Options to Promote Effectiveness of Formal Institutions in Water Resources Management in Lake Victoria Basin: a Case Study of Ukerewe District, Mwanza, Tanzania

The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz

Social Sciences Master Dissertations

2013 Options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in lake Victoria basin: a case study of Ukerewe district, Mwanza, Tanzania.

Linuma, Oswin F.

The University of Dodoma

Linuma, O. F. (2013). Options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in lake Victoria basin: a case study of Ukerewe district, Mwanza, Tanzania. Dodoma: The University of Dodoma http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/1282 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. OPTIONS TO PROMOTE EFFECTIVENESS OF FORMAL

INSTITUTIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN

LAKE VICTORIA BASIN: A CASE STUDY OF UKEREWE

DISTRICT, MWANZA, TANZANIA.

Oswin Filbert Linuma

A Dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts in

Development Studies of the University of Dodoma

The University of Dodoma

October, 2013

CERTIFICATION

The undersigned certifies that has read and here recommends for acceptance by the

University of Dodoma a Dissertation titled, “Options to Promote Effectiveness of

Formal Institutions in Water Resources Management in Lake Victoria Basin: A Case

Study of Ukerewe District, Mwanza, Tanzania” in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Development Studies of the University of Dodoma.

………………………………………………………….

Dr. Albino J. M Tenge

(Supervisor)

Date ………….

DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT

I, Linuma, Oswin .F, declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other university for a similar or any other degree award.

Signature …………………………………………………

No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to my supervisor Dr. Albino. J. M Tenge for his comments, guidance and encouragement during the process of writing this dissertation. I know if it was not him this work would not have been reached this stage.

I appreciate greatly the financial support from VicRes through the project “ICT and

Adaptation to Climate Change: Innovative and Integrated Solutions to Address

Challenges of Water Resources Governance within Lake Victoria Basin” for sponsoring this research; I appreciate greatly the contribution.

This dissertation is a result of collaborative efforts of various people and institutions. I thank District Executive Director of Ukerewe Dr. Leonard M. Massale, District Fishery

Officer Mr. Evarist Ngoyi, District Environmental Officer Mr. Songora J.K.N; Village chairpersons of Nansio, Kakerege, Mtoni and Muluseni, Head of Department of

Geography and Environmental Studies Prof. Abiud Kaswamila and Dr Rehema kilonzo of Department of Development Studies of the University of Dodoma who spent their time out of their busy schedule and contributed to my dissertation. Without their response, this study would not have been completed.

Also I express thanks to all the lecturers in the Department of Geography and

Environmental Studies at the University of Dodoma for their encouragement during the process of developing this work.

Lastly but not least, I express my deep appreciation to Miss Beatrice Petro for her advice and technical support.

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my lovely wife Niwael Gabriel Mussa and my children

Casillas and Miller for their consistent support and encouragement during the whole duration of my studies at the University of Dodoma. To them I would say that ―We have finally made it, to God be the glory‖.

ABSTRACT

This study aimed at assessing options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in LVB: - Using Ukerewe district as a case study. It focused on identifying types of formal institutions related to water resources management in LVB, examined strategies used for water resources management and identified the possible strategies to improve water resources management. The study used interview, Focus Group Discussion, observation and Documentary reviews as data collecting methods. A total of 110 households were randomly and purposively sampled for this study from four villages in Ukerewe district. Collected data was descriptive analyzed in terms of frequency, percentage and cross tabulation using of SPSS computer package. The study revealed that, there is water resources degradation, where by 84% of households indicated that LVB water resources is at a great risk of disappearing as it has been degraded due to fishing and agricultural activities. The findings revealed four governmental and five Non-Governmental institutions which are involved in water resources management in LVB. Strategies used in water resources management are training in the form of workshop (30%), policy, projects, research, laws, regulations, by laws and advice. Options to improve water resources management include subsidies on fishing tools, micro credit schemes, prevention of illegal fishing, fighting corruption, capacity building, technology and provision of awareness education. The study concludes that local people are key and important stakeholders for effective and sound management of the water resources. The study recommends that

Government and NGOs should continue to provide education, micro credit schemes, fighting corruption and improve coordination of activities in water resources management in LVB. There is a need for research on indigenous knowledge in water resources management in LVB and other areas with similar problem.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION ...... i DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... x LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi LIST OF PLATES ...... xii LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATION ...... xiv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background Information ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 2 1.3 Objectives of the study ...... 3 1.3.1 General objective ...... 3 1.3.2 Specific objectives ...... 4 1.4 Research Questions ...... 4 1.5 Significance of the study ...... 4 1.6 Conceptual framework ...... 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7 2.1 Overview ...... 7 2.2 Definitions of key concepts ...... 7 2.2.1 Institution ...... 7 2.2.2 Policy ...... 8 2.2.3 Water resources ...... 9 2.2.4 Water resources management ...... 9 2.3 Historical background of water resources management ...... 9 2.4 Types of formal institutions related in water resources management in LVB……..10

