THE MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE AND REASON

Sept./Oct. 1995 U.S. $4.95 Can. $5.95

THE PARADOX OF KNOWLEDGE LEE LOEVINGER CONSCIOUSNESS AS A SUBJECT FOR SCIENCE HUNTLEY INGALLS SCHOOL DAZE: REVIEW OF AFRICAN- AMERICAN ESSAYS WALTER F. ROWE FUZZY LOGIC MARTIN GARDNER MYSTICAL MEDICAL ALTERNATIVISM JACK RASO CHINA. CHI. AND CHICANERY PETER HUSTON

SCIENTOLOGY VS. INTERNET TELEPHONE PSYCHICS SCIENCE WITHOUT ADJECTIVES Robert Sheaffer C. Eugene Emery, Jr. Ralph Estling

PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE TOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL

AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy. State University of New York at Buffalo Barry Karr, Executive Director and Public Relations Director Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director FELLOWS

James E. Alcock," psychologist, York Univ., Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, Santa Joe Nickell," senior researchfellow . CSICOP Toronto Fe Institute Lee Nisbet,- philosopher, Medaille College Jerry Andrus, magician and inventor, Albany. Thomas Gilovich, psychologist, Cornell Univ. James E. Oberg, science writer Oregon Henry Gordon, magician, columnist, Toronto Loren Pankratz, psychologist, Oregon Health Robert A. Baker, psychologist, Univ. of Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Sciences Univ. Kentucky Zoology, Harvard Univ. John Paulos, mathematician, Temple Univ. Stephen Barrett, M.D., psychiatrist, author, con­ C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales sumer advocate, Allentown, Pa. Mark Plummer, lawyer, Australia Al Hibbs, scientist, Jet Propulsion Laboratory Barry Beyerstein," biopsychologist, Simon Fraser W. V. Quine, philosopher, Harvard Univ. Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human under­ Univ., Vancouver, B.C., Canada Milton Rosenberg, psychologist, Univ. of Chicago standing and cognitive science, Indiana Univ. Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of Carl Sagan, astronomer, Cornell Univ. Southern California Gerald Holton, Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics and Professor of History of Science, Wallace Sampson, M.D.. clinical professor of Susan Blackmore," psychologist, Univ. of the Harvard Univ. medicine, Stanford Univ. West of England, Bristol Ray Hyman," psychologist, Univ. of Oregon Evry Schatzman, President, French Physics Association Henri Broch, physicist. Univ. of Nice, France Leon Jaroff, sciences editor. Time Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor of Sergei Kapitza, editor, Russian edition. Scientific Eugenie Scott, physical anthropologist, executive English, Univ. of Utah American director, National Center for Science Vern Bullough, Distinguished Professor, State Education Philip J. Klass," aerospace writer, engineer Univ. of New York Glenn T. Seaborg, University Professor of Marvin Kohl, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University Chemistry, Univ. of California, Berkeley Fredonia John R. Cole, anthropologist, Inst, for the Study Thomas A. Sebcok, anthropologist, linguist, Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director. Griffith of Human Issues Indiana Univ. Observatory F. H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Inst, for Robert Sheaffer, science writer Paul Kurtz,- chairman. CSICOP Biological Studies, La Jolla, Calif. Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey Lawrence Kusche, science writer Richard Dawkins, zoologist, Oxford Univ. Hills, N.S.W., Australia Elizabeth Loftus, professor of psychology, Univ. Robert St finer, magician, author. El Cerrito, Calif. L. Sprague dc Camp, author, engineer of Washington Jill Cornell Taricr, SETI Institute Cornells de Jager, professor of astrophysics, Paul MacCready, scientist/engineer, Univ. of Utrecht, the Netherlands AeroVironment, Inc., Monrovia, Calif. Carol Tavris, psychologist and author, Los Angeles, Calif. Bernard Dixon, science writer, London, U.K. David Marks, psychologist, Middlesex Polytech, Paul Edwards, philosopher. Editor. Encyclopedia England Stephen Toulmin, professor of philosophy. University of Southern California of Philosophy Marvin Minsky, professor of Media Arts and Antony Flew, philosopher. Reading Univ., U.K. Sciences, M.I.T. Steven Weinberg, professor of physics and astronomy, University of Texas at Austin. Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer. Foothill College, David Morrison, space scientist, NASA Ames Los Altos Hills, Calif. Research Center Man-in Zelen, statistician, Harvard Univ. Kendrick Frazier,' science writer. Editor, Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Univ. of Lin Zixin, former editor. Science and Technology SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Calif, Berkeley Daily (China) Yves Galifret, Exec. Secretary, I'Union H. Narasimhaiah, physicist, president. Bangalore Rationaliste Science Forum, India "Member, CSICOP Executive Council Martin Gardner," author, critic Dorothy Nelkin. sociologist New York Univ. (Affiliations given for identification only.)

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) is published bimonthly by the resent the views and work of individual authors. Their publication docs not neces­ Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, 3965 sarily constitute an endorsement by CSICOP or its members unless so stated. Rensch Rd.. Amherst. NY M228-2743. Printed in U.S.A. Second-class Copyright ©1995 by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of postage paid at Amherst, New York, and additional mailing offices. Claims of the Paranormal. All rights reserved. The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is Subscription prices: one year (six issues), $29.50; two years, $49.00; three available on 16mm microfilm, 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche years, $69.00; single issue, $4.95. from University Microfilms International and is indexed in the Reader's Guide Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the to Periodical Literature. Committee should be made to Paul Kurtz, Chairman, CSICOP, Box 703, Subscriptions, change of address, and advertising should be addressed to:

Amherst. NY 14226-0703. Tel.: (716) 636-1425. FAX 716-636-1733. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, BOX 703. Amherst. NY 14226-0703. Old address as Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries should be well as new are necessary for change of subscriber's address, with six weeks addressed to Kendrick Frazier, Editor. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. 944 Deer Drive advance notice. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER subscribers may not speak on behalf of NE, Albuquerque NM 87122-1306. FAX 505-828-2080. For Guide for CSICOP or the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER- Authors, rax request to the Editor or see May-June 1995 issue, page 63. Postmaster Send changes of address to SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703. Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER rep­ Amherst. NY 14226-0703- ARTICLES September/October 1995 Vol. 19 No. 5 18 The Paradox of Knowledge LEE LOEVINGER As knowledge about nature expands, so does ignorance, and ignorance may increase more than its related knowledge 22 Consciousness as a Valid Subject for Scientific Investigation HUNTLEY INGALLS Recent advances in brain research have stimulated widespread interest throughout the scientific community in the nature of consciousness, lending new respectability to the subject. 27 School Daze: A Critical Review of 'African-American Baseline Essays' WALTER F. ROWE These essays are riddled with pseudoscience and pseudohistory. They should not be used for the training of teachers or the teaching of students. 33 Mystical Medical Altenativism iSg.O) JACK RASO Hundreds of mystical or supernaturalistic health treatment methods have been advanced in recent decades. Here are 31 of them. 38 China, Chi, and Chicanery PETER HUSTON Traditional Chinese medicine is thousands of years old and has literally more than a billion satisfied customers. Many of its treatments and teachings are based on the effects of Chi, a mystical form of bio-energy. BOOK REVIEWS Beyond Psychology: Letters and Journals by Wilhelm Reich edited by Mary Boyd Higgins HENRY H. BAUER 43 Close Encounters of the Fourth Kind: The Conference at M.I. T by C. D. B. Bryan Alien Discussions: Proceedings of MIT Abduction Conference edited by Andrea Pritchard, et al. GORDON STEIN 46 What to Do About Your Brain Injured Child by Glenn Doman TERENCE HINES 47 Monsters of the Sea by Richard Ellis GORDON STEIN 48 License to Steal by Dennis Marlock and John Dowling PETER HUSTON 49 NEW BOOKS 51 ARTICLES OF NOTE 52 EDITOR'S NOTE 2 NEWS AND COMMENT 3 Harvard Investigates John Mack / APS on Power Lines and Cancer 'Miraculous' Cure / Weeping Madonna in Italy / Ozark UFO Convention Court on Repressed Memory / New Eye on Nature: Gravity Leasing NOTES OF A FRINGE-WATCHER Fuzzy Logic MARTIN GARDNER 9 PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS Scientology vs. Internet ROBERT SHEAFFER 12 MEDIA WATCH Telephone Psychics: Friends or Phonies? C. EUGENE EMERY, JR. 14 FORUM Scientology and the Internet Science Without Adjectives RALPH ESTLING 53 ON THE COVER CSICOP NEWS 55 Illustration by Ron Miller LETTERS TO THE editor 59 Editor's Note illQEffl&k Infinities of Ignorance, and a Valued Colleagues Message •MM Kendrick Frazier •MUM to AID Scientific knowledge of the natural world has been expanding at exponential James E. Alcock Barry Beyerstein rates. Does this mean that we are getting close to some kind of complete Susan J. Blackmore understanding of the universe? I don't think any scientist seriously thinks so, Martin Gardner Ray Hyman but still the assertion is sometimes heard Philip J. Klass In "The Paradox of Knowledge," in this issue, Lee Loevinger thoughtfully Paul Kurtz Joe Nickell explores "the infinity of our ignorance"from the viewpoint of one who under­ Lee Nisbet stands and deeply appreciates science. "Ignorance gives rise to inquiry that pro­ Bela Scheiber CONSUU1NO MM duces knowledge, which, in turn, discloses new areas of ignorance," he notes. Robert A. Baker The paradox of knowledge is that the ignorance may increase more than its John R. Cole Kenneth L. Fedcr related knowledge. Should this be troubling? I think it contributes to the joy of C. E. M. Hansel E. C. Krupp science, for discovery continually reveals new questions and mysteries, and there David F. Marks will be no end to either. Andrew Neher James E. Oberg I have never found anything on the subject of consciousness simple to Robert Sheaffer understand. Huntley Ingalls's "Consciousness as a Valid Subject for Scientific Steven N. Shore Investigation" may be better than most. I still wouldn't call it an easy read, but ASSISTANT [ono>s Marsha Carlin I do think your time with it will be rewarded. It brings clear thinking to the Thomas C. Genoni, Jr. subject, makes important distinctions, uses vivid analogies, and shows why the CONTINUING EDITOR Lys Ann Shore topic has gained new scientific legitimacy

PRODUCTION Paul Loynes

CARTOONIST Rob Pudim Our new Center for Inquiry building in Amherst, New York, was dedicated June 9, and it was an exciting and Fulfilling event for all of us. This new PUBLISHER'S REPRESENTATIVE Barry Karr building, interconnected with existing buildings across the road from the State • BUSINESS MANAGER University of New York at Buffalo's Amherst campus, completes the joint head­ Mary Rose Hays

ASSISTANT BUSINESS MANAGER quarters of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Sandra Lesniak Paranormal (CSICOP), publisher of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, and the CHIEFDATA Of OFFICER Richard Seymour Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism, publisher of Free Inquiry. FULFILLMENT MANAGER Steve Allen, a true Renaissance man who exemplifies the values of both organiza­ Michael Cione tions, hosted. Distinguished scholars spoke. STAFF Elizabeth Begley But it is the words of one who could not attend that we have chosen to publish Kevin Iuzzini first in this issue (see page 55). James Randi is a hero to us, as well as to tens of Diana Picciano Alfrcda Pidgeon thousands of you. To us, he is also a colleague and a friend for whom we have Etienne C. Rios true and unlimited affection. The recent legal difficulties he and CSICOP have Ranjit Sandhu Sharon Sikora been put through have been painful for all of us, but those feelings never wavered Vance Vigrass It is good to hear Randi's warm and stirring words, and his undiminished COUPCHtATt counsel Brenton N. VerPloeg determination to advance the cause of reason and rationality mouarr MM* PRODUCTIONS Thomas Flynn

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an international organization.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 News Comment

Harvard Launches John Mack Attack: of the paperback edition of his UFO book, Abduction: Human Encounters Abduction Psychiatrist's Scholarship Questioned with Aliens. Harvard University has launched an Sheehan's letter said the Relman During a press conference conducted investigation of John Mack, the committee had concluded: "When via conference call, Mack again tenured professor of psychiatry who carefully investigated, such sightings [of declined to comment on the investiga­ has spent the past few years arguing UFOs] have been proven to be erro­ tion. He did, however, offer comments that people who believe they have been neous, fraudulent, or due to a known on several other subjects. abducted by space aliens may actually natural or man-made phenomenon." Mack acknowledged that there have be victims of extraterrestrial kidnap­ Sheehan's letter quoted the commit­ been conflicting accounts of abduc­ pings. tee as saying that if Mack is going to tion—such as the way people say they Mack's Harvard credentials, plus the assert that virtually every claim of are brought into rooms that look like fact that he won a Pulitzer prize for his UFO abduction is accompanied by they couldn't possibly fit inside the biography of T. E. Lawrence (better concrete physical evidence of a kidnap­ spacecraft; or the way some abductees known as Lawrence of Arabia), have ping, "we believe that Dr. Mack has an report that their captors are cold and helped make him the leading light in obligation to document some of this unfeeling, while others feel a powerful the UFO field and turned his book on claimed physical evidence." bond. alleged extraterrestrial kidnappings Sheehan's letter also said that the "It's one way one time and it's into a best-seller. Harvard committee had concluded in another way" another time, said Mack. At press time, the Harvard probe, its draft report that it is irresponsible "Everything you say about it you can led by former New England Journal of for any scholar or practicing psychia­ contradict and it drives linear minds Medicine Editor Arnold Relman, had trist to give credence to the alien crazy because it isn't one way." not been completed. Because Harvard abduction idea until all other possibili­ Mack declined to cite a specific case is a private institution, it is possible ties, including seizures, vivid dreams, that would be compelling enough to that the report by the Relman commit­ and all other conditions can be ruled convince skeptics, saying, "You get tee, along with any sanctions made out. your best case and it always gets shot against Mack, will not be made public. The Harvard committee, according down because somebody finds a fault." Relman, Harvard University, Mack, to Sheehan's version of the draft report, Other comments from Mack at his and Mack's Boston lawyer, Roderick accused Mack of encouraging patients press conference: MacLeish, Jr., have all refused to com­ to believe they have been abducted by • On whether anything will con­ ment. extraterrestrials when he should be dis­ vince him that the phenomenon he's The probe became known after couraging that belief. studying has nothing to do with UFOs Mack's former lawyer, Daniel P. Some of Mack's supporters have and space aliens: "Of die hundreds of Sheehan, began soliciting letters of depicted the probe as an assault on aca­ these cases, now thousands that have support for Mack from scientists inter­ demic freedom. Sheehan said the been reported, not one has ever—with ested in UFOs. Harvard investigation was an attempt all the attacks on the people who do In his letter of request, Sheehan said to "silence John in his effort to speak this work—turned out to yield anoth- er explanation." Harvard's "special faculty committee" out to the world about this important was acting in "secret," and had pre­ phenomenon and his conclusions • On one case that has produced an judged the tenured professor. Sheehan about it." alternative explanation—the Gulf alleged that the committee wrote a Sheehan offered a three-page sam­ Breeze UFO photographs, which were draft report of its findings of fact ple letter for UFO researchers to use as discredited after a neighborhood "before Dr. Mack was ever informed of a template for support letters to youth reported helping photographer any specific accusations of misconduct Relman and the Harvard committee. Ed Walters make them and a UFO made against him and before Dr. Mack News of die investigation broke just model was found hidden in the attic of had been accorded any opportunity as Mack and Ballantine Books were Walters's house: "Somebody planted whatsoever to present any defense." beginning to promote the publication apparently some sort of a model which

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 3 was very crude. . . . All of the concen­ fact if you just move the clock ahead effects from exposure to such fields. tration was on the model, and no way from what's going on now." Altering While it is impossible to prove that no could [it] have produced the [Walters] that fate, he said, would require "a dra­ deleterious health effects occur from photographs. ... [As for the youth matic, radical change in human con­ exposure to any environmental factor, who said he helped with the pho­ sciousness." The abductions, which it is necessary to demonstrate a consis­ tographs] it turns out that he was put appear to originate from "another tent, significant, and causal relation­ up by his father to do this as a scam. dimension," seem to be part of an ship before one can conclude that such The field is full of that kind of thing." effort to change human consciousness, effects do occur. From this standpoint, • On the anecdotal evidence in his he said. the conjectures relating cancer to cases: "It is not anecdotal. If you get a • On whether mankind's continued power line fields have not been scien­ very detailed interview with someone existence two decades from now will tifically substantiated. for two hours, and then work with prove him wrong: "I don't think so These unsubstantiated claims, how­ them for several hours more, this is not because we will never know exactly ever, have generated fears of power anecdotal. This is what a human being what brought about the incredible lines in some communities, leading to says to another human being." transformation of our behavior and expensive mitigation efforts, and, in • On how the abductions relate to consciousness that would be required some cases, to lengthy and divisive the fate of the world: "The fact of the for that to happen." court proceedings. The costs of mitiga­ matter is that we have 15 to 20 years tion and litigation relating to the before the psychological, moral, physi­ —C. Eugene Emery, Jr. power line-cancer connection have cal, and environmental collapse of the risen into billions of dollars and threat Earth as a living entity becomes alto­ Gene Emery is the science writer for the en to go much higher. The diversion of gether a reality. This is not apocalyptic Providence Journal-Bulletin, 75 Foun­ these resources to eliminate a threat thinking. This is scientific, predictable tain St., Providence, RI02902. which has no persuasive scientific basis is disturbing to us. More serious envi­ ronmental problems are neglected for American Physical Society Finds No Scientific lack of funding and public attention, Substantiation for Linking Power Lines, Cancer and the burden of cost placed on the American public is incommensurate The Council of the American Physical power line fields and cancer is an area with the risk, if any." Society the not-for-profit principal mem­ of continuing study by research work­ bership organization of physicists in the ers in many disciplines in the United United States, has issued a statement, States and abroad, we believe that it is Examining an 'Unsolved "Power Lines and Public Health, "declar­ possible to make several observations Mysteries' Report of a ing purportedly negative health effects of based on the scientific evidence at this 'Miraculous' Cure the power line fields have not been scien­ time. We also believe that, in the inter­ tifically substantiated and the cost of mit­ est of making the best use of the finite On May 5, 1995, NBC-TVs igation and litigation "is incommensurate resources available for environmental "Unsolved Mysteries" featured a Fort with the risk, if any "According to Robert research and mitigation, it is important Lauderdale, Florida, woman who, a L. Park of the American Physical Society's for professional organizations to com­ few years ago, allegedly experienced a Washington office, the APS Council state­ ment on this issue. "miraculous" healing, through prayer, ment, approved at its April 22 meeting, The scientific literature and the of a breast lesion suspected of being was a result of several years of discussion reports of reviews by other panels cancerous. According to the television and monitoring of the issue by the APS show no consistent significant link program host, Robert Stack, on Friday, Panel on Public Affairs, and was between cancer and power line fields. December 1, 1991 [Friday was actual­ endorsed by the leaders of APS's Biophysics This literature includes epidemiological ly November 29], 42-year-old K.B. Division. He said this is the strongest studies, research on biological systems, [she was 44] underwent an ultrasound/ sonogram test "confirm[ing] a large position on the issue taken by a major sci­ and analyses of theoretical interaction lump in her right breast. [Her] doctors entific society mechanisms. No plausible biophysical fear the worst—cancer. She was direct­ Here is the full text of the statement: mechanisms for the systematic initia­ ed to come back on Monday for a tion or promotion of cancer by these biopsy, and possible mastectomy." A "Physicists are frequently asked to power line fields have been identified. mammogram performed on the same comment on the potential dangers of Furthermore, the preponderance of Friday was also said to reveal a suspi­ cancer from electromagnetic fields that the epidemiological and biophysical/ cious "lump." emanate from common power lines biological research findings have failed and electrical appliances. While recog­ to substantiate those studies which KB., says Stack, "had read about nizing that the connection between have reported specific adverse health the power of prayer and mediation."

4 skeptical INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 She then appears in person on the pro­ die sonogram appeared very smooth in die breast is highly suggestive of a gram to explain how she "con- and oval with few internal echoes, benign process. Although multiple centrat[ed] my whole weekend on characteristic of a benign, fluid-filled metastases commonly result from the healing. ... I [asked] God to heal me. cyst (or, less likely, a benign, solid spread of a single breast cancer, it is ... I just heard a still, small voice in my fibroadenoma). The Friday mammo­ exceedingly rare for multiple primary head, just like you read about in die gram also revealed a spot, circled on malignancies to arise within a breast or books. I felt the peace that passes all the film, which looked more nodular, any other organ. understanding. . . . The [fear and] anx­ but which did not appear to my radiol­ And from her December 2, 1991, iety went away. I became very con­ ogy consultant to contain die density, post-prayer mammogram report: "... vinced that I was healed." spickling (pointy margins), or central The right breast nodular density which On the following Monday, another calcifications so often noted in breast had been reported on previous examina­ mammogram was performed "just cancers (although they can and do vary tions is not definitely seen on today's prior to her [scheduled] biopsy. K.B.'s widely in appearance). The Monday examination ... compared with die pre­ doctor was dumbfounded," says Stack, post-prayer mammogram did appear vious mammogram of 18 July and pre­ because the suspicious spot was gone. normal. vious sonogram of 8 November. . . ." "He was cautious, and wanted to con­ During our telephone conversation, No mention was made of any mam­ duct die biopsy anyway [but] K.B. was KB. informed me that her saga actual­ mogram or sonogram having been per­ adamant—she was going home." ly began well before that December, formed (perhaps elsewhere?) just three Says K.B., "I [told] all the nurses ... when a routine mammogram revealed days earlier. And in none of K.B.'s 'I'm healed. . . . This is an early a lesion in her right breast (neither she reports arc the findings said to be sus­ Christmas present from God.'" And nor any of her doctors, to her knowl­ picious for malignancy, despite Stack's her follow-up exams have been normal edge, have ever felt any "lump"). She comment that her doctors "fear the ever since. was to have had a biopsy that July but worst—cancer." Brian Weiss, a psychiatrist and "fainted" during the preliminary nee­ Only after we said our farewells did author specializing in past-life regres­ dle localization procedure, and die I realize that the reports in K.B.'s pos­ sion who was also on the program, biopsy was canceled. The following is session fail to document any mammo­ comments: "For many years doctors from the July 18, 1991, report (read to gram between October 4 and have . . . explained [these phenomena] me by K.B. over die phone): "... December 2, or any sonogram after away, 'Oh, mat's just a spontaneous Nodular density seen on outside [i.e., November 8. However, K.B.'s name remission.' But what is that? This is a done elsewhere] mammogram per­ and "29 Nov" are faintly visible on the healing. And we have to, as healers, formed last month, [here] for pre-oper- television show's sonogram—the one find out how this happens, what are ative needle localization today. . . . that seems to reveal a benign, fluid- the mechanisms." Today's [low dose mammography] filled cyst that could have resolved in a again demonstrates a 1.0 cm noncalci- few days, or simply not have been visu­ Larry Dossey, author of Healing fied nodular density. ..." (The report alized on the mammogram (cysts often Words (see my review in SI, Summer then describes the patient's fainting aren't) of December 2. If a mammo­ 1994), claims on the show that "cur- spell and die procedure's cancellation.) gram was also done on November 29, rently there are over 130 studies" scien­ it was apparently unavailable both to tifically establishing the efficacy of A sonogram report dated Novem­ "Unsolved Mysteries" and during her prayer in healing. Stephen Barrett, a ber 8, 1991. notes comparison with December 2 ordeal. The mammo­ physician and co-chairman of "nodular density seen on outside mam­ grams shown on television must have CSICOP's Health Claims Subcom­ mogram of 4 October 91" and reveals been those from December 2 and July mittee, then comments skeptically "... a 5-0 x 3.0 mm somewhat round­ 18—although no dates are visible, about the quality of the evidence ed lesion [with] some degree of [inter­ identical nameplates indicate a com­ regarding prayer and healing. nal] echogenicity [and] a second 6.0 mon facility, and die December 2 mm somewhat oval-shaped lesion [also After the program aired, I contacted report notes only July 18 X rays as with] evidence of low-level echogenici­ KB. by phone (her real name was used being available for comparison. Even if ty. .. . The walls [of both] are not well on die show). She told me she had KB. had a benign, solid fibroadenoma circumscribed. Impression: . . . two copies made of her pertinent sonogram in her right breast in July, or even on right breast lesions, neither of which and mammogram films for "Unsolved November 8, there was ample time by have the sonographic criteria for cysts." Mysteries." Although nothing com­ December 2 for a nonmiraculous reso­ This doesn't sound quite like what my pares to seeing die originals in person, lution. the copies projected on television with colleague and I thought we saw on tele­ sufficient clarity so as to immediately vision, and die date of the report indi­ cates that this sonogram was not per­ K.B. would not reveal to me (nor lead me in another direction, one have any other media been given per­ shared by a radiologist to whom I formed on November 29. Further, the presence of more man one lesion with­ mission by her to reveal) the names of showed the videotape. The lesion on her doctors and radiology facilities—

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 5 she says they want no related publicity. not show any changes in the blood­ these explanations appeared clear and And because K.B. told me that she stains. lent support to the claim that "science would never forgive me if I were to A church-appointed team conducted is unable to explain these phenomena." "ruin this very positive experience in tests on the red substance, which Nobody seemed to have thought of my life," I have decided to use only her turned out to be male human blood. the simplest of all explanations: The initials in this article, and to not call The city magistrate impounded owner of the statue, in the comfort of her back with my additional questions. and locked up the figurine. He also his own home, could have taken some For K.B. there are no questions left ordered another round of tests on the of his own blood and smeared it on the unanswered. Besides "Unsolved Mys­ statue, including a DNA test to see if face of the statue. The claim of the teries," she informed me that the story the tears matched blood of Gregori bishop can't be validated, since, at that of her "healing" has appeared in Good male family members. The order put a time, the statue had been left unat­ Housekeeping magazine in an April sudden halt to plans for a solemn tended in his house, where he also had 1993 article titled, "Do You Believe in Good Friday procession that was to three guests (one of which was a mysti­ Miracles?" and in Weiss's second "past transport the Madonna to a specially cal seer). lives" book, Through Time into Healing built chapel inside the nearby church The right thing to do, according to (she is referred to as "Frances"), as well of San Agostino. The Gregori family CICAP, would have been to immedi­ as in a May 21, 1995, Fort Lauderdale refused to subject the blood to the ately lock the statue in a transparent Sun-Sentinel article. As K.B. said to DNA tests. case, place in front of it a video camera, me, "I am not a doctor and I don't care The Vatican has so far maintained post a couple of persons as guards, and what the lumps were. I'm just glad silence on the affair. But a bishop, who see if the weeping would have taken they're gone. I believe God healed me." said he also saw the statue weep, is said place. It is interesting to note that, to be furious at the implication that while the statue was impounded by the —Gary P. Posner science is being used to measure the magistrate, it never wept. integrity of a man of God. "The blood Gary P. Posner, an internist in Tampa, is masculine," the bishop told the —Massimo Polidoro Florida, is founder of the Tampa Bay newspapers, "so it has to be the tears of Skeptics and a CSICOP Consultant. Jesus"; it appears obvious that, had the Massimo Polidoro, magician and psychic blood turned out to be feminine, it investigator for CICAP (the Italian would as well been declared a miracle, Committee for the Investigation of A Suspicious Weeping since the Madonna was a woman. Claims of the Paranormal), has just pub­ Madonna in Italy The Civitavecchia case has produced lished in Italy his first book: Viaggio tra reams of commentary and theories: gli spiriti, a complete critical history of Italian media reported earlier this year Sociologists talk about a "collective spiritualism. that a mass-produced 17-inch-rall statue angst" produced by Italy's ongoing polit­ of the Madonna had wept tears of ical crisis. Dacia Maraini, a well-known blood. The attention the media gave to Italian writer, contends that the cult of Seeking the Otherworldly this case, which at the beginning the Madonna springs from an "archaic at the Ozark appeared as just one of the many and irrational mentality," which fosters UFO Convention reported all over Italy during the past contempt of women. CICAP, the Italian two years, grew rapidly and pretty soon skeptics committee, was daily asked by For the seventh time, the tiny hamlet television news and the front pages of the media to comment on the case and of Eureka Springs, Arkansas, became the newspapers gave daily reports on suggest possible natural ways of produc­ the gathering place for the Ozark the developments. ing the "miracle." UFO Convention, the weekend of It all began in Civitavecchia (a city We explained that it was impossible April 7-9, 1995. Lou Farrish was near Rome) on February 16, 1995, to say what had actually happened coordinator, host, and moderator to a when Fabio Gregori, an electrical since the phenomena occurred only group of speakers that included worker and owner of the statue, before the owner of the statue. Michael Zimmerman, chairman of declared that his daughter Jessica had Immediately, bizarre theories, not sub­ the Department of Philosophy at spotted tears of blood running down scribed to by CICAP, of remote-con­ Tulane University, and Bruce Cornet, the face of the statue of the Virgin trol devices or "special contact lenses a New York University geologist. This Mary in his front yard. Gregori that expand and release liquid when year's theme seemed to revolve informed the local priest, and immedi­ subjected to heat" began to circulate as around the "other-dimensional" ately thousands of pilgrims started vis­ possible explanations. When an X ray aspect of the UFO experience. It iting the statue, reporting that it con­ test of the statue proved it to be empty, appears that proponents of UFOs are tinued weeping—although pictures and no other substances were found on continuing their shift away from the taken at different times of the days did the exterior of the statue, the failure of nuts and bolts into the realm, in a lit-

6 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 eral sense, of dreams and archetypes. moonstruck, to even assume this to be zine, who gave an overview of UFO Very little was said of extraterrestrials true. What he showed were photos of sightings in Eastern Europe and who visiting from faraway star systems. lunar landscapes, filled in and colored actually came across rather nicely, leav­ Instead, several of the presentations by his inventiveness. Taking a cue from ing the more bizarre elements out of suggested that these aliens come from Richard Hoagland (die "Face on Mars" his talk. Linda Moulton Howe asked another plane or level of conscious­ guru), Cornet devised elaborate slants to whether we are dealing with one intel­ ness. die whole situation, creating wonderful ligence that manifests itself in many One of the more skewed talks of architecture out of the craters and hills ways—crops circles, cattle mutilations, this nature came from Forrest on die face of the moon. He obviously abduction—or several different types Crawford, the Mutual UFO Network's spent hours and hours fitting the illuso­ of intelligence. ry pieces together. His second presenta­ (MUFON) Illinois representative. He Sunday morning brought a potpourri tion, "Pine Bush UFO," was more of listed ten or so ways of communicating of speakers in what was called the the same. A tremendous amount of "across the reality divide." Included as "Researchers' Mini-Session." Each was energy must have been spent building useful ways of communicating with limited to a fifteen-minute presentation. die logical framework on which his entities on the other side are: mirror Talks included news about a CD-ROM shaky premise served as a foundation. computer aid for UFO investigators, and gazing, out-of-body experiences, He was able to superimpose the infa­ a link between symptoms of Sudden hydromancing (liquid gazing), and mous Martian area of Caldonia (an area Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and alien channeling. Another of the more of Mars that includes the well-recog­ physical symptoms associated withabductee s (die connection being dysfunc­ esoteric ideas came from a woman who nized "Face") onto an area of Pine Bush, tion of die reticular system of die brain). claimed to have had a past life as an New York, matching three distinctive alien. features common to both sites. Both Karla Turner, abduction researcher areas, he claimed, have a hill and a crater Noteworthy was speaker Randy and author of several books on me sub­ in relatively the same location. He stat­ Ortega, who presented new photos he ject, spoke on "The UFO Masquerade." ed that die only remnant to match the took of UFOs near his home in central Her talk began with a basic, straightfor­ infamous face in Pine Bush was an Illinois. The photos showed the typical ward tale of aliens abducting women for underground transmitter that was send­ streaks of light against a dark cloudy physical examinations and probings. ing highly polarized energy into space! sky that are common to the UFO However, the field seems to be looking Pressed for details on the transmitters, genre. But there was something about for more ferule territory in which to he admitted to having no additional diem that just didn't seem right. Ortega stimulate followers, who seemingly information on them. professed his ignorance about photog­ require a higher degree of strangeness raphy but was still peppered with ques­ tions on shutter speed, focal length, each year. So, to add to the mystery, she Other speakers included Antonio and film type. He was unable to answer said die U.S. military has joined in the Huneeus, UFO editor for Fate maga­ abduction process (one would have thought they had learned their lesson after Operation Tailhook). Turner implicated the military in several cases she investigated. She concluded with a video taken by a woman who claims to be die victim of abduction by military agents. In the video were several shots of ordinary military aircraft dial happened to be flying over her house. It was left to us to decide if this woman was being harassed by these aircraft. No evidence on die video indicated any malevolence 3 by the aircraft toward the woman. l Nonetheless, die audience could have been left with that impression since it was suggested by Turner. Bruce Cornet gave two presenta­ tions. In die first, "Spaceship Moon," he claimed to have actual pictures of ancient lunar cities that now lie in ruins on die surface of die moon. One had to "You abducted him—jam feed him.' stretch one's own imagination, a.k.a. be

skeptical INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 7 Judge Overturns Conviction Based on 'Recovered Memories'

