The Oldowan Horizon in Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa): Archaeological, Geological, Paleontological and Paleoclimatic Evidence

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The Oldowan horizon in Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa): Archaeological, geological, paleontological and paleoclimatic evidence

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News and views The Oldowan horizon in Wonderwerk Cave (South Africa): Archaeological, geological, paleontological and paleoclimatic evidence

Michael Chazan a,*, D. Margaret Avery b, Marion K. Bamford c, Francesco Berna d,e, James Brink f,g, Yolanda Fernandez-Jalvo h, Paul Goldberg d,i, Sharon Holt f, Ari Matmon j, Naomi Porat k, Hagai Ron j,1, Lloyd Rossouw l,m, Louis Scott m, Liora Kolska Horwitz n a Dept. of Anthropology, University of Toronto, 19 Russell St., Toronto, ONT M5S 2S2, Canada b Cenozoic Studies, Iziko South African Museum, 25 Queen Victoria Street, Cape Town, P.O. Box 61, Cape Town 8000, South Africa c BPI Palaeontology, University of the Witwatersrand, P. Bag 3, WITS 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa d Dept. of Archaeology, Boston University, 675 Commonwealth Ave., Boston, MA 02215, USA e Research Group for Palaecological and Geoarchaeological Studies, Barcelona, Spain f Florisbad Quaternary Research Department, National Museum, P.O. Box 266, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa g Centre for Environmental Management, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa h Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC), Dept. Paleobiologia, Jose Gutierrez Abascal, 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain i Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, ROCEEH, Rümelinstr. 23, 72070 Tübingen, Germany j Institute of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel k Geological Survey of Israel, 30 Malkhe Yisrael Street, Jerusalem 95501, Israel l Dept. of Archaeology, National Museum, P.O. Box 266, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa m Dept. of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa n National Natural History Collections, Faculty of Life Sciences, Berman Building, Givat Ram, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel article info a small number of localities in southern Africa, none of which is

Article history: interpreted as representing primary contexts (Kuman, 1998; Schick Received 2 March 2012 and Toth, 2006). Here we provide the ﬁrst comprehensive Accepted 18 August 2012 description of an in situ Oldowan deposit from basal Stratum 12 Available online 3 November 2012 inside Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape Province, South Africa.

Keywords: Paleolithic The Wonderwerk Cave Earlier Stone Age sequence Oldowan Paleoecology Wonderwerk Cave is a w140m phreatic tube formed in the dolo- Wonderwerk Cave mites of the Kuruman Hills (Northern Cape Province, South Africa) South Africa (Fig. 1a). Beginning in the 1940s, archaeological excavations were carried out at the site by Malan and colleagues (Malan and Cooke, 1941; Malan and Wells, 1943) followed by further investigations by other researchers (Butzer,1984). The mostextensive excavations were undertaken by Peter Beaumont from the 1970s to the early 1990s Introduction Beaumontand Vogel, 2006). Since 2007,ourteamhas been engaged in ﬁeldwork at the site, primarily in Excavation 1 located w30 m in from In marked contrast to East Africa, where the emergence of stone the cave mouth (Fig. 1bed). This work has focused on sampling for tool technology (w2.6 Ma) is well documented at a wide range of micromorphological analyses of sediments, pollen, phytoliths and for sites (Semaw, 2000; Schick and Toth, 2006; Hovers and Braun, cosmogenic burial and paleomagnetic dating. All samples were taken 2009), the earliest stages of tool production are known from only from the freshly cleaned Earlier Stone Age (ESA) sections left by Beaumont (maximum ESA section height 2 m). In addition, limited

* Corresponding author. test excavations aimed at in situ sampling of the lowest ESA horizon, E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Chazan), [email protected] Stratum 12, were carried out. Analyses of archaeological ﬁnds (lithics, (D.M. Avery), [email protected] (M.K. Bamford), [email protected] fauna and macro-botanical remains) deriving from Beaumont’s (F. Berna), [email protected] (J. Brink), [email protected] (Y. Fernandez-Jalvo), excavations of the ESA levels have also been undertaken. [email protected] (P. Goldberg), [email protected] (S. Holt), arimatmon@ During ﬁeldwork, we subdivided the ESA sedimentary sequence cc.huji.ac.il (A. Matmon), [email protected] (N. Porat), [email protected] (L. Rossouw), [email protected] (L. Scott), [email protected] (L.K. Horwitz). into nine lithostratigraphic Units (Fig. 2). Overall, the sediments 1 Author deceased. consist of reddish, powdery, bedded quartz silt and sand with

