The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 21(2 Suppl.): 2011, Page: 305-316 ISSN: 1018-7081

WILDLIFECONSERVATION EDUCATION AND INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMMES

A. Meadows

Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine School of Life Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, Scotland, UK Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Wildlife and habitat conservation has become increasingly important in the 21st century. Destruction and loss of habitat, illegal use of wildlife, overexploitation of resources, and lack of conservation awareness, have a negative impact on biodiversity and ecosystems. The unforeseeable expectation by 2050 is that few large marine species will remain and majority of coral reefs, mangrove swamps and saltmarshes will be degraded. The wildlife carrying capacity in many protected areas will significantly reduce due to global warming, pollution, invasive species, and illegal hunting. One of the concerns is the rapidly increasing human population on the planet with 6.4 billion individuals in 2005. For global conservation a sustainable approach means that strict legislation and ethics have to be developed, together with regulating human attitudes. Conservation education and outreach techniques including learning and thinking, developing skills, and undertaking activities are described. The responsibility of Zoos to teaching their visitors by 'effective education' about the causes and types of threats, their decline and measures for conservation is more holistic. I apply as a model the role of the Zoological Society of London and its two Zoos in the development of critical and scientifically valid evaluation techniques and conservation activities, and their impact on species sanctuary in the wild. International educational programmes, are chiefly targeted towards poverty alleviation, and play an important role in delivering sustainable outputs. This review concludes with case studies of UK and Pakistan collaborative programmes involving national experts and local community participation.

INTRODUCTION their wildlife carrying capacity (Hobbs and Huenneke, 1992; Johnson,1993;Simberloff,1998;Sutherland, As we embark on the 21st century, we face a 1998, 2000; Ahmad, 1999; Lewis and Jackson, 2005). number of growing challenges, some of which include The role of scientific knowledge and education has wildlife, species, and habitat and ecosystem destruction. played asignificant rolein promoting conservation Conservation of these species and ecosystems is therefore objectives,andacorrectlydesignedconservation becoming increasingly important. This is evident in the education would affect people's attitudes and behaviour continuing wide-scale destruction and loss of habitat, towardswildlifeconservationandprotectingtheir illegal use of wildlife, and lack of conservation awareness environment (Adams, 1998; Sterling et al., 2007). and understanding, and has impacted negatively on Wildlife Conservation Education Programmes: It is biodiversity and ecosystems (Savidge, 1987; Robinson believed that the concept of public education as a chief and Redford,1991; Meadows and Meadows, 1999; objective of zoos only came into mainstream in mid- to Mackay, 2002; Woodroffe et al., 2005; Ausden, 2007). late 20th century. A study in the United States showed IUCN quotes show that 23% of all mammals, 12% of that prior to the 1950s only 4% zoos and aquariums had birds, 12% of reptiles, 51% of amphibians, and 40% educational departments as compared with 77% in 1977 fishes are under threat of extinction. It is envisaged that (Hensel 1978; Sterling et al., 2007). With educational alteration of terrestrial habitats will rise, with a decline in programmes taking more conservation roles - elementary terrestrialwildlife.The overexploitationof marine school children were being involved, themes such as resources will increase, leading to shoreline habitat- animal adaptations and endangered species were put destruction,expansion of aquaculture schemes, and forward. This approach led pupils to become 'responsible shrinkage of marine wildlife (Rizvi et al., 1999; Ausden, for' or 'responsive to' wildlife sustainability.Another 2007). The current expectations are that by 2050 few approach that followed was that of building audiences large marine species will remain and a majority of coral who became aware of the concepts of conservation reefs,mangrove swamps andsaltmarsheswillbe issues.For example targeting adults could result in a degraded (Campbell, 1999; Jenkins, 2003). In many direct impact (Lovejoy, 1974), and many zoos hence protected areas issues such as global warming, pollution, directedtheirfocus towardsparents,teachersand invasive species, illegal hunting, will significantly reduce university students (Tompson, 1989).