Use of "recovered memories" testimony in court was dealt a legal setback earlier this year. A federal judge in Oakland, California, reversed the murder convic­ tion of a California man who had been found guilty in what news reports say was the first criminal prosecution based on "recovered memory" testimony. U.S. District Judge Lowell Jensen of W. Couch (University of New South Wales), R. Ellis (Cambridge University), and NASA Oakland overturned the conviction of New Eye on Nature George Franklin, a San Mateo, Cali­ This NASA Hubble Space Telescope image of the rich galaxy cluster, Abell 2218, is fornia, firefighter whose daughter testi­ a spectacular example of gravitational tensing. The arclike pattern across the pic­ fied she had suddenly recalled seeing ture like a spider web is an illusion caused by the gravitational field of the cluster. The cluster is so massive and compact that light rays passing through it are him kill her playmate 20 years earlier. deflected by its enormous gravitational field, much as an optical lens bends light Jensen ruled that the trial judge had to form an image. The process magnifies, brightens, and distorts images of barred Franklin's attorney from pre­ objects that lie far beyond the cluster. This provides a powerful "zoom lens" for viewing galaxies that are so far away they could not normally be observed with senting evidence that Franklin's daugh­ the largest available telescopes. ter, the sole witness against him, could Hubble's high resolution reveals numerous arcs that are difficult to detect have learned details of the 1969 mur­ with ground-based telescopes because they appear to be so thin. The arcs are der from news articles about the mur­ the distorted images of a very distant galaxy population extending 5 to 10 times farther than the lensing cluster. This population existed when the galaxy was just der and investigation and not from see­ one quarter of its present age. The arcs provide a direct glimpse of how star- ing him kill the victim. forming regions are distributed in remote galaxies, and other clues to the early Judge Jensen did not exclude recov­ evolution of galaxies. ered memories from trial evidence. But Hubble also reveals multiple imaging, a rarer lensing event that happens when the distorted image is large enough to produce more than one image of the he said testimony based on recovered same galaxy. Abell 2218 has an unprecedented total of seven multiple systems. memories requires scrutiny. He gave The abundance of lensing features in Abell 2218 has been used to make a prosecutors 90 days to retry or release detailed map of the distribution of matter in the cluster's center. From this, dis­ tances can be calculated for a sample of 120 faint arclets found on the Hubble Franklin, who is serving a life sentence. image. These arclets represent galaxies that are 50 times fainter than objects In four more recent cases, judges that can be seen with ground-based telescopes. have ruled that testimony based on The image was taken with the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2. repressed memories cannot be admit­ ted at all. Two of the cases are criminal, as the congregation continued its what I was looking at, the rest of the two civil. According the National Law friendly fire assault while scrutinizing crowd became still, hesitant to chal­ Journal (June 12, 1995), the cases the slides. Luckily an observant mem­ lenge a belief shared by all who were appear to be the first in the United ber of a dwindling audience suggested there. Where at one point they were States in which the courts have made that the slide might be upside down. attacking the validity of Ortega on his such pretrial rulings rather than letting When turned around the scene was photographic prowess and the reality of a jury hear testimony. much easier to visualize. It was an the photos, they now sat in quiet retro­ In the most recent case. Judge William underexposed picture of a cloudy sun­ spect. It was a UFO conference, and J. Groff of the Hillsborough Superior set sky behind his treelined street. The UFOs were what they came to see. Court in Manchester, New Hampshire, trees were completely black but distinct When finished, Ortega left the podium found that "the phenomenon of memory as to their nature. What was once an to quiet applause. unidentified light streak in the upper repression and the process of therapy used left-hand corner became an unidenti­ these cases to recoverdi the e memories fied light source in the lower right-hand —James R. Reich, Jr. have not gained general acceptance in the corner, at approximately street level field of psychology and are not scientifi­ (where cars drive with lights on or James R Reich, Jr. is a toxicologisi at the cally reliable." neighboring homes would be lit with Office of the Medical Examiner in Cook He ruled in two consolidated cases outdoor decoration). Although it County, Illinois. He wrote "The Eyewitness: in which women under therapy became apparent immediately as to Imperfect Interface Between Stimuli and recalled alleged incidents of sexual Story" in our Summer 1993 issue. abuse much earlier in their lives.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Notes of a Fringe-Watcher

(tizzy Logic

MARTIN GARDNER

When the prophet, a complacent ing, a melody, or a person? expensive to a poor person is cheap to, fat man. Such vagueness must not be con­ say, Elizabeth Taylor or Donald Trump. Arrived at the mountain-top fused with ambiguity. "There is a bat in The ancient Greeks dramatized He cried: "Woe to my knowledge! the attic" and Groucho Marx's "I shot vagueness by the paradox of the heap. I intended to see good white lands an elephant in my pajamas" are From a large heap of sand you remove And bad black lands. ambiguous statements. Arguments over one grain at a time. When does the But the scene is grey. " whether the moon rotates arise from heap cease to be a heap and become a the ambiguity of rotate. The moon few grains? How many is a "few"? How —Stephen Crane rotates relative to the fixed stars, but many hairs have to be missing from a not relative to Earth. By contrast, "Is man's head before he is bald? there life on Mars?" is vague because From Aristotle on, logicians have, of "life" is vague. Are viruses alive? "Go hy does traditional logic course, been aware of vagueness and have wash your face" is vague. Does "wash" have so little relevance to proposed ways to overcome it. One way require soap? Are ears part of the face? Whow we think? One reason is to be more specific Instead of vaguely is that, aside from terms in pure mathe­ Problems in logic textbooks often declaring, "As someone once said, history matics, formal logic, and some words in involve such statements as, "If Bill is is bunk," we specify it by saying, "As mathematical physics, almost all words home, Mary is out." Is Mary home if Henry Ford said in 1919 "This helps, have blurry boundaries. In set theory an she is in the garage or on a porch? but still leaves "history" and "bunk" element is either in or outside a set. In You might think that letters of the hopelessly vague. propositionall calculus an assertion is alphabet can be defined precisely. Far Another way to avoid vagueness is either true or false. No in-betweens. from it. Every letter can be gradually to quantify. Vague words like fast and Unfortunately, in the real world, as altered on a computer screen until it is slow can be sharpened by saying that a philosopher Charles Peirce observed, any other letter, with unclassifiable car is going "too fast" on a thruway if "All things swim in continua." intermediates. A well-known example: its speed is more than 65 miles an No sharp line divides day from hour, and going "too slow" if less than night. Children grow imperceptibly 40. Hot and cold can be made as crisp into adults. Beasts evolved gradually as you like by invoking degrees of tem­ into humans. Red fades into orange THE CAT perature. Tall and short can be quanti­ and into purple. When is a glass full? A fied with centimeters. banana ripe? A person rich? Is half an Is the middle symbol of each word In recent decades logicians have apple an apple? Is Japan a capitalist or an "A" or an "H"? Like so many words, tried to handle reasoning with vague socialist state? When is a novel obscene? the answer depends on the context. terms by what are called "multi-valued Exactly what is a novel? Is a bar stool What is warm for an Eskimo may be logics." Instead of true and false, a with a small back a chair? How can we cool to someone in the tropics. A small three-value logic may introduce a third measure the beauty of a poem, a paint­ hippo is larger than a big ant. Jewelry term such as indeterminate. Proposals

SKEPT1CAI INQUIRER • September/October 1995 9 Japan. Fuzzy conferences are held regu­ larly in the U.S., China, and Japan, where hundreds of fuzzy experts are publishing technical papers. Zadeh has become famous in Japan. More than a half-dozen introductory books on fuzzy logic are in Japanese. Technical books in English are finally being pub­ lished, and several journals are devoted to this mushrooming field, the oldest being Fuzzy Sets and Systems, published in Amsterdam. The word fuzzy is on its cover in fuzzy red letters. Every branch of applied mathemat­ ics has been fuzzified. Fuzzy arithmetic handles such fuzzy numbers as "almost 10" and "more than 50." Fuzzy geom­ etry deals with almost straight lines, not quite round circles, and even vaguer concepts, such as ovals. Fuzzy graph theory draws graphs based on have been made to apply three-value no influence on Zadeh. Just as firmly, fuzzy points. There are fuzzy algebras, logics to quantum mechanics, where Zadeh is convinced that fuzzy logic, with fuzzy topology, and fuzzy calculus. certain properties are unknowable. its tolerance of imprecision, will soon Work is being done on fuzzy artificial Modal logics distinguish between true, replace Aristotelian logic in a massive intelligence (AI), pattern recognition, false, and possible. Hans Reichenbach paradigm shift. "Nature," Zadeh is often and neural networks. and others have proposed multi-valued quoted as saying, "writes with a spray Fuzzy computer chips for handling logics based on probabilities. True has a can, not a ballpoint pen." fuzzy algorithms are rapidly being used probability of 1, false a probability of There is remarkable anticipation of in hundreds of control systems. In 0. In between can be any number of fuzzy logic in H. G. Wells's philosophi­ Japan, fuzzy silicon chips provide truth values. Instead of saying vaguely cal work First and Last Things (1908). smooth stops and starts on Hitachi's that he or she thinks the big bang the­ After describing a variety of objects subway in Sandai, Indonesia. The ory is true, a cosmologist would more called "chairs," he wrote: "In coopera­ Japanese are fuzzifying elevators, accurately give the conjecture a subjec­ tion with an intelligent joiner I would cranes, washing machines, carburetors, tive probability of, say, .9 of being true. undertake to defeat any definition of showers, hair dryers, camcorders, elec­ The latest, most ambitious, most chair or chairishness mat you gave me." tric razors, air conditioners, TV sets, radical effort to formalize reasoning ovens, vacuum cleaners, even entire with vague terms was named fuzzy logic Every species is vague, every term chemical plants. "Expert systems," by its inventor Lotfi Asker Zadeh, now goes cloudy at its edges, and so in such as those used for medical diagno­ my way of thinking, relentless logic a professor emeritus at the University of sis, mineral prospecting, and stock is only another name for stupidity— California, Berkeley. His new logic for a son of intellectual pigheaded- market analysis, are being fuzzified. dates from 1965, when he published a ness. If you push a philosophical or In 1989, the Japanese government little-noticed paper on fuzzy sets. metaphysical enquiry through a funded the Laboratory for International (Zadeh was born Lotfi Aliaskerzadeh in series of valid syllogisms—never Fuzzy Engineering Research with an Baku, Azerbaijan, in 1921, of a Russian committing any generally recog­ nised fallacy—you nevertheless leave advance of some $35 million and more mother and a Turkish-Iranian tamer. behind you at each step a certain than 40 member firms. Japanese cars are After graduating from the University of rubbing and marginal loss of objec­ starting to use fuzzy transmissions. In Teheran, he came to America and tive truth and you get deflections 1989, Honda awarded its prestigious earned a doctorate in electrical engi­ that are difficult to trace, at each Honda prize to Zadeh for his contribu­ neering at Columbia University.) phase in the process. Every species waggles about in its definition, every tions to Japanese technology. U.S. com­ Zadeh passionately believes that tool is a little loose in its handle, panies have been extremely reluctant to every scale has its individual. Aristotelian black-and-white logic is use­ jump on the fuzzy bandwagon. less for reasoning about the real world. Exceptions are Rockwell, which markets This view is shared by Alfred Korzybski, Interest in fuzzy logic and fuzzy several fuzzy devices; Otis Elevator; and founder of general semantics, although mathematics is now worldwide, but General Motors, which uses fuzzy logic this earlier movement by Korzybski had especially intense in China, Korea, and in die transmission of its Saturn car.

10 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/CKTO6ER 1995 Details of Zadeh's logic are techni­ its founder and guru. Some have even In many cases, say the probabilists, cal, but let me convey some general called it "content free" and "the cocaine a simple feedback mechanism, such as features. A fuzzy set is one with fuzzy of science." Douglas Hofstadter thinks a flywheel or a thermostat, can serve boundaries. Members are graded by a the idea of reasoning precisely about adequately as a control mechanism. finite number of degrees, with incre­ blurry concepts is "rather comical." Fuzzy experts are proud of the fact that mental transitions between diem. For Michael Arbib suggests that the cult the Japanese have a fuzzy stability pro­ example, heights of persons can be bro­ would never have arisen if Zadeh had gram that balances a pole on one end. ken down into such fuzzy adjectives as named his logic "set theory with Detractors say the same thing can be very tall, tall, medium, short, and very degrees of membership." done with nonfuzzy programs. Fuzzians insist that fuzzy chips balance short, each category defined by numer­ Arguments between promoters and the pole, as well as handle other control ical intervals. A room's temperature is opponents of fuzzy have become acri­ systems, more efficiently with simpler graded by numbers between hot and monious. In a 1994 conference on rules and lower costs. cold. True and false are replaced by fuzzy in San Diego sponsored by degrees of truth and falseness. Computer Design magazine, the main In 1993 two popular books on Although reasoning with fuzzy is pre­ event was supposed to be a debate fuzzy logic were published in the U.S.: cise, all its conclusions are fuzzy. between fuzzian Earl Cox and anti- Fuzzy Logic (Simon and Schuster), by Many theorems in traditional logic fiizzian Bob Pease. An announcement Daniel McNeil and Paul Freiberger, carry over into fuzzy in modified ways. said the debate would be carefully and Fuzzy Thinking (Hyperion) by monitored by the magazines editor "to For example, on a scale of 0 to 1, Bart Kosko. Both books are breathless keep the contenders from doing each assume that "Joe is short" has a fuzzy paeans to fuzzy, hailing it as a revolu­ other actual harm." I am told the truth value of .2. Its complement, "Joe tion of monumental proportions in debate did not take place. computer technology—a revolution is not short," has a fuzzy value of 1 — .2 destined to transform the world. = .8. An "and" conjunction of "Joe is Opponents maintain that algo­ short" (value .2) with "Joe is hand­ rithms and chips based on probability Fuzzy Logic is the more restrained of some" (value .5) has a value of .5. "Joe theory and familiar multi-valued logics the two. The authors give space to is either short" or (in the exclusive can do just as well as fuzzy in control­ detractors, but argue that their opposi­ sense) "Joe is handsome" has a value of ling machinery. After all, probability tion springs from a failure to under­ .2. Implication: "If Joe is short then Joe controls put astronauts on the moon, stand fuzzy logic and from the slowness is handsome" has a value equal to 1 - (.2 + .8), which is zero. Being short does not imply that one is handsome. "Fuzzy arithmetic handles such fuzzy num­ Instead of precise fuzzy values one bers as 'almost 10' and 'mere than SO,'" might use what is called a "fuzzy fuzzy" value of, say, "almost .2." Zadeh calk and guide intercontinental missiles and of a stubborn establishment to recog­ such values a "second order of fuzziness." solar system probes. The line between nize a new paradigm shift. They agree "Fuzziness" is distinguished from fuzzy logic and probability logics is with Zadeh that it will be many years "vagueness" in terms of (what else?) blurry. To assign "very tall" a fuzzy until the U.S. catches up with Japanese degree. "Jesus will return in a few value of n is the same as saying that, in technology in fuzzifying control sys­ years" is fuzzy. "Jesus will return even­ a given culture, a person over six feet tems. Although they are convinced tually" is so extremely fuzzy that Zadeh will be called tall with a probability of that fuzziness will soon invade world calls it vague. He also distinguishes n. Is fuzzy, detractors ask, merely prob­ technology, they grant the possibility fuzzy from "probability" statements. ability theory in disguise? that this prediction may "harden into "The chance it will rain tomorrow is To a large extent disagreements may garish embarrassments like the predic­ .5" is a probability forecast. The fuzzy be verbal. A computer program based tions of A.I. (artificial intelligence) and equivalent is, "The degree of truth that on an analog algorithm with digital neural networks." it will rain tomorrow is .5." The dis­ components would be called fuzzy by Bart Kosko, author of Fuzzy tinctions are subtle. Thus even the fuzzians, but not by others. Fuzzy chips, Thinking is the movement's most con­ term fuzzy is "fuzzy." using sieves instead of on-off switches, troversial and combative promoter. He Fuzzy logic, especially among artifi­ would be called an analog program by is the hero of the McNeil-Freiberger cial intelligence specialists in the U.S., die anti-fuzzians. Zadeh likes to point book, which devotes an entire chapter has persistent detractors. They claim out that chess players have fuzzy inter­ to him. Born in 1960 in Kansas City, that fuzzy logic is overhyped, seeing it mediate goals, and when you park a car Kansas, Kosko obtained his Ph.D. in as a momentary fad similar to the "cat­ you maneuver it into fuzzy positions. 1987 from die University of Cali­ astrophe theory" craze that befuddled Detractors would say that chess players fornia, San Diego, with a thesis on mathematicians in the late 1970s. It and car parkers are simply making prob­ has been called a "cult," with Zadeh as ability estimates. Logic continued on page 56

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 11 Psychic Vibrations

Scientology vs. e Internet

ROBERT SHEAFFER

ccording to the copyrighted ings impinge on our bodies, are achieve at least the rank of Tehran. scriptures of the Church of responsible for most of the misery Instead of disavowing these corny texts, A Scientology, 75 million years afflicting human life today. which read like bad science fiction, the ago a tremendous struggle took place There is but one way to get rid of Church of Scientology squealed like a among the 26 stars making up our local thetans: The "clearing" process of stuck pig that its valuable copyrighted Galactic Federation. Faced with enor­ Scientology, in which one clutches the texts had been compromised and went mous overpopulation averaging 178 bil­ celebrated "E-meter," while paying on a crusade against its sometimes lion people per planet, federation leader staggering sums of money in order to anonymous critics. Xenu had members of his Galactic be asked dozens of questions about What happened next, and why, is Patrol (who dressed in white uniforms personal experiences going all the way rather confusing and highly controver­ with silver boots) round up the surplus back to childhood, and tens of millions sial. Understanding it depends on whose population. The surplus people were of years before that. account you choose to believe, with each killed by an injection of glycol into die However, this prehistoric battle of side accusing the other of committing spinal cord; their bodies were frozen and galactic thetans is nothing compared to illegal acts. The Scientologists prevailed loaded onto huge spaceships that look the battle being waged in cyberspace upon Interpol, the international police exactly like earthly DC-8s; and they between the Church of Scientology and organization, to demand that a major were transported to Teegeeack—now its critics. A few years ago, a Usenet Internet remailer in Finland divulge die known as planet Earth. newsgroup called alt.religion.Scientol­ identity of an individual who had made The bodies were piled on terrestrial ogy was created and distributed over certain unwelcome attacks on the mountaintops. Inside the mountains the Internet, the global "information church, some of them apparently includ­ were 17 strategically placed hydrogen superhighway." As one might imagine, ing quotes from Scientology founder and bombs of enormous power. After die such a newsgroup became a magnet for Chairman L. Ron Hubbard, and who blast, the "souls" of the dead—in critics of Scientologists, making the seemed to know a lot about die church Scientology parlance, the "thetans"— church hierarchy see red. "operation." were electronically entrapped, gathered Recently, certain hackers started Thus ordered, die remailer identified into clusters, and laboriously im­ posting to alt.religion.Scientology— the anonymous contributor as some­ planted with misguided ideas, morals, using various anonymous remailing sys­ body known only as "AB," who posted and feelings. Transported across die tems (some of which the cyberpunks from an alumni account at California Earth's surface by glaciers, these dus­ seem to have set up themselves)—the Institute of Technology in Pasadena. ters of disembodied galactic thetans are purported secret copyrighted "scrip­ This is die first time that an Internet anxiously striving to get back into tures" of the Church of Scientology, anonymous remailer has clashed with human bodies. heretofore available only to those who the law—and die remailer lost. AB has These "body thetans," whose mil- had purchased enough (about since disappeared from die Internet. His lions-of-years-old thoughts and feel- $250,000 worth) of "clearing" to or her unpardonable offense seems to

12 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 have been to post knowledgeably about the incident involving "Miss Bloody," a mysterious woman in a bar allegedly claiming to be an IRS agent investigat­ ing Scientology, who began conversing with Tom Klemesrud, operator of a computer Bulletin Board system from which much information highly unwel­ come to Scientology made its way onto the Internet. Afterward, at his apart­ ment, Klemcerud claims that he caught her spreading blood all around and that, fearing he was being "set up" for a crim­ inal charge, he called the police. The account of the woman—whose identity remains unknown to this day—is mat Klemesrud threatened her with a shot­ gun, and that die blood all over the bathroom and bedroom came from her die entire newsgroup alt.religion.Scien­ to generate warnings about spurious hemorrhoids. As usually happens in a tology. The rationalization for this was cancellationthat, s an(a)d enabldie newsgroue the cancellep hadd been die dispute of this type, he went off to jail, vehicle for illegal posting of copyrighted messages to be resurrected. Such mes­ while she went free. He posted bond the material, and (b) die name "Scientology" sages were invariably found to be highly next morning—but she has never been was trademarked. The appeal went critical of die Church of Scientology. seen again! One of the most prominent unheeded, and die critics of Scientology Meanwhile, many lawsuits are users of Klemesrud's Bulletin Board sys­ charged that die real motivation was to pending against the church, and critics tem was Dennis Erlich of Glendale, attempt to suppress all criticism of die of Scientology claim that die church's California, a former minister of Scien­ Church of Scientology in cyberspace. leader, David Miscavige, is hiding out tology who left the church in 1982, and in one of die church's vast compounds who is now one of die church's leading Had this unprecedented "remove to avoid service of subpoenas and addi­ critics. The Church of Scientology, group" effort succeeded, somebody tional lawsuits. A litigant who won an alleging copyright violations, obtained would have immediately created award of $2.5 million from the church, an order from the U.S. District Court in alt.fan.l-ron-hubbard where the critics which he is now trying to collect, offers San Francisco to raid Erlich's home, of Scientology would once again con­ a reward of $3,000 to anyone who can seize his computer, diskettes, and files gregate. The raid served only to serve Miscavige. (the authorities even inexplicably took inflame the critics of Scientology, and At least one affidavit alleges that the hair samples from his bathroom sink). A the same embarrassing "secrets" that werchurce intendeh isd stockpilinto be silenceg dunregistere became d trial is scheduled for 1996. more widely read on-line than ever weapons, like the Branch Davidians, Erlich is being defended by the before. other postings to alt.religion. anticipating a possible raid by law Electronic Frontier Foundation, a Scientology contained the texts of affi­ enforcement officials. group devoted to preserving freedom davits from ex-Scientologists filed in Meanwhile, a dissident Scien­ of speech in cyberspace (sec its Internet ongoing lawsuits against the church, tologist in Germany named Koos World Wide Web home page at and detailed allegations of unethical Nolst Trenite claims to be in touch http://www.eff.org). Erlich claims his and possibly illegal behavior on die with the operational Tehran of excerpts from Hubbard's writings are part of church officials. Scientology's founder L. Ron Hub­ covered under die provisions of "fair bard. The Tehran has been wandering use" for discussion and commentary, Sensing that die church's battle was freely in Scientology-space since it dis­ and that his freedom of religion is being lost, someone sympathetic to carded its earthly body in 1986. This being abridged by a restraining order Scientology began forging "cancel" makes Trenite the rightful spiritual directing him to refrain from quoting commands for certain Internet postings leader of Scientologists everywhere (or any of Scientology's texts. offensive to the church. Cancellations so he believes), and he freely proclaims Helena Kobrin, an attorney repre­ normally can be done only by die Hubbard's views on all the important senting die Church of Scientology, log­ author of a post, but it is not difficult contemporary issues. Because Trenite ging onto netcom.com, a major Internet for unscrupulous hackers to cancel other people'shas nobod postingsy to . Thooo combak up t tthis,o hi s E- access site in Silicon Valley, sent out mes­ Homer W. Smith created die Lazarus meters, he has been auditing promi­ sages to network system administrators System, an ingenious Internet program nent Scientologists and ex-Scien­ worldwide requesting that they remove tologists telepathically. •

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • September/October 1995 13 Media Watch

Telephone Psychics: Friends or Phonies?

C. EUGENE EMERY, JR.

he half-hour commercial on real name not be used), of Broomfield, discount everything the previous 'psy­ television stations throughout Colorado, says she's seen a different chic friend' had told him, he wasn't Tdie country tells the story of a side of the Psychic Friends Network, buying it at all. [It wasn't] until I told man named "Giacomo," who became a run by Inphomation Inc. of Baltimore, him I had read in the cards that the regular customer of the Psychic Friends Maryland. For about six months, previous psychic had made a terrible Network after "Shekhinah," one of its beginning in November 1991, when mistake in computing his astrological seers, supposedly helped him find a the network was calling itself chart because of a power failure that missing address book. "Professional Psychic Counselors," had damaged her equipment with a After two months of additional Cook was one of its counselors. power surge, [only] then was he willing phone advice from Shekhinah, she She said she is no psychic. She was to take my advice, the advice of his per­ advised him to avoid an important recommended for the job by her sonal counselor, his mother, and the business meeting. "I see darkness and teacher in a counseling class, who said prison chaplain" to read and abide by destruction," die commercial quotes Cook would be free to do traditional the restraining order. Giacomo's psychic friend as saying. counseling on the network. There was the January 8, 1992, call "Whatever you do, don't go to this But she quickly discovered that her from someone who identified herself as meeting." callers didn't want basic, commonsense Tonia in Winston-Salem, North So instead of attending the meeting, advice. They wanted supernatural Carolina. Tonia wanted to know Giacomo went to visit his parents and insights. whether her husband was going to beat friends in New Jersey. It was on the day When women called to ask if they her. Cook tried to convince her to call (February 26, 1993) terrorists detonated were pregnant, Cook tried to get them the emergency number 911. She also a bomb in die World Trade Center in to contact their local chapter of gave Tonia the names of churches that New York City. In die commercial, Planned Parenthood for a pregnancy might provide counseling. The Giacomo says the business meeting he test. Most rejected her advice. They woman's reaction: "I called for a read­ was supposed to attend was held in die "weren't about to do something so ing. I want my reading!" So, Cook says, New York Vista Hotel in the World cheap and commonsense unless I told she concocted a tarot reading to back Trade Center. diem I read in the cards that die cards up her recommendation. "That call," he says, "saved my life." said they should go to die doctor and "Only when Tonia was thoroughly Giacomo's testimonial is followed by get their health checked out," she said. convinced the advice came from the die assurances of Grammy-award- According to Cook, one of her cards and not just some ordinary indi­ winning singer Dionne Warwick that callers, who refused to accept his vidual did she seem inclined to access when you call the Psychic Friends divorce, violated a restraining order on the free resources already available to Network "You can be sure you're talk­ the advice of a psychic on the hot line. her in her own community," Cook ing to one of the best psychics on earth. He was arrested. He said he was calling explained. . . . Our psychics have the answers." from jail. Why was Tonia's husband so angry? "Joan Cook" (who asked that her Cook said: "When I told him to Cook says he had discovered that Tonia

14 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 had racked up a $5,000 phone bill But Cook said a good chunk of well have spent over $24 by the time talking to "psychic" counselors. callers' phone time wasn't even spent the formalities associated with the free Dionne Warwick and the other pro­ on talking to such seers. newspaper were dispensed with," said moters of die Psychic Friends Network When customers called die hot line, Cook. tell potential customers that, to benefit she said, they first had to listen to a (The three-minute introduction from die hot line, "all it takes is a tele­ three-minute introduction. Then the Cook talks about is no longer there. phone and an open mind." hot line would begin playing recorded When I called Psychic Friends They neglect to mention money— profiles of various psychics so cus­ Network on May 14, 1995, I got lots of money. tomers could choose one. People who through to die next available psychic in At four dollars a minute, an hour knew the code number for their a little less than a minute. But while with a Psychic Friends Network psy­ favorite psychic could skip that part. some hot lines wait two minutes or so chic, astrologer, tarot-card reader, If the phone line of the psychic die to begin charges, charges on the dream interpreter, past-life reader, customer wanted to talk to was busy, or Psychic Friends Network kicked in ghost buster, or animal psychic will if the psychic was off duty, the cus­ after a rapid-fire 17-second introduc­ cost a whopping $240. tomer was stuck with the cost of listen­ tion.) ing to the introduction. The psychics are paid well, but Gene Emery is the science writer for the Callers were then asked to sign up receive only a fraction of what the ser­ Providence Journal-Bulletin, 75 Foun­ for a free newspaper, which also ate up vice gets. Cook said that when she was tain St., Providence, RI 02902. phone time. "So die average caller may on die network the pay was as much as

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 15 $18 an hour. Psychic Shari Ford, quot­ ing to a contract sent to one prospec­ up the per-minute charges. "To be ed in an April 16, 1995, article in the tive psychic from the parent company, accurate, you need to do a little work Milwaukee Journal Sentinel said she Psychic Readers Network Inc. (PRN) tuning in." He compared a psychic earned $24 an hour at the same net­ of Ft. Lauderdale, Florida. who does a quick reading to a doctor work. Under the system in use last May, if who tries to diagnose a medical prob­ But the seers, who work from vari­ the psychic hears five or six fast beeps lem from across the room. ous cities, and from their own homes, at the start of the call, he or she uses a The advisers are also told to "give had to buy their own phone line and script for the ASA Network. One long, positive and complete readings with use it exclusively for the hot line. They low-pitched buzz means the psychic lots of interesting detailed informa­ used an 800-number (toll free) and a must use the telemarketing script for tion." password to signal a central computer the Philip Michael Thomas Nerwork. Warnings about impending crises or that they were ready to take calls. Both scripts, for people who have accounts of doom and gloom arc dis­ Cook said many times the network dialed an 800-number (toll free) to couraged, said Stoltz. "Let's face it, it was so busy she had trouble finding a inquire about the service, require the could be wrong. We don't want to tell spare moment to call Inphomation psychic to entice each caller by saying: them they're going to die or they Inc. to give the code to go off duty. The "We have good news and important should get a divorce. It's not our place instant she hung up the phone, it information you need to know that to give people that kind of dire advice would ring again with the voice of a may be critical to your future." when there's always a margin of error." new caller seeking advice. Only after the callers give their According to documents sent to Her stint on the service ended name, address, and home phone num­ prospective psychics, about five to nine abruptly, Cook says, after she got a call ber are they given a 900-number to call minutes into the reading, the psychics from Inphomation complaining that at $3.99 a minute. Beginning psychics are supposed to ask callers if they've she was telling people where to get free make 25 cents a minute, get no bene­ signed up for the Philip Michael Thomas Network Psychic Membership Club. If not, they're supposed to "One self-proclaimed psychic I know who launch into yet another sales pitch, this auditioned for the network said she was time at the customer's expense. The guidelines also tell the readers, told by a company representative that "You can go to a maximum 30 to 38 psychic abilities didn't really matter." minutes, and before being cut off, you will hear a warning beep about two advice, she complained about the con­ fits, can be fired for almost any reason, minutes before." tent of some of the network's advertise­ and must make a toll call to Florida Stoltz said such cutoffs are designed ments, and gave a newspaper interview every day to relay the information to prevent a phone bill from getting so for an expose about the hot line. they've collected from their clients. high the customer won't want to pay it. Robert Hoffmann, Inphomation's (Peter Stoltz, a manager at PRN, The system blocks people from calling senior vice president for business said the hot line's psychics get roughly the service too many times or for too affairs, said consumers are well aware 10 cents of every dollar the company many minutes in a single day. There is of the price of the call, and most callers charges; the phone company gets 25 also a limit on the number of minutes who telephone the network and its sta­ cents; 30 cents goes to advertising and a month that can be charged to a single ble of about 1,500 psychics do it for promotion; and 30 cents is lost when number. the entertainment value. He declined customers refuse to pay.) Despite the scripted sales pitches to give a breakdown of how much of As for the readings themselves, the and the rule about giving positive read­ the $240 an hour is profit. psychics are instructed to first get the ings, the psychics are required to sign Although there arc psychics from client's name, birth date, and address, contracts affirming that PRN "is not the network in my area, he declined to then instruct the client to write down providing (the psychic) with any pre­ make any available for an in-person and think about any questions he or pared text, script or statements to be interview. she may have. "Do not ask for their used." The contract also makes the Psychics who work for another psy­ specific questions or for the reason they psychic agree to absolve PRN of all chic network that includes the Philip called until after you give them a com­ responsibility for any information plete general reading!" according to Michael Thomas Network and the given in the reading. PRN's guidelines for psychic advisers. ASA Network, also must pay for their As for the abilities of network psy­ "This is necessary for accuracy and to own phone line. chics, they apparently only have to tune into their aura and energy," the Readers on this network spend part affirm that they have such talents. One guidelines continue. of their time as psychics and pan doing self-proclaimed psychic I know who telemarketing for the company, accord­ Stoltz said the intent is not to rack auditioned for the network said she was

16 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 told by a company representative that in court. Inphomation also agreed to eyes. It was precisely the type of thing psychic abilities didn't really matter. clearly and conspicuously disclose its Marie had just accused a phone psychic PRN's Stoltz said the audition usu­ refund policy, which says that if repeat of doing to her. "See what I mean, ally consists of giving an impromptu customers discover that the psychic Charles?" Marie quiety told Perez. reading for a staff member over the they want is unavailable, they will get a Perez said he understood, but phone. They aren't asked to do some­ complimentary psychic reading or a added, "We are in no position to say thing more concrete, like picking a lot­ credit for the full cost of the call, if they [Williams] is not legitimate." tery number, because "nobody can pick complain. Wrong. There are plenty of tests a a number that will hit. If they could, Hoffman, however, said there "was talk show can conduct to indicate what would they be doing working for no settlement" and that the attorney whether a psychic has real powers. A us for 40 cents a minute?" general's office was "very satisfied with random audience member receiving a Hoffman of Inphomation said the the way we were conducting business." psychic reading is not one of them. psychics on die Psychic Friends Network The media have done occasional Because of their popularity and are carefully selected and extensively exposes of the psychic hot lines. About profitability, the psychic hot lines are screened by other psychics. Only one in three years ago, for example, the ABC- likely to be with us for a long time. five applications are accepted. TV program "Prime Time Live" Despite the stories about rip-offs "A person who is skeptical might arranged to have a college student with and bogus psychics, believers will turn around and say [the person giving no psychic ability hired by one of the always rationalize that their psychic can a successful reading] just had good services. really see the future. intuition. They're a good judge of peo­ But many other programs focus And all it takes is a good, dramatic ple. They are very wise in the way only in a cursory manner on the thou­ hit to hook a customer for a long time. things usually work in the world. sands of dollars people spend on tele­ (Giacomo may believe that his psychic There's nothing supernatural about it," phone psychics. As SKEPTICAL INQUIR­ friend saved his life, but a hotel said Stoltz. "The argument about ER readers are aware, many attempts to spokeswoman said nobody in the whether it comes from a honed, scientifically prove the existence of hotel he was planning to visit was human skill or from a supernatural or such psychic powers have failed. Yet killed, none of the guests was seriously spiritual place is an argument that will the media seldom make any effort to injured, and the significant damage be going on for eternity." determine if any of die psychics on was confined to the unoccupied However they do it, Stoltz said, the these hot lines have any real psychic Liberty ballroom and the B-l level, people who work on the hot line must talent. which houses accounting, housekeep­ try to do their divinations by some On the August 17, 1994, Bertice ing, and human services.) supernatural means, be it astrology, Berry television program on "Psychic PRN manager Peter Stoltz recalls, tarot cards, or raw psychic power. Swindlers," panelists told plenty of hor­ "We did actually try to start a psychol­ "We're not a counseling line." ror stories. But, at the beginning of the ogy line for people who maybe didn't Last January, the Tennessee syndicated talk show, Berry promised believe in psychics." In creating the Attorney General's Division of Con­ her audience that "we're going to talk to Professional Advisers Network two sumer Affairs negotiated an agreement some people later on who will tell you years ago he said, "We hired a hundred with Inphomation Inc. The attorney how, if you're going to go to a psychic, psychologists, psychotherapists and general alleged that: to find a proper one." As far as the host­ psychiatrists on the same work-at- • Calls were lengthened by a record­ ess was concerned, psychics with real home-on-thc-phone basis. We ran ads. ing detailing the "credentials" of each powers are out there. The phones did not ring. Not at all," he "psychic." Viewers of the May 4, 1995, said. "If people want something a little • Calls contained long pauses, repeti­ "Charles Perez Show" saw the usual more magical and a little more spiritual, tive information, and information that collection of people addicted to the fine. Obviously they must be getting seemed to have been dragged out. lines, but Perez also featured "Marie," something out of it." • People who called to speak to a who tearfully complained that when a Cook, a counselor now retired from particular "psychic" who was unavail­ psychic wrongly told her that her Inphomation's hot line, said that able were charged for their time on the fiance' was cheating on her, her rela­ although "the sort of superstition these 900-number. tionship was "almost ruined." people are promoting is dangerous • People were abruptly disconnect­ When Perez got hot-line psychic beyond belief, I will have to admit one ed during their reading. Julie Williams of PRN to demonstrate thing: I got paid better at that job than As part of the settlement, Inpho­ her powers by giving a reading to a at any other job I ever had before or mation agreed to reimburse or credit young woman in the audience, since. Isn't it too bad that people pay the accounts of all Tennessee con­ Williams said the woman's boyfriend legitimate counselors so poorly, but sumers who complained within 90 wasn't really right for her. Williams's will shovel millions of dollars into days after the settlement was approved reading brought tears to the woman's hands of quacks like that." D

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 17 The Paradox of Knowledge

LEE LOEVINGER

he greatest achievement of humankind in its

long evolution from ancient hominoid Tancestors to its present status is the acquisi­ tion and accumulation of a vast body of knowledge about

itself, die world, and die universe. The products of this

knowledge are all those things that, in the aggregate, we call As knowledge about nature expands, so "civilization," including language, science, literature, art, all does ignorance, and the physical mechanisms, instruments, and structures we ignorance may increase use, and the physical infrastructures on which society relies.

more than its related Most of us assume that in modern society knowledge of all

knowledge. kinds is continually increasing and the aggregation of new

information into the corpus of our social or collective

knowledge is steadily reducing the area of ignorance about

ourselves, the world, and the universe. But continuing

reminders of die numerous areas of our present ignorance

invite a critical analysis of this assumption.