Figure 1. a. Map of the present day biomes of southern Africa showing the location of Wonderwerk Cave and other sites discussed in the text. b. Plan view of Wonderwerk Cave generated by 3-D scans showing precise location of Excavation 1 (courtesy of H. Rüther, ZAMANI project, University of Cape Town). c. Plan of units excavated by Peter Beaumont in Excavation 1. Grey indicates units that produced lithic remains; black indicates unit excavated by our team; Red line indicates main proﬁle sampled by us for dating as shown in Fig. 2. d. Photo showing large stalagmite located just in front of Excavation 1 and the form of the dolomite cave roof. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this ﬁgure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) M. Chazan et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 63 (2012) 859e866 861

Figure 2. Excavation 1, north and east sections showing location of samples for dating, and the limits of archaeological strata and lithostratigraphic units. localized accumulations of roof fall. Units vary in thickness, verti- of channel-shaped unconformities is documented, although obvious cally and laterally, and contacts between them range from diffuse to water-depositional features (i.e., cross-bedding) are only seen in sharp, the latter generally a result of erosion. Excavation 1 in the basal Stratum 12. Presumably channeling was Micromorphological analyses show that the basal archaeological produced by water coming from outside the cave (as suggested by Stratum 12 is composed of sediments containing alternating clays Butzer, 1984), and/or from the cave roof or features associated with and reworked Kalahari sands interspersed with bedded angular stalagmite formation or the runoff derived from it. However, to date, mm-size lag of ironstone fragments (Fig. S1). Specifically, it the current sediment exposures reveal only a partial view so that it is comprises two lithostratigraphic horizons, Units 8 and 9 (Fig. 2). The not clear how many sources of sediment and water were active during basal Unit 9 (Fig. 2)isw 50 cm thick, differs from the overlying the entire infilling of the cave. In addition to physical erosion, there is sediments in that it exhibits very soft, finely bedded to laminated clear evidence for chemical transformations in the form of decalcifi- (with graded bedding), extremely fine red to brown sand, with a cm- cation and phosphate precipitation. The agent/s responsible for these thick layer of ironstone micro-gravels at the base (Figs. S1-S3). The features is still being investigated. Most importantly, Units 8 and 9 upper part of Unit 9 is composed of finely bedded, fine-sand con- show no evidence for high-energy water action that could account for taining iron-manganese nodules and secondary phosphates the transport of artifacts or bones from outside the cave, currently (Fig. S1). On top of Unit 9 is a pale yellow centimeter-thick layer that adistanceofw30 m, to their place of deposition in Stratum 12. is isotropic in cross-polarized light (Fig. S4). Fourier Transform Likewise, noneof the bones or lithics exhibits abrasion consistent with Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Microspectroscopy (mFTIR) analysis water transport (e.g., Fernández-Jalvo and Andrews, 2003; Hosfield, (see SOM) show that this layer is composed of carbonate hydroxyl 2011). The fine bedding visible in micromorphological samples from apatite containing crystalline nodules of montgomeryite, a magne- Unit 9 (Figs. S2-S3) provides the strongest evidence for low energy sium phosphate mineral that is probably related to the reaction of water activity (sheetflow) in this context. phosphate with the dolomitic pore solution (Karkanas et al., 2000). Bioturbation is evident only as small, mm- and cm-wide passage The pale yellow layer most likely represents an altered flowstone. features (Fig. S1) e corroborated by observations during excavation The base of the overlying Unit 8 is pinker, impregnated with whitish in 2004, and the intact lamination and bedding that is clearly seen phosphate material and contains diagenetically altered pieces of throughout the ESA profile (Fig. 2, S1c, S2; Berna et al., 2012:Fig. 2). roof spall. In situ mFTIR analysis shows that here too the major Thus, there is no indication for the intrusion of sediments into authigenic mineral is carbonate hydroxyl apatite. Unit 8 is w5e Stratum 12 that originated higher up in the stratigraphic sequence. 10 cm thick and comprises soft, silty and fine pinkish sand and Furthermore, the bioturbation and passage features are so small as rounded clay aggregates (likely deflated from a pan surface near the to preclude the intrusion of larger bones and lithics. Thus, the cave entrance), which thickens and thins across the section due to micromorphometric data support the lithics and fauna recovered erosional channeling of the overlying Unit 7 (Fig. 1 and Fig. S5). from Stratum 12 as being in primary context. Below Unit 9 is a phreatic deposit, without archaeological remains, consisting of finely laminated and deformed silty clay with passage Dating features deposited before the cave was open (Fig. S7-S9). Aeolian transport and deposition of aggregates is clearly visible Sediment samples were taken for both cosmogenic burial dating throughout the ESA sequence (Berna et al., 2012; Matmon et al., 2012). and paleomagnetism. For details of methods used in sampling and This was interrupted byerosional events and diagenesis. The presence analyses see Matmon et al. (2012). 862 M. Chazan et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 63 (2012) 859e866

