and magnitude of slip. Geology 25, 719e722. 1677 1745 early last glacial or MIS 4, and followed by an advance that is dated Murphy, M.A., Yin, A., Kapp, P., Harrison, T.M., Manning, C.E., Ryerson, F.J., Ding, L., 1678 to MIS 3. These two glacial advances occurred during the Namor- Guo, J., 2002. Structural evolution of the Gurla Mandhata detachment system, 1746 1679 southwest Tibet: implications for the eastward extent of the Karakoram fault 1747 angre glaciation of Ma (1989). A succession of six sets of moraines 1680 system. Geological Society of America Bulletin 114, 428e447. 1748 within the valleys of Gurla Mandhata up to the contemporary Nishiizumi, K., Imamura, M., Caffee, M.W., Southon, J.R., Finkel, R.C., McAninch, J., 2007. 1681 10 1749 glaciers represent glacial advances that occurred during the Late- Absolute calibration of Be AMS standards. Nuclear Instruments & Methods in 1682 Physics ResearcheBeam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 258B, 403e413. 1750 glacial, Early Holocene, Neoglaciation and possibly Little Ice Age. 1683 Owen, L.A., 2009. Latest Pleistocene and Holocene glacier fluctuations in the 1751 1684 Glaciation on the Gurla Mandhata massif changed from expanded Himalaya and Tibet. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 2150e2164. 1752 Owen, L.A., Gualtieri, L., Finkel, R.C., Caffee, M.W., Benn, D.I., Sharma, M.C., 2001. 1685 ice caps to deeply entrenched valley glaciers between at least the 1753 time of MIS 10 to the beginning of the last glacial. Explaining this Cosmogenic radionuclide dating of glacial landforms in the Lahul Himalaya, 1686 northern India: defining the timing of Late Quaternary glaciation. Journal of 1754 fi 1687 change in the style of glaciation is dif cult, but it might be due to Quaternary Science 16, 555e563. 1755 1688 changes in regional climate, which by comparison with other Tibetan Owen, L.A., Finkel, R.C., Caffee, M.W., Gualtieri, L., 2002. Timing of multiple Late 1756 and Transhimalayan regions suggests that glaciation became very Quaternary glaciations in the Hunza Valley, Karakoram Mountains, northern 1689 Pakistan: defined by cosmogenic radionuclide dating of moraines. Geological 1757 1690 restricted in extent over the Middle and Late Pleistocene. Alterna- Society of America Bulletin 114, 593e604. 1758 1691 tively, the change in style of glaciation might reflect tectonic controls Owen, L.A., Finkel, R.C., Ma, H., Spencer, J.Q., Derbyshire, E., Barnard, P.L., Caffee, M. 1759 1692 such as increasing basin subsidence due to active detachment W., 2003a. Timing and style of Late Quaternary glaciations in NE Tibet. 1760 Geological Society of America Bulletin 115, 1356e1364. 1693 faulting and enhanced valley incision associated with increased Owen, L.A., Ma, H., Derbyshire, E., Spencer, J.Q., Barnard, P.L., Zeng, Y.N., Finkel, R.C., 1761 1694 relative relief and greater slopes to produce entrenched glaciation. It Caffee, M.W., 2003b. The timing and style of Late Quaternary glaciation in the La 1762 1695 is likely, however, that a combination of climatic and tectonic Ji Mountains, NE Tibet: evidence for restricted glaciation during the latter part 1763 of the Last Glacial. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 130, 263e276. 1696 controls is responsible for the change in style of glaciation. 1764 Owen, L.A.,PROOF Spencer, J.Q., Ma, H., Barnard, P.L., Derbyshire, E., Finkel, R.C., Caffee, M. 1697 Our dating provides the first quantitative chronology for the W., Zeng, Y.N., 2003c. Timing of Late Quaternary glaciation along the south- 1765 1698 Gurla Mandhata massif and forms a structure to help understand western slopes of the Qilian Shan, Tibet. Boreas 32, 281e291. 1766 Owen, L.A., Finkel, R.C., Barnard, P.L., Haizhou, M., Asahi, K., Caffee, M.W., 1699 the nature of glaciation, climate change, erosion and landscape 1767 1700 Derbyshire, E., 2005. Climatic and topographic controls on the style and timing 1768 development in southern Tibet and northernmost Himalaya. of Late Quaternary glaciation throughout Tibet and the Himalaya defined by 1701 10Be cosmogenic radionuclide surface exposure dating. Quaternary Science 1769 1702 Reviews 24, 1391e1411. 1770 1703 Owen, L.A., Caffee, M.W., Bovard, K.R., Finkel, R.C., Sharma, M.C., 2006a. Terrestrial 1771 Acknowledgements 1704 cosmogenic nuclide surface exposure dating of the oldest glacial successions in 1772 the Himalayan orogen. Ladakh Range, northern India. Geological Society of 1705 1773 Part of this work was undertaken at the Lawrence Livermore America Bulletin 118, 383e392. 1706 Owen, L.A., Finkel, R.C., Ma, H., Barnard, P.L., 2006b. Late Quaternary landscape 1774 National Laboratory (under DOE Contract W-7405-ENG-48). Chaolu 1707 evolution in the Kunlun Mountains and Qaidam Basin, Northern Tibet: 1775 1708 Yi was supported in part by CAS grant (kzcx2-yw-104) and NSFC a framework for examining the links between glaciation, lake level changes and 1776 alluvial fan formation. Quaternary International 154/155, 73e86. 1709 grant (40671023). We are grateful to Jason Dortch, Kate Hedrick and 1777 Craig Dietsch for comments on this manuscript. Special thanks to Owen, L.A., Caffee, M.W., Finkel, R.C., Seong, B.Y., 2008. Quaternary glaciations of the 1710 HimalayaneTibetan orogen. 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Please cite this article in press as: Owen, L.A., et al., Quaternary glaciation of Gurla Mandhata (Naimon’anyi), Quaternary Science Reviews (2010), doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.03.017