305 Meadows J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21(2 Suppl.): 2011

Currently Zoosareeffectivelyofferingeducational An example of an applied output from DICE has programmes which engage in conservation activities beenacommunity-basedecotourisminitiative.A (Zimmermann et al., 2007). A typical zoo may include Rwandan graduatefrom DICE wassuccessfulin animal displays, live animal demonstrations, interactive founding the Cultural Village in Northern Rwanda, displays,handsonexperienceexhibits,outreach aiming to protect gorilla habitats. This was a result of his programmes and communication with staff. Kellert and dissertation on `Ecotourism as a potential conservation Dunlap (1989) showed that the before and after attitudes incentive for local communities around Rwanda's Parc of visitors to a zoo can be affected positively if the National des Volcans' at DICE. The results have been animalsare displayed in their natural environment, hugely successful, with local communities benefiting whereas under a traditional environment people had from a sustainable income, and a 60% reduction in increased fear of or became indifferent to wildlife. Many poaching. For his success Mr Sabuhoro was named modern zoos aim to promote conservation projects, by `Young Conservationist of the Year' by IUCN in educating, informing and inspiring the public on these September 2008. issues. Some zoo-based messages encourage visitors to http://www.kent. ac.uk/news/stories/conservationistsdoubl create wildlife habitats, select appropriate pets, adopt eachievement/2008 eco-friendly modes of travel, and spread the word round Conservation Education and Outreach Techniques: by engaging with other people. At a higher education level, the success of There is a need for conservation education and outreach and itis known that the public affects the success or collaborative programmes between universities, zoos, failure of environmental protection efforts.Figure 1 public aquaria and wildlife parks has emanated from a common educational goal. This has led to design of outlines the impacts of conservation programmes through educational curricula, encompassing a broader view of education and outreach. These mainly foster sustainable behaviour, improve public support, and reduce vandalism conservation matters. andpoaching.Theyalsoraisecompliancewith The DurrellInstituteforConservation and Ecology (DICE) was established at the University of environmental regulations, increase recreation-carrying Kent, UK in 1989, after the famous conservationist capacity, and influence policy and decisions. Public Gerald Durrell. DICE is an example of an institute that supportandinvolvement isvital inachieving conservation goals. The focus of conservation outreach offers degree courses, diplomas and certificates in a range programmes is based on communication and information of conservationandbiodiversityareas.The very aimed at a non-captive audience in social and novel new successfulM.Sc.degreeinconservationbiology surroundings. The techniques and resources used in managementisinternationallyknown andcovers outreach programmes are publications, presentations, biological, economic, legal, political and social aspects. The emphasis of the course is on giving the student a posters, and exhibits that aim to enhance awareness and knowledge base as well as practical experience in the knowledge about conservation issues. broader conservation context. The course focuses on a Another conservationmarketingoutreach approach deals with products or services aimed at the number of topics. These include minimising the negative impact of development on species and their habitats, interests of specific audiences. This approach includes newsletters,publicmeetings,advertisements,TV, promoting biodiversity conservation awareness at both national and international levels, and involving and billboards and the Internet. Carefully designed outreach programmes, with public participation have led to an respecting the local communities who inhabit areas of increase in Canadian sea bird populations and to an conservation. The coursealsocovers planning and increase in the number of endangered primates in Brazil. management of species conservation and the integration The role of the media in exposing the publicto ofthiswitheducation,researchandsustainable conservation issues includes modes such as print media, development. The course is popular with conservation and wildlife biologists, managers, NGOs, staff from radio, television, and the internet. The interpersonal consultancy firms, and international donor agencies. activitiescoverdemonstrations,workshops,forums, lobby groups,school systems, and informalclubs. DICE has trained postgraduates from over 80 countries, Results from public polls have shown that 61% of survey which reflects the accomplishment of this programme. respondents in the USA appreciate that humans are the DICE also undertakes scientific research under main cause of species extinction. 30% responded that two research themes namely Ecology and Conservation they heard of biodiversity loss and a significant majority Biology, and Biodiversity Management and Sustainable saidthatmaintainingbiodiversitywasimportant Conservation. There are five and six staff members in the (Biodiversity Project, 2002). There have been studies respective groups engaged in research worldwide (Rosser et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2007; Gubbi and MacMillan, which showthatpropereducationandoutreach programmes contribute to sustainable behaviour, promote 2008). public support for conservation, reduce vandalism and

306 Meadows J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21(2 Suppl.): 2011 poachingpracticesinprotectedareas,andraise conservation education which lies under the broader compliance with environmental regulations. They also environmental education field,a number of capacity increaserecreation-carryingcapacitiesand have an building blocks can be identified such as awareness, impact on policies and decisions that influence the knowledge, attitudes, skills and participation (UNESCO, environment and natural resources (Fig. 1) (Knudson et 1978). al.1995; Jacobson,1999; Day and Monroe, 2000, An easyPlanning-Implementation-Evaluation Jacobson et al., 2006). process (PIE) - may also be used in designing education and outreach programmes (Jacobson et al., 2006). .------...% fe Coo.,ery a iimi ,. Planning would include: L, -L Pi ranarne ) -__ -- What is the conservation problem or issue? -7-C,- - What are the goals and objectives?