Since our first publication (Chazan et al., 2008), two additional artifacts derive from lithostratigraphic Unit 9, with only w 5.0% of cosmogenic burial ages have been obtained for lithostratigraphic the pieces originating from the top 10 cm of Beaumont’s excavation Unit 9; two from the base of this unit gave ages of 2.44 0.13 Ma roughly equivalent to Unit 8. The artifacts are found dispersed (COS 1) and 2.36 0.12 Ma (WWD 1) while the third (COS 2), from across the excavation area in 16 of the 26 excavated squares. the top of this unit, gave an age of 2.17 0.11 Ma (Table 1, Matmon The Stratum 12 flakes are all small with a mean length of 1.24 cm et al., 2012). These simple burial ages assume an initial 26Al/10Be (SD ¼ 0.62 cm) and mean width of 1.21 cm (SD ¼ 0.79 cm). Chert is ratio of 6.75 (Balco and Rovey, 2008). However, an accepted way to the dominant raw material, accounting for 78% of the flake test this assumption is to measure, as a modern analogue, the sand assemblage and all the cores. The remaining 22% of flakes are deposited presently outside the cave. 26Al/10Be ratios of 3.98 0.24 ironstone or other raw materials. Most flakes have clear scar and 4.08 0.22 of samples collected from the surface outside the patterns and even some of the smallest have multiple unidirec- cave imply an initial burial signal corresponding to 0.78 0.15 Ma, tional dorsal scars. There is no evidence of platform preparation. All thus reducing the possible ages of the Unit 9 samples to 1.66 0.20 flakes are fresh with limited microfracture along the edges. The 18 (COS 1),1.58 0.19 (WWD 1) and 1.39 0.19 Ma (COS 2). Taking into pieces identified as cores (Fig. 3e,f) are small, with the largest account likely changes in transport and storage of Kalahari sands having a maximum dimension >3 cm. It is difficult to determine since the early Pleistocene, it is probable that the actual age of the the number of removals from each core, but it is higher than the 2:1 shielding of the Unit 9 samples by the cave is intermediate between flake:core ratio found in the assemblage. Despite sieving of deposit the two sets of calculations, based on an assumed initial 26Al/10Be during the excavation, recovery bias during sorting may explain the ratio of 6.75 and the ratio of 4.03 16 derived from the surface apparent over-representation of cores, as the flakes are often samples outside the cave. extremely small. The conclusion that the Stratum 12 lithics are not Magnetostratigraphic data were obtained from five samples from geofacts is based on the presence of clear bulbs of percussion, lithostratigraphic Unit 9 and three from the overlying lithostrati- platforms and ventral scars; lack of geological evidence for high graphic Unit 8 (Fig. 2). In Unit 9, the three bottom-most samples had energy processes that could have produced regular fracture; the a Normal signal while two samples from the top of Unit 9 and the freshness of edges; and the non-random distribution of flake scars three from Unit 8 all yielded Reverse signals (Matmon et al., 2012). In (i.e., repetitive scars off a single face). addition to the uncertainty introduced by the initial cosmogenic The earliest biface in the Wonderwerk ESA sequence is crude burial signal, reconciliation of the ages obtained from the two dating and originates near the base of Stratum 11. However, artifacts are methods requires taking into consideration the likelihood of a time- very sparse in Stratum 11 and this assemblage does not include lag between the initial shielding of sediments after they entered the large numbers of small flakes and cores, a characteristic of cave (cosmogenic ages) versus the final deposition and stabilization Stratum 12. of the magnetic signal (paleomagnetic ages). Thus, the cosmogenic Flakes and cores of similar small dimensions to those in Stratum ages for Stratum 12 may be older than the magnetostratigraphy. 