2.4.1 Governmental institutions ...... 10 2.4.2 Non Governmental institutions ...... 12 2.5 Establishment of policies dealing with water resources management ...... 14 2.6 Policies dealing with water resources management in Tanzania ...... 15 2.6.1 Agricultural Policy ...... 15 2.6.2 Fishery Policy ...... 16 2.6.3 National Water Policy (NAWPO) ...... 17 2.6.4 National Environmental Policy ...... 18 2.6.5 National Irrigation Policy ...... 18 2.6.6 National Land Policy ...... 19 2.6.7 National Forest Policy ...... 19 2.7 The aims of policies dealing with water resources management ...... 19 2.8 Establishment of laws for water resources management ...... 20 2.9 Laws and regulations dealing with water resources management in LVB ...... 21 2.9.1 Fishery law ...... 21 2.9.2 Environmental law ...... 22 2.10 Formal institutions in water resources management worldwide ...... 22 2.11 Formal institutions in water resources management in developing countries ...... 23 2.12 Efforts taken by EAC for water resources management in LVB ...... 24 2.13 Treaties for natural resources management ...... 25 2.14 Challenges facing water resources management in LVB ...... 25 2.15 Challenges facing policies involve in water resources management in Tanzania .. 27 2.16 Suggestions towards water resources management ...... 28 2.17 Knowledge gap ...... 28

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 29 3.1 Study Area ...... 29 3.1.1 Selection of the study area ...... 29 3.1.2 Description of the study area ...... 29 3.1.3. Climatic and rainfall ...... 31 3.1.4 Population and economic activities ...... 32 3.2 Research design ...... 33 3.3. Sampling design ...... 33 3.3.1 Sampling frame ...... 33

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3.3.2 Sample size…………………………………………………………………...…..38 3.3.3 Sampling procedure ...... 35 3.4 Data collection ...... 35 3.4.1 Data types and sources ...... 35 3.5 Data collection methods ...... 36 3.5.1 Primary data ...... 36 3.5.2 Secondary data ...... 38 3.6 Data Processing and Analysis……………………………………………………...39 3.6.1 Data processing ...... 39 3.6.2 Data Analysis ...... 39 3.7 Data reliability ...... 40 3.8 Data validity ...... 41

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 42 4.1 Introduction ...... 42 4.2 Characteristics of the respondents ...... 42 4.2.1 Sex ...... 42 4.2.2 Age ...... 43 4.2.3 Place of birth ...... 44 4.2.4 Marital status ...... 44 4.2.5 Level of education ...... 44 4.2.6 Household size ...... 45 4.2.7 Economic activities ...... 46 4.3 Formal institutions related to water resources management in LVB...... 47 4.3.1 Types of formal institutions ...... 47 4.3.2 Roles of formal institutions ...... 51 4.3.3 Coordination of activities of formal institutions ...... 52 4.3.4 Community awareness about formal institutions related to water resources management in LVB ...... 53 4.4 Strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB ...... 55 4.4.1 Policies ...... 55 4.4.2 Programmes ...... 58 4.4.3 Projects ...... 58 4.4.4 Research ...... 59

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4.4.5 Training ...... 59 4.4.6 Advice ...... 60 4.4.7 Community awareness about strategies used in water resources management in LVB ...... 60 4.5 Instruments ...... 62 4.5.1 Laws ...... 62 4.5.2 Regulations ...... 63 4.5.3 By- laws ...... 64 4.5.4 Community awareness about the instruments used to enforce policies governing water resources in LVB ...... 65 4.6 Effective strategies ...... 66 4.6.1 Formulation of laws, regulations and by-laws ...... 66 4.6.2 Community participation in formulation of laws, regulations and by-laws ...... 67 4.7 Community awareness about levels in adherence to laws, regulations and by laws 68 4.7.1 Limited alternatives ...... 69 4.7.2 Corruption among officials ...... 70 4.7.3 Limited capacity to enforce laws and regulations ...... 70 4.7.4 Piracy ...... 70 4.8 Options to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB ...... 71 4.8.1 Policy options ...... 71 4.8.2 Administrative options ...... 73 4.8.3 Technical options ...... 75