,------What audiences or stakeholders are involved? (FclucWWII ~4 i (... Outreael 4} What are their backgrounds, needs, interests and ...,,. actions? What changes or actionsare needed for each audience type? How can audience members be involved in the planning process? ID9tEr Sustainable Be.h2viosr What are the constraints and resources present? luipru3u-13.1Air. Su ppuri What messages must be sent? Rrduoeam LI ;Aiwa mid Puraduag. What channels and activities will be most effective RaiseCc opliar,einihIIIITLFONDIEMialRmalitioas ncreamE F f r.rEatinrk 'a rrsr.(',parity in changing knowledge, attitudes and behaviour? 1311/.13*.x. IiiLiNEII3E; Implementation would ask: What modifications do the pilot tests of activities Figure1.Types of conservation education and and materials indicate? outreach programmes and their impacts. Is the planning, staffing and funding adequate? Evaluation would involve questions such as: A GallupInternationalsurvey showed that Eastern and Central European and Latin American How would you know if the strategy has been citizens consider that the quality of their environment has successful? deteriorated in the last decade (Gallup International, What are the programme outputs and outcomes? 2002). Furthermore seven out of 10 Europeans believe Have the key indicators of success been assessed, that an urgent and immediate problemistoface such as changes in the environment or in the environmental protection and fight pollution. A number audience knowledge levels, attitudes or behaviours? of themfeltbadly informedaboutenvironmental Techniques that involve learning and teaching problems and the inadequate actions taken by their with adults and youth provide educational theories that governments to tackle these problems. support effective programmes. Despite the difference in People may think that they understand the adultand youthlearnersthereareanumber of conceptof wildlifeconservation,buttheiractual commonalities in the learning process. Table 1 lists some knowledge about conservation is lacking. It is common of the learning theories that help educators formulate that public awareness of wildlife is largely limited to big, useful learning programmes (Jacobson et al., 2006). The attractive and emotionally appealingspecies.Public types of learning theories include brain-based learning, awareness of the importance of invertebrates in the experiential learning, learning cycle, learning styles, and ecosystem is minimal. This is exemplified by a survey in multiple intelligences. They also cover constructivism, the USA where 89% people believed that the endangered cooperative learning, creative thinking, critical thinking bald eagle should be protected while only 24% were of and systems thinking. The learning processes contribute the opinion that the Kauai wolf spider should be to education in a number of ways. They include building protected (Kellert, 1996). mental models, using experience to design learning A number of school curricula include issues of opportunities, developing programmes that appeal to the protectingtheecosystem,butnotmany provide diverse audience, and involving enquiry and experience comprehensive programmes thatfocus on achieving to construct knowledge. They also cover improving social conservation goals. Conservation agencies and and group communication skills, offering opportunities organizations offer education and outreach programmes, that involve synthesis,interpretation, and evaluation with an emphasis on natural resources and wildlife. For