12 are a significant component of several African Oldowan sites However, this does not appear to be the case. There is no evidence of (Kuman, 1998; de la Torre, 2004; Schick and Toth, 2006). The most a depositional hiatus or an erosional event between the Normal and comparable site in South Africa is Sterkfontein Member 5B where Reverse signals within Unit 9, or between Units 9 and 8. Moreover, flakes, chips and chunks <2 cm in size, account for 82.6% of the taking into account the cosmogenic ages and magnetostratigraphy of assemblage (Kuman and Clarke, 2000; Kuman and Field, 2009). the overlying deposits, as well as the nature of their lithic and faunal Although some of the Sterkfontein flakes have been interpreted as assemblages (Fig. 2; Berna et al., 2012:Fig. S1), we feel confident in a result of natural shattering of quartz (Kuman and Clarke, 2000; interpreting Stratum 12 as representing the end of the Olduvai sub- Kuman and Field, 2009), the presence of small cores (<4cmin chron (1.96e1.78Ma) and the beginning of the subsequent interval of maximum dimension) indicates that in some cases small flake reversed polarity, although an earlier age placing Stratum 12 at the production was intentional. Larger artifacts (choppers, polyhedrons end of the Reunion subchron cannot be ruled out (Fig. 2). Placing the and spheroids) are present at Sterkfontein but in very low numbers. base of Stratum 12 in the Jaramillo subchron (1.07e0.99 Ma), cannot Their absence at Wonderwerk may partly be the result of the small be reconciled with the cosmogenic ages which anchor the magne- sample size and also reflects the limited area excavated. However, tostratigraphic sequence, nor with the lithic and faunal components since chert rarely occurs in large nodules in the vicinity of the cave, from this layer (see below). The overlying Acheulean deposits with the small dimensions of the Stratum 12 lithic industry may simply a Normal paleomagnetic signal are attributed to the Jaramillo Normal be due to size constraints imposed by raw material selection or subchron, although a disconformity visible in the section leaves open transport of artifacts produced elsewhere. Large slabs of ironstone the possibility that the Acheulean also includes deposits dating to the readily available in the immediate vicinity of Wonderwerk were Bruhnes Normal chron (Matmon et al., 2012). only rarely exploited in Stratum 12 but were regularly used in the overlying Acheulean strata (Chazan et al., 2008; Berna et al., 2012). Lithic assemblage Kuman and colleagues (Kuman and Clarke, 2000; Kuman and Field, 2009) have attributed Sterkfontein Member 5B, along with smaller The Stratum 12 lithic assemblage consists of 65 artifacts: 44 assemblages from Kromdraai B and Swartkrans Member 1, to the flakes, 3 flake fragments and 18 cores (Fig. 3). The majority of the Oldowan and we follow this attribution for the Wonderwerk assemblage. Table 1 Burial ages calculated from Wonderwerk Cave sediments (Matmon et al., 2012). Biochronology and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction Sample Assuming R(0) ¼ 6.75 Assuming R(0) ¼ 4.03 (Balco and Rovey, 2008) 0.16 burial age(Ma) The Stratum 12 faunal list is given in Table S1. The identification Cos 6 1.77 0.11 0.99 0.19 of vertebrate taxa has been hampered by the extreme fragmenta- Cos 5 1.76 0.11 0.98 0.19 Cos 4 2.05 0.11 1.27 0.19 tion of the bones and teeth, largely due to carnivore and porcupine Cos 3 1.95 0.12 1.17 0.19 action, but also to the lack of in situ consolidation of material during Cos 2 2.17 0.11 1.39 0.19 excavation. Thus, the majority of remains are identified to size Cos 1 2.44 0.13 1.66 0.20 classes within broad taxonomic groupings, such as to the level of WWD 1 2.36 0.12 1.58 0.19 Family or Tribe. M. Chazan et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 63 (2012) 859e866 863