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 77 5.1 Introduction ...... 77 5.2 Summary ...... 77 5.3 Conclusion ...... 79 5.4 Recommendations ...... 81 5.5 Suggestions for further research ...... 83 REFERENCES ...... 84 APPENDICES ...... 92

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Sample distribution…………………………………………………………...34 Table 2a: Respondents Characteristics…………………………………………………43 Table 2b: Household size and major economic activities of respondents……………...45 Table 3: Roles of organizations in water resources management……………………..49 Table 4: Coordination of activities between organizations in water resources management in LVB………………………………………………………………...…52 Table 5: Community awareness about formal institutions governing water resources in LVB…………………………………………………………………………………….54 Table 6: Strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB……………………………………………………………………………………57 Table 7: Community awareness about strategies used in water resources management in LVB……………………………………………………………………………………62 Table 8: Community awareness about nstruments used to enforce policies governing water resources in LVB……………………………………………………………….66 Table 9: Community perception on responsibility in formulation of laws, regulations and by laws……………………………………………………………………………..67 Table 10: Low level of community adherence to laws, regulations and by- laws and reasons………………………………………………………………………………….69 Table 11: Options proposed to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB…………………………………………………………………………………….72

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual framework (Source: Researchers' Construction)…………………6 Figure 2: Map of Ukerewe district (Island)…………………………………………….31 Figure 3: Community awareness about level of participation in formulation of laws, regulations and by laws………………………………………………………………...68

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Some of the local illegal fishing tools used in LVB………………..…….…...46 Plate 2: Picture showing bad farming activities close to the LVB…………………….47 Plate 3: Picture showing farming activities closer to the LV…………………………..63 Plate 4: Picture showing fishermen preparing unauthorized small nets along the LV...64

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for households/Community members…………………..92 Appendix 2: Questionnaire for semi-structured interview with VEOs/WEOs………99 Appendix 3: Questionnaire for semi-structured interview with key informants……..104

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LIST OF ABBREVIATION

MAAI Ministry of Agriculture, Animal, Industry and Fisheries (Uganda)

SLM Sustainable Land Management

MAC Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives

NEMA National Environmental Management Authorities

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency

ICT Information Communication Technology

IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management

UNDP United Nations Development Programs

DFR Department of Fisheries Resources

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

TI Transparency International

EABI East Africa Bribery Index

EAC East African Community

WR Water Resources

EMEDO Environmental Management Development Organization

LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project

NARO National Agricultural Research Organization

UG Uganda Government

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Information

Water resources are essential to sustain human life as well they play vital roles in many human activities such as industrial production, agriculture, energy, sanitation and transportation (Cape-Net, 2003). However, there is scarcity of water whereby out of about 97% of water which is found on the Earth surface is seawater and only 0.4% of all of the water on Earth is in a form that is usable and accessible by human beings

(Hall, 2001). Due to scarcity and the increase of the uses of water, water resources management has become the most compelling global environmental concern (Kirby,

2005). Recognizing these challenges, different governments in different countries have taken various measures to ensure proper management of water resources. The measures include formulation of different policies, legal and regulatory instruments and institutional frameworks at different levels (Bates et al, 2008; Kundzewicz et al, 2008).

In Sub Saharan African efforts made include establishing legal frameworks based on a much more active involvement of the users of the natural resources.

For instance in South Africa, they developed and implement catchment management strategy which encourages public participation. They also established of a legal body which operates at the localized level (Muller, 2000).

In Tanzania, there are several institutions that are involved in water management such as Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, Ministry of Energy and Minerals,

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism and The Ministry of Industry and

Commerce (DANIDA/World Bank, 1995). An overview of existing formal institutions embraces government institutions, varied private and donor agencies with interest in

water resources management. Furthermore, Tanzania has formulated various policies and laws to address various aspects of sustainable water resources use (Sokile et al,

2003).

Despite policy and institutional efforts undertaken to ensure sustainable management of water resources in Lake Victoria Basin, still water resources degradation is persisting.

National Environmental Management (NEMA), (2001) depicts that the rapid growth of population and development, the multiple activities in the Lake basin have increasingly come into conflict causing changes that render the Lake environment unstable.