In the popular view, intellectual evolution is similar

18 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 to, although much more rapid than, somatic evolution. Biological evolu­ tion is often described by the state­ ment that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogcny"—meaning that the indi­ vidual embryo, in its development from a fertilized ovum into a human baby, passes through successive stages in which it resembles ancestral forms of the human species. The popular view is that humankind has progressed from a state of innocent ignorance, comparable to that of an infant, and gradually has acquired more and more knowledge, much as a child learns in passing through the several grades of the educational system. Implicit in this view is an assumption that phy­ logeny resembles ontogeny, so that there will ultimately be a stage in which the accumulation of knowledge is essentially complete, at least in spe­ cific fields, as if society had graduated with all the advanced degrees that sig­ nify mastery of important subjects. Such views have, in fact, been expressed by some eminent scientists. In 1894 the great American physicist Albert Michelson said in a talk at the University of Chicago:

While it is never safe to affirm that the future of Physical Science has no marvels in store even more astonish­ ing than those of the past, it seems probable that most of the grand underlying principles have been firmly established and that further advances are to be sought chiefly in the rigorous application of these In the century since Michelson's talk, by die tide of his book The Mind of God principles to all the phenomena scientists have discovered much more (1992)than . otherdi econtemporar refinement oyf measurementscientists s in which come under our notice. . . . the sixth decimal place, and none is will­ write of "theories of everything," mean­ The future truths of Physical Science are to be looked for in the ing to make a similar statement today. ing theories chat explain all observable sixth place of decimals. However, many still ding to die notion physical phenomena, and Nobel that such a state of knowledge remains a Laureate Steven Weinberg, one of the possibility to be attained sooner or later. founders of die current standard model Lee Loevinger is a Washington lawyer Stephen Hawking, the great English sci­ of physical theory, writes of his Dreams and former assistant attorney general of entist, in his immensely popular book A of a Final Theory (1992). the United States who writes frequently Brief History of Time (1988), concludes Despite the eminence and obvious for scientific publications. He has partici­ with me speculation drat we may "dis­ yearning of these and many other con­ pated for many years as a member, co- cover a complete theory" that "would be temporary scientists, there is nodiing in chair, or liaison with the National me ultimate triumph of human rea­ die history of science to suggest that any Conference of Lawyers and Scientists, son—for men we would know the mind addition of data or theories to the body and he is a founder and firmer chair of of God." Paul Davies, an Australian of scientific knowledge will ever provide the Science and Technology Section of the physicist, echoes that view by suggesting answers to all questions in any field. On American Bar Association. Office address: that the human mind may be able to die contrary, the history of science indi­ Hogan and Hartson, 555 Thirteenth St. grasp some of the secrets encompassed cates that increasing knowledge brings NW, Washington, DC 20004. awareness of new areas of ignorance and

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 19 •

of new questions to be answered. lated that both Ptolemy and Copernicus assumed that the universe was static, Astronomy is the most ancient of the were in error in assuming that planets and, in order to permit a meaningful sciences, and its development is a model traveled in circular orbits, and in 1609 solution to the equations of relativity, in of other fields of knowledge. People he published a book demonstrating 1917 he added another term, called a have been observing die stars and other mathematically that the planets travel "cosmological constant," to the equa­ celestial bodies since the dawn of around the sun in elliptical orbits. tions. Although the existence and signif­ recorded history. As early as 3000 B.C Kepler's laws of planetary motion are icance of a cosmological constant is still die Babylonians recognized a number of still regarded as basically valid. being debated, Einstein later declared die constellations. In die sixth century In the first decade of the seventeenth that this was a major mistake, as Edwin B.C, Pythagoras proposed die notion of century Galileo Galilei learned of the Hubble established in the 1920s that a spherical Earth and of a universe with invention of the telescope and began to the universe is expanding and galaxies objects in it that moved in accordance build such instruments, becoming the are receding from one another at a speed with natural laws. Later Greek philoso­ first person to use a telescope for astro­ proportionate to their distance. phers taught that the sky was a hollow nomical observations, and thus discov­ Another important development in globe surrounding die Earth, that it was ering craters on the moon, phases of astronomy grew out of Newton's experi­ supported on an axis running through Venus, and the satellites of Jupiter. His mentation in optics, beginning with his the Earth, and that stars were inlaid on observations convinced him of the demonstration that sunlight could be its inner surface, which rotated westward validity of the Copernican system and broken up by a prism into a spectrum of daily. In the second century A.D., resulted in the well-known conflict different colors, which led to the science Ptolemy propounded a theory of a geo­ between Galileo and church authori­ of spectroscopy. In the twentieth century, centric (Earth-centered) universe in ties. In January 1642 Galileo died, and spectroscopy was applied to astronomy which the sun, planets, and stars moved in December of that year Isaac Newton to gain information about the chemical in circular orbits of cycles and epicycles was bom. Modem science derives largely and physical condition of celestial bodies that was not disclosed by visual observa­ around the Earth, although die Earth from the work of these two men. tion. In the 1920s, precise photographic was not at the precise center of these Newton's contributions to science are photometry was introduced to astrono­ orbits. While somewhat awkward, the numerous. He laid die foundations for my and quantitative spectrochemical Ptolemaic system could produce reason­ modem physical optics, formulated die analysis became common. Also during ably reliable predictions of planetary basic laws of motion and the law of uni­ the 1920s, scientists like Heisenberg, de positions, which were, however, good versal gravitation, and devised the infini­ Broglie, Schrodinger, and Dirac devel­ for only a few years and which devel­ tesimal calculus. Newton's laws of motion oped quantum mechanics, a branch of oped substantial discrepancies from and gravitation are still used for calcula­ physics dealing with subatomic particles actual observations over a long period of tions of such matters as trajectories of of matter and quanta of energy. time. Nevertheless, since there was no spacecraft and satellites and orbits of plan­ Astronomers began to recognize that die evidence then apparent to astronomers ets. In 1846, relying on such calculations properties of celestial bodies, including that the Earth itself moves, the as a guide to observation, astronomers dis­ planets, could be well understood only in Ptolemaic system remained unchal- covered die planet Neptune. terms of physics, and die field began to lenged for more than 13 centuries. While calculations based on be referred to as "astrophysics." ( In the sixteenth century Nicolaus Newton's laws are accurate, they are dis­ Copernicus, who is said to have mas­ mayingly complex when three or more These developments created an explo­ tered all the knowledge of his day in bodies are involved. In 1915, Einstein sive expansion in our knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and announced his theory of general relativ­ astronomy. During the first five thou­ theology, became dissatisfied with the ity, which led to a set of differential sand years or more of observing the heav­ Ptolemaic system. He found that a equations for planetary orbits identical ens, observation was confined to die nar­ heliocentric system was both mathemat­ to those based on Newtonian calcula­ row band of visible light. In the last half ically possible and aesthetically more tions, except for those relating to the of this century astronomical observations pleasing, and wrote a full exposition of planet Mercury. The elliptical orbit of have been made across the spectrum of his hypothesis, which was not published Mercury rotates through the years, but electromagnetic radiation, including until 1543, shortly after his death. Early so slowly that the change of position is radio waves, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, in the seventeenth century, Johannes less than one minute of arc each centu­ and gamma rays, and from satellites Kepler became imperial mathematician ry. The equations of general relativity beyond the atmosphere. It is no exagger­ of the Holy Roman Empire upon the precisely accounted for this precession; ation to say that since the end of World death of Tycho Brahe, and he acquired Newtonian equations did not. War II more astronomical data have been a collection of meticulous naked-eye Einstein's equations also explained gathered than during all of die thousands observations of die positions of celestial the red shift in die light from distant of yean of preceding human history. bodies that had been made by Brahe. stars and the deflection of starlight as it However, despite all improvements On the basis of these data, Kepler calcu- passed near die sun. However, Einstein in instrumentation, increasing sophis-

20 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 tication of analysis and calculation WIMPs (weakly interacting massive parti­ pher of science, wrote in The Growth of augmented by the massive power of cles) or MACHOs (massive compact halo Scientific Knowledge (1960) that science computers, and the huge aggregation objects). Other similar mysteries abound starts from problems, not from observa­ of data, or knowledge, we still cannot and increase in number as our ability to tions, and that every worthwhile new predict future movements of planets observe improves. theory raises new problems. Thus there is and other elements of even the solar The progress of biological and life no danger that science will come to an system with a high degree of certainty. sciences has been similar to that of the end because it has completed its task, Ivars Peterson, a highly trained science physical sciences, except that it has thanks to the "infinity of our ignorance." writer and an editor of Science News, occurred several centuries later. The At least since Thomas Kuhn pub­ writes in his book Newton's Clock theory of biological evolution first lished The Structure of Scientific (1993) that a surprisingly subtle chaos came to the attention of scientists with Revolutions (1962), it has been generally pervades the solar system. He states: the publication of Darwin's Origin of recognized that observations are the result of theories (called paradigms by In one way or another the problem Species in 1859. But Darwin lacked of the solar system's stability has fas­ any explanation of the causes of varia­ Kuhn and other philosophers), for cinated and tormented astronomers tion and inheritance of characteristics. without theories of relevance and irrel­ and mathematicians for more than These were provided by Gregor evance there would be no basis for 200 years. Somewhat to the embar­ Mendel, who laid the mathematical determining what observations to rassment of contemporary experts, it make. Since no one can know every­ remains one of the most perplexing, foundation of genetics with the publi­ thing, to be fully informed on any sub­ unsolved issues in celestial mechan­ cation of papers in 1865 and 1866. ject (a claim sometimes made by those ics. Each step toward resolving this Medicine, according to Lewis and related questions has only in authority) is simply to reach a judg­ Thomas, is the youngest science, hav­ exposed additional uncertainties and ment that additional data are not ing become truly scientific only in the even deeper mysteries. important enough to be worth the 1930s. Recent and ongoing research has trouble of securing or considering. Similar problems pervade astronomy. created uncertainty about even such The two major theories of cosmology, basic concepts as when and how life To carry the analysis another step, it general relativity and quantum mechan­ begins and when death occurs, and we must be recognized that theories are the ics, cannot be stated in die same mathe­ are spending billions in an attempt to result of questions and questions are the matical language, and thus are inconsis­ learn how much it may be possible to product of perceived ignorance. Thus it tent with one another, as the Ptolemaic know about human genetics. Modern is that ignorance gives rise to inquiry and Copernican theories were in the six­ medicine has demonstrably improved that produces knowledge, which, in teenth century, although both contem­ both our life expectancies and out turn, discloses new areas of ignorance. porary theories continue to be used, but health, and further improvements con­ This is the paradox of knowledge: As for different calculations. Oxford math­ tinue to be made as research progresses. knowledge increases so does ignorance, and ignorance may increase more than ematician Roger Penrose, in The But new questions arise even more its related knowledge. Emperor's New Mind (1989), contends rapidly than our research resources that this inconsistency requires a change grow, as the host of problems related to My own metaphor to illustrate the in quantum theory to provide a new the­ the Human Genome Project illustrates. relationship of knowledge and ignorance ory he calls "correct quantum gravity." From even such an abbreviated and is based on a line from Matthew Arnold: Furthrtmore, the observations incomplete survey of science as this, it "For we are here as on a darkling plain " astronomers make with new technolo­ appears that increasing knowledge does The dark that surrounds us, that, indeed, gies disclose a total mass in the universe not result in a commensurate decrease envelops our world, is ignorance. that is less than about 10 percent of the in ignorance, but, on the contrary, Knowledge is the illumination shed by total mass that mathematical calcula­ exposes new lacunae in our comprehen­ whatever candles (or more technological­ tions require the universe to contain on sion and confronts us with unforeseen ly advanced light sources) we can pro­ the basis of its observed rate of expan­ questions disclosing areas of ignorance vide. As we light more and more figura­ sion. If the universe contains no more of which we were not previously aware. tive candles, the area of illumination mass than we have been able to observe Thus the concept of science as an enlarges; but the area beyond illumina­ directly, then according to all current expanding body of knowledge that will tion increases geometrically. We know theories it should have expanded in the eventually encompass or dispel all signif­ that there is much we don't know, but we past, and be expanding now, much more icant areas of ignorance is an illusion. cannot know how much there is that we rapidly than the rate actually observed. It Scientists and philosophers are now don't know. Thus knowledge is finite, but is therefore believed that 90 percent or observing that it is naive to regard science ignorance is infinite, and the finite can­ more of the mass in the universe is some as a process that begins with observations not ever encompass the infinite. sort of "dark matter" that has not yet that are organized into theories and are This is a revised version of an article originally been observed and die nature of which is then subsequently tested by experiments. published in COSMOS 1994. Copyright 1995 unknown. Current theories favor either The late Kari Popper, a leading philoso- by Lee Loevinger. •

skeptical INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 21 Consciousness as a Valid Subject for Scientific Investigation

HUNTLEY INGALLS Two behaviorists pass on the sidewalk and one says to the other, "You feel fine this morning. How do / feel?"

onsciousness is the most familiar and most

mysterious feature of human experience. Recent advances in CUntil recently, consciousness was consid­ brain research have ered so inaccessible to scientific investigation that it was stimulated widespread considered bad form to use the word. For most of the

interest throughout the twentieth century, psychology has been dominated by

scientific community in behaviorism, which holds that only phenomena that can the nature of conscious­ be objectively observed are proper subjects for scientific ness, lending new respectability to the study. Now, scientists of the stature of Francis Crick, subject. Roger Penrose, Gerald Edelman, and Donald Griffin are seriously interested in consciousness. Scientific and

philosophical books on the subject are proliferating, and

a new publication, (he Journal of Consciousness Studies,

has recently appeared.

Many people still consider consciousness to be an

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 illusion, misformulation, or meaning­ less concept, but there is something singularly unsatisfactory and empty about these attitudes. There is also a limit to explanation by illusion. The cat in die mirror is not a cat, but die image of die cat is an image. Illusion lies in interpretation, not in the imme­ diate experience. When an amputee feels pain in the lost limb, the location is an illusion, not die pain. Reading the sentence "I am not read­ ing" remains an act of reading. Consciousness not only exists—it is the basis of everything we value. Indeed, die idea of life without con­ sciousness is like dehydrated water.

There has been a rudimentary sci­ ence of consciousness since Hip­ pocrates, known as the father of medi­ cine, first postulated that die seat of consciousness lies in the brain. Today there is general agreement that con­ sciousness in some way is associated with brain function. The effects of alcohol, head injuries, and drugs vividly demonstrate this association. Recently developed powerful techniques for observing features of brain activity— such as positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, along with the enormous development of computer technology—have stimu­ lated die present surge of serious inter­ est in many pans of the scientific com­ munity in developing a science of con­ sciousness.

Despite the wealth of new informa­ tion and insight, there remains great diversity and conflict of views ranging conference was that it occurred at all, surgery has experienced even more from mysticism to reductionism. was well attended by distinguished complete annihilation under this drug. Researchers in neurology, psychology, researchers, and sparked an enthusias­ An hour passes as if nothing has philosophy, and artificial intelligence tic exchange of ideas. occurred, and there is no sense of being commonly each consider die others' A major problem in discussions of or of interval. There is an impression that therewoul d be no difference approaches to be limited or wrong. consciousness is the very loose usage of between die passage of an hour or a This was vividly illustrated by the boil­ die word to connote a variety of mean­ year. The void of thesc experiences con­ ing diversity of opinions at die 1994 ings. Much controversy and confusion trasts enormously with waking life. In meeting held at the University of about consciousness arise from people broadest terms, consciousness is any Arizona, billed as die first interdiscipli­ talking past each other on different experience of die individual that con­ nary scientific conference on con­ planes of meaning. Let us try to bring trasts with that individuals encounters withtime s of voidness. Thus dreams, sciousness. The real significance of die the uses of this rather vague word into drug deliriums, and madness are also sharper focus. kinds of consciousness. Conscious Huntley Ingalls has a degree in mathe­ There is a great difference between experience has both structure and con­ matics from the University of Colorado dreamless sleep and waking. Further, tent and each has various features. and lives in Boulder. He is one of the four anyone who has been administered the founders of the Rocky Mountain Skeptics. anesthetic sodium pentothal before

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 23 There are multiform applications of the the presence and quality of visual, form than of constant substance. From term consciousness to these features. auditory, and tactual sensations; pain; an outside view, this identity has both "Awareness" and "consciousness" and emotions. The structural features bodily and behavioral criteria; commonly are used synonymously. Yet of consciousness are far more tractable although identity is most definitively awareness does not quite complete the to analysis than die qualitative ones. It settled by references to die psychologi­ field of consciousness. There is a well- seems far more remarkable that brain cal rather than the physical features of known black-and-white pattern that cells can generate die blueness of blue the person. can be viewed either as a white vase on than that they can calculate. The gen­ The inner self is a special aspect of a a black background or as a pair of black eration of sensory qualities from neur­ person that involves the person's inner human profiles facing each other on a al processes is die most baffling aspect view. It consists of the part of con­ white background. We are aware of of brain function. Yet it is possible at sciousness that is a continuous process these views alternately, yet die pattern this time to have a scientific approach of awareness of experience, including itself remains unchanged. When we to some features of the generation of awareness of its own ongoing process­ look at the play of sunlight on a breezy sensory quality. Synesthesia is a rare, es; and it also consists of a part of that lake we cannot be aware of all the highly subjective experience in which process that outpaces immediate sparkles and their movements at once, two senses, such as vision and hearing, although they are present in the con­ awareness. It is not a specific entity like scious visual field. There is more in are experienced as a single sense. the pain of a bee sting, but is the con­ conscious experience than that which Recent research using radioactive tinuity through time of the central is attended to. Much of what is in die xenon in the bloodstream has placed its view that perceives these processes, in field of consciousness does not enter generation in the brain's limbic system, unity with awareness of this ongoing awareness until it is in short-term which is concerned with emotion and central view and its continuity. memory. An observation does not motivation. Eventually it may be possi­ The witness is immediately observ­ observe itself as its moment of opera­ ble to identify die neural signature of ing. It is a part of the self that is always tion, although that observation can any sensory quality. ahead of observation, and that part can­ almost immediately be observed when Yet another view of consciousness not be an object of observation for then it enters short-term memory. Aware­ focuses on self-consciousness. This has it would not be the observing pan. ness is an operation in die field of con­ two forms: awareness of consciousness When die witness is perceived it is no sciousness, and that which is simply in and awareness of die self. Awareness of longer die witness, but die witness is the field is conscious presence. Atten­ consciousness is awareness of the sen­ easily and intimately known through tion is focused awareness. sual and emotional qualities in experi­ immediate short-term memory. ence and of the phenomenon of con­ In summary, die self is characterized Sometimes consciousness is viewed sciousness itself. This kind of awareness by a special central viewpoint from simply as the response of a system to a can make philosophers and mystics of which perception has various unique stimulus, but in such a view a photo­ people. The concept of the self is of perspectives, such as a unique geomet­ electric cell is conscious of light. othergreatest importance researcherto the individuals conside. r self-referencrical perspective or e of die surrounding die ability of a system to respond to Although the self is not a thing or sub­ world and access to such experiences as itself to be the essence of conscious­ stance, it is a process, and as such is a sensations and emotions not available ness. But is a video camera recording real entity, much as a candle flame is a to other persons. its image in a mirror a case of con­ real entity. A great wealth of topics involving sciousness? Marvin Minsky claims that The idea of the self as it appears in consciousness are now accessible, in the problem of consciousness is trivial, common usage incorporates the con­ principle, to scientific study that give that he has solved it. He says certain cepts of the person, the inner self, and rise to concepts and hypotheses that computer programs with memory fea­ the witness. The concept of a person is are verifiable or falsifiable. tures that allow their processing steps closely associated with a physical body One intensively studied approach to be retraced are more conscious than operating in universal or "public" to understanding the mind is through humans. By this highly restricted defi- nition, he may be right. space. Each person in this outside view computer science and "artificial intelli­ is considered to have a special "inner" gence" (AI) research. view of his or her own, and to regard Strong AI holds that consciousness Consciousness is regarded by some oneself from this special view as a per­ can be generated by an algorithm, a simply as thought. Thought is certainly son. A person is characterized by a well-designed sequence of operations. associated with human consciousness, spatiotemporal continuity of body and It is necessary only to cany out the but again it does not complete con­ a temporal continuity of behavior, appropriate computations. The posi­ scious experience. Response, self-refer­ holding a particular store of memories tion of weak AI is that consciousness ence, and thought are structures in die and especially a continuity of self- arises from the brain's physical action, process of consciousness. The complex observant processes. The identity of a and that this action can be simulated of conscious experience also includes person is more a matter of continuous computationally, but that simulation

24 skeptical INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 alone cannot generate consciousness. he will have complete amnesia for well-defined operations, such as print­ The human neural system, which is far the period of epileptic discharge and ing a "1" or a "0." The Church-Turing during the period of cellular exhaus­ more complex than any present-day tion that follows. thesis holds that this type of machine computer, operates both consciously Thus, the automaton can walk can perform any mechanical operation and unconsciously. Determining the through traffic as though he were whatsoever. The reduction of all algo­ neural basis of the difference between aware of all that he hears and sees, rithms to the operations of a Turing these modes can give insights to and so continue on his way home. machine is a remarkable and powerful enlighten die claims of AI. But he is aware of nothing and so result of this idea, and all modern com­ makes no memory record. If a Much of human behavior is not policeman were to accost him he puters are elaborations of a Turing accompanied by consciousness. When might consider the poor fellow to be machine. a hot stove is touched, the finger is walking in his sleep. The fundamental problem with withdrawn in one-tenth of a second, strong AI is that it docs not distinguish before die experience of pain, which Clearly, not all states of brain activity between content and pure form. An ink happens in about one-half second. The evoke consciousness. What kind of drawing of a landscape can be perfectly brain's cerebellum controls die smooth neural activity is present with con­ reproduced by a glass etching, but no coordination of muscular activity, such sciousness and how does it differ from amount of etching can produce ink. as walking, by an enormously complex activity with no consciousness? Water can have current, but current orchestration of neural activity. This Penfield believed that die seat of this alone cannot produce water. A computer hugely complex activity is almost special activity is located in the upper simulation of digestion is not digestion, entirely unconscious, yet the cerebel­ brain stem, and noted that it is directly but in contrast, a system of tubes and lum has 30 billion neurons, almost half connected to the brain's cerebral cor­ chemicals might duplicate digestion. as many as die brain's cerebrum. Some tex, not with the automatic sensory- Strong AI makes no distinction between cells in die cerebellum have as many as motor mechanism. If we knew the simulation and duplication. 80,000 synaptic connections. The total nature of this activity we could com­ At this time we have no idea how to number of connections may rival those pare it with activity in a computer. simulate consciousness. We do not of the cerebrum. Clearly, sheer com­ know how the brain does it. Some new plexity does not evoke consciousness. If strong AI is true, then conscious­ ness arises from a special kind of com­ science may be required to find out, One of die most remarkable and plexity. AI proponents are very unclear Roger Penrose believes. Perhaps the revealing types of unconscious behav­ about how this is possible. The solidity brain uses some feature of die electro­ ior occurs in a form of epileptic seizure of material objects can be explained by magnetic field that has not been dis­ known as automatism. When an epileptic "discharge" occurs in the "When an amputee feels pain in me lost limb. upper brain stem, the individual becomes unconscious but may continue Hie location is an illusion, not the pain." working at whatever task was under the repulsion between atoms of collid­ covered or considered. If this becomes way when the attack occurred. The ing objects, but no such clear principle known it may be possible in principle great brain surgeon Wilder Penfield, is offered to explain how consciousness to duplicate consciousness by some who devised surgery to treat epilepsy, can arise from complexify. It is usually artifact, and weak AI will be vindicated. was very interested in the phenome­ simply asserted that it is present. Both But then there will be some causal basis non. He wrote: dualists and reductionists fail to close for consciousness, not merely an algo­ the mind-matter gap. At the gap there rithm. A Turing machine need not be In an attack of automatism the is much hand-waving, shouting, and an electronic device. It can, in princi­ patient becomes suddenly uncon­ name-calling—but when Frankenstein ple, just as well be a system of cogs or scious, but, since other mechanisms in the brain continue to function, he throws the switch, his monster fails to even water pipes. Mere computation changes into an automaton. He may sit up. by such devices cannot duplicate con­ wander about, confused and aimless. The confidence of strong AI sciousness, although it might duplicate Or he may continue to carry out proponents is supported by a theory, thought, which is a structure that docs whatever purpose his mind was in the act of handing on to his auto­ generally agreed by mathematicians to occur in consciousness. matic sensory-motor mechanism be true, known as the Church-Turing Alan Turing devised a test to deter- when the highest brain-mechanism thesis. This thesis holds that, in princi­ mine if a computet has consciousness. went out of action. Or he follows a ple, a computer can be programmed to He believed that if the computet stereotyped, habitual pattern of behavior. In every case, however, the mimic any process that can be precisely responded to sustained questioning automaton can make few, if any, and unambiguously described. A with answers indistinguishable from decisions for which there has been Turing machine is an ultimately sim­ the response of a human, then it must no precedent. He makes no record ple, idealized computer that has unlim­ have consciousness. It would not be of a stream of consciousness. Thus ited storage space and only a very few difficult to program a computer to do

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 25 mathematical addition in a human way neurons scattered throughout the visual and their relations. One sound does by programming it to be slower and cortex, yet the result is a unified per­ not hear another, but the attention more prone to make errors. It would ception. Neurologists do not yet under­ does hear them. Centering is the basis actually have an ability indistinguish­ stand how this happens and they call it for a single agent that can scan the able from a human ability. But addi­ the "binding problem." The advantage field. tion is a process that is not dependent of this oneness for decision-making lies Most neural activity does not mani­ on a specific physical basis. Suppose we in having a single connected fabric that fest in the field of consciousness, and are questioning a computer 10,000 gives speed and fluidity for scanning by there is evidence that the neural activity miles away and we ask it whether it is the attention. Otherwise it would be that does manifest in the field arises transmitting by wire or radio. If it necessary to scan all over and compare from preconscious activity. Benjamin claims radio and its response is raster various parts of the brain in a step-by- Liebt has done research that indicates than is possible for wire, then we know step rime-consuming process. the brain takes about one-half second it is transmitting by radio. Radio trans­ It is interesting that attempts to to produce consciousness. He found mission has a definite physical basis in simulate simple object recognition in that by stimulating electrodes in the electromagnetic waves. If an artifact the visual system by computers have brain cortexes of his patients, he could was able to pass the Turing test for con­ been computationally intensive, re­ give them the sensation that their arms sciousness, this would be a good reason quiring far larger times than the visual had been touched. But they had this for the interrogator to believe it was in system. Realistic results have been experience only if the stimulation lasted the presence of consciousness. But this found to require longer and longer one-half second. In other experiments would mean that the artifact had the amounts of computer rime, although Liebt asked volunteers to flex a finger at will while their brain waves were "Consciousness is any experience . . . that monitored by an electroencephalo­ graph. The surprising result was that contrasts with that individual's encounters with their brains showed neural activity 0.3 times of voidness. Thus dreams, drug deliriums, seconds before they made the decision to act. These remarkable results suggest and madness are also kinds of consciousness." to Susan Blackmore that consciousness is rather like an afterthought. They also specific physical basis for conscious­ the speed of signal propagation in suggest that the physical process at the ness, not that consciousness itself is an computers is about a million times basis of consciousness in the Familiar algorithm. Such an occasion would be faster than the brain's. Computer pro­ integrated field may also an in isolated a triumph for weak AI, not strong AI. gramming requires an enormous bits that are not in that field. Perhaps It seems unlikely that such an elab­ knowledge base, and as the base the hot stove or the flexing of the fin­ orate phenomenon as consciousness becomes bigger the problems of access ger are in a base conscious mode before could be a mere epiphenomenon. compound in difficulty. Such tasks are being integrated into the field con­ What evolutionary advantage could it done at a glance by children. If con­ sciousness. It is integration into the have? The answer seems to be before us sciousness has evolved for such skills as field that requires one-half second. The in the behavior of the epileptic decision-making, planning, and pat­ pre-field pain has the same "substance" automaton. This behavior strongly tern recognition, then an algorithmic as the field pain, but because it is more suggests that the function of conscious­ computer might be exposed as defi­ like a spot of paint than a painting, ness lies in decision-making and plan­ cient by presenting it with situations there is not enough structure to experi­ ning. It is needed to handle situations requiring these skills. An algorithm ence the pain's full distress. It seems where new judgments must be formed would be less efficient and the machine possible that the epileptic automaton and where rules have not already been discredited by its inordinately long may be operating on an unintegrated established. Another important feature response rime. The machine could do base consciousness. Of course most of of consciousness is the powerful dri­ much better if it could produce an the brain's functions, such as those of ving force of emotions. Emotions integrated field of information that the cerebellum, are probably not in any arrest our attention and give direction simulates the integration of the field of sort of consciousness. to our actions. The evolutionary ad­ consciousness. What advantage for the organism vantage is to direct resources in direc­ Another subtle feature of the field does the self have? The concept of the tions vital for survival. of consciousness is that it is "centered"; self allows the individual to have a def­ There are subtle features of the field there is one part of the field that can inite place in its model of the world. of consciousness that enable its func­ give focused attention to all other This gives a more refined advantage for tion of decision-making. One of these parts. For example, the different parts planning and strategy. It also gives features is the unity of the field. For of the visual field do not "know" each example, a visual scene is processed by other, but the attention knows them Consciousness continued on page 56

26 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 School Daze: A Critical Review of the African-American Baseline Essa for Science and Mathematics

WALTER F. ROWE

n the early 1980s the Portland Public School

District in Portland, Oregon, was faced with the I task of preparing a court-ordered desegregation plan. A consultant to the school district, Asa Hilliard of

Georgia State University, suggested the concept of the

"African-American Baseline Essays" as part of Portland's These essays are riddled with pseudoscience plan. and pseudohistory. They The baseline essays were conceived as short stories

should not be used for the presenting the history, culture, and contributions of training of teachers or the Africans and African-Americans to art, language, mathe­ teaching of students. matics, science, social studies, and music. These essays

were to serve as reference and source materials for teach­

ers in much the same way as textbooks. The "African-

American Baseline Essays" have been adopted by the

Portland and Detroit public school systems; they have

been seriously considered for adoption by public school

systems in Atlanta, Chicago, and Washington,

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 27 grouped according to some system. A variety of explanations of the marks have been advanced: They may repre­ sent a multiplication table, a game tally, or a calendar. The reader of the mathematics essay is clearly intended to infer that systems of numeration originated in Africa. However, the Ishango bone is a rather recent example of a type of inscribed artifact produced by Paleolithic cul­ tures stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to the Russian steppes. Most of these artifacts have been found in Europe. These facts are easily gleaned from Alexander Marshack's The Roots of Civilization (1972), a source Lumpkin cites in the mathematics baseline essay and in other writings.