307 Meadows J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21(2 Suppl.): 2011

analysis, and promoting understanding of the structure making skills, problem-solving skills, and responsible and function of complex systems. A detailed explanation citizenship skills. Facione (1998) gives a core set of skills of these contributions is given by Jacobson et al. (2006). that can help learners to develop their critical thinking. Systems' thinking takes into account a bigger picture Table 1. Approaches to learning theories and their applied to ecosystems, astronomy, business, social and contributiontothe process of education information technology. As the world becomes more (Jacobson et al., 2006). complex, so does problem solving, and there is a need to educate people to view problems and solutions under a larger domain of relationships and interactions (Hough Learning Contribution to education theories and Day, 2000). An illustrative example is of a weekly Construct learning opportunities to newspaper column entitled 'The Global Citizen' where Brain-based reinforce neural networks and build learning people were introduced tosystems dynamics using mental models analogies and stories so as to understand how systems Experiential Base learning opportunities on operated (Meadows, 1991). In conservation education learning experiences these techniques stimulate the public to think about Design learning opportunities to environmentalproblems,askquestions,anticipate include an experience, then processing, outcomes and propose solutions. Learning cycle generalizing, and applying that Wherethinking is encouraged,Bloom's experience to better understand the Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain is often practised. This concept approach facilitates structuring and evaluating of lessons Recognise that learners might have (Trowbridge and Bybee, 1986), and includes six levels of Learning different preferred learning styles hence styles develop programmes to appeal to the thinking skills and the associated activities (Table 2). The diversity first step in this process is knowledge, which includes Recognise that intelligence comes in a recall, recognition and memorisation. This is followed by Multiple variety of skills and abilities hence comprehension where one interprets information and intelligences develop programmes to appeal to the describes it one's own words. Comprehension may also diversity include explaining the further use of the particular Engage learners in constructing their information. Application is the third step, where the Constructivismown knowledge, through inquiry, learner applies the relevant information. Knowledge, experiences, and questions comprehension and application are sometimes called the Develop learning opportunities to use lower-order thinking skills'. The remaining three levels, groups of learners, each with a special Cooperative namely analysis, synthesis and evaluation, are grouped role, to achieve a common goal. Help learning together as 'higher-order thinking skills'. Analysis is the learners improve social and group competence level that breaks down material into separate communication skills components and relationships. Synthesis puts the pieces Creative Provide opportunities to generate and together into meaningful organization. Evaluation enables thinking synthesis one to judge ideas, solutions, methods and plans to Critical Provide opportunities to interpret, establish their value and usefulness. Standards should be thinking evaluate and analyse set during evaluation. It is important for educators to Provide learning opportunities to Systems prompt learners with questions and terms that trigger understand the structure and function of thinking complex systems answers or solutions. I have personally found triggering very helpful in a teaching context. As an example I briefly expand on creative, The systems thinking approach is another mode critical and systems thinking. The act of thinking builds of developingconservationeducation and outreach mental structures, and is made up of processes such as programmes. This approach aims to build responsible generalisation, reflection, accommodation, and behaviour. In order to develop sustainable communities assimilation. A number of educators encourage their there should be an understanding of the way communities pupils to build their thinking abilities. This is also the and ecosystems are organized and operate (Capra, 2000). case in conservation education. Creative and critical At the Centre for Ecoliteracy, California USA the thinking are used in problem solving. Creativity is a systemsthinkingapproachhashelpedaschool desire to create something new or different and to play community and tutorstoreform theireducational withoptions.Criticalthinkinginvolvesreasoning, approach. A local project-based approach is applied to identify an interesting local problem. This enables the assessingcomplexinformationandunderstanding prejudice. These lead to building future actions. Critical students to learn from a range of resources and people, thinking skillsare commonly divided into decision- and also builds awareness of the environmental issues

308 Meadows J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21(2 Suppl.): 2011 which have a significant impact on the area (Barlow, The success of conservation education and 2000). outreach programmes will eventually be judged by the The Centre for Ecoliteracy used a model in its level of biodiversity that is conserved globally. It is vital school programme that promotes systemsthinking. that environmental conservation is linked with the quality Figure 2 illustrates the main components of the model as of life of individuals, groups, and institutions in the being vision,action,place and community. Vision communities. Conservation goals canonlybe includes learning theory and systems thinking, while accomplished if real community issues are taken up. maintaining a clear vision, and a common language. It is Consider the Global Rivers Environmental Education based on ecology, science and systems. Action involves Network (GREEN) (Stappetal.,1996). This very project-based learning through the conduct of an eco- successful environmental education programme connects action project near to the school. Place-based education classrooms with communities. It involves students from inculcates a sense of place ecologically and culturally by 130 countries and is action-orientated towards monitoring experiencing and exploring. Community with shared water quality in their water-shed regions. GREEN uses leadershipincludesactivelearningwithateacher `actionresearch'and'community-basedproblem- facilitator. This encourages school-wide leadership and solving' techniques. It is far more important to appreciate builds community relationships that help to sustain the intended goals of your programme than to associate with programme. a single technique.