Many wetlands such as river drainage basins have been degraded for agricultural purposes, dumping of waste from urban sewerage and industries, sand mining, extraction of clays for brick making, deforestation, overgrazing and nutrient enrichment from agricultural land (NEMA, 2001). Anyah and Semazzi (2004) portray that, the lake ecosystem is under threat from multiple sources such as hyacinth infestation, and the resulting eutrophication which has negatively altered lake oxygen levels. This kind of water resources degradation is taking place in the presence of policies govern water resources management. This study assessed options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Management of water resources is a crucial phenomenon for human health and wellbeing as well as it is essential for socio-economic development. Water resources management in Lake Victoria Basin is faced with many challenges due to large proportion of population which depend on agriculture, fishing and agro-pastoral activities. These activities lead to clearing of vegetative cover and wetlands, expansion of agricultural lands with overall increased soil erosion which is turn leads to water

resources degradation (Machiwa, 20012). According to Mvuma, et al., (2012), there is illegal utilization of LVB water resources leading to water resources degradation.

Mvuma et al (2012) reveal that 69.6% of fishing activities in Tanzania are done illegally. This illegal fishing leads to water resources degradation.

Like other countries within the Lake Victoria Basin, Tanzania has made various efforts in order to ensure sustainable utilization of water resources. The efforts include formulation of policies, laws and regulations and implementing institutions, (URT,

2002). All these efforts are focusing on improving the situation of water resources conservation in LVB while at the same time providing sustainable economic development for the local communities living around the lake basin.

Despite these efforts the problems of water resources degradation persists and are likely to worsen in the coming decades due to the compounding effects of climate change.

The possible factors for continued LVB water resources degradation could be inadequate of existing policies, inadequate resources, lack of community participation and poor strategies in implementing those policies. However, there are limited studies to establish exactly causes of the continued activities that contribute to water resources degradation in LVB.

This study assessed options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in Lake Victoria Basin using Ukerewe District as a case study.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective

To assess options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in Ukerewe district

1.3.2 Specific objectives i) To identify formal institutions related to water resources management in Lake

Victoria Basin ii) To examine strategies used by formal institutions to manage water resources in Lake

Victoria Basin iii) To identify the possible strategies to improve water resources management in Lake

Victoria Basin

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the formal institutions dealing with water resources management in

Ukerewe district?

2. What are the strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in

Ukerewe district?

3. What are the possible strategies to improve water resources management in

Ukerewe district?

1.5 Significance of the study

The proposed study is significant in a number of ways. First, the study findings on institutional structure, strategies and arrangement will increase better understanding on the factors for ineffectiveness of institutions in water resources management. This will therefore have significant bearing on the improvement of formal institutional arrangement for water resources management in the study area. Second, the study will have policy implications as it will shed light on the underlying challenges of water resources management, this will help in formulating positive policies that will enhance sustainable water resources management in this era of global climate change. Thirdly, the results of the research will contribute to the big project titled ―ICT and Adaptation

to Climate Change: Innovative and Integrated Solutions to Address Challenges of

Water Resources Governance within Lake Victoria Basin”. Finally, the study acts as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in Development

Studies of the University of Dodoma pursued by the researcher.

1.6 Conceptual framework

This research is guided by the conceptual framework presented in Figure 1. Formal institutions comprise Governmental and Non-governmental institutions. These institutions operate under different policies, laws and regulations. Depending on the adequate of policies and capacity to implement some institutions may be effective than others. The effective depends on the adequate of the policies, strategies and capacity to implement. When policies are adequate and there is capacity to implement, there will be high levels of adherence to laws/regulations. No corruptions, high level of participation and minimum water resources degradation.

Governmental Indicators

institutions -Good health

-Ministry of -Abundant Outcomes agriculture resources -Safe and -Ministry of -Presence of clean water NRS evergreen Sustainable -Ministry of management energy Effectiveness of water Operational Formal -Participation resources -Policies -Strategies institutions Outcomes- -Laws -Level of -Afforestatioland -By laws corruption

degradationn -Regulations Indicators - destruction

Non -Poor soils of- water

Governmental -Scarcity sources

institutions of -water - -NGOs resources pollution

-CBOs -Diseases

Figure 1: Conceptual framework (Source: Researchers' Construction)

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

This chapter on literature review dealt with the key concepts that are central to the study. These are institution, formal institution, water resources, water resources management and water policy. Apart from defining and describing what they are, the researcher has examined other researchers‘ views that relate to the present study.

2.2 Definitions of key concepts

2.2.1 Institution

The term "institution" is commonly applied to customs and behavior patterns important to a society, as well as to particular formal organizations of government and public service (Durkheim, 1895). As structures and mechanisms of social order among humans, institutions are one of the principal objects of study in the social sciences, such as political science, anthropology, economics, and sociology.