Way Down in Egypt Land

A key concept running through die "African-American Baseline Essays" is that Egypt was an African civilization. This means something beyond the obvious fact that Egypt is located in Africa. In the science essay, Adams repeats the claim of Senegalese physi­ cist Cheikh Anta Diop that the ancient Egyptians were descended from central equatorial and northwestern African ethnic groups (Diop 1982). Physical D.C. (Ortiz de Montellano 1991). by Beatrice Lumpkin, associate profes­ anthropologists, however, do not Although the authors of the sor of mathematics at Malcolm X accept Diop's conclusions. Brace et al. "African-American Baseline Essays" College (a community college in (1993) have presented the results of a were supposedly selected because of Chicago). Lumpkin's scholarly writings comparison of 24 craniofacial measure­ their knowledge of their specific disci­ appear to be confined to brief notes in ments made on skeletal material from plines and because of their expertise in Historia Mathematica and articles in Egypt, Europe, North Africa, Nubia, African and African-American history, Journal of African Civilizations. None Somali, India, Asia, and North the scholarly credentials of the authors of these works contains any original America. The measurements chosen of the science and mathematics essays work in cither mathematics or history. were ones that are known to be geneti­ are highly suspect. The author of die Lumpkin is also the author of a histor­ cally controlled, but only trivially science essay is Hunter Havelin Adams ical novel and a children's book about adaptive. These researchers concluded III, who is described in the foreword to ancient Egypt. that the ancient Egyptians are much the essays as a "research scientist at more closely related to the populations Argonne National Laboratory." Adams of neolithic Europe, modern Europe, was not, in fact, a research scientist but In the Beginning North Africa, and India than to the a hygiene technician who had only a Beatrice Lumpkin begins her mathe­ populations of sub-Saharan Africa. high school diploma (Ortiz de matics essay with a discussion of pre­ These conclusions are consistent with Montellano 1991). historic African systems of numera­ die research of other physical anthro­ The mathematics essay was written tion. The discussion centers on the pologists (see Brace et al. [1993] for a Ishango bone, an artifact excavated in complete list). The inclusion of discus­ Walter F Rowe is a professor in the Zaire that has been dated to 6500 B.C. sions of Egyptian science and madie- Department of Forensic Sciences, The (Marshack 1972). The Ishango bone is matics in die "African-American Base­ George Washington University, Washing­ engraved with a series of parallel line Essays" therefore is based on a fun- ton, D.C scratches having varying lengths and

28 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 damental misunderstanding of the bio­ equinoxes, and the acceleration of from 2.58 to 4.42. Furthermore, die logical relationships among die various gravity. value of pi calculated from die dimen­ African subpopulations. One of the figures accompanying the sions of a pyramid depends on die Even if it were true that die ancient science essay also informs the reader slope of its sides. Extant Egyptian Egyptians came from die same racial that the height of die Great Pyramid mathematical papyri reveal problems stock as sub-Saharan Africans, die dis­ multiplied by 10' yields 91,651,673 dealing with the slopes of pyramids cussions of Egyptian science and mathe- miles, approximately the mean dis­ and use four different values for die matics in die "African-American tance from die earth to die sun. slopes (Gillings 1972). Baseline Essays" would still be worthless This last assertion carries no weight In another section of the science for die training of public school teachers. as evidence that die Egyptians pos­ essay Adams discusses what he calls Lumpkin's mathematics essay is merely sessed an unusual level of scientific "psychoenergetics," saying, "The shoddy scholarship, while Adams's sci­ knowledge. There is no reason to mul­ ancient Egyptians were known die ence essay unites pseudoscientific claims tiply the pyramid height by 10' (other worlthand over atos gethet dimastere desires odf answer)'magic' . If by with fanciful attempts at substantiation. (psi): precognition, psychokinesis, The science essay contains a num­ ber of diagrams purporting to demon­ The 'scholarly' research displayed in both strate die ancient Egyptians' extraordi­ nary scientific and mathematical essays is too shoddy to serve as a model sophistication. For example, Adams for any feather or student." reproduces as a full-page illustration a site plan of die Temple at Luxor with a chance the height multiplied by some remote viewing and other underdevel­ human skeleton superimposed on it to simple factor did not give an approxi­ oped human capabilities." According demonstrate that the Egyptian archi­ mation of the mean distance from the to Adams, psi was an exact science that was used to preserve the world order tects designed die temple so that its earth to die sun, another multiplier and protect the pharaoh. However, if subdivisions would conform to the certainly could have been found that the Egyptians were such powerful proportions of die human body. A cur­ would give die distance to the moon, magicians, why were they conquered sory glance at die diagram reveals that to the nearest star, or to the by the Persians? Why were ten revolts while the skeleton's ankles and knees Andromeda nebula. Writing the prod­ against the Ptolemies unsuccessful? do indeed match crosswalk on die uct to eight significant figures incor­ plan, none of die other joints (hips, rectly implies that the height of die Adams subsequendy informs read­ wrists, elbows, or shoulders) corre­ Great Pyramid is known with die same ers that ancient Egyptian doctors were sponds to any significant feature of die precision. Adams is evidently unfamil­ also experts in the healing technique temple. That die builders intended a iar with the concept of significant fig­ now known as Therapeutic Touch. correspondence between die temple ures (taught to high school physics and Readers of SKEPTICAL INQUIRER will and the human skeleton is rendered chemistry students). highly unlikely by another fact: The be familiar with die unsubstantiated portion of the temple that is supposed Adams repeats a standard claim of claims of the advocates of this fringe to represent the cranium, rib cage, Great Pyramid mysticism that die struc­ medical therapy. Adams is deeply con­ pelvis, and upper legs was built by ture encodes a number of mathematical fused about the distinction between Amenophis III; die remainder of the formulae. For example, die perimeter of science and pseudoscience. temple was built by Ramses II, approx­ die base divided by twice die height Adams also has a penchant for wild imately two generations later (Baines supposedly gives die value of pi (which extrapolation from limited data. He and Malek 1980). is 3.14159265). Indeed if one performs discusses a small model of a bird found this computation using the dimensions in a tomb at Saqqara in 1898. When a Adams's science essay contains a of die Great Pyramid, one gets a good replica of this model was made from estimate of pi (3-150685). healthy dollop of Great Pyramid mys- balsa wood and a horizontal stabilizer ticism. According to Adams, die geom­ Pyramidologists like Adams charac­ (not present in the original) added, the etry of the Great Pyramid encodes as teristically restrict their attention to die replica was able to glide a short dis­ follows: Great Pyramid and all but ignore other tance (Messiha et al. 1984). However, Egyptian pyramids. Forty-seven royal balsa wood is roughly 20 times less the value of pi, the principle of the pyramids are known to have existed. golden section, the number of days dense than die sycamore wood from in the tropical year, the relative The heights and base dimensions of 22 which die original artifact was made; diameters of the earth at the equator true pyramids belonging to this group consequently, die aerodynamic perfor­ and the poles, and ratiometric [sic] can be determined with a reasonable mance of die balsa wood replica was distances of the planets from the degree of accuracy (Baines and Malek significantly different from that of the sun, the approximate mean length 1980). If these dimensions are used to of die earth's orbit around the sun, original. From this incompetent exer­ calculate pi, one obtains values ranging the 26,000-year cycle of the cise in experimental archaeology,

SKEPTICAL. INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 29 Adams leaps to speculations about the rians should be better because Greek high government offices or military ancient Egyptians' use of transport and science and mathematics are better commands. The Greek and Mace­ recreational gliders. The articles that documented than Egyptian science donian presence in Egypt has been Adams cites here were not written by and mathematics. Adams has difficulty compared to that of the Boers in South professional Egyptologists. getting even die most basic facts cor­ Africa and whites in the antebellum Beatrice Lumpkin's treatment of rect about Alexander the Great and U.S. South (Bevan 1968; Lewis 1986). Egyptian mathematics is marginally bet­ Alexandria: The intellectual elite of Alexandria ter than Adams's discussion of Egyptian during die first century after the death In fact, the Greeks called Egypt the science. It still violates die canons of his­ of Alexander—die most creative peri­ seat of scientific knowledge and sent torical scholarship in a number of ways. many of its [sic] most brilliant schol­ od of Hellenistic mathematics and sci­ Lumpkin frequently cites her own fic­ ars there to study such as Thales, ence—was composed almost exclusively tional writings as authorities to substan­ Democritus, and Pythagoras. Per­ of Macedonians and Greeks from out­ tiate her assertions. She also frequently haps it was this reason Alexander side of Egypt. Manetho, the historian made Alexandria, Egypt, the capital omits facts, especially when those facts to whom we owe the division of of his empire after he conquered do not support her conclusions. Egypt in 325 B.C Egyptian history into dynasties, is the For example, Lumpkin states that only identifiable Egyptian intellectual the Egyptian value of pi was better Alexander did not make Alexandria the during this period (Sarton 1966; Fraser than the biblical or Mesopotamian capital of his empire. Alexander actually 1972). value of pi equal to three. Nine esti­ never saw the Alexandria to which he Beatrice Lumpkin fulminates mates of the value of pi were calculated gave his name; he ruled from Babylon against the supposed racism of the before A.D. 1000. Of these, the Egyp­ and Susa until his death. These facts writers of mathematics textbooks: tian value was the second most inaccu­ are readily verifiable in die writings of rate (Beckmann 1971). The use of a ancient historians, such as Plutarch Euclid of Alexandria, one of the greatest mathematicians of this era, value of pi equivalent to 3-125 has and A man. And contrary to die claims lived and died in Egypt. There is no been found in a Babylonian cuneiform of both Adams and Lumpkin, suggestion that he ever left Africa. Yet he is pictured in textbooks as a fair European Greek, not as an "The science and mathematics essays distort Egyptian. We have no pictures of these mathematicians, but we could the history of the transmission of Islamic at least visualize them honestly in costumes, complexions, and features science and mathematics to Europe." true to the peoples and their times.

tablet. This tablet is discussed in Alexandria was not an Egyptian city. It It is highly improbable that Euclid George Sarton's A History of Science was founded as a Greek colony and was was a native Egyptian. He wrote in (1966), a source cited by Lumpkin not legally part of Egypt. In antiquity it Greek and his name is a common elsewhere in her mathematics essay. was commonly referred to as Greek one. This name was sufficiently There are grounds for doubting that "Alexandria near Egypt" (Sarton 1966; common in antiquity that Euclid the die Egyptians had an understanding of Fraser 1972). mathematician was confused with the die concept of pi (Bunt et al. 1976). Adams's version of Egypt under die philosopher Euclid of Megara (Heath The Rhind mathematical papyrus rule of the Ptolemies is similarly a far­ 1926). It is also likely that Euclid lived shows how the Egyptians calculated the rago of misinformation: for a time in Athens. The mathematical area of a circle from its diameter. To get commentator Proclus preserves a tradi­ the area, 1/9 of die diameter is first cal­ Frequently, it is assumed that, dur­ tion that Euclid was a Platonist culated; this fraction is subtracted from ing the Hellenistic period of Greek (Morrow 1970). At the time of Euclid rule, the African character of Egypt the value of the diameter; and die result was negligible, however, to the con­ the books of Plato had not yet begun is then squared. This is equivalent to trary, the Greeks practiced a policy to circulate widely, making it likely using a value of pi equal to 256/81. of assimilation, marrying Egyptian that Euclid lived at some time in This procedure for calculating the area women and even adopting Egyptian Athens and attended Plato's Academy. religion. of a circle appears to have been devel­ T. L. Heath, the leading expert on oped empirically (Gillings 1972). Greek mathematics and Euclid in par­ All of this is demonstrably false. There ticular, believed that Euclid must have Beware of Greeks was no such policy of assimilation. In studied at some time in Athens because fact, for many generations die Greeks it was only in Plato's Academy that he When Adams and Lumpkin attempt to in Egypt disapproved of marriages with could have learned the mathematics deal with later historical periods than native Egyptians. It was also many gen­ that later appeared in the Elements ancient Egypt, their accuracy as histo- erations before native Egyptians held (Heath 1926).

30 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Euclid's Elements is also firmly a "Egyptian calculator," virtually noth­ The Transmission of part of Greek mathematical traditions. ing is known of Abu Kamil's life (Levey Islamic Mathematics and Three earlier Greek mathematicians 1980). Ibn Yunus lived and worked in Science to Europe are known to have written similar ele­ Cairo in the tenth century (Goldstein ments of geometry (Morrow 1970). 1965; King 1980). Of the remaining The science and mathematics essays Significantly, one of these works was Islamic mathematicians, only ibn al- distort the history of the transmission the mathematics manual written by Haytham had an association with of Islamic science and mathematics to Theudius of Magnesia for use by Africa. Ibn al-Haytham (known to Europe. According to both Adams and Plato's Academy (Heath 1926). Lump­ Europeans as Alhazen) was educated in Lumpkin, Europeans learned about kin is glowing in her praise of the Baghdad; he came to Egypt to partici­ Egyptian, Hindu, and Arabic mathe­ Elements: "The logical arrangement of pate in an unsuccessful project to dam matics and science through the transla­ this work is so masterful the Elements the Nile River (Vernet 1965; Sabra tions of Constantinus Africanus (born dominated the teaching of geometry for 2,000 years." The abstraction of the Elements is Platonic, while the method "According to Adams, psi was an exact science of exposition (definition, common that was used to preserve the world order and notion, postulate, and theorem) is Aristotelian (Heath 1926; Bunt et al. protect the pharaoh," 1976). The extant Egyptian mathe­ matical papyri have only the remotest 1980; Hogendijk 1985). in Carthage in North Africa). As similarity in form and content to The origins of the remaining Beatrice Lumpkin describes it, Con­ Euclid's Elements. Islamic mathematicians mentioned in stantinus "brought a precious cargo of the mathematics essay are well known: manuscripts to Salerno, where a school Historians of mathematics consider was founded to translate and study the the Egyptian influence on Greek math­ AI-Khwarizmt—Urgench in former Arabic works." Charactetistically, USSR (Berggrcn 1986). ematics to be minimal. This influence Lumpkin neglects to tell readers what Omar Khayyam—Nishapur (now in was confined to the very elementary Iran) (Berggren 1986). manuscripts he brought to Salerno. geometry of the time of Thales, to Nasir Eddin—Khorasan in Persia Adams is similarly uninformative. The practical methods of calculation (the (Eves 1971). works that Constantinus Africanus branch of mathematics the Greeks Al-Kashi—Kashan (90 miles north translated were the medical treatises of called "logistika") and to the proto- of Isfahan) (Berggren 1986). Al-Qasadi—Granada (mathematics Galen, Hippocrates, the Persian doctor algebra of Diophantus. The Greeks Haly Abbas, and the Jewish physician borrowed much more heavily from the baseline essay). Isaac Israeli (Castiglioni 1941; Crom- mathematics of Mesopotamia (Heath Lumpkin and Adams get many of bie 1959). 1921; Eves 1971; Fraser 1972). the facts about the lives and works of Adams explicitly charges European Islamic mathematicians and scientists scientists with plagiarizing the discover­ Who Is Al-Khwarizm! and Why wrong. Both Lumpkin and Adams ies of Islamic scientists. For example, he Is He In 'African-American mention the Dar al-Hikma (House of asserts that ibn al-Haytham discovered Baseline Essays'? Wisdom) established by the Fatimid the refraction of light and that credit for rulers of Egypt in Cairo. Both essay this discovery has been falsely ascribed When she reaches the Middle Ages, the authors have ibn al-Haytham working to Isaac Newton. Not unexpectedly, period of Islamic mathematical domi­ in the Dar al-Hikma; however, the Adams cites no authority for this extra­ nance, Beatrice Lumpkin enthuses: "In only institution in Cairo with which ordinary statement. The mathematical summarizing the contribution of the ibn al-Haytham is known to have been law governing the relation between the African Muslim mathematicians, espe­ associated is the al-Azhar Mosque angle of incidence and the angle of cially those of the Nile Valley, an author (Sabra 1980). Lumpkin also describes refraction is commonly known as Snell's is overwhelmed by an embarrassment ibn Yunus working in the Dar al- Law (after the seventeenth-century of riches." [Emphasis added.] The Hikma. This is highly unlikely: The Dutch physicist Willebrord Snell). Ibn "African-American Baseline Essays" Dar al-Hikma was founded in A.D. al-Haytham came close to discovering section on mathematics discusses eight 1005: ibn Yunus made his last astro­ this law, but ultimately failed to do so Islamic mathematicians: Al-Khwar- nomical observation in A.D. 1003: and (Al-Daffa 1977). izmi. Abu Kami), ibn Yunus, ibn al- died in AD. 1009 (Sourdel 1965; King According to Adams, Newton also Haytham, Omar Khayyam, Nasir 1980). The article on the Dar al- has been improperly credited with the Eddin, AI-KashT, and Al Qasadi. Of Hikma in the Encyclopedia of Islam discovery of the law of gravity, saying it these, only Abu Kamil and ibn Yunus (Sourdel 1965) docs not mention the actually was discovered by Al-Khazin. can be considered in any sense African. name of a single Islamic scientist in Adams has confused Al-Khazin, a Beyond his appellation as the connection with the Dar al-Hikma. Sabaean mathematician and astron-

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 31 omer of Persian origin (Dold- to prove pernicious. Their fallacious Eves, Howard. 1971. An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. New York: Holt, Samplonius 1980), with al-Khazini, modes of reasoning may dull the criti­ Rinehart and Winston. the author of the Book of the Balance of cal faculties of readers. The "scholarly" Fraser, P. M. 1972. Ptolemaic Egypt Oxford: Wisdom. In mathematician al- research displayed in both essays is too Oxford University Press. Khazini's theory of weights, the weight shoddy to serve as a model for any Gillings. Richard J. 1972. Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs. Cambridge: MIT Press. of a body varies according to its dis­ teacher or student. The essays will Goldstein. B. R. 1965. "Ibn Yunus." In tance from the center of the world. contribute to the growing tribalization Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, ed. by H. A. R Gibb. B. Lewis, E. Van Donzel et al. Accordingly, objects at the center of of American culture. A purported goal Leiden: E. J. Brill. the world weigh nothing. This is a far of the "African-American Baseline Hall, Robert E. 1980. •Al-KhazinT." In cry from Newton's inverse square law Essays" is to "eliminate personal and Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. by Charles Coulston Gillespie. New York: for the force of gravity acting between national ethnocentrism so that one Charles Scribner's Sons. two masses. At this point, the reader understands that a specific culture is Hartner, Willy. 1980. "Al-Battani." In Dic­ will probably not be surprised to learn not intrinsically superior or inferior to tionary of Scientific Biography ed. by Charles that al-Khazini was actually a another." This statement is nothing Coulston Gillespie. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Byzantine Greek (Hall 1980). but cant. Throughout the science and Heath, T. L 1921. A History of Greek Mathe­ Adams also charges that the work of mathematics essays the genuine matics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. achievements of Greek, Arab, Persian, Heath, T. L. 1926. Euclid's Elements in English. the astronomer al-Battani was stolen Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. by Copernicus. Copernicus did indeed and European scientists and mathe­ Hogendijk. J. P. 1985. Ibn al-Hayshams use some of al-Battani's astronomical maticians are ruthlessly pillaged, and Completion of the Conies. New York: Springer-Verlag. observations (Hartner 1980; Duncan credit for them assigned to black Kennedy, E. S. 1980. "Al-Biruni." In Dictionary 1976); Copernicus clearly acknowl­ African cultures on the flimsiest of of Scientific Biography ed. by Charles edged this use. In Book One of On the grounds. Coulston Gillespie. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres King. David A. 1980. "Ibn Yunus." In Copernicus explicitly cites al-Battani References Dictionary of Scientific Biography ed. by as the source of the erroneous estimate Charles Coulston Gillespie. New York: Al-Daffa. Ali Abdullah. 1977. The Muslim Con­ Charles Scribner's Sons. tribution to Mathematics. London: Croom that die sun's diameter is only ten times Levey, Martin. 1980. "Abu Kamil." In Dictionary Helm. that of Venus (Duncan 1976). of Scientific Biography ed. by Charles Baines, John, and Jaromic Malek. 1980. Atlas of Coulston Gillespie. New York: Charles Finally, Adams asserts that the Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, Inc. Scribner's Sons. Beckmann, Pen. 1971. A History of Pi. New works of al-BTruni were plundered by Lewis. Naphtali. 1986. Greeks in Ptolemaic York: St. Martins Press. both Galileo and Francis Bacon. Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Bcrggren,J. L. 1986. Episodes in the Mathematics Unless these Western scientists were Hellenistic World Oxford: Oxford University of Medieval Islam. New York: Springcr- Press. Verlag. able to read Arabic (which is doubtful) Marshack, Alexander. 1972. The Roots of Bevan, Edwyn Robert. 1968. The House of they could scarcely have taken any of Civilization: The Cognitive Beginnings of Ptolemy: A History of Egypt Under the Man's First Art, Symbol and Notation. New their ideas directly from his works. Ptolemaic Dynasty Chicago: Argonaut, Inc., York McGraw-Hill Book Company. Publishers. (A reissue of the 1927 edition.) None of al-BTruni's books were trans­ Messiha, Khalil, Guirguis Messiha, Gamal Brace. C. Loring, David P Tracer, Lucia Allen lated into European languages during Mokhtar, and Michael Frenchman. 1984. Yaroch, John Robb, Karl Brandt, and A. the Middle Ages or the Renaissance. Russell Nelson. 1993. "Clines and Ousters "African Experimental Aeronautics: A 2,000- Many have never been so translated. Versus 'Race': A Test in Ancient Egypt and Year-Old Model Glider." In Blacks in the Case of a Death on the Nile." Yearbook Science: Ancient and Modem, ed. by Ivan van Having been born south of the Aral of Physical Anthropology, Supplement to the Sertima. New Brunswick: Transaction Sea in Khwarizm, al-BTruni was not American Journal of Physical Anthropology 36: Books. African. There is irony in Hunter 1-31. New York: Wiley-Liss. Morrow, Glenn R 1970. Proclais: A Commentary on the First Book of Euclid's Elements. Havelin Adams III invoking the name Bunt, Lucas N. ft, Phillip S. Jones, and Jack D. Bedient. 1976. The Historical Roots of Princeton: Princeton University Press. of al-BTruni. In the words of one biog­ Elementary Mathematics. Englewood Cliffs, Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard. 1991. Multi­ rapher, "Biruni had a remarkably N.J.: Prentice-Hall. cultural pseudoscience: Spreading scientific illiteracy among minorities. SKEPTICAL open mind, but his tolerance was not Castiglioni, Arturo. 1941. A History of Medicine. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. INQUIRER. 16:46-50. extended to the dilettante, the fool, or Crombie. A. C. 1959. Medieval and Early Sabra. A. I. 1980. "Ibn al-Haytham." In Dic­ the bigot" (Kennedy 1980). Modem Science. Vol I Science in the Middle tionary of Scientific Biography ed. by Charles Ages: V-XIII Centuries. Garden City. N.Y.: Coulston Gillespie. New York: Charles Doubleday and Company, Inc. Scribner's Sons. Conclusion Diop, Cheikh Anra. 1982. Origin of the ancient Sarton, George 1966. A History of Science. Egyptians. Journal of African Civilizations. 4 Cambridge: Harvard University Press. The science and mathematics essays in (2), November 9-37. Sourdel, D. 1965. "Dar al-Hikma." In Encyclo­ Dold-Samplonius, Yvonne. 1980. "Al-Khazin." pedia of Islam, New Edition, ed. by H. A. R. the "African-American Baseline In Dictionary of Scientific Biography ed. by Gibb, B. Lewis, E. Van Donzel et al. Leiden: Essays" are riddled with pseudoscience Charles Coulston Gillespie. New York: E. J. Brill. and pseudohistory. As tools for the Charles Scribner's Sons. Vernet J. 1965. "Ibn al-Haytham." In Duncan, A. M. 1976. Copernicus: On the Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, ed. by training of public school teachers they Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. Newton H. A. R Gibb, B. Lewis, E. Van Donzel et al are not merely worthless, but are likely Abbot, Devon, England: David and Charles. Leiden: E. J. Brill. •

32 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Mystical Medical Alternativism

JACK RASO

he term alternativism, which I coined last

year, tefers to a motley accumulation of Tmovements whose central diesis seems to be: faith, based on common sense, subjective experience,

or revelation preempts rational understanding. Medical

Hundreds of mystical or alternativism is composed of three divisions that overlap supernaturalistic health one another (1) alternative healthcare; (2) occult medi­ treatment methods have cine; and (3) sectarian religious "healing." The dominant

been advanced in division, alternative healthcare, is a phantasmagoria of

recent decades. Here systems and methods. Its doctrines posit numerous are 31 of them. forms of energy alien to physics; and its overall aims are

to make health science a sham and to desecularize

healthcare.

The major distinctions of alternative healthcare, vis­

a-vis establishmentarian (science-oriented) healthcare,

include runaway cross-pollination and a lack of con­

structive infighting. Since the late 1950s, more than 650

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 33 health-related methods—i.e., free­ includes "divine healing." Sui is also subject the personality to the "Divine standing methods, multimethod sys­ the author of the bestseller Pranic will" of the "Soul." Supposedly, he tems, component methods, and general Healing (1990) and his companion "psychically" discovered the specific "approaches" that I consider mystical piece, Pranic Psychotherapy (1993). (See "healing" effects of 38 wildflowers. The or supernaturalistic—have been sub­ "Pranic psychotherapy," below.) "life force" ("soul quality" or "energy jects of uncritical public discourse Alternative 12 Steps: Nontheistic wavelength") of each of these flowers (most since 1980). and purportedly secular variation of allegedly is transferable to water and Broadly, mysticism is belief in reali­ the Twelve Steps. The Twelve Steps— thence to humans. Each of the so- ties accessible only through subjective e.g., "[We] came to believe that a called Bach flower remedies is a liquid experience. Supernaturalism is belief in Power greater than ourselves could that supposedly contains a "soul quali­ entities or forces that are outside of, yet restore us to sanity"—are the basis of ty" with an affinity to a human "soul affect, the universe. The vast majority such programs as Alcoholics Anony­ quality"; and each vegetable "soul qual­ of die systems and methods of alterna­ mous. In The Alternative 12 Steps ity" allegedly harmonizes its human tive healthcare are mystical or super- (1991), Martha Cleveland, Ph.D., a counterpart with die "Soul." The bases naturalistic. It may be cavalier to judge self-styled atheist/agnostic, and Arlys of classical "diagnosis" are conversation methods solely on die basis of the the­ ('... a longtime atheist, define the and intuition. Administration of the ories that underlie them, the methods' Twelve Steps as "a program for living, a "remedies" is usually oral but may be contexts, their histories, and the credi­ program of action fueled by spiritual external. bility or implausibility of claims for the energy" that suggests "a system of Biological Immunity Analysis™ methods. However, such information holistic healing—a practical system of (BIA, Biological Immunity System™): furnishes valuable clues, especially action" integrating "mind, body and Companion to nutripathy (see below) when pertinent scientific findings are spirit." Three of the authors' "Steps" developed by Gary A. Martin, D.N., nonexistent, meager, or discrepant. affirmatively mention "spiritual re­ Ph.D.,Th.D., D.Sc. BIA, is a "complete Alternative healthcare is a "melting sources" or "spiritual energy." holistic system" whose centerpiece is pot" of religion, occultism, folklore, Bach flower therapy (Bach flower purported deciphering, with the parapsychology, pop psychology, pseu- essence method, Bach flower essence Biological Immunity CompuSystem™, doscience, and medical guesswork. It system): Quasi-homeopathic system of of "Physical-Mental-Emotional fre­ overflows with theoretical rubbish. In pseudodiagnosis and pseudotherapy quencies" in specimens of urine and the sprawling, animistic "enchanted developed in the 1930s by British physi­ saliva. It allegedly reveals the donor's forest" of medical alternativism, ideas cian Edward Bach (1886-1936). (See "Soul Pattern" ("the pattern inherent in run hog-wild, words have magical Lynn McCutcheon, "Bach Flower your Soul," "a gift from God"). power, illness ("dis-ease") is an educa­ Remedies: Time to Stop Smelling the BioSonic Repatterning™: System tional opportunity, the impossible is a Flowers?" SI. July-August 1995.) Bach that encompasses cymatics and toning. challenge, wishful thinking is industry, put forth his philosophy in Heal Thyself Cymatics is "the science of wave phe­ faith is die ticket, and death is a transi­ An Explanation of the Real Cause and nomena." Cymatic therapy is an acu­ tion. Cure of Disease, first published in 1931. pressurelike method wherein devices Below I describe some alternativist Therein he described five "fundamental send "beneficial" sound through the methods that are mystical or supernat­ truths": (1) Souls, invincible and skin. Its purported objective is to re­ uralistic. immortal sparks of the "Almighty," are establish "healthy resonance" in tissues. Advanced pranic healing: Subject the "real," "Higher" selves of humans. Toning is a vocal method that suppos­ of a "serious reference work" of the (2) Humanity's purpose is to develop edly brings new "life energy" to "inhib­ same name, written by chemical engi­ virtues and wipe out all intrapersonal ited" or "unbalanced" parts of the body. neer and "Master Pranic Healer" Choa wrongs. Souls know what circumstances BioSonic Repatterning also involves Kok Sui. The method allegedly uses conduce to the perfection of human using "bija mantras" ("healing mantras" "color pranas" and "chakral" tech­ nature. (3) One's lifetime is a minuscule that purportedly activate "elemental niques to effect "very rapid healing." It part of one's evolution. (4) When one's energy qualities") and tuning forks (to "Soul" and personality are "in harmo­ produce "Balance," which is supposed­ Jack Raso is the author of Mystical ny," one is healthy and happy. The ly the "natural state" of humans). Diets: Paranormal, Spiritual, and straying of the personality from the dic­ Blood crystalization (diagnostic Occult Nutrition Practices (Prometheus tates of the "Soul" is the "root cause" of blood crystallization): Pseudodiag- Books, 1993) and Alternative' Health­ disease and unhappiness. (5) The nostic method involving the introduc­ care: A Comprehensive Guide (Prome­ "Creator of all things" is "Love," and tion of a blood sample to a copper theus Books, 1994). He is co-editor of everything of which humans are con­ chloride solution. "Crystal signs" of ill­ Nutrition Forum newsletter and a scious manifests the "Creator." ness in the resultant "blood-crystal pic­ hoard member of the National Council Bach held that disease was essentially ture" allegedly express the guidance of Against Health Fraud beneficial and that its design was to "a higher functional plane coming to

34 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 expression." "Organ-signs," for exam­ plane," is the foundation for related The Clean-Me Out Program™: ple, purportedly indicate dysfunction "soul qualities." Neo-Christian system of "self-healing" of an organ or a bodily system. Child energy flow: "Treatment" developed principally by Richard Supposedly, each so-called organ-sign reportedly invented by Masano Nakagawa, Anderson, N.D., N.M.D. Two herbal reflects a "multilayered organ princi­ Ph.D., the founder of shinkiko (see supplements constitute its foundation: ple" (which includes "the organ-bound below). It allegedly relieves discomfort Chomper, whose 11 herbs include cas- 'soul organ'") and, on "die psychic and pain by improving "energy flow." cara sagrada (a laxative) and lobelia

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 35 Mandel and practiced at die Mandel (ingestion of which is risky); and and Events attracted to you because they are opposed to your Soul Pattern"; Institute in Bruchsal, Germany. It Herbal Nutrition, whose 10 herbs "Soul Pattern" as "the pattern inherent reportedly is die "science of bio-ener­ include alfalfa, comfrey (which is poison­ in your Soul. ... the point-of-view gy," whose "levels" range from the ous), horsetail (a weak diuretic), and from which you are able to see and material to die esoteric. One of the licorice root. Besides these and othersupplements , the prograexpresm involves life swhe enen­ you are free from your premises of esogetics is that colored mas and avoiding intake of meat and "Stress Pattern"; and "Soul" as "the light transmitted by acupuncture dairy products. In die fourth (second immortal, spiritual, moral or emotional meridians tends to heal specific forms revised) edition of Cleanse and Purify nature of a human being." Thyself (1994), Anderson states that of disease and dysfunction. "cooked, frozen, canned and processed Flower essence therapy: Enlarge­ Ho'oponopono: Reputed ancient foods . . . drain the life force from the ment of Bach flower therapy (see Hawaiian process whose alleged main body." In Chapter 9, he describes "a above) pioneered in the 1970s by purpose is discovery of die "Divinity" profound Divine experience" wherein a Richard Katz, who founded in 1979 within oneself. Apparently, this suppos­ female "Divine Being" filled him with the Flower Essence Society (FES). The edly enables removal of "die internal "information." He states that purifica­ system involves purported intake of cause" of stress. The method purport­ tion is a "guaranteed entrance" into "flower essences"—"subtle liquid edly: "releases" problems and "blocks" heaven and that people who are willing extracts" whose alleged active ingredi­ that cause "imbalance," stress, and "dis­ to purify themselves "shall have the ents are "life forces" from wildflowers ease" in "die self; brings peace and help of God's mightiest messengers or "pristine" garden blossoms. "balance" through a physical, mental, and, if necessary, legions of angelic 1 lamer Method Shamanic Coun­ and spiritual "cleansing" that involves beings." seling (HMSC): Admixture of classic repentance and "transmutation"; and shamanism and the work of author creates "balance," freedom, love, peace, Colorpuncture™ (colorpuncture Michael Harner, Ph.D., founder and and wisdom within individuals (and system, Osho esogetic colorpuncture director of the Foundation for other social entities) and the system): Combination of "Energy Shamanic Studies. The purported "Universe." According to the Founda­ tion of I, Inc., in Mamaroneck, New York, Ho'oponopono "can be used for "The 'law of Purification' holds that sickness animate and inanimate objects" and is simply 'Nature's' way of restoring health rr "on any problem or situation.'' Johrei: Supposedly purificatory Emission analysis" (Kirlian photogra­ thrust of HMSC is problem-solving by method that defines die Johrei Fellow­ phy) and a form of color therapy. divination. Supposedly, practitioners ship, a worldwide interfaith association German naturopath Peter Mandel, ("ordinary reality HMSC counselors") with a center in Manhattan. Purportedly, who developed "esogetics" (see below), serve merely as facilitators, and sacred sessions take about 20 minutes, do not named the system. "Treatment" teachers in "nonordinary reality" are entail physical contact, and are always free involves application of colored light, die "real" counselors. of charge. The term Johrei also refers to a with a device that resembles a penlight, Healing touch: "A way of moving paradisiacal doctrine and to an alleged to "acupuncture receptors" in the skin. energy around" manually, according to something that, through the focusing of According to colorpuncture theory, a 1995 edition of "The Other Side." "Divine Light," naturally eases physical color is "life energy" that carries "heal­ Therein, an alleged beneficiary of the and mental distress. Japanese business­ ing information," and acupuncture method stated: "It feels like having a man Mokichi Okada founded die move­ meridians convey this information to complete massage without being ment in 1935. Okada allegedly had die cells and organs that need it. touched." The method posits an "ener­ learned "God's Divine Plan" for die "New Dimensional clearing: "Process" gy field." Age" through a series of divine revela­ allegedly designed to clear the human HealthWatchers System™: "Spe­ tions. Johrei's principles include the "Law "energy field" of "external elements" thatcialize are dno applicationt part of th" e oselff , Biologicasuch as l of Purification," which holds that sickness "Lost Souls," "Thought Forms," and Immunity Analysis™ (see above) to is simply "Nature's" way of restoring "fragments" of other people. weight management. Its centerpiece is health, and die "Law of Spiritual die HealthWatchers Analysis™, a pur­ Affinity," which holds that innumerable Directed esoteric toning: Form of ported test of urine and saliva for "die "spiritual cords" dominate human exis­ toning (see "BioSonic Repattern- physical and emotional frequency" of tence. Another principle is that one's ing™," above) that posits a "spiritual an individual's "Stress Pattern." health and material resources are func­ self," chakras, prana, kundalini, dair- HealthWatchers System®, a mail-order tions of one's "spiritual condition." audience, and clairvoyance. house in Scottsdale, Arizona, defines Karuna reiki (formerly called Sai Esogetics: System developed and "Stress Pattern" as "die resistance creat­ Baba reiki): Form of reiki named and named by German naturopath Peter ed by People, Places, Circumstances taught by "Reiki Master" William Lee