Figure 3. Lithics from Stratum 12: a. Ironstone flake with unidirectional scar pattern and plain platform. b. Chert flake, partially cortical, small plain platform. c. Chert flake, transversal scar pattern, small plain platform. d. Chert flake, scar pattern predominantly unidirectional, hinged termination, plain platform. Detail shown of the flaking on the right marginal edge. e. Chert core or tool with small removals around the circumference, one large removal along the long axis. f. Chert core or tool with small removals around circumference, apparently on a thick flake. Note difference of scale between artifacts aec and artifacts def.

The biochronological placement of the Stratum 12 assem- as M. broomi and neither can it be referred to ‘Bos’ makapaani (vide blage is facilitated by the presence of Procavia transvaalensis Gentry, 2010), a poorly known fossil caprine. ‘Bos’ makapaani is which occurs in South African Plio-Pleistocene sites such as primarily known from substantially younger deposits at Buffalo Taung, Makapansgat Limeworks Member 4, Kromdraai A, Cave in the Makapan Valley, compared with Wonderwerk Stratum Swartkrans Members 1e3, Sterkfontein Member 5, Bolt’sFarm 12 (Herries et al., 2006). The Wonderwerk specimen is large and and Plovers Lake (McKee et al., 1995; Schwartz, 1997; Rasmussen exceeds the size variation seen in M. broomi from Makapansgat and Gutiérrez, 2010). In Stratum 12, P. transvaalensis co-occurs Limeworks, but seems to agree in size and morphology with with Procavia antiqua, another archaic element documented in another very large, unnamed caprine from Makapansgat Lime- South African Plio-Pleistocene sites including Taung, Kromdraai works. The early Pleistocene record of very large caprines in sub- A, Swartkrans Members 1e3, Coopers A and B and Plovers Lake Saharan Africa is sparse, but it may well be that the large caprine (Berger et al., 1995; McKee et al., 1995). The Hyracoidea perhaps from the Makapansgat Limeworks and from Wonderwerk formed provide the best biostratigraphic marker for Stratum 12, relating part of an early Pleistocene distribution of large caprines distinct the vertebrate remains to the above mentioned Makapanian from M. broomi. assemblages. Hipparion (Hipparionini gen. and sp. indet.) is another archaic An additional biochronological marker -but less well resolved- is element in Stratum 12 which could not be identiﬁed to lower the presence of a very large caprine. Measurements on a restored taxonomic levels due to the fragmentary nature of the material. lower jaw of a newborn individual from the overlying Stratum 11 Hipparion in southern Africa has a broad time range and extends (since the Stratum 12 remains are too fragmented to be measured), from ca. 5.0 Ma at Langebaanweg, through to 3.0e2.6 at Maka- show the Wonderwerk caprine to be larger than Makapania broomi pansgat Limeworks Members 3 and 4, up to ca. 1 Ma and younger at from Makapansgat Limeworks Members 3 and 4 (Fig. 4), and it Cornelia-Uitzoek (McKee et al., 1995; Brink, 2004; Herries et al., appears to be less hypsodont. Thus, it evidently cannot be identiﬁed 2009; Bernor et al., 2010; Brink et al., 2012). 864 M. Chazan et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 63 (2012) 859e866

The Makapanian Land Mammal Age, as characterised by the Makapansgat Limeworks Members 3 and 4 (vide Hendey, 1974), includes a substantial archaic faunal component such as extinct carnivores, large hyraxes, chalicotheres, gazelles and caprines (Klein, 1984; McKee et al., 1995). Of these, the large caprine and the hyraxes from Stratum 12 would suggest a Makapanian age sensu lato. The nature of the archaic faunal components and presence of both Alcelaphines and caprines in Stratum 12, which is a feature commonly found in Makapanian faunas, offers a broad temporal correlation with an intermediate stage within the Makapanian Land Mammal Age (w3.0e1.0 Ma) (Hendey, 1974; Reed, 1996), and do not oppose the radiometric dates for Stratum 12. At least 35 micromammalian genera were identified in Stratum 12, the most common were gerbils (Muridae: Gerbillinae) and a variety of mice (Nesomyidae and Muridae: Murinae) (Table S2). No extinct forms, such as Proodontomys which occurs at Makapansgat Lime- works Members 3 and 4, Taung, Sterkfontein Member 5 and Swartk- rans Members 1e3(Avery, 1995, 2006; Hopley et al., 2006), were identified. The presence of caprines, hyrax and a Cercopithecid together with plains-living forms (Equids, Alcelaphines, Antilopines) suggest broken topography with some cover in the environs of the cave. Eleven morphotypes of short-cell grass phytoliths were identified in Stratum 12 (see SOM). Based on comparison with modern morphotype ecology, the grass phytolith composition of lithostratigraphic Unit 9 correlates with a warm Savanna/Nama Karoo grassland, while the top of lithostratigraphic Unit 8 shows a slight shift that becomes pronounced in the overlying strata, towards a more arid environment with cooler growing conditions analogous to the modern Succulent Karoo biome (Fig. 5).