Also, institution is conceived in a much broader sense than mere organization. Since institutions set the rules of the game and define, thereby, what individuals can and cannot do in given context, they, in effect, delineate the action sets for both individual and collective decision-making (Hardin, 1968 and North, 1990).

Greif (2006) reveals that an institution is regarded as any structure or mechanism of social order and cooperation governing the behavior of a set of individuals within a given human community. Institutions are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules governing cooperative human behavior.

Furthermore, Leach et al., (1997) viewed institutions as ―regulated patterns of behaviour structured by rules that have widespread use in society‖. Livelihood seems to comprise assets and activities, both mediated by institutions and social relations that together determine the living gained by the individual or household (Ellis, 2000; DFID,

2001).

Institutions is defined as ‗the rules that govern a society or, more formally, are the humanly devised constraints that structure and shape human actions and interactions between members of the society and with the surrounding environment‘ (North, 1990).

He further notes that institutions can be created, such as constitutions, or institutions can simply evolve over time, such as common law. Institutions, therefore, according to

North, are creations of human beings and they hence evolve and are continuously altered by human beings. Moreover, the ways institutions evolve and develop have an influence on the natural resource management and socioeconomic development of a society over time and space.

2.2.2 Policy

Appropriate policies and legislation create an enabling environment for sustainable natural resource management and development. A policy is a government‘s main governance mechanism to provide guidelines for implementing development plans and strategies. For natural resources, a policy sets broad criteria and procedures intended to provide guidance to planners and decision-makers and those charged with power to implement and execute natural resource-based development plans. To operate effectively and efficiently, laws are enacted to enforce the implementation of the policies. A law defines the legal entitlement to the specific natural resource and identifies the rights and obligations tied to its allocation and use and, consequently, provide the prescriptive parameters for the resource‘s development. Some of these laws 8

facilitate natural resource management on a river basin basis. In Tanzania, for example, water resource development is governed by both law and policy (URT, 2002)

2.2.3 Water resources

Water resources are referred as the current or potential value of the resource to the community and the environment. The maximum rate that water is potentially available for human use and management is often considered the best measure of the total water resources of a given region (Laurenson, 1987).

2.2.4 Water resources management

According to EC (1998), water resources management includes the process of decision- making on assessment, allocation, use, regulation, monitoring and development of surface and underground water sources. Also, it emphasizes on optimizing the available natural water flows, including surface water and groundwater, to satisfy these competing needs.

2.3 Historical background of water resources management

In fact, a rich history of sustainable water resources management systems exists, but few have survived generations and been analyzed in the context of modern water resources management. The in depth study of Spanish water systems, by Maass and

Anderson is perhaps the most referenced, but others exist and perhaps offer valuable additional lessons to broaden our understanding of what makes a system sustainable

(Maass and Anderson, 1978).

In other countries institutions for water resources management have been established with the intention of water resources development. During the 1960s and 70s

Indonesian water sector policy emphasized water resources development. By the late

1990s, however, the water sector faced deteriorating infrastructure and a degradation natural resources base. There was limited coordination between agencies, a low level of stakeholder participation, lack of funds and no effective management agencies at the river basin level. The resources problems included water shortages and conflicts, watershed degradation and sedimentation and rising water pollution (World Bank,

1999).

Water resources management has been taken by different countries in the world. For instance the government of Mexico focuses on the following policies as their strategies in water resources management such as reforms to legal and institutional framework, effective decentralization policies, and new financing schemes, resulting in greater private sector participation in order to achieve better urban water resources management. One standard refrain of institutional discussions in the water sector is to

―get the water law right.‖ But the problem is not passing a law but enforcing it in a society with a vast number of stakeholders operating in the informal sector with little or no link to resource governance structures. This is why many governments readily pass acts but spend years before converting them into laws (CNA, 1994).

2.4 Types of formal institutions related in water resources management in LVB

There are various formal of formal institutions that are dealing with water resources management in LV. These are as follow:-

2.4.1 Governmental institutions

Ministry of Water and Irrigation

Ministry of Water and Irrigation plays the roles of policy formulation, rural water supply and sanitation, urban water supply and sewerage, institutional strengthening and

capacity building, developing and managing water resources of the country. The water resources management section provides a comprehensive framework for promoting optimal, sustainable and equitable development and use of water resources for the benefit of the present and the future generations (URT, 2002).

Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development

Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development involves with formulating policies and strategies, management and development of livestock and fisheries resources, improved livelihood and fisheries dependent communities, food safety and security without compromising animal welfare and environmental conservation and sustainable utilization of the fisheries resources. Also, to improve resource management and control, integration of environment protection and development, improve knowledge of fisheries resource base and efficient resource utilization and marketing (URT, 2012).

Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security

Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security plays the roles of policy formulation, promote sustainable use of natural resources and environmental management, create enabling environment for effective implementation of agriculture, improved institutional and regulatory frameworks and human capacity building, encourage and empower stakeholders to participate in agricultural development initiatives. Also, to strengthen the institutional framework, reforms in agricultural research and extension services, facilitation of investment, development of markets, irrigation and water management, rural infrastructure and fiscal reforms (URT, 2008).

Local Government Authority

Local Government Authority deals with planning and development of water resources in accordance with Basin plans, protection and conservation of natural resources in the

villages and wards, establishment of by-laws on the management of water resources, conflict resolution in accordance with established laws and regulations and application of IWRM principles in their own mandate through local action and water resources allocation. Also, the Local Government Authorities are responsible for the implementation of policies and legislation issued by sector ministries according to

Amendment Act of 1999 (URT, 2008).

2.4.2 Non Governmental institutions

Beach Management Unit

It plays the roles of development of management plans, prevent and address conflicts, encourage community participation in resources management and development, eradicate fisheries illegalities, training and sensitization about water resources management in Lake Victoria Basin. Also, it brings together under co-management the fishing community, including boat owners, boat crew, managers, fish processors, fishmongers, local gear makers, and dealers in fishing equipment in order to involve them in water resources management in Lake Victoria Basin (Ogwangi, et. al.; 2009).

Environmental Management Development Organization

It deals with advocacy training that includes education in relevant laws, policies and sustainable management of the natural resources in Lake Victoria Basin. It is also facilitating public meetings where the local communities have the chance to discuss challenges facing water resources management in Lake Victoria Basin with the authorities or private sector in order to bring about sustainable solutions based on the ideas of the residents. It created school clubs in which students and teachers are being trained in good sanitation, hygiene and water management. Furthermore, the training includes training on legislation and policies as well as advocacy providing the

participants with skills enabling them to lobby for their rights to functioning wash facilities at the school ground ([email protected]).

Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project

LVEMP plays the roles of sustainable management of the environment and natural resources, capacity in management of and knowledge base building on lake resources, studying water quality, circulation and hydrology aspects, assessing pollution and inflows; and surveying biodiversity. Also, it deals project activities which are multisectoral in nature include Fisheries management and research, water hyacinth control, water quality ecosystem management; industrial and municipal waste management, land use and wet land management in Lake Victoria Basin (Mwaka, et al.; 1999).

Lake Victoria Fishery Organization

The Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO) was formed through a Convention signed in 1994 by the East African Community Partner States of Kenya, Tanzania and

Uganda as a result of the need to manage the fisheries resources of Lake Victoria in a coordinated manner. The Organisation is an institution of the East African Community

(EAC) whose aim is to harmonize, develop and adopt conservation and management measures for the sustainable utilization of living resources of Lake Victoria to optimize socio-economic benefits from the basin for the three Partner States. Also, it has the functions of promote the proper management and optimum utilization of fisheries and other resources of the lake, enhance the capacity of existing fisheries institutions, provide a forum for discussion of the impacts of initiatives on the lake, provide for the conduct of research on the living resources of the lake and its environment, coordinate and undertake training and extension in all aspects of fisheries, consider and advise on the impact of introductions of non-indigenous organisms into 13

the Lake Victoria, serve as a clearing house and a data bank for information on the fisheries of the lake and promote the dissemination of information (LVFO, 2007).

Vi-Tree Planting

It aims at halt desertification by planting trees and making the Lake Victoria Basin green; promote more rural based agroforestry technologies, offering good living condition for small holder families. Trees for the future have helped to create sustainable and productive communities throughout the world since 1989. This is done through teaching and empowering rural groups to grow sustainable, renewable forests for agriculture and food, firewood, construction, water resources management and filtration and animal habitat. Distance training programs and teams of dedicated individuals in the field who train, support and facilitate hope for members of communities to build better lives for themselves (Swidish Cooperative Centre, 2007).

2.5 Establishment of policies dealing with water resources management

The World Bank has introduced a Policy which is dealing with Water Resources

Management. The Policy promoted a multi-sectoral approach to the planning and management of water resources, a fundamental shift from the sector based investment planning practiced prior to 1990s. The policy integrated the Dublin Principles and explicitly recognized the environment (wetlands and fisheries) as a legitimate use of water (like agriculture, energy, industry, livestock, mining and urban and rural supply).