36 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Rand. Rand is die author of Reiki, The It posits chakras, meridians ("bioplasmic Stress pattern processing5": "Mo­ Healing Touch; founder of the Center channels"), and an "energy body" that consistdalitys "o fwhos an e"inne centerpiecr aura,e" isa nth e"oute Healtr h for Reiki Training in Southfield, aura," and a "health aura." Pranic psy­ Watchers Analysis™ (see "Health Michigan; and editor-in-chief of Reiki chotherapy includes four "healing tech­ Watchers System™," above). One of its News, a quarterly published by the cen­ niques" besides those of pranic healing: premises is that humans are "electrically ter. Reiki is a variant of die laying on of (1) an "advanced cleansing technique," driven" spiritual beings. hands. The Reiki Handbook (1992) purportedly for the removal and disinte­ Subtle aromatherapy: Form of vibra­ describes it as a "healing art" whereby gration of "traumatic psychic energy" tional healing (see "Vibrational medi­ therapists channel reiki, "universal life and such; (2) an "advanced form of ener­ cine," below) promoted by Patricia energy power," through their bodies gizing," purportedly for the disintegra­ Davis in her book of die same name. for storage in the solar plexus, and into tion of "negative elementals" ("bad spir­ "Aromatherapy" refers to any application "dis-eased" individuals for "rebalanc­ its") and die repair of "etheric webs" thato f essentialiel oilins atha one-to-ont is purportedle relatioy fonr behind ing." The Sanskrit word karuna is chakras; (3) activation and inhibition of beauty or health. Essential oils allegedly translatable as "compassionate action." chakras; and (4) creation of a "positive can restore "balance" and "harmony" The purported focus of karuna reiki is thought entity" for die patient. In Pranic not only to one's body but also to one's development of karuna. Psychotherapy (1993), Sui states: "Flicking life. "Subtle aromatherapy" refers to any your hand has to be done frequently use of essential oils with die purported Laserpuncture: Technique involv­ when energizing in order to efficiently objective of (1) healing the "physical ing application of a laser beam to eliminate dirty energy." body" by affecting the "subtle body" acupuncture points. ("energetic body"), or (2) contributing Mentalphysics: Purported practical, to personal and spiritual growth. wholistic, futuristic science and "super yoga" founded in 1927 by the Rei-so (spiritual diagnosis): Pseudo- Swedish-Esalen: A "light/relaxing" Reverend Edwin J. Dingle, an English diagnostic method whose apparent main and "nurturing" form of massage. It journalist and publisher who died in premise is that dead people, in die form allegedly reintegrates die body and soul. 1972. Mentalphysics supposedly brings of spirits (interpretable as consciousness, Vibrational medicine (vibrational out die "hidden meaning" of the Bible energy, or vibration), can influence liv­ healing, energy medicine, subtle-energy and reportedly involves "astral travel"; ing people who had an intimate rela­ medicine): "Healing philosophy" whose aura reading ("aura study"); chanting; tionship with diem. Supposedly, spirits main tenet is that humans are "dynamic jin shin jyutsu (a variant of shiatsu); create darkness in the "auras" of people energy systems ("body/mind/spirit" medication (including guided medita­ they are affecting negatively. complexes) that reflect evolutionary pat­ tion); pranayama ("deep scientific Shinkiko: Allegedly "die ultimate terns of soul growth." Its premises breathing exercises"); "pranic therapy" healing art from Japan," an "intuitive include die following: (1) Health and (a variant of channeling); reflexology; medical science" founded by Masato illness originate in "subtle energy sys­ Shiatsu; and individualization of diet Nakagawa, Ph.D. Similar to Qigong, tems." (2) These systems coordinate die according to "chemical type." shinkiko purportedly involves thera­ "life-force" and die "physical body." (3) Emotions, spirituality, and nutritional Nutripathy: "A religious science of peutic application of Shin-ki ("healing- and environmental factors affect the experiencing mental, financial, physical, energy"). Supposedly, Shinkiko "thera- "subtle energy systems." Vibrational social and spiritual health using specific pists" can tap a "limitless universal medicine embraces: acupuncture; aro­ universal laws," according to Nutripathy energy source." Proponents recom­ madierapy (see "Subtle aromadierapy," . . . The Key to Your Prosperity Success mend the system for many health above); Bach flower therapy (see above); and Spiritual Fulfillment (1984). Gary problems, including AIDS, cancer, "chakra rebalancing"; channeling; color A. Martin, D.N., Ph.D., Th.D., D.Sc, cholecystitis, cirrhosis, deafness, glau­ breathing; color therapy (chromothera- originated the system in the late 1970s, coma, hepatitis, and nephritis. py); crystal therapy; distant healing; allegedly thanks to divine influence. It Sonopuncture: Technique involv­ EAV (Electroacupuncture According involves hair analysis ("mineral analysis ing application of ultrasound to classi­ to Voll); flower essence therapy (see from hair") and a variation of Bach cal acupuncture points. above); homeopathy; Kirlian photogra­ flower therapy (see above). Its premises Spiritual midwifery: Childbearing phy; laserpuncture (see above); die lay­ include the following: (1) God is in philosophy promoted by Ina May ing on of hands; mesmerism; moxibus- everyone. (2) One's "True self is God Gastrin in her book of die same name. tion; orthomolecular medicine; past- ("Love"). (3) "Proper nutrition" and It posits "spiritual energy" that is life regression; psychic surgery; radon- realization of one's "true identity" "Holy," indivision of humanity ("We ics; die Simonton method; sonopunc­ together make for a perfect life. are all One"), shakti (divine female ture (sec above); toning (see "BioSonic Pranic psychotherapy: Application of "energy"), and God. Moreover, it Repatterning™," above); Transcen­ pranic healing to psychological ailments. euphemizes contractions as "energy dental Meditation®; and therapeutic rushes" and postulates that "a husband Pranic healing is a form of "paranormal touch. • and wife form a single energy unit." healing" promoted by Dr. Choa Kok Sui.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 37 China, Chi, and Chicanery Examining Traditional Chines Medicine and Chi Theory

PETER HUSTON

oday in America, traditional Chinese med­

icine is undergoing something of a rebirth. TAlthough at first this seems curious, from a historical perspective and seen in hindsight it is really

Traditional Chinese not much of a surprise. The history of Sino-American medicine is thousands of relations is in part a story of Americans looking to the

years old and has literally East and interpreting a huge, complex, and, to an out­ more than a billion satis­ sider, confusing culture in such a way that they see what fied customers. Many of its treatments and teach­ they desire or fear the most. Like a cosmic Rorschach ings are based on the test, China has been many things, including the Yellow

effects of Chi, a mystical peril, the Red peril, and paradoxically a land full of lov­ form of bio-energy. ing workers united in harmony and living in communes.

During the Depression to many "the China market" was

going to save us and our economy. Ronald Reagan once

referred to China as a "so-called Communist country,"

when in fact it actually was (and still is) a Communist

country.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Today, many people, often with good reason, are apprehensive about modern scientific medicine. Although it is undoubtedly one of the most effec­ tive forms of healthcare ever seen on earth, there is little doubt that modern science has produced a system of care that can be frighteningly imper­ sonal. Too often die patient is reduced almost to the level of a defective machine while being cared for by an overworked staff of specialists with lit­ tle chance to provide the patient with personal attention or emotional sup­ port. Treatments tend to be invasive, frighteningly complex in theory and practice, and seem to function without any input from the patient. The sterile hospital walls, mysterious shots and capsules, and complex machinery seem far removed from how nature intended us to live. Occasionally we read of treatments that cause serious harm, and of cases where impersonal health- care results in accidental, or sometimes even intentional, tragedies.

It was almost inevitable that many people would look for alternative forms of treatment, and that traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) would be without somehow mentioning "ener­ most Chinese today feel, that there is a one of them. At first TCM seems to be gy." With few, if any, peculiar excep­ special sort of life energy that flows "just what the doctor ordered." With tions, to be alive means to create, use, through us and keeps us alive.1 This its long history, many assume its tech­ and exchange energy. This energy is of energy is called "Chi" or "Qi."1 niques have been proved to work. many different sorts. For instance, we According to traditional Chinese Others are attracted by its emphasis on are dealing with one sort of chemical thinking, the Chi flows through our gentle remedies made from organic process when we digest our morning body in a rhythmic manner, and most compounds. TCM emphasizes improv­ bowl of breakfast cereal. We use a dif­ acupuncture and acupressure methods ing bodily harmony and focuses on the ferent sort of energy when our muscles employ stimulation of points that lie growth of Chi energy. Since TCM was are activated to throw a basketball. And along the acupuncture "meridians" a subject of Bill Moyers's recent televi­ when the brain creates small amounts through which Chi is said to flow. sion series, "The Mind and Healing," of electricity to pass down to the nerves When one manipulates an acupunc­ which surveyed much of the system's and stimulate the muscles and the heart ture point, the traditional explanation appeal in an interesting manner, I will to contract, this electricity is created by for any effect that occurs is that it is occasionally cite examples from that a large number of small cellular micro- caused by an alteration of the flow of show. batteries inside the skull. Chi under that point. The basis of much of TCM's teach­ But this is a new and relatively In TCM, the notion of Chi and ings lies in die manipulation of Chi, unnatural way for humans to see them­ Chi-flow is probably the single most supposedly one's life energies. It is nearly selves. To the ancients it seemed natural important concept. If a patient is feel­ impossible to give a definition of life to hypothesize that the energy of life ing weak and lethargic, then a healer was a single and quite special sort. This will embark on a course of action that Peter Huston is a writer based in idea continues to flavor some of our he or she feels will increase the patient's Schenectady, New York. His first book. popular notions when we speak of a flow of Chi. He will do this according Tongs, Gangs and Triads, a detailed "life force"or when we refer to a person to carefully taught ancient techniques. study of Chinese gangs, secret societies, who appears vibrant and energetic as Treatment options might include and underground religious cults, was being "full of life." The Chinese of changes in diet, a prescribed course of published this year by Paladin Press. ancient times felt, and many if not exercises, massage, herbal or other

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 39 organic medicines, and perhaps tech­ matically when James Reston, the New China. By keeping the patient con­ niques like acupuncture, although York Times journalist, developed an scious, die surgeons are able to carefully Westerners should keep in mind that inflamed appendix while in China in monitor the effects of their work and these are only one small part of die die summer of 1971. Acupuncture the stimulation of various portions of overall system. There is also the more anesthesia was used, and this organ was the brain. Furthermore, the amount of esoteric belief that through the manip­ removed in Beijing's Anti-imperialist pain considered to be tolerable by a ulation of Chi one can ultimately learn Hospital (Porkert 1982). The name is human being varies greatly from cul­ to perform superhuman feats and dis­ significant and typical of the time, for ture to culture (Baker 1990). It is prob­ play miraculous powers. Claims for it was during Chinas notorious period ably safe to say that modern Americans these powers vary greatly, some of of chaos known as the Cultural expect little pain and modern Chinese which make one immediately suspi­ Revolution. At this time, ultra- routinely tolerate more discomfort cious, such as telepathic effects, teleki- Communist ideology gripped the than does die average world citizen. netic effects, invulnerability to injury, country. Those who were suspected of Speaking from personal experience, and so forth. "counter-revolutionary tendencies" I've seen (and felt) Taiwanese general There has been considerable inter­ often found their homes ransacked, practitioners perform foot surgery, est in the West in the effects and appli­ their careers ruined, and themselves treating both an infected puncture cations of acupuncture anesthesia. A shipped off to the countryside to "learn wound and an ingrown toenail with typical, yet highly dramatic exhibition from the peasants through labor." The amazingly little anesthesia and a sur­ of this technique was shown on the only way to keep oneself alive and prisingly loud patient. (I was one of Moyers series. The patient had a brain remain afloat was to keep one's mouth these patients, and die doctor found it tumor and needed surgery to remove shut, and when asked a question, to quite funny that I screamed when hav­ it. The procedure was performed in repeat the official party line.' ing a little thing like a scalpel cut into what appeared to be an operating room This is relevant to acupuncture anes­ my foot.) by a Chinese surgical staff. The surgical thesia and die belief that it showed But to some extent these arc peri­ techniques appeared to be quite up to great untapped potential, because it was pheral issues. Although the effects of date, the only addition being the inclu­ part of the official party line. To ques­ acupuncture anesthesia are undoubtedly sion of acupuncture as a supplement to tion its effectiveness, even in a scholarly exaggerated, few doubt that it does in a greatly decreased dosage of conven­ manner, was to risk seeming disloyal fact have an effect. Can science explain tional sedatives and anesthetics. The and suffering personal injury or disrup­ this without resorting to Chi theory? patient remained fully conscious tion of one's career. Whether they liked The scientific explanation lies in die throughout the operation, and Moyers it or not, many medical practitioners "gate theory." According to this theory, and his travel companion, David were virtually forced to use and parrot the nerve is gently stimulated by inser­ tion of a needle. This gentle stimula­ "His a widespread belief that one who has tion prohibits the passage of stronger pain signals down die same nerve and named extensively in Chi gong can produce effects produces an analgesic effect (Lu and that. . . often seem to defy the laws of science." Needham 1980). But it is important to understand Eisenberg, M.D., an American expert the effectiveness of acupuncture anes­ that acupuncture anesthesia is only a on TCM, were allowed to observe the thesia regardless of their opinions about small, but dramatic, part of the overall proceedings. Moyers and this home its usefulness (Keng and Tao 1980). uses of acupuncture. And acupuncture viewer were noticeably impressed. Needless to say, this is counterproduc­ in turn is only a small pan of TCM, a Yet before wholeheartedly accepting tive to good scholarship. Since it was unified system of healthcare. It is a this as a miracle, we have to stop and during this period that interest in TCM holistic system of healthcare that is look back at the procedure to see what began to develop in die West, it is not based on ancient ideas about how the it says about the capabilities of die surprising that many books from this human body works. Often these con­ body and the possible role that Chi period were translated into English. cepts are in conflict with modern sci­ played in the process. Can science Some are still in print, and few question ence, but it seems fair to say that explain this anesthetic effect? die efficacy of die techniques described despite this, at least some of its treat­ As in so many such cases, we must in die texts. ments do provide relief or cures for first define die effect for which we wish Although it was impressive that, some afflictions. Among its treatment to find an explanation. The claims of during the operation on the Bill modalities are changes in diet and acupuncture anesthesia cannot be Moyers program, the patient was fully lifestyle, herbal and other medicinal accepted without careful analysis. conscious and alert, this is relatively treatments, exercises, and stimulation Acupuncture anesthesia came to the standard practice in many types of of various points on the human body attention of the Western world dra- brain surgery in both the West and through various means.

40 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 There are a variety of points on the occurs, or about the influence of belief believe that they are using Chi when in human body that are traditionally by experimentation on animals (and fact the feat is quite explainable within stimulated in acupuncture, and practi­ some acupuncture treatments do in physics as we understand it.' Invoking tioners believe that these points are fact work on animals). It is generally Occam's razor, that the simplest solu­ generally indicative of the underlying not considered necessary by most tion consistent with the facts is more flow of Chi throughout the body. The Western practitioners to invoke Chi as likely to be true, we are once again left exact number of points is controversial an explanation. without evidence of Chi. and varies from school to school and A variety of exercises are designed to Other feats are much more difficult historical period to historical period, improve one's Chi, and therefore one's to explain and require the services of a but most practitioners today probably health. One common example is Tai qualified magician to help design con­ employ more than 600, spaced rela­ Chi Chuan, best described as a sort of trol conditions. When such conditions tively evenly over die surface of the slow-motion kung fu. It does seem to have been provided, the effect of the human body. Stimulation of these have many positive health effects. A Chi power again disappears, leaving lit­ points can be accomplished through variety of exercises known collectively tle or nothing to support the existence various means. The three most com­ as "Chi gong" are somewhat similar. of these powers. A 1988 CSICOP dele­ mon of these are manipulation of the Still these effects can be described with­ gation to China provided such tests, points by hand (called either "mas- out invoking Chi theory. Since such and without exception remarkable sotherapy" or "acupressure"), stimula­ exercises generally include a mixture of powers failed to manifest themselves tion by insertion of needles into the low-impact isometrics and stretching (Kurtz et al. 1988). Sociologist points themselves (acupuncture), and exercises, the physical health benefits Marcello Truzzi (1985) had a similar stimulation by heat (referred to as should be obvious. As for mental and experience. I viewed a report on a sup­ "moxibustion" after the herb "moxus," spiritual benefits, these can be posed test of Chi gong-inspired psy­ which is normally burned to provide explained in two ways. One is the sim­ chokinesis in Taiwan, and I was the heat). ple fact that regular exercise is good for appalled at just how poorly designed one's mind and promotes a feeling of the test was. This response was doubly Some of these acupoint treatments physical well-being. More interesting felt since I had just finished reading may work, but it is surprisingly diffi­ perhaps is the proved effect that medi­ James Randi's The Truth About Uri cult to know with any accuracy which tative-type mental-relaxation exercises Geller. The parallels were simply over­ ones do. Ironically, this is due to the can have on one's health. It has been whelming.6 mind's ability to affect the health of the proved that if one forces one's mind to body, which is one of the main appeals relax, then one's blood pressure, respira­ These powers, as alleged proof of of such systems anyway. If one places a tory rate, and so on, are reduced. Chi, were shown in the Movers series needle in a person and the treatment Herbert Benson, a medical researcher, in a segment in which Moyers viewed a works in the way in which the patient has termed this effect the "relaxation Chi gong teacher known as Master Shi. believed it would, was the cure due to response," and meditation is said to be In a dramatic episode, Master Shi the needle or the belief in the effect of one of the most effective means of pro­ allegedly demonstrated his control over the needle? Naturally, no one can say ducing it.4 Since Tai Chi Chuan and Chi by such acts as pushing over large with any accuracy, and most Chinese other Chinese exercises do involve sys­ numbers of students with one hand, consider the point to be pretty much tematic mental programs of mood and and in turn not allowing himself to be irrelevant just so long as the cure does mind training, it is only natural that pushed over when a large number of in fact work through one means or they should produce this relaxation these same students shoved him in uni­ another. With new drugs, tests can be response among practitioners. son. In a particularly dramatic inci­ designed that involve substituting inert dent, one of the students, an American placebos for a drug, but it is quite dif­ studying in Beijing, attempted to pick It is a widespread belief that one ficult to develop a test that resembles up and throw Master Shi, but met with who has trained extensively in Chi acupuncture that does not, in fact, no success. involve sticking needles into people. gong can produce effects that take place outside the body and often seem to I have watched this Moyers The ways in which treatments defy the laws of science. Unfortunately sequence carefully about a half dozen involving acupuncture points are for believers, these feats are rarely, if times to see if there was any evidence of believed to work can be described in a ever, performed under properly con­ fakery on the part of the students or the scientific framework, e.g., stimulation trolled conditions. To the best of my teacher. I have noted the following: of nerves, counterirritation treatments, knowledge, these effects have not been Different students when pushed by the proved to occur in such a way that they stimulation of the body to produce its same wave of Master Shi's hand fall and cannot be explained by our current naturally occurring chemical com­ roll different distances. Similarly, the understanding of science. In some pounds, and belief. Sometimes scien­ students have different expressions on cases, for instance, when martial artists their faces. As they are thrown back, tists can learn about the modality of break concrete or wood, they may some grimace as if the experience was effect by the speed at which the effect

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 41 unpleasant, while others laugh and one else the mechanics seem to enjoy it. Meanwhile, Eisenberg and ethics of designing a seems somewhat unimpressed by these double-blind test to see if performances. The American student a martial-arts student then announces that he is going to try can throw a non-Chi to pick up his Chi gong teacher and gong master more easily throw him down on the ground. He than a Chi gong master. explains to Moyers that he really does Having surveyed the want to do this, while Master Shi, who evidence so far, there presumably speaks no English, looks on seems to be little evi­ with apprehension from the back­ dence of substance that ground. The student then slides into supports the existence of throwing position and grasps the Chi. Although some, teacher's arm. His body trembles with including myself at the apparent effort of this attempt at a times, find this quite throw. Meanwhile Eisenberg yells, "Try disappointing, it is really harder. You look like you're faking." not too surprising when The student's foot begins to flop we look at the extent of around like a dying fish, supposedly to the claims and the way show just how much effort he is evinc­ science works. Science ing in this attempt to throw this man to and scientific theories the ground. Ultimately, he gives up and and knowledge don't announces that Master Shi is reversing just happen arbitrarily. his energy through his use of Chi gong They are developed and that it is in fact humanly impossi­ based on careful obser­ ble to pick up and throw his teacher. vation and testing over I offer the following comments, the course of many which should supplement Eisenberg's years, if not generations. ("You look like you're faking"). Most Chi theory states that Asians, particularly a Chi gong instruc­ the function of the Although many believe the "aura" around this Kirlian photo­ graph of a thumb shows Chi, Kirlain photography does not act tor, are quite concerned with face and human body is based on like Chi. (See Wat kins and Bickel 1989; and 1986.) image. If one is interested in his a system of energy that teacher's saving face, then it is quite circulates throughout all other existing knowledge critically before employing important not to bounce him on his systems and integrates with them all. it for anything as important as health­ head on international television. If you There is no evidence that such a system care, and this includes the traditional do so, then the teacher might, at the exists. Similarly, if such a system does arts and sciences of other cultures. If very least, not teach you anymore. exist, but for whatever reason has man­ one wishes to truly understand some­ Second, I have found myself in many aged to avoid detection by science, thing, one must be willing to look situations where I have been required then it would seem logical that there beyond the explanation traditionally for one reason or another to lift people would be large and sweeping gaps in presented. To be truly open-minded, one must be willing to step beyond the up off their feet and into the air (ambu­ our knowledge of human physiology boundaries and limitations that have lance attendant, hospital orderly, rock- every time we examined a system that been inherited. To pursue the truth, concert security guard, older brother, the Chi interacted with. In other you must be willing to consider the happy uncle, etc). Step one in picking words, if Chi controls and influences teachings that cultures have to offer, up another person is pretty much always the behavior of the human body, and but you must also hold those teachings we have not detected Chi, then the to make sure that you have your feet up to careful examination. firmly planted on the floor, or else you existence of Chi would be conspicuous both might land on your faces as you by its absence. Personally, I believe that fall over. It would seem that before we further study of traditional Chinese Notes accept this segment of the Moyers pro­ medicine should uncover many valu­ gram as cause to revamp Newton's laws able things, such as some useful herbal 1. Actually th is life force, Chi, is believed 10 of motion, we should at the very least treatments. I also believe that modern flow through everything that exists in varying amounts, not just living matter. The study of conduct a few controlled tests to see if medicine and healthcare have many how Chi flows through landscaping and living the student just might have been trying problems that should be looked at seri­ environs and how it can be manipulated to ben- to make his instructor look good in ously and possibly fixed. Despite these, front of Bill Moyers. I'll leave to some­ it is important to examine any body of Chi continued on page 58

42 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Book Reviews

Sexpols, Orgone Energy, loud Busters, and Bions: Remembered, but Not Relevant

HENRY H. BAUER Beyond Psychology: Letters and Journals, 1934-1939, by Wilhelm Reich. Edited by Mary Boyd Higgins. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 1994. 256 pp. Hardcover, $25.00.

o appreciate the significance of leader among Freud's acolytes into the research) die, the adherents typically TBeyond Psychology: Letters and 1920s. Certainly Reich's insights into split into competing sects. Editor Mary Journals, 1934-1939, by Wilhelm Reich, character development and the relation Boyd Higgins notes that in "the confu­ one needs to know a bit about of somatic to psychological tension are sion that followed Reich's death, his Wilhelm Reich. According to the still drawn upon. But, certainly too, archives were stolen. Although a legal Concise Columbia Encyclopedia mainstream science continues to action forced die return of most of his (1991, Microsoft Bookshelf version): ignore or reject orgone and all Reich's material, some documents are still claims regarding biology. missing." The largest remaining group Reich, Wilhelm, 1897-1957. Aus­ Reich's emphasis on the role of of Reichians is the American College of trian psychiatrist and biophysicist. He broke with Freud, fled Nazi proper sexual functioning as a matter of Orgonomy, P.O. Box 490, Princeton, Germany, and later settled in New "social" importance led him to political NJ 08542; (908) 821-1144, fax 821- York City. He emphasized the activism and association with the 0174. It sponsors lecture series and importance of sexual fulfillment for Communist Party and away from workshops and publishes a newsletter personal well-being. Later, he argued that sexual success depended partly Freud and die psychoanalytic main­ and the Journal of Orgonomy on orgone energy. The orgone box, a stream. But Reich was too individual a In 1939 Reich moved to the United device he invented to restore energy, thinker to remain welcome for long States, settling eventually in Rangeley, was declared a fraud by the Food among the Communists, and in the Maine, where his home is open to die and Drug Administration. He died in prison while serving a two-year 1930s he became a loner. Later, in public as the Wilhelm Reich Museum. sentence for contempt of court and Scandinavia, he garthered some follow­ There Reich continued his research, violation of the Food and Drug Act. ers to his psychotherapeutic approach conducted workshops, and invented He became a hero of student radicals and ventured into experimental biolo­ the cloud buster, an array of tubes that, properly grounded and focused on the of the 1960s, with their motto "make love, not war." gy. Reich came to believe that he could skies, would supposedly bring rain. produce living cells (bions) from inor­ ganic materials and that he had discov­ Increasingly Reich felt himself a tar­ Fuller appraisals of Reich range ered a universal life-force, orgone energy, get of opposition. He found signs of from pro (Boadella 1973; Greenfield that he could manipulate in orgone what he called a "negative" or "deadly 1974; Mann and Hoffmann 1980; boxes for healing purposes. Reich wrote, orgone-antagonist energy" (DOR) in Reich 1969; Sharaf 1983) to ami "Orgone is a type of energy that is the many places. He believed UFOs were (Gardner 1957). Colin Wilson's (1981) opposite of electricity, it is the specific attacking earth and tried to fend diem work shows gullibility toward Reich's form of biological energy" (p. 199). off with orgone. When charged with scientific claims but is less of a hagiog- When scientists as charismatic as illegal interstate commerce with the raphy than Reichians might like. Reich or Immanuel Velikovsky (who orgone boxes, he acted as his own Certainly Reich was an appreciated conducted controversial cosmological attorney and was convicted.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 43 His multifaceted life, made of stages That the editor's admiration of Reich experimental work.... I claim absolute that might even seem to describe differ­ is uncritical is revealed, for instance, in authority in all questions of sexual ent people, naturally has brought more the overblown description of Reich's functioning and its relation to vegeta­ than one interpretation. I see him as an "grounding in basic science": [He] "had tive life" (p. 117). Such confidence was extraordinarily talented and charismatic come to psychoanalysis . . . [having] Reich's even prior to study of the rele­ man who could not stand back from his studied astronomy, electronics, the vant field: "A practical formulation of ideas nor benefit from quantum theory, and die spinning-wave theory will consti­ criticism. Rather than die physical theories of tute the second step. For that I'll have meet the criteria and Einstein, Heisenberg, to study mathematics" (p. 206). standards of existing and Bohr" (p. viii). But That attitude is typical of "hermit journals and publish­ the chronology (Reich scientists." So, too, is a penchant for ers, he founded his came to psychoanalysis citing or accepting other unorthodox- own journals and pub­ soon after World War ies. When Reich thought to detect lished his own books. I I) makes it impossible radiation from some of his bions, he see Reich as the text­ for him to have studied also "saw a connection . . . [with] book example of several of those sci­ Gurwitsch mitogenetic rays" (p. 213). Martin Gardner's diag­ ences. One may also This book shows Reich formulating nosis of pseudoscien- suspect the validity of a grandiose and all-encompassing theo­ tists as hermit scientists: judgment that Reich's ries on the basis of flimsy indications at Wilhelm Reich a cogent illustration "two books for children best. For example, the interpretation of that what makes sci­ . . . were received "experiments with rubber electrodes ence sound is peer enthusiastically by die applied to the erogenous zones of veg- interaction within a disciplined com­ young" (p. xix). etatively highly sensitive individuals" munity, a dire warning to us all of what Certain passages in the book make it would be anything but straight­ can happen if we become so sure of plain that Reich was ignorant of much forward, considering just the conduc­ being right that we pay no attention to of the science in which he regarded tivity of skin and its dependence on the criticisms of competent, informed himself as competent: "24 February moisture. Yet those are die sorts of others. In that view, probably the most 1937— ... So far it has not occurred measurements Reich made "to confirm irreversible step Reich took was to to anybody to carry out truly concrete his hypothesis that sexuality is identical believe that he could produce life in die tests and to determine what Brownian with a bioelectric charge and that the test tube, thereby ignoring the conclu­ movement really is" (p. 97). "My exper­ orgasm is fundamentally an electrical sion, reached many decades earlier in iments with lava and iron explain the discharge" (p. xxi). That notion was science, that cellular life no longer arises origin of spores. The process involved based in part on "his clinical observa­ spontaneously on Earth. Wilhelm in a spinning wave seems to illustrate tion of a four-beat process in the Reich took mat fatal step during die Einstein's E = mc1 formula, like throw- orgasm which he called the "tension- mid-1930s. ing barbells with unequal sides" (p. charge (TC or orgasm formula: mechanical tension —» bioelectrical charge -* bioelectrical discharge —» "Rather than meet the criteria and stan­ mechanical relaxation" (pp. xxi-xxii). dards of existing journals and publishers, "The tension-charge law . . . [also] seems to control the mitotic process of he [Reich] founded his own journals and cell division" (p. 6). "27 May 1935— published his own books." The experiments were completely suc­ cessful—the electrical nature of sexual­ 165); "the glass electricity was found to ity has been proved!" (p. 47). "6 May The importance of this book is that it makes public for die first time Reich's be positive and the resin electricity neg­ 1936— . . . Do amoebae (motile plas­ private writings from that pivotal peri­ ative" (p. 202); "sand is solar energy ma) really originate from the swelling, od. Readers of this book must, howev­ that at one stage solidified" (p. 204). formation, and dissociation of inor­ er, be willing to adapt to die Reichian Reich never shied away from rejecting ganic matter?" Yes indeed: "17 May jargon of "vegetative," "vasovegetative," expert opinion if it disagreed with his 1936—Living earth! The preliminary "sex-economic," and "Sexpol." own: that "Kreyberg, the cancer stages of life discovered! . . . Vesicular researcher . . . has diagnosed staphylo­ disintegration of inorganic and organic Henry H. Bauer is professor of chemistry cocci" is waved aside (p. 114); "die best matter + swelling —• life. Protozoa are and science studies, Virginia Polytechnic modem experts in bacteriology cannot the result of reanimation of organic Institute and State University, Blacks- argue with me on die basic problems of material that has become inorganic!!??" burg, VA 24061-0212. my clinical experience and my specific (p. 65). "15 June 1936—There is no

44 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 question about it: The motile struc­ responsibility to cater to his emotional knowing what he was about, and pas­ tures ... are inorganic matter that is needs: "Unless you provoke me too sionate pursuit of questions of evident coming to life" (p. 66). "20 November much, my love for you will enable me importance and wide interest. When a 1936— ... No doubt about it. I'm to find the necessary patience" (p. 32). person like Reich, in his later years, right. 'Migratory cancer cells' are "There is nothing I can do," Reich strays so far out as to become intellec­ amoebic formations. They . . . demon­ wrote, when his wife Elsa's analyst tually irrelevant, that is surely a human strate the law of tension and charge in "cannot cope with Elsa's neurosis tragedy, not an indication that he was its purest form . . . My intuition is because she [the analyst] would like to flawed or irrelevant from the begin­ good. . .. Was absolutely driven to buy be my wife herself, in place of Elsa" (p. ning. In a few places, even in this a microscope. The sight of the cancer 82). "For love of Elsa I went without unflatteringly revealing book, one can cells was exactly as I had previous Gerd [one of this girlfriends] last sum­ glimpse the force of Reich's character. mer. For love of Elsa I went to other imagined" (p. 76). "1 September When he desperately needed a passport women in order not to distress her to go from Scandinavia to the United 1937— ... It is clear that the transfor­ with my desire" (p. 128). Reich seems States, he nevertheless refused on prin­ mation of grass into protozoa is the to have practiced as he preached, that ciple to accept one issued by the model for the formation of cancer" (p. sexual fulfillment is of the utmost German Embassy because it bore the 110); "cancer is essentially a complicated importance, as when he recalls "six stamp "Jew" and gave his name as sequela of dysfunctional sexual energy" ghastly weeks of abstinence, interrupt­ "Wilhelm Israel Reich" (that stamp (p. 122). ed only by emergency measures" (p. and the insertion of "Israel" having Some passages seem downright 246). been standard under the Nazi regime). megalomaniacal: "the future of Doubtless it was the same egotism that mankind is at stake" (p. 57); "for the If Reich was paranoid at the end of led Reich, again to his mind on princi­ sake of die cause, one must become his life, as the events suggest, then increasingly lonely" (p. 58). "It's incredible how stupid and petty, how "Certain passages in the book make it plain unconscious the arguments against spontaneous generation are. ... In fifty that Reich was ignorant at much of the science to one hundred years they'll idolize in which he regarded himself as competent." me" (p. 77). "Galileo Galilei! ... I thank my destiny that it has included there were also signs of it much earlier: ple, to defy the Food and Drug me in the ranks of these great fighters" "From a distance I am beginning to Administration. (p. 206). "I do not keep a diary for the smell an attempt, albeit unconscious, This book provides copious support same reasons an adolescent girl does to alienate me from the children" (p. for those who would debunk Reich's but because these notes on my remark­ 44). "My isolation seems inevitable. scientific pretensions, and Reich's atti­ able existence may someday be of use" People . . . feel resentful because I see tude—especially perhaps toward (p. 215). "I have also learned to accept through them. . . . Like insects, they women—as he comes across as notably injustices without bearing grudges" (p. are attracted to the flame of my knowl­ self-centered and altogether not very 29). "There are few people around who edge while fearing it" (p. 115). In 1937 nice. Yet the book was put together for can match my self-discipline in under­ Reich feared die reaction of "the cancer publication by an admirer, as the intro­ standing and tolerating other people" radium industry" if his "method of duction plainly shows. So we get (p. 31). cancer treatment were to succeed . . . insight not only into Reich but also Trouble with followers and lovers [but] it would be wrong to claim that into his followers, and into how skepti­ reveals Reich in an unsympathetic my behavior is paranoid" (p. 131). cal perspective is lost once allegiance light, as when he writes to his wife Since this book focuses on the criti­ has been lent. that, "Otto circulates these silly letters, cal years during which Reich became plays like a small child at being an irrevocably isolated from mainstream Boadella, David. 1973. Wilhelm Reich, Chicago: Henry Regnery. organizer, and has no idea what it is all organizations, this review has empha­ Gardner. Martin. 1957. Fads and Fallacies in the about. . . . [He is] an unconsciously sized evidence of that isolation and Name of Science. New York: Dover; Chapter hostile friend" (p. 7). As soon as an those aspects of Reich's personality that 21. "Orgonomy." Greenfield. Jerome. 1974. Wilhelm Reich vs. the expert helper fails to accept Reich's may have inclined him in that direc­ U.S.A. New York: W. W. Norton. ideas, he becomes non grata and wrong tion. But one can hardly understand Mann, W. Edward, and Edward Hoffmann. (p. 54): "I don't believe that from so one-sided an emphasis the 1980. The Man Who Dreamed of Tomorrow. Los Angeles: J. P. Tardier. Lo wen bach is bringing enough objec­ enormous appeal Wilhelm Reich has Reich, llse Ollendorff. 1969. Wilhelm Reich. tivity to bear on the matter; instead, it had for many highly intelligent and New York: Sr. Martin's Press. looks as if he deliberately did every­ competent people. He had qualities Sharaf, Myron. 1983. Fury on Earth. New York: St. Martin's Press. thing he could to slow the experiments that we all tend to admire, such as great Wilson. Colin. 1981. The Quest fir Wilhelm Reich. down" (p. 55). It is always his lover's strength of character, the confidence of Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor/Doubleday. •

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 45 Reports from the Alien Abduction Study Conference at M.I.T.