Taphonomy and burning

Sediment samples were taken in 2007 and 2009 from Squares Q32 and R32 during excavation of Stratum 12 by our team. Sedi- ments in Q32 were homogenous red sands with burrow features consistent with lithostratigraphic Unit 9. Excavation was by 5 cm spits and samples were taken throughout the sequence. In Square R32, Beaumont (2011) suspected the presence of a hearth based on the occurrence of mottled black and white sediments in the top 3 cm overlying red sands of lithostratigraphic Unit 9. Field observations cast doubt on the identification of these sediments as a hearth feature, which appear more consistent with a surface that has undergone complex diagenesis. This surface was also observed during excavation by the late Professor Hillary Deacon. Excavation was limited to the top 5 cm of the north half of Square R32. The contact with the underlying sands was found to be sharp. This lens is tentatively correlated with the white sediments found at the interface between lithostratigraphic Units 8 and 9 in the main section which are composed of carbonate hydroxyl apatite containing crystalline nodules of montgomeryite. Preliminary results indicate an absence of cut marks on fauna but widescale evidence for porcupine and carnivore damage. FTIR analysis provides clear evidence of burning of macro and microfauna at temperatures of 500 C but <800 C(Berna, 2010; see SOM). However, contrary to claims by Beaumont (2011:588), no combustion structures are visible in the sediment in Stratum 12. FTIR analysis identified well-preserved charcoal in the sediment samples from Stratum 12, but only one larger fragment of poorly Figure 4. Photograph showing (a) occlusal (b) lingual and (c) buccal views of a rela- fi tively complete, juvenile right lower jaw of a large caprine from Wonderwerk preserved charcoal was recovered. Given the absence of de ned (Stratum 11). Arrows indicate the basal pillars. (d) A bivariate plot of the maximum features and micromorphological evidence for in situ ash, along buccolingual width and maximum mesiodistal length of the lower dP4 of the with the presence of burnt microfauna, the question of natural Wonderwerk Stratum 11 caprine lower jaw, compared with Makapania broomi, combustion versus hominin control of fire is currently unresolved, Simatherium kohllarseni and an unnamed large caprine from Makapan Limeworks Members 3 and 4. although anthropogenic activity is a potential vector for the introduction of fire into the cave. M. Chazan et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 63 (2012) 859e866 865

Figure 5. Comparison of temperature and biome related scores (ﬁrst dimension) from correspondence analyses (CA) of phytolith samples analyzed from Stratum 12 and 11.

Conclusion parts due to the presence of an unconformity in the lithostratig- raphy (for details see discussion in Matmon et al., 2012). Attribution Several features confirm that the Wonderwerk Cave Stratum 12 of Stratum 12 to the Olduvai event and the beginning of the artifacts and fauna are in primary context. The unrolled condition of subsequent Reversal is consistent with the biochronology pre- the lithics and fauna indicates that they were not transported any sented here. Although recent ages of 1.4e1.2 Ma have been sug- distance, while sediment micromorphology demonstrates that gested for the Oldowan in Sterkfontein Member 5B, these are there was no high energy water activity or other geological problematic since they are based on three ESR samples without U- processes which could have introduced the lithics or fauna into the series correction (see discussion in Herries and Shaw, 2011:535). cave. There are also no fissures in the cave roof that would have The cosmogenic burial and paleomagnetic dating of Stratum 12 at allowed for infill from above, while the geological and archaeo- Wonderwerk Cave support the antiquity of the Oldowan in logical stratigraphy demonstrates that the Stratum 12 industry was southern Africa as at least as old as 1.6 Ma, and are in conformity sealed by several overlying Acheulean occupations (Chazan et al., with the ages for Oldowan artifacts recovered from Swartkrans 2008; Berna et al., 2012) and that bioturbation could not have Member 1, between 2.33 and 1.64 Ma (Pickering et al., 2011, 2012). been responsible for vertical mixing of material larger than mm It also conforms with the conjectured age for Sterkfontein Member size. The distinctiveness of Stratum 12 within the Wonderwerk 5 based on UePb dates for the underlying Member 4 (Pickering and sequence is further demonstrated by the marked paleoclimatic Kramers, 2010), and the Reverse polarity paleomagnetic signal re- shift documented between Stratum 12 and 11. ported for Sterkfontein 5B (Herries and Shaw, 2011). Taking into The antiquity of Stratum 12 as reported in Chazan et al. (2008),is consideration the likelihood that the Swartkrans and Sterkfontein confirmed here based on additional cosmogenic burial ages. The artifact assemblages were transported by water, the ages reported uppermost polarity sequence for the Acheulean sequence has here establish Wonderwerk Cave as the earliest example of in situ however been revised due to additional paleomagnetic samples hominin cave utilization. and the removal of samples considered unreliable. This sequence is The identification of a small flake Oldowan industry at Won- now interpreted as N > R > NjjN with the upper N divided into two derwerk Cave indicates that this phenomenon is not unique to 866 M. Chazan et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 63 (2012) 859e866