Table 2. Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain YilLEM with six levels of competence thinking skills and the associated activities (Learning Skills rd !Hain mind Programme, 2003; Jacobson et al., 2006). Cormauxin. ,-- .-tch Iry log 'quired. .. Competence Skills Activities lead,-ship \ Sustainiant auicome$.--) Observe events List, define, tell, and processes, describe, identify, Knowledge know species and show, label, concepts collect, examine Fl...rhksn Understand Summarise, iak information, describe, interpret, Figure 2. Model for developing school programmes translate and contrast, predict, Comprehension interpret, order, distinguish, that promote systems thinking suggested by infer, predict estimate discuss, the Centre for Ecoliteracy (Neumann, 2000; outcomes extend Jacobson et al., 2006). Use methods, Apply, theories and demonstrate, A range of learning techniques that are relevant information in complete, illustrate, to conservation and outreach have been considered by Application new situations, show, solve, Jacobson et al. (2006). Table 3 illustrates these different solve problems examine, modify, techniques, their associated historical roots, their goals using skills or relate, classify, and the type of communities involved. The result of the knowledge experiment applied techniques should shape attitudes, knowledge and See patterns and Analyse, separate, organization, order, connect, skills for improving environmental and social change, Analysis identify classify, arrange, and have a positive impact on people's lives and their components, divide, compare, surroundings. The six techniques used areservice- recognize meaningselect, infer learning,issueinvestigation,project-basedlearning, Combine, integrate, Generalise from community-based research (CBR), citizen science and modify, rearrange, facts, relate ideas mapping. An example of a service-learning project, run at plan, create, Synthesis from separate the Service Learning Office, Warren Wilson College, design, compose, areas, draw Asheville, North Carolina, involves removing invasive formulate, conclusions species from community parks by students. Such projects generalize , rewrite Compare and provide mutual benefits to conservation organizations, Assess, decide, discriminate schools and communities (Cairn, 2003; Jacobson et al., measure, between ideas, 2006). recommend, Evaluation make choices The issueinvestigation technique has been convince, judge, based on reasoned support, conclude, applied to middle, high school and college students where arguments, verify summarise knowledge and skills have had a positive impact on evidence behaviour (Ramsay et al., 1981; Ramsay and Hungerford,

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1989, Jacobson et al., 2006). In this technique students involves both scientists and local communities, where analyse environmental issues and also their own views AmericanandCanadianbiologistslinkupwith and beliefs.Thisisfollowed by identifyinglocal environmentalorganizationstoworkforimproved environmentalissues,developing research questions, ecosystem-based land-use planning and the protection of conducting background research, interpreting data and species. Another example is the Glasgow Natural History developing strategies for environmental application. Society in Scotland which regularly conducts tutorials Project-basedlearning andproblem-based and workshops. The society alsoorganises outdoor learning are interchangeable terms that build knowledge excursions with experts who work closely with society content and problem-solving skills Human abilityis members. These activities include studying aspects of tested when real-lifesituationsrequireappropriate natural history including speciesidentification,field solutions to resolve problems. In the case of student techniques and photography (http:// www. project-basedlearningitoffersthestudentsthe glasgownaturalhistory. org.uk/meetings.html). opportunity toplan,design,implement and assess Citizen science refers to an organized project outcomes, and to present the findings (Rogers and that involves the general public, teachers, or students in Andres, 2004). any or all steps of the scientific project (Prysby, 2001). In most cases citizen science starts with a key scientist Table3.Historicalroots,primarygoals,and posing a question, with the task of main data collection instigators of different learning techniques being undertaken by the public. This is contrary to the (Jacobson et al., 2006). CBR where the community poses the question which is directly linked to the community needs. Examples of Primary monitoring projects involving citizen volunteers have a Technique Historical roots Instigator goals long history. Stevenson (2004) quotes recording schemes Impact on Experiential Teacher, in England that cover a wide range of taxa and produce community 1- Service- education, community databases that guide conservation issues. needs and learning community group, Mapping allows people or groups of people to student service students createvisualrepresentations theirresources, learning of Goals for communities, region, country and the world (Feuerstein, curriculum 1986). The practice of mapping is simple and even people 2- Issue Student development in Teacher with low literacy can attempt to create maps about investigation learning environmental resources, land and water use, health problems and education environmental issues. One of the advantages of mapping Experiential 3- Project- is that it establishes mutual understanding among groups. education, Student- Teacher, based Examples are local land users, administrators, politicians, Neuroscience learning students learning and elderly residents. They have different levels of and Psychology Collaborative awareness but a common access to resources. The research, practice of creating maps by community groups can also 4- Participatory meeting be judged againstexistingprofessionally developed Community - Community research, action community- maps. based members, research, defined needs, Research(CB researchers service learning social and Zoological Society of London - its role in Wildlife R) environmental Conservation and Education: The Zoological Society change of London (ZSL) is a registered charity in England and Field research, Wales with a total of 1774 fellows out of which 81 are 5- Citizen public Collaborative from overseas (http://www.zsl.org). Researchers science participation in research It was founded by Sir Stamford Raffles in 1826 science as a society whose aim was to study animals. It is now Participatory Data Researchers, dedicated to worldwide conservation and to scientific 6- Mapping research collection facilitator research, In 1828 London Zoo was opened to Fellows of methods the Society as the world's first scientific zoo. In 1829 ZSL was granted a Royal Charter by King George IV. ThefourthtechniqueisCommunity-based Charles Darwin became a Fellow of ZSL in 1837. In research. This involves a partnership between researchers 1847 the first paying visitors were admitted to London and community members thataddressessocial and Zoo, to aid financial support. environmental problems (Stoecker, 2001, Jacobson et al., ZSL's scientists, animal management teams and 2006). The Y2Y connected corridor project connecting veterinarians possess wide-ranging skills and have long the Yellowstone National Park in the US to the Yukon in experienceinpracticalconservationandscientific Canada is an example. As reported by Krajnc (2002) this