Close Encounters of the Fourth Kind: Alien Abduction, UFOs, and the Conference at M.I. T. By C. D. B. Bryan. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, GORDON STEIN 1995. 477 pp. Hardcover, $25.00. Alien Discussions: Proceedings of the Abduction Study Conference Held at MIT, Cambridge, Mass. Edited by Andrea Pritchard, David E. Pritchard, John E. Mack, Pam Kasey, and Claudia Yapp. North Cambridge Press, P.O. Box 240, Cambridge, MA 02140. 1995. 683 pp. Hardcover, $69.95.

A lien Discussions is the proceed- The Proceedings volume is an expen­ few are simply garbage. The reader can ings (papers and discussion) of sively produced report of what is perhaps make his or her own specific judg­ -the Abduction Study Con­ the most important conference ever held ments on these. None resolves the ference at M.I.T. in 1992. Close about the purported abduction of basic problem of whether abductions Encounters of the Fourth Kind is a humans by aliens from UFOs. Many of are real "kidnappings" or not. Many of report by novelist C. D. B. Bryan of his the participants in the conference were the flaws in the data are pointedly impressions of the conference, which Ph.D.s (20, mostly psychologists); and underlined when (as Bryan describes) he attended as a reporter. The results there were five physicians. Most of the there is a strong protest by many of the are quite different when one views the attendees were either specialists in the scientists at the meeting that the infa­ conference from the two UFO field (on the pro side) mous Roper survey given to people to perspectives. For example, or claimed "abductees." see how many had the "abductee expe­ Bryan tells us that two Because of the highly rience" was poorly and unscientifically documents were required unusual nature of the designed. Since such pro-UFO writers reading beforehand by par­ claims of the abductees, as Budd Hopkins had a large role in ticipants in the conference: there is strong need for the development of the survey ques­ David Jacobs's Secret Life good objective data on tions, perhaps this again underscores and folklorist Thomas Bullard's paper "On Stolen these incidents, some­ the fact that nonscientists should not Time." The latter is a sort thing that has so far been be attempting to do scientific research. of statistical summary of largely lacking. The con­ The Proceedings volume is marred characteristics of abductees sistency of the stories told by false starts, sloppy research, poor and abduction scenarios. by the abductees is such editing, and factual errors, but it has The Jacobs book is definitely pro- that they appear to be hav­ some real contributions. Many years abduction (although it tries to main­ ing some sort of experience, but down the road, it may well be looked tain a scholarly distance—unsuccess­ whether this experience is purely psy­ at as one of the pioneering volumes fully—from endorsing the phe­ chological is far from clear. ^^^^^^ that started the work that nomenon). The Bullard paper is prob­ Many of the papers in the eventually led to the solu­ ably an accurate statistical summary, Proceedings volume may tion to this mystery. although it implies the certainty of help shed some light on The Bryan book abductions in a subtle way. The this problem, although few provides a needed bal­ Proceedings themselves never mention could be called hard science ance to the omissions of this required reading. They also are contributions. Most are the other book. It gives misleading about the entire makeup of social sciences pilot studies. ALIEN ABDUCTION lots of "outside the con­ the invitees. Although the writings of They indicate directions for UFOs. I«D ference" talk, often skeptics (in the CSICOP sense) are future research studies. THE CONFERENCE between the participants mentioned repeatedly in the Pro­ The quality of the and Bryan, providing a ceedings, the only attendee from papers in the Proceedings flavor that can't be other­ CSICOP's ranks was Robert Sheaffer. C - D. B . S R Y A volume varies tremendously wise obtained. On the No others were invited, as I understand (perhaps as might be expected). Some other hand, Bryan has filled out his it, to this "by invitation only" meeting. are quite good (e.g., Hufford and book with much information taken, as Bullard), some are just OK, while a he acknowledges, from J. Allen Hynek,

46 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Timothy Good, Keith Thompson, and the enormous UFO literature to be the statements, with no critical evalua­ John Mack's books. Some of this is able to evaluate it objectively. It takes tion. There is a lot of talk about a pro-UFO material. years to read enough and be in a posi­ required "paradigm shift," without What seems to be the problem with tion to have some grasp of the entire much justification for such a drastic Bryan, in general, is that he simply field. One simply cannot become an step. The same caveats apply to the does not have enough background in instant expert. many post-conference interviews that In addition, Bryan does not have the Bryan book contains. His conclu­ Gordon Stein is a physiologist, author of the background to evaluate statements sion section seems to show a sort of ten books, and director of the Center for made to him by Linda Moulton Howe naivite about the literature that should Inquiry Libraries. and many others. He simply reports raise cautions.

Recycling Questionable Treatments

TCDCM^C ii uiKinc What to Do About Your Brain-Injured Child, or Your Brain-Damaged, NC-* " ^ Mentally Retarded, Mentally Deficient, Cerebral-Palsied Spastic, Flaccid ^^^^^•^^^^•^^H Rigid Epileptic, Autistic, Athetoid Hyperactive. Down's Child. By Glenn Doman. Avery Publishing Group, Garden City Park, N.Y., 1994, xv + 294 pp. Paperback, $11.95.

ne of the most characteristic fea­ certain other brain areas. To make mat­ complex function carried out by por­ Otures of a questionable treatment ters worse, several of the disorders list­ tions of the visual cortex, a fact that has is the claim that it will be effective for ed in die title are themselves mere been known since at least the 1960s. several different disorders, each with differenlabelt s fopathophysiologicar groups of differenl causest disorder. s Actually, the pons has no visual func­ Given this, the title of the book by with different causes. Thus, there are tion whatsoever. On page 56 the pons Glenn Doman reviewed here is a dead several causes for mental retardation is also credited with being "responsible giveaway: What to Do About Your and mental deficiency. Even epilepsy is for controlling trunk and limb motion Brain-Injured Child, or Your Brain- a complex group of related disorders to move the body in crawling motions Damaged Mentally Retarded Mentally differing in cause, underlying neu­ with the belly on the floor. Therefore, Deficient, cerebral-palsied, Spastic, ropathology, and appropriate treat­ the pons was responsible for crawling." Flaccid, Rigid, Epileptic, Autistic, ment. To suggest that all these disor­ Wrong. While motor fibers that are Athetoid, Hyperactive, ders can be treated in die same manner used to control body movements pass Down's Child. Most of the is absurd. through the pons on their way from conditions listed in the T A Hunoia MHW mi —*ta One would expect that higher brain structures down to the title have totally different an author proposing a spinal cord, the pons is in no way causes. For example, treatment for brain-dam­ responsible for these movements. To Down's Syndrome is aged children would have argue that it is, is like arguing that a caused by chromosomal BrmlnjuredChUd a sound knowledge of telephone cable is responsible for trans­ Or four Srafe-duLqal abnormality and is HaUtf IttmHut neurology, neuroanatomy, forming spoken speech into electrical expressed in a characteris­ and brain function. Alas, impulses simply because those impulses tic pattern of changes in SfmUcUKdt. Doman seems to have happen to travel through the cable. IQ. By the time die fft-44 rrJ?»~»r.- only a nodding acquain­ Neurological howlers like these patient is in his or her late tance with these areas. should make it clear that Doman has 30s, neuropathologies ImntOlU The book is chock full of almost no real knowledge of the field and neurochemical changes Glenn Doman the most egregious errors in which he is attempting to be an in the brain similar to those of in these fields. For exam­ expert. It is rather as if someone pro­ Alzheimer's disease occur. The neu­ ple, in the "Developmental Profile" in posed a new way of repairing almost ropathology of autism, however, is the center of die book, die brain area anything that could go wrong with an totally different, consisting of cellular called the "pons" is said to be responsi­ automobile, but confused the steering changes in the cerebellum as well as ble for "outline perception." This is wheel with the carburetor. simply wrong. Outline perception is a Having said all this, it is important

skeptical INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 47 to discuss just what the therapeutic around the "blockage." This is accom­ an almost identical title. The only dif­ approach taken by Doman (and his plished by various types of bizarre train­ ference in the title of the "new" book is Institutes for the Achievement of ing procedures. One example concerns the addition of "Down's Child." The Human Potential) actually is. The basic the case of 10-month-old "Mary" (p. actual contents of this "new" book con­ idea is that the brain develops sequen­ 151) who is "for all practical purposes sist of nothing more than a page-by- tially from lower anatomical structures deaf," although she does show a startle page reproduction of the text of (like the medulla, pons, etc.) to higher reflex to sound—showing she's not deaf Doman's 1974 book. The only changes ones (like the cortex). This is another at all. To overcome Mary's blockage, the are the addition of a new title page, example of Doman simply being igno­ therapy will take advantage of the nor­ new Library of Congress cataloging-in- rant of basic neuroscience. The brain mal startle reflex. Specifically, Mary's publication data, and a few pages at the does not develop in this manner. mother will "stimulate her auditorially end listing other related publications Nonetheless, based on this erroneous every waking half hour. ... Mother will by Doman and his colleagues and view of neurological development, do so by unexpectedly banging two information on the Institutes for the Doman proposes that all sorts of differ­ blocks of wood just behind Mary's Achievement of Human Potential. The ent types of brain damage result in a head. She does so ten times at three-sec­ text itself has not been changed one "blockage" of neurodevelopment at ond intervals in each of twenty-four bit, in spite of advances in the knowl­ some particular level. Doman says that sessions" (p. 159). This cruel and use­ edge of neurology and specific criti­ the "blockage" may be only partial and less therapy will likely produce a terri­ cisms of Doman's claims over the 20 that in many cases there is a way fied and anxious child. years since the 1974 book was pub­ Finally, it should be noted that, lished. The failure to change claims in Terence Hines is in the Department of while this book masquerades as a new the face of evidence that they are false Psychology at Pace University Pleasant- title, it isn't anything of the sort. is another common characteristic of ville, N.Y. Doman published a book in 1974 with pseudoscientists. •

Biology of Real Sea Monsterss

GORDON STEISTEIN ^ Monsters of of the the Sea. Sea. B yB Richary Richard Ellid Elliss . Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1994. •••^^^^^•i ' 429 pppp. HardcoverHardcover., $30.00.

ryptozoology is the search for pre­ be disappointed if they are seeking unusual types of animal. Cviously unknown animals. Yet something strictly about unknown and An interesting feature of this book Richard Ellis's Monsters of the Sea is only poorly known sea creatures, but readers is the way in which Ellis shifts back partially a cryptozoological who are interested in see­ and forth from biology to literature. book. It deals with sea crea­ ing how a species can move The efforts of H. G. Wells, Jules Verne, tures (although it slides from unknown to known Herman Melville, and Peter Benchley over to lake creatures as will be delighted. (among others) to describe whales, well). It has chapters on the There is a lot of straight sharks, and giant squid in their works Loch Ness monster, sea ser­ biology here. Some of it, are examined. Melville comes off fairly pents, and mermaids, but specifically the chapter on well in the accuracy of his description most of the book is spent the manatee, is fraught of whales (he was a whaler for a while), on straight description of with redundancies. But the although white (albino?) whales are not the known biology of the language is not too techni­ known. Jules Verne may have been very whale, giant squid, mana­ cal for the average educat­ accurate in his ability to predict inven­ tee, octopus, and shark. ed person to understand, tions in the future, but he apparently True, until recently the manatee, and for that Ellis is to be thanked. did not do his homework with regard giant squid, and some forms of shark There certainly is more information to the then-known biology of the crea­ were unknown creatures to the extent here than I ever wanted to know about tures he wrote about. that they might have been considered a the squid and the octopus, which seem The movies made from the novels pan of cryptozoology. Readers of this to be Ellis's favorites. Some people, of these authors take things another book, however, should be prepared to though, may be fascinated by these two step away from reality. Perhaps you

48 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 could call it "dramatic license," but mild-mannered and not hostile to the level of that of a scientific journal movies based on the Verne novels, for humans). The information provided article, which might scare some people example, make so many errors that on the literature and films about sea off. Overall, the book is a mixed bag, they are almost pure fiction. The repu­ creatures is a useful part of the book. but should appeal most to the person tations of the squid and octopus seem Ellis includes a large bibliography of who has a serious interest in some of the to have suffered (they are actually the materials he has consulted, almost at more unusual creatures of die sea. D

Fortune-Telling and Other Thefts

PETER HUSTON License to Steal Traveling Con Artists, Their Games. Their Rules—Your Money By Dennis Marlock and John Dowling. Paladin Press, Boulder. Colo. 299 pp. Hardcover, $30.00.

f there are those who question tune-tellers actually believe in fortune- Although this is not a text on con­ Iwhether fortune-telling can be con­ telling, and virtually all of them would juring, the book describes in detail sidered a predatory crime, this book be ridiculed by their peers if they ever how these and similar effects are per­ should change their minds. Unfor­ actually requested to have their own formed. When the time comes, the con tunately, it also has serious weaknesses. fortunes told. The daughters of such artist/fortune-teller will often instruct Written by Dennis Marlock, a police fortune-tellers (an exclusively female the victim to turn over large sums of fraud investigator, and John Dowling, occupation among Gypsies) the money, valuables, or credit cards for an anthropologist, License to Steal cov­ authors note, are trained in cold-reading "magical curse removal." Of course, in most cases the fortune-teller simply ers the lifestyle, crime patterns, and techniques from an early age through disappears, as do the valuables. (For confidence games employed by a crim­ both clandestine and open observation one example of such a scam, see "Long inal element among the Romani peo­ of their mothers' chosen trade. A good Prison Terms for Fortune-Tellers in ple (a.k.a. "Gypsies") and other travel­ Gypsy fortune-teller divides her clients Connecticut Case," in the Fall 1990 ing vagabond groups. Eleven of the into three categories. thirteen chapters deal with Romani The first are those who are seeking SKEPTICAL INQUIRER.) Upon discov­ crime bands. The remaining two deal light entertainment. The second are des­ ery, many of those who have been with the Traveller Clans. perate people without taken by a swindle based on fear of According to the authors, much money who seek supernatural curses are too embar­ the "Traveller Clans" are LICENSE reassurance, attention, and rassed to report die incident to law- tightly knit, insular, hered­ TO STEAL support. The authors say a enforcment authorities. itary groups of Scottish, competent fortune-teller In most of the remaining chapters Irish, and English descent will provide these people the authors give detailed descriptions who have resided in the with what they seek, and they owilf al varietbe satisfiey ofd confidenc cus­ e swindles— United States for many tomers. black-topping scams, roof-repair swin­ generations and make the dles, simple burglaries, elaborate bulk of their income The third category shoplifting ploys, and other crimes fre- through traveling confi­ is desperate people with quently used by Gypsy criminals. In dence swindles similar to lots of money. In such some cases, illegal baby-selling, and those perpetrated by the MARLOCK cases, a fortune-teller may black-market adoptions, for example, DOWLING Gypsy groups (although engage the client in an the authors describe how fortune- fortune-telling does not elaborate confidence telling might be employed as an seem to be common among them). scheme. Often this will lead to a decla­ adjunct in some schemes to manipu­ The two chapters likely to be of ration that the victim is suffering from late the victim. But in most cases die most interest to readers of this publica­ a terrible "curse." Evidence of this crimes do not involve an alleged super­ tion deal with fortune-telling. They supernatural trauma will often be pro­ natural element—simply deceit. detail in explicit and angry style just vided through sleight-of-hand tricks, Because of the fear of law-enforcement how such businesses operate. Ac­ such as "removing evil spirits with an involvement, most swindlers rarely use cording to the authors, few Gypsy for- egg" or "changing urine into blood." violence in committing such crimes.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 49 For this reason, and others, these swin­ quote newspaper articles at length case and had never heard her referred dles rarely get the attention they without giving the source or date. to as a Gypsy. He was not aware of her deserve. Footnotes are provided in a haphazard exact ethnic background, but we estab­ Unfortunately, although License to and irregular manner, and in some lished that she was a native English- Steal has many strengths, it also has chapters (e.g., those on Traveller Clans) speaking Caucasian originally from the many faults. One is a somewhat not a single footnote is given. New York City area. He did say that defamatory tone throughout much of The case of Sherri Kaye Diamond she lived a vagabond, Gypsylike the work. Although in the introduc­ (multiple aliases) provides an example lifestyle. Given the lack of citations tion and epilogue the authors take of further problems. Sherri Kaye throughout the work, this discrepancy great pains to differentiate between the Diamond, known locally in my area of is quite troubling. Gypsy (Romani) people in general and Schenectady County, New York, as In Lamar Keene's classic (and out- the Gypsy (Romani) criminals, "the shrimp lady," was a traveling con of-print) work The Psychic Mafia, he throughout most of the chapters they artist arrested for "returning" food to states that among fraudulent spiritual­ fail to maintain this distinction. grocery stores. Although she would ist mediums there exists an elaborate Quotes like this are common: "Gypsies first telephone for permission to return network of information exchange, are opportunists, and automobiles pro­ the items for refund, she would merely which allows them to "reveal" startling vide an abundance of avenues to illegal lift suitable goods from the shelves and facts that clients do not believe could wealth. They exploit every avenue at no point purchase them. In effect possibly be known by natural means. brazenly, audaciously, and ingeniously" the store would pay a "refund" on Naturally, such mediums do not keep (p. 168). items that were never purchased. files on everyone in America, merely In many places the authors do not When she was caught in the act, it was on individuals who have been known seem to have done their homework. discovered that she and her mother had to donate large sums to "spirit medi­ They describe some Gypsies as speak­ made hundreds of thousands of dollars ums" in the past. Marlock and ing "Yugoslavian," when Serbo- performing such scams throughout the Dowling do not mention whether such Croatian is the more proper term country. a national network exists among the (although they quite clearly state that The case is described with names roving, often interrelated Gypsy fortune- Gypsies live in a wide variety of and aliases provided, but not the loca­ telling groups. Eastern European countries). Fre­ tion of the crime or a reference or If you are looking for a detailed quently and consistently, the authors source. If it were not for the fact that it description of a variety of confidence was a local case, I would not have been swindles or fraudulent fortune-telling Peter Huston is a writer based in able to check the facts. When I did, I techniques, License to Steal is an excel­ Schenectady, New York. His first book. discovered that although the authors lent source. On the other hand, if you Tongs, Gangs and Triads, a detailed describe Diamond as a Gypsy, the like a reliable work describing the study of Chinese gangs, secret societies, detective I spoke to at the local police lifestyles of vagabond swindlers, this and underground religious cults, was station said he had dealt with her fre- book simply contains too much ques­ published this year by Paladin Press. quently during the prosecution of the tionable material to fit the bill.

CSICOP and the Skeptical Inquirer changed the terms You can make a lasting impact of discussion in fields ranging from pseudoscience and the paranormal to science and educational pol­ icy. You can take an enduring step to preserve its on the future of skepticism. vitality when you provide for the Skeptical Inquirer in your will. Your bequest to CSICOP Inc. will help to provide for the future of skepticism as it helps to keep the Skeptical . . . when you provide inquirer financiallysecure . Depending on your tax situation, a charitable bequest to CSICOP may have little impact on for the Skeptical Inquirer the net size of your estate—or may even result in a greater amount being available to your beneficiaries. in your will. We would be happy to work with you and your attorney in the development of a will or estate plan that meets your wishes. A variety of arrangements are possible, including gifts of a fixed amount or a percentage of your estate; living trusts or gift annu­ ities, which provide you with a lifetime income; or a contingent bequest that provides for the Skeptical Inquirer only if your primary beneficiaries do not Believe it. survive you. For more information, contact Barry Karr, Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Executive Director of CSICOP. All inquiries will be PO Box 703, Amherst NY 14226-0703 • 716-636-1425 held in the strictest confidence.

50 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 New Books

The Chicken from Minsk. Yuri B. for Armageddon. A timely work, with ence, an understanding of technology's Chernyak and Robert M. Rose. Basic the coming end of the millennium. social impacts, and the need to use Books, 10 East 53rd Street, New York, experts wisely in resolving science/soci­ NY 10022-5299. 1995. 191 pp. $10.00, Magic or Medicine? Robert Buckman ety issues. A chapter titled "The 'Two paper. Presents 100 "infuriatingly chal­ and Karl Sabbagh. Prometheus Books, Cultures'—and a Third" includes sec­ lenging" brainteasers in the Russian tra­ Amherst, NY 14228. 1995. 261 pp. tions on C. P. Snow and Jacob dition. The problems teach how to think $26.95, hardcover. First U.S. publica­ Bronowski, passive and active resis­ scientifically and mathematically. tion of book published by Macmillan tance to science, the science counter­ Examples: "Special relativity in the tailor in London in 1993 that accompanied a culture, the antiscience-technology shop" and "The platinum planet." British television scries by the same movement, antiscience fringe groups, name. The authors look critically at the Jeremy Rifkin, and the power of the press in scientific illiteracy and literacy. An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, achievements and deficiencies and the and Hoaxes of the Occult and similarities and differences of both con­ Supernatural. James Randi. St. ventional medicine and alternative Urantia: The Great Cult Mystery. Martin's Press, 175 Fifth Ave., New medicine. They argue that healing has Martin Gardner. Prometheus Books, York, NY 10010. 1995. 282 pp. always been partly the science of clini­ Amherst, NY 14228. 1995. 445 pp. $24.95, hardcover. Dubbed "James cal treatment (medicine) and partly an $25-95, hardcover. The first book- Randi's Decidedly Skeptical Defini­ art (magic). Medicine may make the length critical examination of the tions of Alternate Realities," this is a patient get well but often it is the magic Urantia cult and its massive "bible," The much-needed handy guide alphabeti­ that makes the patient feel well. Urantia Book, published in 1955 under cally presenting hundreds of short the direction of cult leader William entries (typically one to four para­ The Myth of Scientific Literacy. Morris Sadler. The book is the largest work ever graphs), with cross-references and an H. Shamos. Rutgers University Press, said to have been channeled by unseen extensive index. The topics range over New Brunswick, NJ 08901. 1995. 300 higher beings through human contacts. the paranormal, supernatural, occult pp. $27.95, hardcover. A former presi­ Gardner discusses the cult's beliefs, crit­ and mysticism, and fringes of science, dent of both the New York Academy of ically examines the book itself, includ­ including noteworthy people and Sciences and the National Science ing the flaws in its scientific content, groups. The information is authorita­ Teachers Association thoughtfully and reveals two major developments tive and concise. It is also highly read­ argues that universal scientific literacy that threaten to splinter the movement. able, as one would expect from Randi. is a futile goal. He calls instead for And it has the additional virtue, absent emphasizing an appreciation of sci­ in almost all previous guides, of pre­ —Kendrick Frazier senting the skeptical viewpoint. Introduction by Arthur C. Clarke. QUOTEWORTHY Highly recommended. The Scientific Addition to Common Sense

Eve of Destruction. Eva Shaw. Lowell "The principle of the scientific method, in fact is only a refinement, by analysis and House, 2029 Century Park East, Suite controls, of the universal process of learning by experience. This is usually called 3290, Los Angeles, CA 90067. 1995. common sense. The scientific addition to common sense is merely a more penetrat­ ing analysis of the complex factors involved, even in seemingly simple events, and 238 pp. $22.95, hardcover. Subtitled the necessity of numerous repetitions and controls before conclusions are estab­ "Prophecies, Theories, and Preparations lished. Where laymen, as a rule, do not understand or apply the scientific method is for the End of the World," this book in the matter of controls. Thousands of honest errors have been committed and examines our morbid fascination, and in ludicrous conclusions promulgated by failure to understand the necessity of controls." some cases obsession, with out own col­ lective demise. Shaw explores the history —Anton J. Carlson, "Science and the Supernatural," of the prophecies, theories, and religious Science, February 27, 1937 movements that surround preparations

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 51 Articles of Note

Garnett, Leah R. "Homeopathy: Is Israelis who, during the Gulf War, the rest of the available American video Less Really More?" Harvard Health resided in areas that were either menu." He presents constructive sug­ Letter, 20(7): 1-3, May 1995. A low- exposed (high-stress conditions) or not gestions for how TV could improve the key, balanced description and evalua­ exposed (low-stress conditions) to mis­ public knowledge of science. tion of homeopathy. sile attacks. Magical thinking emerged more frequently in subjects under Shalit, Ruth. "Witch Hunt." New Jaroff, Leon. "Weird Science." Time, high-stress conditions. Also, high-stress Republic, June 19, 1995, pp. 14-15. May 15, 1995, pp. 75, 78. Strong cri­ levels exerted more pronounced effects Review of the Fells Acres Day School tique of how new shows catering to on emergence of magical thinking in case in Massachusetts, as a result of viewers' growing appetite for the para­ persons with low tolerance of ambigu­ which Violet and Cheryl Amirault are normal obliterate the line between fact ity than in those with high tolerance. in prison for up to 20 years, apparent and fiction in a "a fast-growing TV victims of the hysteria over multiple- genre that rivals the most irrepressible Sagan, Carl. "What TV Could Do For victim abuse cases at day-care centers supermarket tabloids in promoting America." Parade Magazine, June 4, and questionable interviewing tech­ pseudoscience and the paranormal." 1995, pp. 12-14. Lively critique of TVs niques and investigative methods that Scholars and scientists are quoted treatment of science, characterized by suggested to the children the testimony about the harm the shows can do. mad scientists and credulous, sensa­ the authorities wished to elicit. Shortly after this article appeared, Will tionalized pro-pseudoscience pseudo- Miller, host of NBC's daily "The Other documentaries. "Where, in such pro­ Simpson, Richard L, and Brenda Side," one of the shows skewered for grams, arc the joys of science? The Smith Myles. "Effectiveness of Facili­ hokey reenactments and weird sensa­ delights in discovering how the uni­ tated Communication with Children tionalism, quit the show. verse is put together? The exhilaration and Youth with Autism." Journal of in knowing a deep thing well?" Sagan Special Education, 28(4): 424-439, says modern society desperately needs Keinan, Giora. "Effects of Stress and 1995. A 15-week study evaluated the solutions to problems that require deep Tolerance of Ambiguity on Magical utility and validity of facilitated com­ understanding of science and technolo­ Thinking." Journal of Personality and munication. Students were unable to gy. "I do not think many youngsters Social Psychology, 67(1): 48-55. July correctly respond to questions the facil­ will be encouraged toward a career in 1994. Questionnaires assessing differ­ itator lacked answers to. science or engineering by watching ent types of magical thinking and Saturday-morning TV—or much of ambiguity were administered to 174 —Kendrick Frazier

"When the Skeptical Inquirer arrives, I always take it home from the office and pore through its pages, wondering what new misunderstandings will be revealed. I'm always amazed that there's still another subject that I never thought of." —Carl Sagan Angels and Auras . . . UFOs and Unicorns . . . Miracles and Magic. . .

THESE THINGS MAY ENTERTAIN US. THEY MAY EVEN SPEAK TO SOME OF OUR DEEPEST WISHES. BUT THEY DON'T REALLY HELP US UNDERSTAND HOW THE WORLD WORKS.

