Introduction

Propagating a Sustainable Model for Adaptive Forest Management; and Integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems By Noora Larson Introduction: In the debates over climate change, significant issues have brought greater attention to the current lifestyles in many countries, resulting in the promotion of more sustainable livelihoods. These include the use of natural resources around the world, and how much human development depends on them. Additionally, there is the need to help prevent the loss of biodiversity - one of the largest sources being tropical forests.1 The largest devastation of this resource is the active deforestation done in developing countries.2 There is a growing call to action for the altering in current forest management systems with a shift to more sustainable methods. This has resulted in a need to look in depth at the indigenous communities which have been living in the forests for thousands of years. The call for a renewed emphasis on local community knowledge supersedes the current capitalist-driven development and exploitive policies which have contributed to the current changing climate.3The loss of important carbon sinks, coupling with the growing loss of biodiversity within tropical forests, has promoted an even greater deal of attention on the need to mediate a change in current practices. However, there are significant limitations on the 1 Gordon B. Bonan, “Forests and Climate Change: Forcings, Feedbacks, and the Climate Benefits of Forests”, AAAS Science Magazine 320 (June, 2008): 1444-49. Accessed September 20, 2015. doi: 10.1126/science.1155121 2 Ruth DeFries, et. al. “Earth observations for estimating greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation in developing countries.” Environmental Science and Policy 10 (June, 2007): 385-94. Accessed September 21, 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2007.01.010 3 Naomi Klein. “Capitalism vs. the Climate” Global Policy Forum. November 17, 2011. Accessed October 2, 2015. https://www.globalpolicy.org/social-and-economic-policy/the-environment/climate- change/51038-capitalism-vs-the-climate.html?itemid=id#986 actual use of local knowledge. The question is: what factors prevent the use of indigenous knowledge systems of adaptive forest management? In order to begin to answer this we must consider the following three factors: indigenous groups’ capability for mobilization, their distance from dominant discourse, and economic disparities. In studying the cases of mobilization, one is able to examine these groups’ organizational efforts and the level of activity of their communities within national borders. Since indigenous communities have remained distant from dominant discourse, it is important to analyze the importance of epistemological factors that contribute to the limitations of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS). Seeing as these are typically isolated communities, the exploration of their land and geospatial characteristics need to be studied to see what physical boundaries are placed between them and centers of internationally recognized governance. Lastly, looking into economic disparities and motivations gives a cultural consideration of value (typically monetarily driven), which influences motives for the use of resources. Since it is widely considered that indigenous groups’ knowledge systems and practices are often the most conservative and sustainable, it is important to study the application of their methods.4 Current media stories litter news outlets with the misfortune of indigenous peoples due to a loss of habitat, a lack of representation, and cultural isolation. Although these all have some truth, this popular discourse to view indigenous groups as victims of global warming, as powerless to influence political decisions, or as agents with limited political rights is misguided. The focus needs to instead be on indigenous knowledge, which could better aid developed and developing countries to sustainably guide their actions - especially in regards to forest 4 Shengji Pei, et. al. “Application of traditional knowledge in forest management: Ethnobotanical indicators of sustainable forest use”, Forest Ecology and Management 257 (30 April, 2009): 2017-21. Accessed September 18, 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2009.01.003 management. While understanding the value in their knowledge, there is also a need to seek the limitations that do not allow for their techniques to be applied to current forestry practices. It is significant to change the common discourse to one that utilizes a finite resource in a more effective way that enables it to replenish itself. Essential roles for forests include, but are not limited to, carbon sequestration, medicinal discoveries, and habitats for extremely diverse groups of flora and fauna.5 Research on conservation and sustainable use of forests, through the renewal of methods such as agroforestry, has resulted in a rekindling of past indigenous knowledge systems on forest management.6 Initiatives by governments geared towards developing sustainably have to include innovative methods of adaptive co-management. In order to do this there needs to be a utilization of indigenous knowledge. This is not to argue that the world needs to go back to only using traditional methods of resource management - which is not a viable solution given the length of time and incredible periods of transition towards industrial development that would make it an impossibility - instead there should be a blending of knowledge systems toward adaptive co-management of resources. The overarching goal is to adapt current ‘conventional’ development occurring globally, towards a more ecological and socially equitable use of resources. In order to do this we have to include indigenous communities as they have shown by example that there are applicable subsistent and sustainable ways of adapting within local ecosystems without degrading them. The selected case study to explore this research question will involve an in depth look into Mexico, particularly its southern Chiapas region. There will be an emphasis placed on the 5 Florencia Montagnini, and Carl F. Jordan. Tropical Forest Ecology: The Basis for Conservation and Management. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2005. 6 B. Thapa, et. al. “Incorporation of indigenous knowledge and perspectives in agroforestry development” Agroforestry Systems 30 (1995): 249-261. Accessed September 20, 2015. Maya Lacandon management systems,7 and the traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) education within these indigenous communities.8 Community forestry and timber smuggling are both elements to highlighting economic disparities as well as cultural values of worth. Particular attention is put on the multiple use strategy of agroforestry as an initiated practice within the Chiapas region; providing new alignments for co-habitation and the ability to combine knowledge systems into the management of forests.9 It is also important to acknowledge the “indigenous uprising” in the 1990s within the Zapatista Rebellion,10 to which a historical reference will allow one to measure the accomplishments and failures in mobilization as well as evaluate elements of governance. The outline for this paper will include an introduction explaining the choice of forest management over other adaptive management varieties - this explanation will link to the impact of climate change and the need to re-evaluate our developmental practices through a promotion of sustainability. This will lead to an introduction of the research question regarding the impacts of indigenous knowledge systems of forest management, as well as the importance of shifting away from the victimization discourse. Following this, a literature review breaking down key concepts and terms related to this paper’s topic will be used to explain the barriers IKS face. Selected cases of Indonesia and Mexico will then be used to validate the limitations for the use of indigenous forest management systems which have not been able to be practiced. 7 Stewart A. W. Diemont. "Ecosystem Management and Restoration as Practiced by the Indigenous Lacandon Maya of Chiapas, Mexico." PhD diss., Ohio State University, 2006. http://0- search.proquest.com.opac.sfsu.edu/docview/305294927?accountid=13802. 8 Tomas B. Falkowski, "An Emergy Evaluation of Labor Transformities Incorporating Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Agroforestry in Lacanja Chansayab, Chiapas, Mexico." MA thesis., State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 2014. 9 Lorena Soto-Pinto, et. al. “Carbon sequestration through agroforestry in indigenous communities of Chiapas, Mexico.” Agroforestry Systems 78 (January 2010): 39-51. Accessed September 17, 2015. doi: 10.1007/s10457-009-9247-5. 10 David Maybury-Lewis. Indigenous Peoples, Ethnic Groups, and the State. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, 2002. These factors will then be stated with each case followed by a comparison of the two in the analysis. Lastly, a conclusion to sum up the essential findings and an answer to the proposed research question will be given. Background: The issue of sustainable development has grown in relevance over the last few decades.11 Therefore, understanding exactly what sustainable development should characterize is important if there is to be a discussion on adaptive management systems. The most basic fundamental definition of sustainable development came from the Brundtland Report in 1987 from the United Nations stating; “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of

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