310 Meadows J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21(2 Suppl.): 2011 research in the laboratory and in the field. This mix of programmes. One of the aims of ZSL is to make it a experts provides the backbone to the successful running leading centre for research and conservation biology and of ZSL. The prime mission of ZSL is 'to promote and animal welfare by conducting national and international achieve the world-wide conservation of animals and their field conservation programmes. As a learned society habitats.' ZSL is made upfirstly of London Zoo, ZSL's role is to arrange scientific meetings, lectures, secondly of Whipsnade Zoo (formerly called Whipsnade symposia, and publications.It also awards prizes for Wild Animal Park) which opened to the public in 1931, outstanding contributions to wildlife and conservation. and thirdly of the Institute of Zoology. The Institute of ZSL is also active in running educational and Zoology was founded in 1960-61 under the leadership of information programmes, in particular for school children Lord Zuckerman the then Secretary of ZSL. ZSL also and families. In addition ZSL endeavours to enhance undertakesnationalandinternationalconservation public understanding of animals and their welfare and of programmes. A comparison of the numbers of staff, related conservation issues. ZSL has four publication animal species, visitors and educational visits per year, at series - Animal Conservation, the Journal of Zoology, the both zoos is shown in Table 4. London Zoo has twice the Conservation Biology book series, and the International number of visitors and holds three times more species Zoo Yearbook. than Whipsnade Zoo.

Table 4. The Zoological Society of London - facts and figures for London Zoo and Whipsnade Zoo.

Statistics London Zoo Whipsnade Zoo Staff 320 130 Area of site (acre) 36 600 Animal species 750 200 Visitors / year 1.1 million 475,000 Educational visits 100,000 30,000 /year

The 'Keeper for a Day' programme at London Zoo offers members of the general public experience at Figure3.The three working elementsofthe close hand of some of ZSL's most popular animals. It Zoological Society of London, under the also provides a unique opportunity to observe the day-to- themeofLivingConservation:Living day duties of the keepers and their charges. The tasks of a Collections, Conservation Science, and potential 'Keeper for a Day' include feeding animals, Conservation Programmes (courtesy of David cleaning cages, and observing the role of workers behind Field, ZSL). the scenes. There is also a volunteer's programme which is popular. The Institute of Zoology (IoZ) is the research Whipsnade Zooisone of Europe's largest division of the ZSL and conducts biological research that wildlife conservation parks, and houses more than 200 benefits the conservation of animals and their habitats. animal species, many of which are endangered. For IoZ worksinpartnershipwith theUniversity of example Przewalski's horse first discovered in Mongolia Cambridge, and conducts research training programmes in 1879 by a Russian Colonel Nikolai Przewalski, is both at an undergraduate and a postgraduate level. It also thought to be extinct in the wild. In 1945 there were only runstaught M.Sc courses jointly with theRoyal 31 individuals in captivity. By 1990 their number had Veterinary College on Wild Animal Health and Wild increased to 1,500 and some were reintroduced in their Animal Biology. native region of Mongolia. In 2001 a horse bred at The conservation programmes of ZSL are being Whipsnade Zoo was reintroduced to Mongolia. In this conducted both in Britain and in countries worldwide. context Clark et al. (2006) edited the 'Mongolian Red Thisconservationinvolvesmaintaininglong-term Listof Mammals'whichhighlightsthestatus, populations of species in natural ecosystems and habitats distribution, and threats of Mongolian mammals. This (Fig. 4). It includes working with local communities to publication was an output of the Mongolian Biodiversity conserve wildlifeand theirhabitats,and promotes Databank Project, to which ZSL staff contributed. sustainable livelihoods. ZSL works with government, The working elements of ZSL are shown in civilsociety and the private sector especially with Figure3 where the major emphasisis on 'Living deprived communities, toencourage the responsible Conservation'.Thethreecomponentsareliving utilization of natural resources.ZSL's conservation collections,conservationscienceandconservation

