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A Case of the Gezira Irrigation Scheme, Sudan

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A Case of the Gezira Irrigation Scheme, Sudan water Article Impacts of Legal and Institutional Changes on Irrigation Management Performance: A Case of the Gezira Irrigation Scheme, Sudan Ahmed E. Elshaikh 1,2,* , Shi-hong Yang 1,* , Xiyun Jiao 1 and Mohammed M. Elbashier 1 1 State Key Laboratory of Hydrology, Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China; [email protected] (X.J.); [email protected] (M.M.E.) 2 Ministry of Water Resources, Irrigation, and Electricity, Wad Medani 318, Sudan * Correspondence: [email protected] (A.E.E.); [email protected] (S.Y.) Received: 25 September 2018; Accepted: 30 October 2018; Published: 5 November 2018 Abstract: This study aims to offer a comprehensive assessment of the impacts of policies and institutional arrangements on irrigation management performance. The case study, the Gezira Scheme, has witnessed a significant decrease in water management performance during recent decades. This situation led to several institutional changes in order to put the system on the right path. The main organizations involved in water management at the scheme are the Ministry of Irrigation & Water Resources (MOIWR), the Sudan Gezira Board (SGB), and the Water Users Associations (WUAs). Different combinations from these organizations were founded to manage the irrigation system. The evaluation of these organizations is based on the data of water supply and cultivated areas from 1970 to 2015. The measured data were compared with two methods: the empirical water order method (Indent) that considers the design criteria of the scheme, and the Crop Water Requirement (CWR) method. Results show that the MOIWR period was the most efficient era, with an average water surplus of 12% compared with the Indent value, while the most critical period (SGB & WUAs) occurred when the water supply increased by 80%. The other periods of the Irrigation Water Corporation (IWC), (SGB & MOIWR), and (WUAs & MOIWR) had witnessed an increase in water supply by 29%, 63%, and 67% respectively. Through these institutional changes, the percentage of excessive water supply jumped from 12% to 80%. Finally, the study provides general recommendations associated with institutional arrangements and policy adoption to improve irrigation system performance. Keywords: irrigation; performance; water management; Gezira scheme 1. Introduction The need for more food production and water supply have become urgent with significant growth of the world population [1]. Irrigated agriculture is of major importance to overcome these challenges, since it provides food, public investment, and rural development. Regardless of their potential for food production, there is a remarkable decrease in the performance of many irrigation projects, particularly in developing countries in drought-prone regions [2–4]. This situation has increased the attention directed towards enhancing the performance of irrigation projects [5]. There have been several studies in the literature reporting performance assessments of irrigation systems, and many researchers have shown an increased interest in linking management practices to irrigation project performance [6–11]. All these studies have shown the importance of having good regulators and institutions, and how they enhance water management performance. In this study, the performance of water management at the Gezira scheme is represented and analyzed. The project is considered one of the largest irrigation projects in Africa [12]. The scheme had Water 2018, 10, 1579; doi:10.3390/w10111579 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14 Water 2018 10 In this, , study, 1579 the performance of water management at the Gezira scheme is represented2 and of 14 analyzed. The project is considered one of the largest irrigation projects in Africa [12]. The scheme hadplayed played a vital a rolevital in role the in history the history of irrigation of irrigation in the regionin the sinceregion it becamesince it abecame model fora model many for irrigation many irrigationschemes inschemes the colonial in the period colonial of period sub-Saharan of sub-Sa Africaharan [13 Africa]. The [13]. system The is system more typicalis more for typical projects for projectsdeveloped developed in countries in countries such as Nigersuch as and Niger Mali, and where Mali, irrigation where irrigation schemes areschemes similar are to similar Gezira to in Geziraterms of in design terms andof design operation and systemoperation [14 ].system These [14] facts. These reflect facts the historicalreflect the importance historical importance of the scheme; of thetherefore, scheme; any therefore, research toany improve research water to improve management water in management Gezira scheme in isGezira