Sterkfontein Member 5B but rather characterizes the earliest stone Butzer, K.W., 1984. Archaeology and Quaternary environment in the interior of tool industries in southern Africa. The size of these tools raises southern Africa. In: Klein, R.G. (Ed.), Southern African Prehistory and Paleo- environments. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 1e64. fi signi cant questions about tool function and the process of their Brink, J.S., 2004. The taphonomy of an early/middle Pleistocene hyaena burrow at manufacture in the context of early hominin adaptations in this Cornelia-Uitzoek, South Africa. Rev. Paléobiol. 23 (2), 731e740. region. The faunal and botanical evidence from Wonderwerk Brink, J.S., Herries, A.I.R., Moggi-Cecchi, J., Gowlett, A.J., Bousman, C.B., Hancox, J.P., Grün, R., Eisenmann, V., Adams, J.W., Rossouw, L., 2012. First hominine remains indicates a broken topography supporting warm Savanna/Nama from a w1.0 million year old bone bed at Cornelia-Uitzoek, Free State Province, Karoo grassland with a shift, in the upper part of this period, South Africa. J. Hum. Evol. 63, 527e535. towards a cooler and more arid environment, characterized by Chazan, M., Ron, H., Matmon, A., Porat, N., Goldberg, P., Yates, R., Avery, M., Sumner, A., Horwitz, L.K., 2008. First radiometric dates for the Earlier Stone Age vegetation cover more analogous to Succulent Karoo. It is hoped sequence in Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa. J. Hum. Evol. 55, 1e11. that the biogeographic context of the Oldowan deposit at Won- de la Torre, I., 2004. Omo revisited: evaluating the technological skills of Pliocene derwerk Cave will provide a useful counterpoint to reconstructions hominids. Curr. Anthropol. 45, 439e465. Fernández-Jalvo, Y., Andrews, P., 2003. Experimental effects of water abrasion on of hominin adaptations in other southern African sites, such as bone fragments. J. Taph. 1 (3), 147e163. those in and around the Cradle of Humankind. Gentry, A.W., 2010. Bovidae. In: Werdlin, L., Sanders, W.J. (Eds.), Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 741e796. Hendey, Q.B., 1974. Faunal dating of the late Cenozoic of Southern Africa with Acknowledgments special reference to the Carnivora. Quat. Res. 4, 149e161. Herries, A.I.R., Reed, K., Kuykendall, K.L., Latham, A.G., 2006. Speleology and mag- The Wonderwerk Cave project is funded by grants from the netobiostratigraphic chronology of the Buffalo cave fossil site, Makapansgat, South Africa. Quatern. Res. 66, 233e245. Canadian SSHRC and the Wenner Gren Foundation to M. Chazan. Herries, A.I.R., Hopley, P., Adams, J., Curnoe, D., Maslin, M., 2009. Geochronology and Fieldwork at Wonderwerk Cave is carried out under permit to palaeoenvironments of the South African early hominin bearing sites: a reply to ‘ M. Chazan from SAHRA and museum analysis under the terms of an Wrangham et al., 2009: shallow-water habitats as sources of fallback foods for hominins. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 143, 640e646. agreement with the McGregor Museum. This project builds on Herries, A.I.R., Shaw, J., 2011. Palaeomagnetic analysis of the Sterkfontein palaeocave work undertaken at the site by Peter Beaumont. We also thank deposits: implications for the age of the hominin fossils and stone tool indus- Peter Beaumont for his encouragement and support of this project. tries. J. Hum. Evol. 60, 523e539. Hovers, E., Braun, D.R. (Eds.), 2009. Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Oldowan. L. K. Horwitz would like to thank the Bloemfontein National Springer, New York. Museum for hosting her during the study of the Wonderwerk Hopley, P.J., Latham, A.G., Marshall, J.D., 2006. Palaeoenvironments and palaeodiets fauna; J. Brink thanks Dr. Berhard Zipfel, Institute for Human of mid-Pliocene micromammals from Makapansgat limeworks, South Africa: a stable isotope and dental microwear approach. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Evolution, University of the Witwatersrand, and Ms. Stephany Potze Palaeoecol. 233, 235e251. and Mr. Lazarus Kgasi, Department of Palaeontology, Ditsong Hosfield, R.T., 2011. Rolling stones: understanding river-rolled Palaeolithic artefact National Museum of Natural History (previously the Transvaal assemblages. Special Paper No. 476. In: Brown, A.G., Basell, L.S., Butzer, K.W. Museum), for access to the Swartkrans and Makapansgat Lime- (Eds.), Geoarchaeology, Climate Change, and Sustainability. Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp. 37e52. works fossil assemblages. Additional financial support (to F. Berna Karkanas, P., Bar Yosef, O., Goldberg, P., Weiner, S., 2000. Diagenesis in prehistoric and P. Goldberg) for research appearing in this paper was provided caves: the use of minerals that form In situ to assess the completeness of the e by the US National Science Foundation Grants #0917739 and archaeological record. J. Archaeol. Sci. 27, 915 929. Klein, R.G., 1984. The large animals of Southern Africa: late Pliocene to recent. In: #0551927 and the Marie Curie International Fellowship within the Klein, R.G. (Ed.), Southern African Prehistory and Palaeoenvironments. Balkema, 6th European Community Framework Program # MOIF-CT-2006- Rotterdam, pp. 107e146. 041053. We would like to acknowledge the invaluable contribution Kuman, K., 1998. The earliest South African industries. In: Petraglia, M., Korisettar, R. (Eds.), Early Human Behavior in Global Context: The Rise and Diversity of the to the Wonderwerk project of our friend and colleague Hagai Ron, Lower Palaeolithic Record. Routledge, London, pp. 151e186. who sadly passed away this September. Kuman, K., Clarke, R.J., 2000. Stratigraphy, artefact industries and hominid associ- ations for Sterkfontein, Member 5. J. Hum. Evol. 38, 827e847. Kuman, K., Field, A.S., 2009. The Oldowan industry from Sterkfontein caves, South Appendix A. Supplementary data Africa. In: Schick, K., Toth, N. (Eds.), The Cutting Edge: New Approaches to the Archaeology of Human Origins. Stone Age Institute Press, Gosport, IN, pp.151e169. Malan, B.D., Cooke, H.B.S., 1941. A preliminary account of the Wonderwerk Cave, Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// Kuruman. S. Afr. J. Sci. 37, 300e312. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.08.008. Malan, B.D., Wells, L.H., 1943. A further report on the Wonderwerk Cave, Kuruman. S. Afr. J. Sci. 40, 258e270. Matmon, A., Ron, H., Chazan, M., Porat, N., Horwitz, L.K., 2012. Reconstructing the References history of sediment deposition in caves: a case study from Wonderwerk Cave. GSA Bull. 124, 611e625. Avery, D.M., 1995. Southern savannas and Pleistocene hominid adaptations: the McKee, J.K., Thackeray, J.F., Berger, R., 1995. Faunal assemblage seriation of Southern micromammalian perspective. In: Vrba, E.S., Denton, G.H., Partridge, T.C., African Pliocene and Pleistocene fossil deposits. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop. 96, 235e250. Burckle, L.H. (Eds.), Palaeoclimate and Evolution with Emphasis on Human Pickering, R., Kramers, J., 2010. Re-appraisal of the stratigraphyand determination of new Origins. Yale University Press, New Haven, pp. 459e478. U-Pb dates for the Sterkfontein hominin site, South Africa. J. Hum. Evol. 59, 70e86. Avery, D.M., 2006. Pleistocene micromammals from Wonderwerk Cave, South Pickering, R., Kramers, J.D., Hancox, P.J., de Ruiter, D., Woodhead, J., 2011. Contem- Africa: practical issues. J. Archaeol. Sci. 10, 1e13. porary flowstone development links early hominin bearing cave deposits in Balco, G., Rovey II, C.W., 2008. An isochron method for cosmogenic-nuclide dating South Africa. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett. 306 (1e2), 23e32. of buried soils and sediments. Am. J. Sci. 308 (10), 1083e1114. Pickering, T.R., Heaton, J., Clarke, R., Sutton, M., Brain, C.K., 2012. New hominid Beaumont, P.B., 2011. The edge: more on fire-making by about 1.7 million years ago fossils from member 1 of the Swartkrans formation, South Africa. J. Hum. Evol. at Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa. Curr. Anth. 52 (4), 585e595. 62, 618e628. Beaumont, P.B., Vogel, J.C., 2006. On a timescale for the past million years of human Rasmussen, D.T., Gutiérrez, M., 2010. Hyracoidea. In: Werdlin, L., Sanders, W.J. (Eds.), history in central South Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci. 102, 217e228. Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, pp. 123e146. Berna, F., 2010. Bone alteration and diagenesis. 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