For that type of undemanding, we need die tools of science and reason and critical dunking. That's where the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER comes in. Six times a year. S.J. brings you die best articles about critical investigations of paranormal and fringe-science claims. It also presents die latest reports on die slate of science in our culture. Most of all. die SKEPTICAL INQUIRERdemonstrate s die need to question everything—and in so doing, proves again and again dial die real world is far more exciting than anything die wishful thinkers can come up with. Subscriptions are only $29.50 per year. Send your check payable to: The Skeptical Inquirer, PO Box 703, Amherst. NY 14226-0703 OR CALL TOLL-FRE E 1 -800-634-1610. PUBLISHED BIMONTHLY BY THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL

52 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Forum

Science Without Adjectives

RALPH ESTLING

ike April snow, a small flurry of Democrats, Republicans, as well as are manifestly incompatible and intel­ letters has recently fluttered those politically, socially, and econom­ lectually unpermissible, has rarely Ldown upon me. Many of them ically uninformed to the point of idio­ caused a scientist to lose a wink of arc on the general theme of an individ­ cy. Some are very good scientists, while sleep. More to the point, the effect on ual being "a good scientist" and "a others, only so-so, and some are very his or her science varies from none at good Christian" simultaneously. Sir bad, indeed. That is to say, some are all to complete and total, including the Isaac Newton was mentioned as a case able to keep their professional and per­ gamut of everything in between. So it in point: He denied the divinity of sonal attitudes totally separate, with a all seems to depend on the particular Jesus, although he was sensible enough strict policy of mutual noninterference; scientist you have in mind and how not to do so too publicly. (True, some others less so; and yet others, not at all. well his or her particular double-think Anglican bishops seem inclined toward I wish I could be more definitive, but meshes. embarrassed ambiguity about some of the truth has this vague, casual sloppi- Think about Philipp Lenard and the more outre" aspects of Christianity ness about it that has always irritated Johannes Stark, both Nobel laureates nowadays, but 300 years ago, the some people. in physics, and champions of "Aryan Church of England was a bit more set Of course, we are free to argue over science" even during the days of the in its ways.) People accept the death­ the morality of such double-think, middle-of-the-road, pre-Third Reich bed conversion of Charles Darwin such self-induced split-brain tech­ Weimar Republic of Germany. Lenard from riotous atheism to meek belief; niques, whereby half holds fast to the edited a book titled 110 German we are constantly being told that textbook rules governing biology and Scientists Against Einstein, by which he Galileo was, at heart, a good Catholic the other half to the Virgin Birth; one meant, against "Jewish science," causing and that Einstein, deep down, was a cortex harbors within its convolutions Einstein to remark with a sigh, "If I worshipper of the God of his fathers. both the intricacies of astrophysics and had been wrong it would only have The question of whether, and how the staying of the sun upon Gibeon needed one." much, a scientist's personal outlook on and the moon in the valley of Ajalon; Another Nobel laureate in physics life reflects on his or her science is while the same skull houses and pro­ from Germany, Werner Heisenberg, important, but the particular signifi­ tects within its limited confines both a stayed behind in Germany after the cance of die individual case has to be knowledge of geology and the certainty Nazis had taken over—Einstein never taken into consideration. We have, and that Earth is no more than 10,000 forgave him for this—and worked on have had, scientists who are devout years old; and all these fit snugly, with­ the German atom bomb. Keen minds Christians of all denominations, Jews, out any jostling. We can argue over the still dispute whether he stayed in order Jehovah's Witnesses, Muslims (Sunni intellectual honesty involved—in fact, to build a bomb for Hitler or to sec to and Shi'ite), Hindus, Buddhists (Far I'm sure we should—but the ability to it that it wasn't built. I wonder if Eastern and Californian), agnostics, have two mutually contradictory con­ Heisenberg knew. Carl Jung (Swiss psy­ atheists, Nazis, Marxists, Keynesians, victions, two belief systems, each fer­ chologist and psychiatrist) and Konrad monetarists, socialists, liberals, Tories, vently and unquestioningly held, that Lorenz (German-Austrian Nobel laure-

SKEPT1CAIINQURER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 53 ate in physiology/medicine) each had tilings. trooper stomped noisily into his lecture nice things to say about Nazism while it Perhaps it's time we stop talking hall at Berlin University, complete with prevailed, but after the war, each about American science, British science, jodhpurs, riding boots, spurs, and abjured. Trofim Lysenko (Soviet biolo­ Japanese science, Aryan science, Jewish swastika armband, Sauerbnich paused gist and agronomist), J. B. S. Haldane, science, Marxist science. Christian sci­ in his lecture until the stormtrooper and Frederic Joliot-Curie were ail dedi­ ence (except for Christian Science, of thumped himself down in the front cated Marxists (Haldane later gave it up course), Islamic science, atheist science, row and then said sweetly to him, for Hinduism). Of these six, four were creation science, or any other kind or "Thank you, Herr Kollege. for leaving excellent scientists, one a crank materi­ denomination of science, and just talk your horse outside." alist, and one a crank mystic. I've no about good science and bad science, Perhaps it's time we all left those idea what all this proves about Nazism, which are the only kinds that matter. clumping boots, jangling spurs, arm­ Marxism, and science, separately or in Perhaps we should emulate the emi­ bands, and all those adjectives of science combination. Perhaps all it proves is nent professor of surgery Ernst outside, and just concentrate our minds that scientists are pretty much like die Ferdinand Sauerbnich. When in the and hearts on the only two science rest of us, muddleheaded about some mid-1930s a Brownshirted storm- adjectives that matter: good and bad. •

54 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 CSICOP News

high, the rules are not in our favor, but we Randi Sends Grand-Opening Greeting must persevere—and we will. H. L Mencken wrote: "Hope is a pathological The following letter from James advice and assistance to me in this new belief in the occurrence of the impossi­ Randi was read to the attendees of the endeavor. ble." We have vigorously denied this pes­ Center for Inquiry dedication, held The scalawags (is that a slanderous simistic view, and the creation of this cen­ June 9, in Amherst. N. Y. or libelous word?) are still out there, ter is material proof of our opposition to folks, and they gain strength every day. such a dismal attitude. At risk of offend­ To All Concerned, The media, in general, support pseudo- ing both Mencken and Dante, I suggest that a sign might be placed over the door I sincerely regret that I cannot be science and crackpot notions with cal­ "Take hope, all ye who enter here." present today at this auspicious event. lous indifference, looking only at the The birth of L. Ron Hubbard, the land­ advertising revenues and seldom at the I congratulate us all on the opening ing of the Ark, the religious conversion ethical considerations. We cannot hope of this enterprise today. We have worked of Phil Klass, and the ascension to Venus to improve their ethics, nor to provide hard to see the doors open, and now, by them with a conscience; but we can of Shirley MacLaine are all events I have our continued support, let us offer assur­ bring the public to an understanding missed, but none so momentous as this. ance that they will never close. that lies are easy to sell and arc regular­ Seriously, folks, I wish I were there. I love you all. ly being offered at bargain prices. CSICOP and I have had rough In absentia, times of late. It's no secret that we've The battlefield is huge, the stakes are James Randi been involved in battling several devas­ tating legal problems and after years of expensive and emotionally charged Dedication of Center for Inquiry Draws 230 opposition to those who would deny The gala grand opening on June 9, 1995, of the Center for Inquiry, Phase II, in us the right to speak the truth, we have Amherst New York, attracted some 230 well-wishers. The centerpiece of CSICOP's emerged victorious. The scars are there, shared headquarters was dedicated by author and entertainer but they will heal. Steve Allen. Also participating were Leon Jaroff, Science Editor The center provides us with a hub Emeritus of 77me; Herbert Hauptman, Nobel Laureate in chem­ from which we can hope to operate and istry; Stan Lundine, former Lieutenant Governor of New York; Skeptical Inquirer Editor Kendrick Frazier, and many others. to advise an even more effective and The Center for Inquiry campus now provides 20,000 square far-reaching network of organizations feet of office, meeting, seminar, library, and warehouse space that share CSICOP's basic aims. that is shared by CSICOP and CODESH (the Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism). The Center has a library Wounded as we have been, we will Steve Allen endeavor to never again allow the agents complex with a capacity for 50,000 volumes, and houses three special libraries on science and skepticism, freethought and humanism, and of irrationality to damage our efforts to American philosophical naturalism. bring the public a clearer picture of Representatives from several international skeptical and humanist groups what really goes on in a real world. enlivened the event, including Amardeo Sarma, representing Euroskeptics and I'm happy to announce that Mario Mendez Acosta of Mex­ Scientific American magazine will begin ico's SOMIE organization. soon a new monthly column titled, "Nationwide and world­ wide, the skeptical movement "The Skeptical American." I'll be the will benefit from an impressive author. This will be my effort to take up headquarters institution that where Leon Jaroff had to leave off when includes library facilities, meeting he—involuntarily—discontinued his and conference rooms that hold "Skeptical Eye" feature in Discover mag­ 200 people, audio and video pro­ duction spaces, and other vitally azine years ago. 1 have a lot of catching needed capabilities," said CSICOP up to do, and both Leon and Martin Chair Paul Kurtz. Gardner have generously offered their

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 55 Logic from page 11 immense, notably his recent work on to him a clever way to model fuzzy val­ "fuzzy entropy" and "fuzzy systems." ues as fuzzy points within cubes and fuzzy systems. He now teaches electri­ Kosko is also into Zen meditation. hypercubes. He likes to speak of the cal engineering at die University of He believes U.S. logicians and manufac­ day he learned that "science is not Southern California, Los Angeles. turers are still mired in the binary true"—that is, all its laws are fuzzy. Kosko is also a karate expert, body either/or thinking of Western philoso­ Fuzzy Thinking is an entertaining builder, music composer, and fiction phy. By contrast, Southeast Asia, with its tour de force that ranges widely and writer. Politically he is a libertarian. A Buddhist background, is more tolerant smoothly over such topics as relativity believer in the future of cryonics— of continuity and vagueness. True, the theory, quantum mechanics, psychology, freezing human bodies to resuscitate yin/yang symbol is binary, but each half ethics, philosophy, and even theology. diem later when medical science is more contains a spot of the other, suggesting Everything is, of course, fuzzified. advanced—he made this die basis of his the fuzziness of both sides. Perhaps "God," Kosko writes in his last chapter, science fiction novella, Wake Me When I Japanese fuzzians will fuzzify the symbol "is He who wrote the math. Or She Die. He was an ardent logical positivist, by fading the white and black sides who wrote the math. Or It that wrote steeped in the binary thinking of through a continuum of grays. the math. Or the Nothingness that Carnap and Quine, before Zadeh's work Kosko is good at inventing fuzzy wrote the math. The Mathmaker." overwhelmed him and Kosko moved phrases, such as "fuzz-up" and "fits" Is fuzzy logic as revolutionary as from black and white to gray. Since then (fuzzy units to replace fuzzy bits, or Kosko and his mentor Zadeh believe? his contributions to fuzzy have been binary units). Rubik's cube suggested Maybe. D

action will appear as a blur. Observing Churchland. P. M.. and P. S. Churchland. 1990. consciousness from page 26 Could a machine think? Scientific American. the neural action that supports the January, pp. 32-37. tremendous advantages for social inter­ experience of blueness is not the same Cytowic, R. 1993. The Man Who Tasted Shapes. actions. The individual can form a as observing blueness. It may not be New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. model of what it is like to be another possible to explain the final nature of Dennett, D. 1991. Consciousness Explained. New conscious experience. We do not York: Little, Brown and Company. person. Such models can be used with Griffin. D. 1992. Animal Minds. Chicago: Uni­ great advantage to predict the desires expect to explain the final nature of versity of Chicago Press. and behaviors of others. matter and energy. We finally come to Horgan, J. 1994. Can science explain con­ the mystery of existence itself. sciousness? Scientific American, July, pp. 88- It is not known at this time how 94. consciousness is bound into a field, If we should succeed in constructing . 1993. Profile: Marvin L. Minsky. The although there are speculations an artifact that does have consciousness, mastermind of artificial intelligence. beyond the scope of this article. Any we would be faced by some extremely Scientific American, November, pp. 35-38. artifact that can behave like a con­ difficult moral problems. Our own sys­ Ingalls, H. 1995. Mind manifolds, solipsism, and the external world. Unpublished manu­ scious entity must have some physical tem of morals would be meaningless if script. operation equivalent to the brain's people had no consciousness. Further­ James, W. 1977. "Does Consciousness Exist?" In binding process. Short-term memory more, we might find it quite a task to The Writings of William James, ed. by J. J. is also necessary to sustain the field of nourish a healthy, balanced psyche in an McDermott. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. consciousness. A moment-to-moment artifact. The artifact could not have an Libet, B. 1992. The neural time-factor in per­ field is equivalent to no consciousness. ongoing viable mentality without con­ ception, volition and free will. Revue de Memory can hold both noticed and stant massive interaction with its exter­ Metaphysique et de Morale, 2: 255-272. unnoticed parts of the field. We have nal world. Experiments have shown that Libet, B., E. W. Wright. Jr.. B. Feinstein. and D. K. Pearl. 1979. Subjective referral of the tim­ seen that we cannot have an awareness peoples minds begin to show symptoms ing for a conscious sensory experience. Brain. of an observation until it is remem­ of extreme disorientation after only a 102: 193-224. bered. We could have no knowledge of few hours in isolation tanks. The task of Minsky, M. 1985. The Society of Mind. New the witness without memory. creating more than a rudimentary con­ York: Simon & Schuster. sciousness in an artifact seems very Penfield. W. 1975. The Mystery of the Mind Princeton. N.J.: Princeton University Press. Even if we should find die opera­ daunting indeed when we consider all tions that generate the qualitative con­ Penrose. R. 1994. Shadows of the Mind. Oxford. the skill, wisdom, and sacrifice necessary Oxford University Press. tent of consciousness, the outer, or to produce a viable psyche in a human . 1984. The Emperor's New Mind. objective, view of those operations creature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. would look quite different. Consider a Sacks. O. 1987. The Man Who Mistook His Wife camera and its shutter action. The for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales. New York: Harper & Row. shutter action can be photographed in Suggested Reading Searle, J. 1990. Is die brain's mind a computer all its stages by another camera, but if program? Scientific American, January. Blackmore, S. 1989. Consciousness: Science Turing, A. M. 1950. Computing machinery and the camera photographs its own shut­ tackles the self. New Scientist, April, pp. 38- intelligence. Mind, 59: 433-460. • ter action by means of a mirror, that 41.

56 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1V95 Searching for the light * SPRING 1990 (vol.14, no.3): Why we need to Fill in the gaps in your Skeptical Inquirer collection understand science / The crisis in pre-college sci­ ence and math education / Police pursuit of satan­ • I 5% discount on orders of $100 or more ic crime. Pan 1 / The spread of satanic-cult rumors / Lying about polygraph tests / Worldwide disasters • $6.25 a copy (Vols. 1-18). To order, use reply card insert. and moon phase. WINTER 1990 (vol 14. no. $ The new cata- strophism / A field guide to critical thinking / Cold JULY/AUGUST 1995 (vol 19. no. 4) How to sell a rives; A critical examination / Therapeutic touch. / fusion: A case history in 'wishful science'? The air­ pseudoscience, Pratkanis I Rumors, self-fulfilling Improving science teaching in the U.S / The Big Sur ship hysteria of 1896-97 / Newspaper editors and prophecies, and national obsessions, Paula I Rose 'UFO' /The strange case of the New Haven oysters. the creation-evolution controversy / Special report: Mackenberg, Pankratz I Moon, planets, and disas­ FALL 1992 (vol 17. no 1): A celebration of Isaac New evidence of MJ-12 hoax. ters, Branham I Artificial languages, Gardner I Asimov: A man for the universe, Kendrick Frazier, FALL 1989 (vol. 14. no. 1): Myths about science / Project Mogul and the Roswell incident. ($5.00) Arthur C. Clarke Frederick Pohl. Harlan Ellison. L The relativity of wrong / Richard Feynman on fringe MAY/JUNE 1995 (vol. 19. no. 3) The belief engine. Sprague de Camp, Carl Sagan, Stephen Jay Gould, science; Luis Alvarez and the explorer's quest / The Alcock I Is skepticism tenable? Berloff plus Blackmore, Martin Gardner, Paul Kurtz, Donald Goldsmith. two cultures / The 'top-secret UFO papers' NASA Hyman, Kurtz. Alcock, and Gardner I Mediumship, Jama Randi. and £. C. Krupp I Gaia without mys­ won't release / The metaphysics of Murphy's Law. Sinn I Ancient aluminum, Eggert I Crop circle ticism / Gaia's scientific coming of age / The curse SUMMER 1989 (vol. 13. no. 4): The New Age— mania wanes. Nickel! I Doug Henning and TM. of the runestone: Deathless hoaxes / Night terrors, An examination: The New Age in perspective / A Gardner I A young Grand Canyon? Heaton. ($5.00) sleep paralysis, and devil-stricken telephone cords New Age reflection in the magic mirror of science / MARCH/APRIL 1995 (vol. 19, no. 2) Remem­ from hell / Scientific creationism: The social agen­ The New Age: The need for myth in an age of sci­ bering dangerously. Loftus I Antiscience in acade- da of a pseudoscience / Observing stars in the day­ ence / Channeling / The psychology of channeling mu, Grots and Levitt I Feminism now alienating time: The chimney myth / Does an ancient Jewish / 'Entities' in the linguistic minefield / Crystals / women from science, Koertge I 'Lights out: A amulet commemorate the conjunction of 2 B.C.? Consumer culture and the New Age / The Shirley faxlore phenomenon, Brunvand I Cri­ SUMMER 1992 (vol. 16. no. 4): MacLainc phenomenon / Special report: California tique of evolution study. Larhammar. Freedom of scientific inquiry under court jails psychic surgeon. ($5.00) siege / Psychic experiences: Psychic illu­ <*> SKEPTICAL sions / The scientist's skepticism / The SPRING 1989 (vol. 13. no. 3): High school biolo­ JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1995 (vol. 19. INQUIRER persistent popularity of the paranormal gy teachers and pseudoscientific belief / Evidence no. 1) Wonder and skepticism, Sagan I / Self-help books: Pseudoscience in the for Bigfoot? Alleged pore structure in Sasquatch Putting away childish things, Dawkins I NEAR-DEATH guise of science? footprints / The lore of levitation / Levitation "mir­ The astonishing hypothesis. Crick. / EXPERIENCES acles' in India / Science, pseudoscience. and the Nuclear medicine, Seaborg I Literary sci­ SPRING 1992 (vol. 16. no. 3): Special cloth of Turin / Rather than just debunking, ence blunders, Gardner!Air Force report Report: The Maharishi caper JAMA encourage people to think / MJ 11 papers 'authen­ on the Roswell incident / 1994 CSICOP hoodwinked / Myths of subliminal per­ ticated'? / A patendy false patent myth. Conference. ($500) suasion: The cargo-cult science of WINTER 1989 (vol. 13. no. 2): Special report: 1:ALL 1994 (vol. 18. no, 5): Empirical evi­ subliminal persuasion / Subliminal per­ The 'remembering water* controversy / dence for reincarnation? / Reader's guide ception: Facts and fallacies / Subliminal Bibliographic guide to the 'dilution controversy' / to the ozone controversy / Bigfoot evi­ tapes / The Avro VZ-9 'flying saucer' / Pathologies of science, precognition, and modern dence: Are these tracks real? / Why we arc Two 19th-century skeptics: Augustus de psychophysics / A reaction-time test of ESP and unmoved as oceans ebb and flow / Anomalous phe­ Morgan and John Fiske. precognition / Chinese psychics pillbottle demon­ stration / The Kirlian technique / Certainty and nomena in Kazakhstan / False memories. WINTER 1992 (vol. 16. no.2): On being sued: The SUMMER 1994 (vol 18, no 4): Extraordinary sci­ proof in creationist thought. chilling of freedom of expression / The crop-circle FALL 1988 (vol. 13. no. 1): Special report: ence' and the strange legacy of Nikola Tesla / Nikola phenomenon / Update on the 'Mars effect' / A dis­ Testa: Genius, visionary, and eccentric / Pollens on the Astrology and the presidency / Improving Human senting note on End's 'Update' / Magic Melanin: Performance: What about parapsychology? / The 'Shroud': A study in deception / Do televised depic­ Spreading scientific illiteracy among minorities. Pan tions of paranormal events influence viewers' beliefs? / China syndrome: Further reflections on the para­ 2 / Adventures in science and cyclosophy / normal in China / Backward masking / The validi­ Synchronicity and the archetypes / The synthetic mind Searching for security in the mystical. clashes with the reductionist text / Psi in pyschology. ty of graphological analysis / The intellectual revolt FALL 1991 (vol. 16. no. 1): Near-death experiences against science. SPRING 1994 (vol. 18, no. 3): The Antiscience / Multicultural pseudoscience: Spreading scientific Threat: The growth of antiscience / The antiscience illiteracy. Pan 1 / Science and commonsense skep­ problem / Measuring the prevalence of false memories / ticism / Spook Hill / Lucian and Alexander / 1991 SUMMER 1988 (vol. 12. no. 4): Testing psi claims Bleuler's views on inheritance of acquired characteris­ CSICOP conference. in China, Kurtz, Alcock, Frazier, Karr. Klass, and tics and on psi phenomena / Examining the satanic SUMMER 1991 (vol 15. no. 4): Lucid Randi I The appeal of the occult: Some panic ... A personal perspective... A sociological and dreams / Nature faking in the humanities / Skeptical thoughts on history, religion, and science historical perspective / Philosophy and the paranormal. Carrying the war into the never-never land Inquirer / Hypnosis and reincarnation / Pitfalls of Pan 2: Skepticism, miracles, and knowledge of psi: Pan 2 / Coincidences / Locaring perception / Wegener and pseudos­ WINTER 1994 (vol. 18.no. 2) The new skepticism/ invisible buildings / True believers. cience: Some misconceptions / An inves­ Philosophy and the paranormal. Pur 1: The problem SPRING 1991 (vol. 15. no. 3): Special tigation of psychic crime-busting / of 'psi' / Electromagnetic field cancer scares / Attacks report: Hi-fi pseudoscience / Searching High-flying health quackery / The on role-playing games / Global fortune-telling and for extraterrestrial intelligence: An inter­ bar-code beast. Bible prophecy / Chemikov pattern puzzle. view with Thomas R McDonough / SPRING 1988 (vol. 12, no. 3): BU11993(voL 18. no. I): Perspectives on education (getting smart about getting smarts / Neuropathology and the legacy of spiri­ in America: Sandia study challenges misconceptions / Carrying the war into the never-never tual possession / Varieties of alien expe­ Do 'honesty' tests really measure honesty? / Astrology land of psi: Pan 1 / Satanic cult 'survivor' rience / Alien-abduction claims and strikes back—but to what effect? / Diagnoses of alien stories / 'Old-solved mysteries': The standards of inquiry (excerpts from kidnappings that result from conjunction effects in Kecksburg incident / Magic, medicine, Milton Rosenberg's radio talks how with memory / Mathematical magic for skeptics / The blind and metaphysics in Nigeria / What's wrong with sci­ guests Charles Cruder. Martin Orne. girl who saw the flasho f the first nuclear weapon test / ence education? Look at the family. and Budd Hopkins) / The MJ-12 Papers: Pan 2 / Science: The feminists' scapegoat? WINTER 1991 (vol 15. no. 2>. Special report: Gallop Doomsday: The May 2000 prediction / My visit to SUMMER 1993 (vol 17. no. 4): The right hemi­ poll- Belief in paranormal phenomena / Science and the Nevada Clinic / Morphic resonance in silicon sphere: An esoteric closet? / Improving science teach­ self-government / Wat Bank collective hysteria episode chips / Abigail's anomalous apparition / The riddle ing: The textbook problem / The eyewitness: Imperfect / Acceptance of personality test results / Belief in astrol­ of the Colorado ghost lights. interface between stimuli and story / Pathological sci­ ogy: A test of the Bamum effect / A test of clairvoyance WINTER 1987-88 (vol 12. t*x2): The MJ-12 papers: ence: An update / jack Horkheimer. 'Scar Hustler.' using signal-detection / Intercessory prayer as medical Pan I / The aliens among us: Hypnotic regression interview / The false memory syndrome. treatment? revisited / The brain and consciousness: Implications SPRING 1993 (vol 17. no. 3): Anguished silence for psi / Past-life hypnotic regression / Fantasizing and helping hands: Autism and facilitated commu­ under hypnosis / The verdict on creationism. nication / Facilitated Communication, autism, and FALL 1990 (vol 15. no. 1): Neural Organization FALL 1987 (vol. 12. no. I): The burden of skepti­ Ouija / Treading on the edge: Practicing safe science Technique: Treatment or torture / The spooks of cism / Is there intelligent life on Earth? / with SET! / Education for science / A threat to sci­ quantum mechanics / Science and Sir William Chiropractic / Homeopathy / Alternative therapies ence / Charles Honorton's legacy to parapsychology / Crookes / The 'N' machine / Biological cycles and / Quackery / Catching Geller in the act / Special 1993 CSICOP Conference. rhythms vs. biorhythms / 1990 CSICOP Coniference. Report: CSICOP's 1987 conference. SUMMER 1990 (vol. 14. no. 4): Ghosts make news: How four newspapers report psychic phenomena / WINTER 1993 (vol 17. no. 2): Special report: 3.7 Thinking critically and creatively / Police pursuit of satan­ million Americans kidnapped by aliens? / Psychics: Do ic crime. Part 2 / Order out of chaos in survival research / For a complete listing of our police departments really use them? / psychic detec- Putdown. paradigms, and the paranormal / Auras: back issues, call 800-634-1610. actually have. Although some have suggested Center, Taipei, Taiwan. This appears to be a Chi from page 42 that martial artists treat wood and other targets reprint of a Mainland text or Hong Kong cfit humanity is known as "feng shui," or to make diem more easily breakable, it is impor­ translation of a Mainland text. I have thus far Chinese geomancy. Feng shui is still taken quite tant to understand that in some cases they actu­ been unable to learn the original publisher. seriously by many people throughout China. ally treat materials to make them more difficult Huston, Peter. 1994. Trying to understand tradi­ 2. Chinese is, of course, written in Chinese to break and thus increase the challenge. Having tional Chinese medicine. SKEPTICAL characters and not the Roman alphabet. There broken many pieces of wood and other material INQUIRER. 18: 207-208. Winter. exist two commonly accepted forms of with my body over the years, 1 will simply say Keng. H. C, and N. H. Tao. 1985. Translated by that, although it is sometimes a silly thing to do, Romanization in widespread use and at times the P. U. Unschuld, "The Evaluation of it is also a lot of fun. differences in the two systems can result in wide­ Acupuncture Anesthesia Must Seek Truth ly divergent spellings of the same Chinese word. 6. For those, like me, who have a strong from Facts." in Medicine in China: A History For instance, in previous articles (e.g., Kurtz, et interest in studying alleged Chi powers but lack a of Ideas, by P. U. Unschuld, University of al. 1988) the official Chinese Pinyin system of thorough background in conjuring and magical California Press, Berkeley. Romanization was used, resulting in the spelling effects, I cannot recommend the Leung Tang Kurtz, Paul. 1988. The China Syndrome. SKEP­ "Qi." This is the system of Romanization in use (1983, 1991) books highly enough. Written by a TICAL INQUIRER. 13:46-49, Fall. in all official documents and is favored for report­ Chinese magician in Hong Kong (in English) Kurtz. P.. J. Alcock. K. Frazier. B. Karr. P J. Klass. ing current events in China in the West. Bill they explain numerous means of recreating the Moyers's spelling of "Chi" is from the much older and J. Randi. 1988. Testing psi claims in very same effects that many Chinese attribute to China: Visit of CSICOP delegation. SKEPTI­ Wade-Giles system of Romanization which is Chi gong and other mysterious powers. Unfor­ CAL INQUIRER, 12:365-375. Summer. favored in Taiwan and by Western historians. The tunately, these books can be quite difficult to find Leung Ting. 1983. Skills of the Vagabonds. Hong latter tends to appear more frequently in Western in the United States, but large martial arts suppli­ Kong: Leung's Publications. documents regarding the traditional and anom­ ers sometimes have copies for sale. These dealers .1991. Skills of the Vagabonds II: Behind alous Chinese claims. "Ki," the Korean and advertise in martial-arts magazines and elsewhere. Japanese equivalent for "Chi," is also frequently the Incredibles. Hong Kong: Leung's Publica­ seen in the West and appears in words such as "ai- tions. ki-do" and "hapkido," two interesting martial arts Lu, Gwei-djcn, and Joseph Needham. 1980. that incorporate Chi theory into their teachings. Selected Bibliography Celestial Lancets: A History and Rationale of Acupuncture and Moxa. London: Cambridge 3. For a readable account of what it was like American Institute of Physics Science Report. University Press. to grow up in this period, see Heng and Shapiro. 1990. The fiercest punch—the physics of a Marcus. P 1984. Acupuncture: A Patients Guide. 1983. Karate strike. SKEFT1CAL INQUIRER. 15: 25- Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, Eng­ 4. It should be mentioned that many do not 26. Fall. land: Thorson's Publishing Group. like the work of Herbert Benson. I do. He has a Baker. R. A. 1990. They Call it Hypnosis. Buffalo, Porkert. M., with C. Ullman. 1982. Chinese tendency to express an interest in some of the N.Y.: Prometheus. Medicine. New York: William Morrow. spiritual and theological aspects of the systems Benson. H.. and Z. Kipper. 1975. The Randi, J. 1982 [1975]. The Truth About Uri that developed the meditative procedures that he Relaxation Response. New York: Avon. (Teller. Buffalo. N.Y.: Prometheus Books. studies to an extent that some find distasteful. Benson, H., and W. Proctor. 1984. Beyond the Unschuld. P. U. 1985. Medicine in China: A 5. There has been discussion in these pages Relaxation Response. New York: Berkeley. History of Ideas. Berkeley: University of in die past as to how and why martial artists Dennett, D. 1991. Consciousness Explained. California Press. insist on breaking things by striking them with Boston: Little Brown. Watkins. Arleen J., and William S. Bickel. 1989. their hands, feet, or other body parts. This is Heng, L., and I. Shapiro. 1983. Son of the 1 lie Kirlian technique: Controlling the wild done normally to test one's ability or to increase Revolution. New York: Vintage Books. cards. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. 13: 172-184. one's self-confidence, although there is a great Ho. S. T. and L. K. Lu. 1981 (1974). The Winter. deal of debate within the many-faceted world of Principles and Practical Use of Acupuncture . 1986. A study of the Kirlian effect. martial arts about what pragmatic use such acts Anesthesia. Reprinted by Southern Materials SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 10: 244-257, Spring. •

GivGive e your favorite people 1. $29.50 for first one-year subscription a subscription to the Name (please print) new, larger, bimonthly... Address

Include my own subscription for City State Zip • New • Renewal

• 1 year ($29.50) 2. $22.00 for second one-year subscription (save 25%) • 2 years ($49.00) SKEPTICAL INQUIRER THE MAGAZINEFOR SCIENC E AND REASON Name (please print) • 3 years ($69.00) Charge my: D Visa D MasterCard Address • Check enclosed • Bill me City State Zip # Exp. _ Total $ 3. $19.50 for third one-year subscription {save 34%) (Outside the U.S., please pay in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank. If you live outside North America add $8.00 a year..) Name (please print) Order toll free: 1-800-634-1610 Or mail to: SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Address Box 703 • Amherst, New York 14226-0703 City State Z,p

58 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Letters to the Editor

Is Skepticism Tenable? anyone can ever provide good, scientifi­ John Beloff presented die question as to cally verified proof. However, I've become whether die "skeptical position" is ten­ John Beloff, in "The Skeptical Position: an "absolute skeptic" in spirit precisely able, offering some insight into why para- Is it Tenable?" (51, May/June 1995) sug­ because of history, which Beloff cites. psychologists feel they have something gests that skepticism about anything is Quite simply, psychic claims have been more than wishful thinking to examine. warranted only when both experimental around for centuries, and serious studies He also breaks skepticism into two parts: and historical evidence can be reasonably have been made since die nineteenth cen­ weak skepticism (which he calls "de facto dismissed. But if Beloff is right, it is hard tury. In all that time, parapsychology has skepticism") and strong skepticism to imagine how any claim could be not progressed one bit. Psychics are still (which he calls "a priori skepticism"). rejected. Consider: I claim to have pro­ trying to invent die wheel, using murky (at While others have already com­ duced nuclear fusion from a mix of com­ best) studies about tiny maybe/maybe-not mented on his article, I feel that perhaps mon household products. You request a phenomena and unverifiable anecdotes. they were too kind and elected not to demonstration. After repeated trials, the By contrast, in the same period, the point out many further problems with only heat I generate is plainly die result sciences have made tremendous progress Beloff's article for fear that enumerating of a simple chemical reaction. (OK, so I in almost every field. To name a few major all of diem would appear to be an attack. used a little Drano in my concoction.) items: Astronomy discovered die universe Okay, I'll agree with his bifurcation of But following Beloff, die game is not and the big bang; chemistry developed die skepticism. The existence of these two lost. You are right, I say, to question die table of the elements; geology discovered degrees of skepticism seems reasonable "experimental evidence." But this is only plate tectonics; physics discovered atomic and even directly observable in the real the tip of my evidential iceberg. I have had theory; and biology discovered evolution world. What I can't agree with, however, numerous past successes, many witnessed and genetics. The result has been not only is his suggestion that weak skeptics will by friends and neighbors, now unfortu­ an ever-increasing expansion of die data­ turn into strong skeptics by invoking the nately long dead. I guess I've just lost the base about the physical world and ever- violation of known natural physical laws right recipe or maybe my touch. Lacking deeper insights into its phenomena but a as "a fall-back position when de facto any serious reason to doubt the historical flood of usable products, from tiny com­ skepticism begins to look shaky" (p. 20). puter chips to spacecraft to giant dams record, I say, skepticism is not warranted. It is my opinion that Beloff is and electric power systems. Never mind my experimental flops. employing die logical fallacy of "begging If Beloff is right, it would seem that If parapsychology had progressed at the die question" here. He didn't present no claim can be discarded—no matter same rate, each person today routinely examples of when de facto skepticism how bizarre and extravagant and no mat­ would be levitating to places instead of dri­ becomes "shaky." What could a weak ter how much experimental evidence ving, using ESP instead of telephones, and skeptic be faced with that would cause accumulates to die contrary—so long, avoiding all of life's dangers by precogni­ him or her to resort to strong skepticism that is, as the claim has a history. No tion. The failure of parapsychology to by pointing out the inconsistency of doubt Beloff would dismiss my example develop any son of usable database and known physical laws? Beloff is doubtless as contrived, extreme, and quite unlike validated theories—in short, to go to thinking of some "for instances," yet the paranormal reports he takes seriously. beyond stage magicians' tricks—after so elected not to offer them as examples. I But where, really, is the difference? Both much time and effort makes it highly have yet to see a skeptic "fall back" into Beloff and I make our stand against the probable that nodiing is there to be found. strong skepticism. Frankly, I've never skeptic on die basis of nodiing more than seen any evidence for any paranormal He's also not really correct in saying hopelessly untouchable testimony. If any­ phenomena that would warrant such a there is opposition between skeptics and thing is contrived, it is, 1 submit, the stan­ defensive move. believers. I do not oppose parapsycholo- dard Beloff asks the skeptic to satisfy. gists or believers in many other unveri­ Another question he begs is that there fied claims, from religions to ideologies exists evidence for the paranormal. "Let Steve Carey to various paranormal ideas. They simply us now consider the more serious chal­ Portland, Ore. fail to convince me, and nothing requires lenge from those I have called the 'de me to accept their claims—or to put any facto skeptics,' who claim to have open money into their pockets—in the minds but who demand stronger evi­ absence of well-tested evidence. Using John Beloffs definitions, I fit into dence than anything that has so far been the "de facto skeptic" category philosoph­ produced." What evidence has already been offered that supports paranormal ically, in that I am prepared to accept the William Sierichs, Jr. beliefs? Anecdotal claims are evidence reality of parapsychological phenomena if Baton Rouge, La.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 59 that people believe in die paranormal. results. He gives up, stating, ". . . any what you all believe, which is that some Experimental tests conducted under prospect of arriving at [this] must seem prominent parapsychologists are aware strict scientific rules have as yet failed to hopelessly quixoric" But if the meta-analy­ that their position is illogical but must be provide evidence that is worthy of being ses are consistently positive, then equally continued because of its profitability? considered positive. So I'm curious what large individual studies would be, too. Yes, Beloff is thinking of when he suggests this would be a lot of work, but such is sci­ Murray Projector that he has evidence for the paranormal. ence: How many collisions were necessary Claremont, Calif. Lastly, I'm grateful that Beloff elected to reveal the top quark? to present his views and opinions in what Yet, I suspect that large studies would could easily be considered something of a not be as efficacious at producing posi­ I commend the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER for hostile environment. The willingness to tive results as meta-analyses, because I an excellent series on the paranormal. I do so shows that he's very serious in his suspect meta-analyses have an unfair found the series to be most informative desires to have the paranormal taken and advantage. That advantage (and this is and well balanced. [In die responses to examined seriously. While he adopts my point) is that positive studies arc Beloff] Susan Blackmore suggests that psi many suppositions as given, I still walk more likely to be published, and thus should not be accepted until there are the­ away enlightened from his piece. I hope included in meta-analyses, than those that ories that help to explain more than just SI will find the space to allow Beloff to are not. The Horton meta-analysis the current observations. While I agree this respond to his critics and perhaps answer included 28 studies, 12 of which were is an admirable goal, I think it is an unrea­ sonable criteria for accepting anomalies (or some of our questions. positive at the 0.05 level. Would that it observations which arc contrary to the cur­ were that easy to get positive results! (But rent scientific understanding) as valid. Frederic L Rice note that if it were, studies a few times Glendora, Calif. bigger would almost always be positive.) For example, at the end of die last cen­ I turned my attention from parapsy­ tury, Newtonian physics was close to Beloff's invited response appeared in our chology some decades ago, but when I explaining all observed phenomena with July/August issue.—ED. was interested, one did not need a formal simple and elegant laws. However, there meta-analysis to sense that positive results were a few anomalies (such as the experi­ increased the likelihood of publication. ments to measure the velocity of light in If I get John Beloff's position correctly, he ether). Had these anomalies been dismissed is saying: Parapsychology in the lab is Bob Slaughter and not investigated further because they faulty because it is not repeatable; however, Omaha, Neb. were contrary to current understanding, historical instances of mediumship are quantum physics and relativity never great proof for the existence of psi. This would have been developed. While neither quantum physics nor relativity have the strikes me as a contradiction. Repeating All five short responses to Beloff's pro-para­ same simple elegance as Newtonian tests made with the mediums of old is psychology position do well in presenting physics, they have certainly increased our impossible. How many yean has D. D. our opposing skeptical position. But all five envelope of understanding of the universe. Home been dead? Or Eusapia Palladino? omit a significant comment that is always Or Florence Cook? Or May Showers? And missing from our skeptical position articles, In fact, from the material presented in they have not left any descendants or dis­ and which I have long believed should the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, I have con­ ciples. Home cannot levitate himself in appear in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. cluded that paranormal researchers have bright light (dim? none?) for modern-day Perhaps what I suggest is considered by adequately demonstrated the existence of scientists. Or make accordions play tunes editors as too impolite and unbecoming for anomalies. To conclude that the 12 in a cage. Eusapia cannot redo for them publication. Early in my reading of skepti­ ganzfeld studies that achieved statistical the tricks she was not proved to fake. cal position periodicals, I also so believed. significance were the result of falsified or All the other arguments your skepti­ In particular, I now believe that many botched efforts seems about as likely to cal respondents made were great, but for parapsychologists know that their posi­ me as many of the Kennedy assassination me this seems to get to the crux of the tion is illogical, but also know that their plots (it really is hard to imagine how that matter. position is too profitable to abandon. many serious researchers could get it that wrong). The fact that 16 ganzfeld studies Richard A Dengrove Profitable may mean profitable finan­ did not get these results simply suggests Alexandria, Va. cially, or in prestige, or in inner satisfac­ tion. Consequently, nothing written by that we do not yet understand the anom­ the five SI Editorial Board members alies well enough to regularly get the could have been expected to change the "expected" results (we don't know what John Beloffs article was thought provoking. the variables are that need to be controlled Beloff recognizes that individual studies to position of "one of die most prominent leaders in the field of parapsychology." to get these results). I will not accept any detect paranormal effects have had inconsis­ theory about psi or how it functions until tent results, but buds the technique of I also believe that you and the board the theory explains the results of all 28 meta-analysis, in which the results of several members arc aware that the immeasur­ studies; I do accept that there are anom­ studies are combined, consistently yielding able value of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is alies that warrant further investigation. positive results with "astronomical odds for those readers who have not yet against chance.'' He then turns to die task of become prominent or dedicated parapsy­ To John Beloff, I would suggest that designing an individual study, which, when chologists. But would it be useful in your the traditional double-blind studies are repeated, will consistently give positive presentations to suggest occasionally not sufficient when studying the para-