The World Bank continued to largely rely on its safeguard policies to address environmental and social issues in water resources investment planning and design decisions. Hardly any systematic effort was made to address the environment in the water resources policy dialogue (World Bank, 1993).

UNDP (2008) revealed that, there is an increasing number of countries are developing new policies, strategies and laws for water resource development and management based on the principles of integrated water resources management (IWRM) that aim at decentralization, integration and cost-recovery. An improved legal and institutional context with enhanced transparency and accountability could contribute to more effective water resource management, and at the same time maximize available opportunities and ensure the fair and equitable distribution of benefits. This would have positive spinoffs at multiple levels, including for human well-being and in particular health and nutrition, livelihoods and economic development.

2.6 Policies dealing with water resources management in Tanzania

2.6.1 Agricultural Policy

Both the National Agricultural and Livestock Policies of the early 1980s recognized the importance of environment and proposed several measures to arrest degradation of natural resources. But in the intervening years, technology for understanding the impact of human activities on environment has made significant strides, which clearly show that sectoral approach to environmental management is of limited effectiveness.

Agricultural policies, besides being internally consistent, must provide a mechanism for linking themselves with those of other sectors in the noble mission of protecting and enhancing environment. For instance the expansion of agricultural activities in the best rangelands (due to population and food demand) has resulted in large numbers of livestock to be concentrated on marginal lands with low carrying capacity. This has caused over-grazing and gradual environmental destruction. These activities endanger environment as pollution can easily arise from this unregulated livestock production activities. All these problems call for concerted action involving a thorough

understanding of the nature and scope of the problems and a comprehensive and sustainable programme to combat them (URT, 1997).

Furthermore, agriculture is critically dependent on environmental resources such as land, water, forest and air. However, the use of these resources can affect directly or indirectly, other natural resources, through dynamic and complex interrelationships existing in the natural systems. This implies that wrong use of land, water and forest in the production of crops and livestock can have a far-reaching effect on the environmental integrity. To avoid such consequences, agricultural sector policies must fit in the overall environmental policy, which is critical in providing guidance for the proper and balanced use of natural resources and in defining sectoral responsibilities for the environmental management (URT, 1997).

2.6.2 Fishery Policy

Fisheries development and management, the 1997 Fisheries Policy and strategic statements provide guideline for the administration of the industry. The policy revolves around the country‘s central policy of economic growth and poverty reduction. The goal is to regulate, promote, conserve, develop and ensure sustainable exploitation and utilization of fish and other aquatic living resources. It focuses on providing food, employment, income, and earning of foreign exchange (URT, 1997). In addition to Fisheries Policy there are other tools providing operational guidance. This includes; Fisheries Act 2003 Fisheries Regulations of 2005 and a Master plan.

According to the legal framework the director of fisheries has responsibility over the administration of the industry on (URT, 2002).

2.6.3 National Water Policy (NAWPO)

Mainland Tanzania is now in the process of preparing a legislation that will govern the management of water resources as well as water supply and sanitation. The process of preparing the legislation was preceded by the adoption of a new National Water Policy

(NAWAPO). The Cabinet adopted the policy recommendations contained in

NAWAPO which has a whole part dealing with rural water supply and sanitation. Since

1974 Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) is governed by Act, 1974 hence new concepts and approaches to governance and utilization of water resources have emerged that need to be taken on board.

Furthermore, the legal framework governing water supply is being reviewed as part of implementation of NAWAPO. The legal framework is required to: define roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders; to secure investments made; augmenting private sector participation and legally recognizing water users‘ entities. The main thrust of the review of the water legislation therefore, takes cue from NAWAPO and the latter had adopted a two pronged approach of separating water resources legislation from those of service provide. Moreover, as it is with other natural resources legislation, as well as the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act, 1974 the proposed new water legislation vests the radical title on water to the United Republic.

The Water Resources Bill proposes that all the waters in Tanzania are vested in the

United Republic. This means that all water uses, with few exceptions provided under the law must be used with holders of water permits granted, as it is the case under the current Act where they are granted water rights. Therefore, the Bill does not envisage private ownership of water since state ownership of water resources is clearly stipulated under the Act and reiterated under NAWAPO. The Policy stipulates under Paragraph

4.1.1 that: ―…all water in the country is vested in the United Republic of Tanzania and

every citizen has an equal right to access and use the nation‘s natural water resources for his and the nations benefit‖ (URT, 2002).