311 Meadows J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21(2 Suppl.): 2011 programmes include the Gorilla Conservation project in Gabon and the Bushmeat trade in West and Central Africa. They also include UK native species, deserts and rangelands, island ecosystems, vulture rescue in the AsianSub-continent,marine(ProjectSeahorse and Community-led MangroveRehabilitationinPanay Island, Philippines http:// www. zsl. org/ conservation/ regions/ asia/) and freshwater, and EDGE (Evolutionary DistinctandGloballyEndangered)ofExistence programme. ZSL has also been involved with the King Khalid Centre in Saudi Arabia to breed and re-introduce gazelles and Oryx back into the wild. Figure 4. Conservation and Society - impact of The decline in vulture species in India and services and programmes on species survival Nepal, and Pakistan since the mid- 1990s has been (courtesy of David Field, ZSL). alarming (Gilbert etal., 2002; Cummingham et al., 2003). The cause of this decline has been identified as an In summary, ZSL isthelargest zoo-based anti-inflammatory drug `diclofenac' which is given to conservation NGO in Europe. The following quote is cattle. When vultures scavenge on carcasses containing from ZSL "Through our Living Collections we inspire diclofenac,thediclofenacisincorporatedintothe and delight our visiting public and provide an ark for vulture's body and causes kidney failure. According to endangered species. Through the Institute of Zoology we joint work conducted by ZSL with the Bombay Natural learn more about the natural world and focus our efforts HistorySociety,populations of three of the most on finding ways to protect our planets diversity. Through common griffon vulture species have declined by more our Conservation Programmes we apply our knowledge than 90%. The Indian white-backed vultureGyps and commitment in over 30 countries worldwide. BUT bengalensis and the long-billed vulture Gyps indicus are we want to do even more". the two species which were very common but are now Conservation / biodiversity programmes between the designated as critically endangered by IUCN. The third United Kingdom and Pakistan: There are a number of species, the slender-billed vulture Gyps tenuirostris, was UK / Pakistan partnership projects studying conservation, uncommon, and now is considered extremely rare. An biodiversity and environmental issues. These projects are India-wide vulture survey was carried out in 2000 mainly funded by the Department forInternational showing these dramatic declines. Subsequent surveys in Development (DFID), Department for Environment Food 2002 and 2003 funded by the Darwin Initiative for the and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), the British Council and the Survival of Species scheme to ZSL showed that all three Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO). I will give a species had declined dramatically during the previous 12 few examples. years. G. indicus and G. tenuirostris had declined by I have been the UK joint co-ordinator with Peter 97%, and G.bengalensis had declined by 99.5%. Meadows, of two DFID funded British Council Higher Research conducted in Pakistan showed the vulture Education Link Programmes (for fuller details see paper populations have declined by 92% during the last five by Peter Meadowsinthisvolume).These were years, as a result of diclofenac (Oaks et al., 2004, Shultz undertaken between the University of Glasgow and the et al., 2004). The impact of these declines may lead to the University of Karachi and the Centre of Excellence in extinction of all three species, and are likely to have Marine Biology. The first project was on 'Coastal Zone catastrophic affects on other scavenging species, humans Management and EIA of the Mangrove swamps in the and ecological systems. The Vulture Rescue programme Indus Delta' 1997-2001 (Figure 6), and the second was whichinvolvesa numberofpartners,through on Socio-environmentalupliftofcoastalrural conservationresearch,captivebreeding and public communitiesin Sindh and Baluchistan'2003-2006. advocacy and awareness building, is actively engaged in These links were aimed at poverty alleviation, sustainable reducing the ecological and social impact (Peregrine use of natural resources, clean drinking water issues, rural Fund http:// www. peregrinefund. org/ vultures. community participationespecially of women, staff Under its education theme ZSL runs outreach training, and publications leading to career development programmes where interactive presentations are delivered (Meadows and Meadows, 2001). at schools. The education officers of ZSL give talks with The HigherEducation Commission (HEC) biofacts (bones, skulls and skins) and also use one to two Pakistan in partnership with the British Council Pakistan, live animals when feasible. This gives a thrill factor to initiated a Higher Education Links programme using the children and stimulates their learning.ZSL also runs HELinks template, and funding came from HEC. These courses for adults, keeper training and work experience linksfocus on answering Pakistan's needs and on for younger members of the community. strengthening the science and technological capacity of