60 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 normal. It is possible that the beliefs and Two articles in your May/June issue state to such a fuzzy analysis of the obvious. expectations of the researcher planning that die human characteristic of leaping Alcock divides his "belief engine" into the study need to be considered. I have to conclusions was caused by evolution. J. seven separate but interacting "units" that are tied together, he says, to the no idea how a triple-blind study would P. McLaughlin ("On Leaping and physical architecture of the brain; and then he describes die "units" in further be conducted, but until then future Looking and Critical Thinking") reports, detail with examples of a rather idiosyn­ meta-analysis might consider the biases "Our four leaders [Jerry Andrus, Barry cratic kind. He concludes that beliefs are of the researcher conducting the research. Beyerstein, Ray Hyman, and Loren at best pale and distorted reflections of Pankratz] all touched on die evolutionary reality. So? Brian Carr aspects of thinking, how brain evolution Jefferson Valley, N.Y. . . . causes us to leap before we look." James Alcock ("The Belief Engine") makes the same argument in his discus­ Any of us could have formulated seven other "units" that work as well or as badly as Alcock's seven, and since anything thathappen s in die brain is tied to the brain's 'The Belief Engine' sion of die "Learning Unit" of die human brain. Beyerstein goes further, saying ". . . architecture, our seven would be as valid hope is an evolutionary advantage." as his. The brain is not as simplistic in its "The Belief Engine" by James Alcock (SI, activities as Alcock suggests, and his May/June 1995) has long needed careful In my opinion, these are speculations analysis does not explain his conclusion. exposition. The psychology of dogmas being presented as fact. Evolution is a It is not that his conclusion is wrong, but and paranormalisms is more pervasive fact, and it certainly influences aspects of that his supporting material is trivial and and powerful than usually appreciated. human behavior; but substantial empiri­ seems to have been generated ad hoc. A much earlier and complementary cal evidence is needed before we can say analysis may be found in The True a complex suite of behaviors was caused Believer by Eric Hoffer. It deserves a few by evolution or was selected for. To my excerpts: knowledge there is no such evidence in Peter C. Baker For the true believer "to rely on the this case, and in the case of "hope" I don't Professor of Biology evidence of the senses and reason is see how there could be. Cleveland State University heresy and treason. ... To be in posses­ Both Alcock and Beyerstein support Cleveland, Ohio sion of an absolute truth is to have a net their statements with adaptive story­ of familiarity spread over die whole of telling, which "shows" a trait to be adap­ eternity ... no surprises, no unknowns. tive by presenting a hypothetical scenario I thank you for the article "The Belief . . . His sense of security is derived from where the trait improves an organism's Engine." There can be no more impor­ his passionate attachment, and not from fitness. Alcock has a hypothetically intel­ tant subject than understanding belief in the excellence of his cause. . . . But he ligent rabbit fleeing at the first sound of things that arc not so. finds no difficulty in swinging suddenly rustling grass, showing how jumping to a Some false beliefs appear to have lives and wildly from one holy cause to conclusion—there's a predator there— of their own. One can almost under­ another.... He cannot be convinced but helps die animal survive even if it leads to stand belief in "possession." It is almost only converted." an incorrect inference. That's a nice story, as if a belief that dies in the daytime will Hoffer was not a formally educated but I can imagine the same rabbit getting arise when die sun goes down. Perhaps man, but a wide reader and a shrewd eaten by an eagle who noticed the sud­ the term disease meme would be more observer with a great deal of experience den movement. Telling such adaptive appropriate. with true believers. stories doesn't get us any closer to figur­ I look forward to the time when you Alcock left a minor difficulty behind. ing out how a trait actually arose and will publish an article on correcting He said, "Rationality and scientific truth spread. belief errors in ourselves and help others have little to offer for most people as I commend Alcock and Andrus et al. to do likewise. remedies for existential anxiety. . . ." for bringing to light a very interesting Don Latimer Hoffer said the same thing, but overcom­ possible connection between irrationality Los Angles, Calif. ing anxieties and paranormal doctrines is and evolution. I suggest, though, that we not a science, but technology—a com­ attempt to test this possibility in a ratio­ mon confusion. Science is concerned nal fashion and not jump to conclusions. A Young Grand Canyon? with understanding dynamics. Tech­ nology enters when this knowledge is David DeGusta Regarding Timothy H. Heaton's article applied to "human problems." Most peo­ Laboratory for Human "A Young Grand Canyon?" {SI, ple are what die sociologist Vilfredo Evolutionary Studies May/June 1995), I found it "weak" in Pareto called "nonlogical" (not irra­ University of California, arguments. tional). Alcock has described how Berkeley The New Jerusalem Bible footnotes prospects for changing this must be more modest than we expected (or like). [email protected] "Noah's Deluge" as a disastrous flood in die Tigris and Euphrates river valleys that has been magnified to the mythological Bruce Stewart I have twice read James E. Alcock's "The "Deluge"! Biology Department Belief Engine" and find it difficult to Heaton is primarily criticizing ICR's Southern Oregon State College understand why anyone would devote Grand Canyon: Monument to Catas­ Ashland, Ore. five pages and some editorial comment trophe. And, yes, he briefly mentions:

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 61 "He [Steven A. Austin] never presents a of creationists (which is to support the While I am not in any way a supporter of comprehensive theory of how the Flood notion of biblical authority by reference TM "science," I am quite skeptical about took place, where the water came from." to empirical data) is unsound. The claim papers being "sneaked into" quality jour­ Doesn't anyone understand that the that the Bible has anything of value to nals. If Gardner has found bad science in "Flood" would require a minimum of say in relation to the origin of our world reputable journals (he provided no refer­ forty feet of sea level rise every hour for is easily demolished by reading the ences), I hope that he has brought this to the 960-hour period in Genesis— Genesis stories. These stories contain no the attention of their editors. approximately 20 feet an hour of that reference to those most numerous, those would have been rainfall! most varied, and those most fundamen­ David M. Hassenzahl If you use the fundamentalists' belief tally important organisms in our bios­ Martinez, Calif. in the creation of Earth in 4004 B.C., the phere—the micro-organisms. "Flood" occurred a mere 4,340 years An account of the origin of the living See A. Skolnick, "The Maharishi Caper: before 1995! If such a "Flood" took world that makes no reference to micro­ JAMA Hoodwinked (But Just for a While), " place, don't the fundamentalists think organisms is about as convincing as a his­ SI, Spring 1992, pp. 254-259. The article there would be ample and significant evi­ tory of the twentieth century that makes referred to was published in the May 22-29, dence all over the Earth (including sedi­ no mention of petroleum. 1991, JAMA, with a correction in its ment deposition in ponds, lakes, oceans, The glaring omission of micro-organ­ August 14, 1991, issue. —EDITOR and caves); and that all glaciers (includ­ isms in the Genesis story is explained ing the ice sheets of Greenland and very easily by assuming that the writer Antarctica) would be the same age— was a fallible human person who, in par­ Postmodernism Not New Age 4,340 years old? And, that there would ticular, had no microscope. have been a complete repopulation of the As a freelance an critic with an M.A. in entire planet by millions of species of Eric Stockton philosophy, I agree with much in your everything, in the same period, from just Sanday, Orkney magazine. However, 1 was disturbed by a pair of each "unclean" animal and six U.K. the inaccurate treatment of postmod­ pairs of each "clean" animal? ernism in "Postmodernism and New Age It disheartens me that we need to Unreason" by George Englebretsen (SI, always defend ourselves from a Hebrew The Miracle-Seller Forum, May/June 1995), especially his Mythology created approximately 2,500 linking it with New Age attitudes. By concentrating on Richard Rorty, who is to 3,500 years before the present. Try to I was delighted to read (5/, May/June actually a neopragmatist, Englebretsen put yourselves in the position of the 1995) that Uri Geller has made his first ignored many other thinkers who have a common Hebrew people then, with payment to CSICOP, as ordered by the variety of takes on postmodernism: The whatever little knowledge they had of courts. In honor of his ridiculous law­ incredulity toward metanarratives of per­ "science," reread Genesis from their suits, and the (we hope) inevitable out­ sonal and societal emancipation (Jean- come of the judgment against him, I "view," and it's really easy to reconstruct Francois Lyotard), the cultural moment the "six days of creation" from that. If I have composed a limerick: of multinational capitalism (Frederic can do it, you should be able to, too. Jameson), the deconstruction of binary The psychic, a flashy young feller oppositions (Jacques Derrida), the situa­ Chet Twarog (A flamboyant miracle-seller) tion where the real is replaced by signs of Rochester, N.Y. Thought he was dandy the real (Jean Baudrillard), and so forth. 'Til he sued Randi Now he's just poor Uri Geller Instead of critiquing these specific J. P. McLaughlin refers to David Hume ideas, Englebretsen resorted to the famil­ as "the English philosopher." In fact David Pitt iar tactic of accusing those who believe in Hume was a Scot and a major force in Halifax, Nova Scotia localized truths to be irrationalists. But what has come to be known as the Canada here, he committed what Barbara Scottish Enlightenment: He could rea­ Hernstein Smith called the Egalitarian sonably be referred to as British but he Fallacy, which says that if the notion of was no more English than were, say, Sneaking into Journals? objective truth is rejected, what follows is Lloyd George or Benjamin Disraeli. not that all theories are equally true, but that no theory is true in the objective An obviously more important point is I came across a disturbing comment in sense. Just because the God's eye view is in regard to Timothy H. Heaton's very Martin Gardner's article on TM rejected, it does not follow that standards timely article on creation science ("A (May/June 1995). He writes of papers by of valuation and truth are also thrown Young Grand Canyon?"). Heaton is John S. Hagelin and other TM scientists out. entirely right to counter scientific argu­ that "a few have sneaked into mainstream ment with scientific argument. Insofar as science and medical journals unaware of Finally, New Age implies human they cite fact and deploy logic, creation­ the authors' TM affiliation." I assume potential movement cults and therapies ists serve a valuable purpose. But this that for Gardner to consider a journal that engage in magical thinking and should not blind us to the fact that to "mainstream," he means those such as believe that attitude change alone will credit the scriptures with authority in JAMA or Physics Today, which have rigor­ bring about change in the world. For these matters is unwarranted and the aim ous peer review and editorial selection. instance, Werner Erhard's Hunger

62 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 Project participants did not provide tools the use of vitamin C, this paper provides and the paranormal are considered the and knowledge to starving Third World a good starting point. truth (as they are mentioned in the holy people, but instead entered the "frame of Quran as existing). Any attempt to ques­ mind" whereby hunger would be elimi­ William DuBroff tion these beliefs will and does produce nated. Thus I agree that "unreason" Hendersonville, N.C. severe retribution. In light of this, every applies to New Age, but disagree with possible type of fraud, misconception, equating it with postmodernism. and pseudoscience can flourish there. In Quantum Cosmology particular, medical quackery is wide­ Alfred Jan spread. Belief, and especially belief with­ out question, is the law of the land. Santa Clara, Calif. Richard A. Crowe ("Is Quantum Cosmology Science?" SI, March/April Readers of SI should reflect on our abil­ 1995) writes that my skepticism of quan­ ity to publish and read a magazine that in Compare to Population tum cosmology (SI, Forum, Summer many places wouldn't be just unpub­ 1994) lacks "reasoned argument." lished but the entire staff punished by death. In his account of the critical clunking My objection—that Absolute Noth­ class (May/June 1995), J. P. McLaughlin ingness is a poor raw material out of (Note: Saudi mail censors only wonders why more journalists don't take which to make a universe—has not been allowed in one copy of my SI during my CSICOP's instruction. But he also says "long-discredited." What quantum cos- two years there—probably by mistake!) that one of 80 students was a journalist. mological theorists do is endow this This is greater than expected by "Absolute Nothingness" with all sorts of Name and address chance. Rather, Mr. McLaughlin should qualities. This, I maintain, is not playing withheld by request ask why so many journalists (in Colorado, the game: Either you have Absolutely at least) do attend. Nothing or you have Something (such as I am a newspaper reporter, and when­ pre-existing quanta fluctuating in a pre­ Another Literary existing vacuum). You cannot have it ever I see "greater than" or "less than" Science Blunder statements, I multiply them out against both ways; at least you cannot if you wish to practice science. the population concerned. Very often, as Could you find space for just one more with McLaughlin, it turns out that It is not I who confuse "quantum gen­ contribution relating to Martin Gardner's through sloppy thinking or poor infor­ esis theory with inflationary models," it hornet's nest of Literary Science mation, the statement has the sign is the theorists and, incidentally, Crowe. Blunders? (SI, March/April 1995.) When wrong—plus or minus or the other way Many physicists insist that the contemplating Velasquez's famous paint­ round. Copenhagen Interpretation of quantum ing of the Rokeby Venus in London's While I am not opposed to critical mechanics has become dogma. These National Gallery, I was struck by a jarring thinking, it is hard work. My simple include Einstein, de Broglie, Schro- blunder: The orientation of the mirror screening test has saved me from a lot of dinger, Bohm, Bell, and many others. At figure in the painting, as well as the reflec­ that. no point did I question the accuracy of tion of the woman's face in it, were in no relation to the position of her head. I later Harry Eagar quantum mechanics. What I question is found other paintings containing mirrors Makawao, Hawaii the use to which QM has been put in certain cosmological theories. similarly violating simple optical laws. Yet, when I asked a number of my non- Einstein opposed the Copenhagen scientist friends (with Velasquez's paint­ Interpretation all his life. The General Megadoses of Vitamin C ing), "Do you see anything wrong in this Theory of Relativity was always emi- picture?" the invariable answer was, "no." nendy testable and has been tested many In the May/June issue of SI, there were a "Do you not notice that the reflection in times since 1916. When cosmological number of letters that questioned the mirror is peculiar?" Response: theories that the universe emerged with­ Stephen Barrett's article "The Dark Side "Maybe ... so what?" Perhaps theirs is out cause from total Nothingness are of Linus Pauling's Legacy" (SI, January/ the right attitude. February 1995). Barrett's response to made testable, falsifiable, then something these letters understated the facts regard­ new and worthwhile will have been ing the use of megadoses of vitamin C. added to science that does not now exist. Felix E. Planer The fact is that large quantities of vita­ Chailly, Switzerland min C can be very harmful to many peo­ Ralph Estling ple. Victor Herbert of the Mount Sinai Ilminster, England School of Medicine and Bronx Veterans The letters column is a forum for views on Affair* Medical Center wrote a review matters raised in previous issues. Letters article (Nutrition Today, January/ Islam and Pseudoscience should be no more than 250 words. Due to February 1993) that documents numer­ ous studies regarding the toxic effects of the volume of letters, not all can be pub­ I have read SI for many years and wished mega-C, including those experienced by lished. They should be typed double- Pauling, which range from mild discom­ to make a comment. While recently spaced. Address: Letters to the Editor, working in Saudi Arabia I was able to see fort to death. For those who want to SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 944 Deer Dr. NE, firsthand another culture's treatment of make an informed judgment regarding Albuquerque. NM 87122. paranormal claims. Under Islam, magic

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER • SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1995 International Network of Skeptical Organizations

ARGENTINA. CAIRP. Director. Ladislao Enrique Honkomagome 5-chome, Bunkyo-Ku. Tokyo 113. Danielle Kafka. President, PO. Box 2792. Des Plaines. Marquez. Jose Marti, 35 dtp C, 1406 Buenos Aires. MEXICO. Mexican Association for Skeptical Research IL 60017-2792. Rational Examination Assoc, of AUSTRALIA, National: AustralianSkeptics . PO. Box A2324. (SOMIE), Mario Mendez Acosta, Chairman, Lincoln Land (REALL). David Bloomberg. Chairman. Sydney South. NSW 2000, (E-mail: skepucs^spoL- Apartado Postal 19-546, Mexico 03900. D.F KO. Box 20302. Springfield IL 62708 (217-522-7554). tt.sw.ouu). Regional: Australian Capital Territory, PO. NETHERLANDS. Stichting Skepsis, Rob Nanninga. INDIANA. Indiana Skeptics. Robert Craig. Chairperson. Box 555, Civic Square. 2608. Newcastle Skeptics, Secretary, Westerkade 20, 9718 AS Groningen. 5401 Hedgerow Drive. Indianapolis, IN 46226. Chairperson. Colin Keay. Physics Dept., Ncwcastle NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Skeptic*. Vicki Hyde, KENTUCKY. Kentucky Assn. of Science Educators and University. NSW 2308. Queensland, PO. Box 2180. Chairperson, South Pacific Publications, Box 19-760, Skeptics (KASES). Chairman. Prof. Robert A. Baker. Brisbane. 4001. South Australia. PO. Box 91, Magill. Christchurch 5. N.Z.. Fax: 64 3 384-5138. 3495 Castleton Way North. Lexington. KY 40502. 5072. Victoria. PO. Box 1555P Melbourne, 3001. NORWAY. NIVFO, K. Stenodegard. Boks 9. N-7082. LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of Rational Western Australia. PO. Box 899, Motley WA 6062. Kattem. Skepsis, Terje Emberland, Contact, P B. Inquiry and Scientific Methods (BR-PRISM). Dick BELGIUM. Committee Para. J. Dommanget, Chairman, 2943 Toyen 0608, Oslo 6. Schroth. Director. 425 Carriage Way. Baton Rouge, Observatoire Royal dc Belgique. Avenue Circulaire 3, RUSSIA. Contact Edward Gevorkian, Ulyanovskaya 43, LA 70808-4828 (504-766-4747). B-1180 Brussels. SKEPP, W Ben. Secretary, Uarbccklaan Kor4, 109004, Moscow. MASSACHUSETTS. Skeptical Inquirers of New 103. BI090 Brussels (FAX: 32-2- 4774301). SOUTH AFRICA. Assn. for the Rational Investigation England. Contact Laurence Moss, Ho & Moss, 72 BRAZIL Opcao Racional. Luis Gurman. Rua Santa of the Paranormal (ARIP), Marian Laserson, Kneeland St., Boston 02111. Gara.431. Bloco 5. Apt. 803. Copacabana - Rio de Secretary, 4 Wales St.. Sandringham 2192. MICHIGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics, Carol Lynn, contact, Janeiro 22041-010 (021-227-8694). SOCRATES, Leon Relief, contact. 3 Hoheizen 1264 Bedford Rd.. Grosse Pointe Park. Ml CANADA. Alberta Skeptics, Heidi Lloyd-Price, Crescent, Hoheizen. Bellville 7530. 84230-1116. Secretary. P.O. Box 5571. Station A. Calgary, Alberta SPAIN. Alternativa Racional a las Pseudosciencias (ARP). MINNESOTA. Minnesota Skeptics. Robert W. McCoy. T2H 1X9. British Columbia Skeptics, Lee Moller. Carlos Telleria. Executive Director, Apdto. 1516, 549 Turnpike Rd. Golden Valley. MN 55416. St. contact. 1188 Beaufort Road, Vancouver V7G 1R7. 50080 Zaragoza. El Investigador Esceptico. Contact Kloud ESP Teaching Investigation Committee Manitoba Skeptics. Contact John Toews. President. Felix Ares De Bias. Gamez/Arcs/Martinez. P. O . Box (SKEPTIC). Jerry Menens, Coordinator. Psychology Box 92. St. Vital. Winnipeg. Man. R2M 4A5. 904. 20080 Donostia-San Sebastian. Dept.. St. Cloud State Univ.. St. Cloud, MN 56301. Ontario Skeptics, Henry Gordon. Chairman, 343 SWEDEN. Vetenskap dc Folkbildning (Science and MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for Skeptical Clark Ave West, Suite 1009. Thornhill Ontario L4J People's Education), Sven Ove Hansson. Secretary, Inquiry. Verle Muhrer. Chairman. 2658 East 7th, 7K5. Sceptiques du Quebec Jean Ouellette, C.P Box 185. 101 23 Stockholm. Kansas City. MO 64124. Gateway Skeptics, 202. Succ Beaubien. Montreal H2G 3C9. TAIWAN. Tim Holmes. # 269 Chung Hsing Rd.. Chairperson, Steve Best, 6943 Amherst Ave., Univer­ CZECH REPUBLIC Czech dub of Skeptics. Milos Fengyuan. sity City, MO 63130. Chvojka. nam. Jirlho t Lobkovic 7. CS-130 00 UKRAINE Perspective. Oleg G. Bakhtiarov. Director, NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science & Reason, Prague 3. The Czech Republic. 3-B Khmelnitskogo St., 252001 Kiev. John Geohegan, Chairman, 450 Montclaire SE, ESTONIA. Contact Indrek Rohtmets. Horisont. EE UNITED KINGDOM. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Albuquerque. NM 87108; John Smallwood. 320 0102 Tallinn. Narva mm. 5. Representative, Michael J. Hutchinson. 10 Crescent Artist Road, Santa Fe, NM 87501 (505-988-2800). EUROPEAN COUNCIL OF SKEPTICAL ORGANI­ View. Loughton. Essex IG10 4PZ. The Skeptic mag­ NEW YORK. Inquiring Skeptic* of Upper Mew York ZATIONS. Amardeo Sarma. Secretary. Postfach azine. Editors. Toby Howard and Steve Donnelly. (SUNY). Contact. Michael Sofka. 8 Providence St.. 1222. D-64374 Rossdorf (FAX: .49 6154 81912). P.O. Box 475. Manchester M60 2TH. (E-mail: Albany. NY 12203. (518-437-1750). New York Area FINLAND. Skepsis. Ilpo V. Salmi. President, PL 483. lobyv?cs.man.ac.uk). London Student Skeptic*, Skeptics (NYASk), Wayne Tyrell. contact person. 159 DiiKil Helsinki. Finland. (358-0-588-1943). Contact: Bill Harman, 21 Manville Rd„ London Melrose Ave., E. Massapequa. NY 11758. (516- FRANCE Cercle Zetetique. Contact: Henri Broch. 12 SW17 8fW. We*sex Skeptics. Robin Allen. Dept. of 798-6902). Western New York Skeptics. Tim Madigan. Rue David Deitz. 57000 Men. Union Rationaliste: Physics. Southampton Univ.. Highfield, Chairman. 3965 Rensch Rd.. Buffalo. NY 14228. Comite de liaison Parasdcncct, Jean-Paul Krivine. Southampton S09 5NH. OHIO. South Shore Skeptic*. Page Stephens, 6006 Fir 14. rue de I'Ecole Polytechnique. F-75005 Paris. Avenue. Cleveland, OH 44102 (216-631-5987), GERMANY. Society for the Scientific Investigation of United States Association for Rational Thinking (Cincinnati area), Para-Science (GWUP), Amardeo Sarma. Convenor. ALABAMA. Alabama Skeptics. Emory Kimbrough. Joseph F. Gastright. Contact. 111 Wallace Ave., Postfach 1222. D-64374 Rossdorf (.49 6154 695021, 3550 Watermelon Road. Apr. 28A. Northport. AL Covington. KY 41014 (606-581-7315). FAX: .49 6154 695022. e-mail: 100042.322v?corn- 35476 (205-759-2624). OREGON. Oregonian's for Rationality. Contact. Bill puserve.com). ARIZONA. Tucson Skeptics Inc. James McGaha. Capron. PO Box 4739. Vancouver. WA 98662 (206- HONG KONG. Hong Kong Skeptics. Contact Rebecca Chairman. 7049 E Tangue Verde Rd.. Suite 370. 260-1896) Bradley. P.O. Box 1010. Shatin Central Post Oilier, Tucson. AZ 85715. Phoenix Skeptics. Michael PENNSYLVANIA. Paranormal Investigating Committee Sharin. NT. Stackpole. Chairman, PO. Box 60333, Phoenix. AZ of Pittsburgh (PICP). Richard Butch. Chairman, HUNGARY. Hungarian Skeptics. Gyula Bencze, 85082. 8209 Thompson Run Rd.. Pittsburgh. PA 15237 Trrmran Vilaga. P.O. Box 25. Budapest 8.1444. (Fax CALIFORNIA. Bay Area Skeptics. Wilma Russell. (412-366-4663). Philadelphia Association for 011-36-1-118-7506). Secretary. 17723 Buti Park Court. Castro Valley. CA Critical Thinking (PSACT). William A. Wisdom. 76 INDIA. Indian Skeptics, B. Premanand. Chairman. 11/7 94546. East Bay Skeptics Society, Daniel Sabsay, Limekiln Pike. Glenside, PA 19038 (215) 884-3885. Chettipalayam Rd.. Podanur 641-023 Coimbatore Pit*.. P.O. Box 20989. Oakland. CA 94620 TEXAS. Houston Association for Scientific Thinking Tamil nadu. India. Indian Rationalist Association, (510-420-0702). Sacramento Skeptics Society. Terry (HAST). Darrell Kachilla. P.O. Box 541314, Contact, Sanal Edamaruku. 779. Pocket 5. Mayur Sandbek. 3550 Watt Ave.. Suite #3. Sacramento. CA Houston. TX 77254. North Texas Skeptic*. Joe Vthar I. New Delhi 110 091. Maharashtra 95821 (916-488-3772). Email: tsandbek.mother. Voelkering. President. P.O. Box 111794. Carrollton, Superstition Irradiation Committee. Dads Chandane. com. TX 750111794. Secy.. D/6. first Hoot. Super Marker. Solapur 413001. COLORADO. Rocky Mountain Skeptics. Beta Scheiber. WASHINGTON. The Society for Sensible ISRAEL. Israel Skeptics Society, Philip Marmaros, President. P.O. Box 7277. Boulder. CO 80306 Explanation*. PO. Box 7121. Seattle. WA 98133- Chairman. P.O. Box 8481. Jerusalem. (Fax: 972-2- (303-444-5368). 2121. Tad Cook. Sec/Treas. (E-mail: taoVssc.com). 611652. E-mail: humcfccrv*dronctxo.iI). D.C Capital Area. National Capita] Area Skeptics, c/o WISCONSIN. Contact person: Roxine McQuitty. IRELAND. Irish Skeptics. Peter O'Hara. Contact, St. D.W. "Chip" Denman. 8006 Valley Street. Silver MATC-West. 1200 S. 71st St.. West Allis. Wl 53214 Joseph's Hospital. Limerick. Spring, MD 20910. (414-456-5402. 414-873-4446. McQuittyv?Music ITALY. Comitato Italiano per il Conlrollo delle FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics. Gary Posner, 1113 lib.MATC.edu). Affermazioni sul Paranormale, Massimo Polidoro. Normandy Trace Rd.. Tampa. FL 33602 Editor. Science & Pmncmult. P.O. Box 60. 27058 (813-221-3533), E-mail: garyposv»aol.com. The organizations listed above have aims similar to those Voghera (PV). GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics, Becky Long. President. of CS1COP but are independent and autonomous. JAPAN. Japan Skeptics. Jun Jugaku. Chairperson, 2277 Winding Woods Dr.. Tucker. GA 30084. Representatives of these organizations cannot speak on Business Center for Academic Societies Japan, 16-9 ILLINOIS. Midwest Committee tor Rational Inquiry. behalf of CSICOP. THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL

AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

Paul Kurtz, Chairman Barry Karr, Executive Director SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL CONSULTANTS

George Agogino, Dept. of Anthropology. William Jarvis, professor of health promo­ Elie A. Shneour, biochemist; director. Eastern New Mexico University tion and public health. Loma Linda Uni­ Biosystems Research Institute, La Jolla, Bill G. Aldridge, executive director, National versity, School of Public Health California Science Teachers Assoc. I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology. Steven N. Shore, associate professor and University of Saskatchewan Gary Bauslaugh, dean of technical and chair, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Richard H. Lange, M.D.. Mohawk Valley academic education and professor of Indiana Univ. South Bend chemistry, Malaspina College, Nanaimo, Physician Health Plan, Schenectady, N.Y. Barry Singer, psychologist, Eugene, Oregon British Columbia, Canada Gerald A. Larue, professor of biblical history Mark Slovak, astronomer, University of and archaeology, University of So. Richard E. Berendzen, astronomer, Wisconsin-Madison California. Washington. D.C Gordon Stein, physiologist, author; editor of Bernard J. Leikind, staff scientist, GA the American Rationalist Martin Bridgstock, lecturer, School of Technologies Inc., San Diego Science, Griffith Observatory. Brisbane. Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle William M. London, associate professor Australia Laboratory, University of Wisconsin- of health education, Kent State Richard Busch, magician. Pittsburgh, Pa. Madison University Ernest H. Taves, psychoanalyst, Cambridge, Shawn Carlson, physicist, San Diego, Calif. Thomas R. McDonough, lecturer in engi­ Massachusetts Charles J. Cazeau, geologist. Deary, Idaho neering. Caltech, and SETI Coordinator Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics. Ronald J. Crowley, professor of physics, of the Planetary Society University of Pittsburgh, editor of California State University, Fullerton James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot language. Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, Joel A- Moskowitz, director of medical psy­ Neil deGrasse Tyson, astrophysicist, Princeton Colorado State Univ. chiatry, Calabasas Mental Health University and the Hayden Planetarium Felix Ares De Bias, professor of computer Services, Los Angeles. science, University of Basque, San Robert B. Painter, professor of microbiology. Sebastian, Spain School of Medicine, University of CSICOP Michael R. Dennett, writer, investigator, California Federal Way, Washington John W. Patterson, professor of materials sci­ SUBCOMMITTEES ence and engineering, Iowa State Sid Deutsch, Visiting Professor of electrical University engineering, University of South Florida, Astrology Subcommittee: Chairman, Steven Pinker, professor and director of the Tampa I. W. Kelly, Dept. of Educational Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, MIT J. Dommanget, astronomer, Royale Psychology, 28 Campus Drive, James Pomerantz, professor of psychology, Saskatoon. Sask., Canada. 57N-OX1 Observatory, Brussels, Belgium Rice University Natham J. Duker. assistant professor of Gary P. Posner, M.D., Tampa. Fla. Electronic Communication pathology. Temple University Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy. Subcommittee: Chairman. Page Barbara Eisenstadt, psychologist, educator, SUNY, Buffalo Stephens, 6006 Fir Ave., Cleveland, clinician. East Greenbush, N.Y. Michael Radner, professor of philosophy, OH 44102. E-Mail: Jim Kutz John F. Fischer, forensic analyst, Orlando, Fla. McMaster University. Hamilton, aa387€>Cleveland. Freener.edu Frederic A- Friedel, philosopher. Hamburg, Ontario. Canada West Germany Robert H. Romer, professor of physics, Health Claims Subcommittee: Co- Amherst College Robert E. Funk, anthropologist. New York chairmen, William Jarvis, Professor Milton A. Rothman. physicist. Philadelphia. State Museum & Science Service of Health Promotion and Education, Pa. Eileen Gambrill. professor of social welfare. School of Public Health, Loma University of California at Berkeley Karl Sabbagh. journalist. Richmond, Surrey, England Linda University, Loma Linda. CA Sylvio Garattini, director. Mario Negri Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of educa­ 93350, and Stephen Barrett, M.D., Pharmacology Institute, Milan, Italy tion and medicine, University of P.O. Box 1747, Allentown, PA Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist. University of Wisconsin-Madison 18105. Massachusetts Steven D. Schafersman, geologist. Houston Gerald Goldin, mathematician. Rutgers Bela Scheiber," system analyst. Boulder. Parapsychology Subcommittee: University, New Jersey Colo. Chairman. Ray Hyman, Psychology Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president. Chris Scott, statistician, London, England Dept., Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, Interstellar Media Stuart D. Scott, Jr., associate professor of OR 97402. Clyde F. Herreid. professor of biology, anthropology. SUNY. Buffalo SUNY. Buffalo Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology. UFO Subcommittee: Chairman, Philip Terence M. Nines, professor of psychology, SUNY. Buffalo J. Klass, 404 "N" Street S.W., Pace University. Pleasantville, N.Y. 'Member of CSICOP Executive Council Washington. D.C 20024. Philip A I anna, assoc. professor of astronomy, Univ. of Virginia The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

Cl^CpTipA I The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal encourages the ff^ll^l I llRY—fc^ critical investigation of paranormal and fringe-science claims from a responsible, scientific ' '^* ^^ *» • ^5^^T ^^ point of view and disseminates factual information about the results of such inquiries to the \ V scientific community and the public. It also promotes science and scientific inquiry, critica ' thinking, science education, and the use of reason in examining important issues. To carry out these objectives the Committee:

• Maintains a network of people interested in critically examining paranormal, fringe-science, and other claims, and in contributing to consumer education • Prepares bibliographies of published materials that carefully examine such claims • Encourages research by objective and impartial inquiry in areas where it is needed • Convenes conferences and meetings • Publishes articles that examine claims of the paranormal • Does not reject claims on a priori grounds, antecedent to inquiry, but examines them objectively and carefully

The Committee is a nonprofit scientific and educational organization. The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is its official journal.