not only scheme beneficial is not for only the beneficialproject, but for also the for project, similar but systems also for on similar the national systems and on regionalthe national scale. and regional scale. There is a large volume of published studies describingdescribing the performanc performancee of water management in the Gezira scheme from different perspectivesperspectives [[12,15–21].12,15–21]. In In spite spite of of the the wide wide range range of topics covered by thesethese studies,studies, however,however, to to the the best best of of authors’ authors’ knowledge, knowledge, there there is nois no deep deep analysis analysis for thefor theorganizational organizational role role and itsand impact its impact on the on performance the performance of irrigation of irrigation systems. systems. The attention The attention is usually is usuallyfocused focused on hydrological, on hydrological, engineering, engineering, economic, economic, and agricultural and agricultural aspects. aspects. In this In study, this study, the legal the legalandintuitional and intuitional impact impact on the on performance the performance water managementwater management is illustrated is illustrated to identify to identify the suitable the suitablewater management water management organization organization for the scheme. for the Ascheme. critical A analysis critical hasanalysis been has carried been out carried for different out for differentorganizations organizations to show theto show reasons the that reasons led to that the institutionalled to the institutional changes, and changes, after that, and to after judging that, the to judgingperformance the performance of each institute of each to identifyinstitute theto identify most suitable the most form suitable of water form management of water management for the Gezira for thescheme. Gezira The scheme. results The presented results here presented may facilitate here ma improvementsy facilitate improvements in the institutional in the arrangements institutional arrangementsrelated to different related irrigation to different systems. irrigation systems. 2. Materials Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Study Area The Gezira Scheme is located between the Blue Ni Nilele and the White Nile Rivers to the south of the capital Khartoum in in a semi-arid zone (Figure 11).). TheThe earlyearly startstart ofof thethe schemescheme waswas inin 19111911 whenwhen an experimental farm was established at Tayba villagevillage on the west bank of the Blue Nile. The scheme is one of the largestlargest irrigationirrigation schemesschemes inin thethe region,region, comprisingcomprising 880,000880,000 hectareshectares (ha)(ha) [[12].12]. Each farmer hashas 8.48.4 ha ha (as (as average) average) divided divided into into 4 plots; 4 plots; the farmers’ the farmers’ main crops main are crops cotton, are wheat, cotton, sorghum, wheat, sorghum,groundnuts, groundnuts, and vegetables and vegetables [22]. [22]. Figure 1. The location of the Gezira sch scheme.eme. Source: Adapted Adapted from [19]. [19]. Water 2018, 10, 1579 3 of 14 Water 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14 2.2. Climate The Gezira scheme is located in a hot andand semi-aridsemi-arid region. There are three distinct seasons: winter (November to February), summer (April and May), and autumn (July to September),September), while March, June, and October are transitional months. Rainfall Rainfall intensity intensity increases increases from from north north to to south. south. The long-term annual rainfall is 156 mm at Khartoum, 354 mm at Wad Medani, and 472 mm at Sennar (Figure1 1).). TheThe dailydaily meanmean temperaturestemperatures atat WadWad MedaniMedani areare 2525 °C,◦C, 29.4 29.4 °C,◦C, and and 31 31 °C◦C in in winter, winter, autumn, and summer, respectivelyrespectively [[23].23]. 2.3. Irrigation Management The irrigation system consists of two main canalscanals running from Sennar Dam; the Gezira canal 3 3 with aa capacitycapacity ofof 168168 mm3/s/s and the Managil canal withwith 186186 mm3/s [17,24]. [17,24]. Figure Figure 22 belowbelow showsshows thethe main canal, which delivers water to MajorMajor canals.canals. Then, water is conveyed to minor canals with determined and fixedfixed levels; these levels are used to ensure equity in distribution at field field canals (Abu Ishreen). The internal canals (Abu Sitta) are used by farmers to irrigateirrigate theirtheir farms.farms. Figure 2. Field irrigation system in Gezira scheme. The management of Gezira scheme used to be un undertakendertaken by three institutions: the Sudan Gezira Board (SGB),(SGB), the the Ministry Ministry of Irrigationof Irrigation and Water and ResourceWater Resource (MOIWR), (MOIWR), and the Water and Usersthe Water Associations Users (WUAs).Associations The (WUAs). SGB was The responsible
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