312 Meadows J. Anim. Plant Sci. 21(2 Suppl.): 2011 the staff and institutions. An example was the HEC link The British Council/ FCO initiative on 'Marine Biodiversity Conservation in Pakistan' 2004- `Connecting Futures' was a five-year programme aimed 2007, between the Centre of Excellence in Marine at building mutual understanding, learning, and respect Biology at the University of Karachi and the University betweenyoungpeople from different cultural Marine Biological Station Millport, Scotland. backgrounds. 'Connecting Cultures through Science and The DFID HELink programmes were terminated Arts' was a project under this scheme, which I jointly co- in 2006 and have been replaced by the DFID funded ordinated with Peter Meadows. Three female and two British Council managed Development Partnerships in male students from the University of Baluchistan, Fatima Higher Education (De1PHE) programme. The overall Jinnah Women's University, the University of Karachi, objective of the De1PHE links are to build partnerships Lahore College for Women University and the University between HEIs and to allow them to act as a catalyst of Peshawar visited London in 2003. The activities towards the UN Millennium Development Goals. At the focusedonawarenessbuildingofenvironmental same time they aim to increase the institutional capacity perceptions and analyses by scientists and artists in a and promote science and technology related knowledge multicultural context, and included the importance of past and skills. TheAssociationofCommonwealth and future global environments, the central role of Universities (ACU) is responsible for the part of the biodiversity, and the environmental impact of human programme delivery that supports South-South societies. The participants took back new ideas from their (developing-developing) partnerships. It is expected that UK experience. 200 De1PHE progarmmes will be funded during 2006- All these programmes are promoting mutual 2013. Out of the 24 DFID focus countries in Africa and partnerships between institutions and their participants in Asia, Pakistan and Vietnam received the highest country Pakistan and internationally,and will hopefully be funding for De1PHE projects, each receiving £120,000 sustainable on the long term. They will then contribute during 2007-08 (DFID, 2008).http:// www. British towards Pakistan's human resource development, and council.org/delphe.htm strengthen Pakistan's wildlife and conservation strategy. I am pleased to report that the current De1PHE Acknowledgements: I am very grateful to the University projectrunningfrom2007-2010on'Developing Sustainable Livelihoods for Communities in a Ramsar of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (UVAS), Lahore and the Vice Chancellor Professor Dr Mohammad Nawaz, for Site: the Makran Coastal Wetlands Complex (MCWC), hosting this conference on 'Wildlife Sustainability and Pakistan.' under which this conference was organised is Conservation Education'. developing a conservation economy with rural coastal I am very grateful to Dr Zulfiqar Ali, Department of Wildlife and Ecology, community involvement. The projectis between the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, UVAS, lead co-ordinator of the De1PHE programme on the University of Glasgow, Scotland and James Cook `Developing Sustainable Livelihoods for Communities in a Ramsar Site: The Makran Coastal Wetlands Complex, University, Queensland, Australia. Pakistan' between UVAS, the University of Glasgow and The UK Department for Environment Food and James Cook University, Queensland, Australia, for the Rural Affairs (DEFRA) funds the Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species projects. The aim of these successful organization of the conference and the UK partners' visit. It was a great pleasure to be a contributor partnershipsistoassistcountries thatare richin to the conference, in particular because it comprises one biodiversity but do not have adequate financial resources to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity of theactivities of the De1PHE programme, and I gratefully acknowledge this funding. The hospitality and (CBD). It does this by funding collaborative projects that kindness extended by the Vice Chancellor Professor mobilize UK biodiversity expertise(see above, the Nawaz and his wife Dr Rakhshanda Nawaz, and of Dr Darwin Initiative project on vulture decline in India). Zulfiqar Ali and Professor Dr Naureen Qureshi is very http://darwin.defra. gov.uk much appreciated. I am also grateful to all the staff of A Darwin Initiative project on 'Conservation of Pakistan's Marine Cetacean Biodiversity and Pelagic British Council Pakistan, DFID, and the University of Glasgow and to Lorna Kennedy, and to the Zoological Environment' was undertaken during 2005-2008 between Society of London especially to Mr David Field, Director theUniversity Marine BiologicalStationMillport, Zoology.I would like to thank my husband Peter Scotland, WWF Pakistan, and the Centre of Excellence in Marine Biology, University of Karachi. The main Meadows for his helpful comments on this manuscript, and my father Dr Mohammad Tufail for his continued purpose of this project was to investigate the conservation understanding. I dedicate this paper to my late paternal and management of whale and dolphin biodiversity in the grandfather Dr Mohammad Farid who graduated in the NE Indian Ocean (Pakistan). The project also included early 1900s from the then Punjab Veterinary College staffcapacity building and publicawareness,and Lahore (now UVAS), and acknowledge this connection participation programmes, and joint publications (Gore et with the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. al., 2007).

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