2.6.4 National Environmental Policy

It plays the roles of (a) Ensuring sustainability, security and equitable use of resources for meeting the basic needs of the present and future generations without degrading the environment or risking health or safety, (b) Preventing and controlling degradation of land, water, vegetation, and air which constitute our life support system. (c) Conserving and enhancing our natural and man-made heritage, including the biological diversity of the unique ecosystems of Tanzania. (d) Improving the condition and productivity of the degraded areas including rural and urban settlements in order that all Tanzanians may live safe, healthful, productive and aesthetically pleasing surroundings. (e) Raising public awareness and understanding of essential linkages between the environment and development, and to promote individual and community participation in environmental action (URT, 1997).

2.6.5 National Irrigation Policy

The policy aims at ensuring sustainable availability of irrigation water and its efficient use for enhanced crop production, productivity and profitability that will contribute to food security and poverty reduction, promote efficient water use in irrigation systems, to abide by the Integrated Water Resources Management approach in irrigation

Development, to ensure that irrigation development is technically feasible, economically viable, socially desirable and environmentally sustainable, to ensure reliable water for irrigation so as to facilitate optimization, intensification and diversification of irrigated crop production to supplement rain-fed crop production effectively, to empower beneficiaries for effective participation at all levels in irrigation

planning, implementation, operation and management and to mainstream cross cutting and cross sectoral issues such as gender, HIV/AIDS, environment, health, land and water in irrigation development (URT, 2009).

2.6.6 National Land Policy

It deals with promoting and ensuring a secure land tenure system, to encourage the optimal use of land resources, and to facilitate broad-based social and economic development without upsetting or endangering the ecological balance of the environment, to promote land resources from degradation for sustainable development and sound land information management (URT, 1997).

2.6.7 National Forest Policy

It plays the roles of preventing and controlling degradation of land, water, vegetation and air which constitute our life support systems, to improve the condition and productivity of degraded areas including rural and urban settlements in order that all

Tanzanians may live in safe, healthy, productive and aesthetically pleasing surroundings and to raise public awareness and understanding of the essential linkages between environment and development and to promote individual and community participation in environment action (URT, 1998).

2.7 The aims of policies dealing with water resources management

Rogers and Hall (2003:16) reported that ―water policy and the process for its formulation must have as its goal the sustainable development of water resources, and to make its implementation effective, the key actors/stakeholders must be involved in the process of solving a problem or exploiting opportunity.

Similarly, the current state of Middle Eastern water management policy is typically state-centered offensive posturing. The act of restricting water resources downstream as a means of gaining political control has created an environment of perpetual competition at the expense of the environment and long-term sustainability, thus security ( Pearse, 2006).

Muller (2000) portrayed that, some of the basic water resources management institutions in South Africa play a coordinating role regarding water related activities and water management institutions, develop and implement catchment management strategy and encourage public participation; and the establishment of a legal body which operates at the localized level with exceptions especially when the length of the river managed is so long that it relates more to the regional than local interest.

2.8 Establishment of laws for water resources management

There is a huge effort involving the reform of water laws, institutions and capacity building is underway based upon the IWRM ‗recipe‘. In most southern African countries new laws have been enacted to develop catchment level authorities to plan and manage water resources, and the EC water framework directive now requires

European states to adopt catchment level planning based upon IWRM principles (GWP,

2005).

Several countries in Africa including Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Chad, and Lesotho have carried out institutional and legal reforms either on their own or forced by circumstances to effect changes. In this respect some countries have strengthened their water institutions, others created new ones like central policy-making and co- coordinating bodies and semi-autonomous public agencies; others have reassigned

functions among institutions and still others have reassigned ministerial responsibilities for water agencies. The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (2005) point out that, there is no single overarching water resources law in Egypt. The main laws of relevance for water resources management include laws about irrigation and drainage on the one hand, and laws to protect the environment on the other hand. Among the irrigation and drainage laws are Law 12 for the year 1984 for the Irrigation and drainage, and Law 213 for the year 1994 for farmer participation and cost sharing.

2.9 Laws and regulations dealing with water resources management in LVB

2.9.1 Fishery law

The Fisheries Act, 2003 No. 22 of 2003 (Made under Section 57) states that, No person shall- (a) use poison to kill or catch fish; or (b) posses fish killed by poison, unless such a person has a research permit from the Director. No person shall cause or willingly permit to flow or pass into water any solid, liquid or gaseous matter, or cause water pollution in any lake, river, dam, estuary or seawater. No person shall erect, construct, use or maintain in the territorial waters any net or other fishing gear which unduly obstructs the passage of fish; and a licensing officer may order removal of or cause to be removed any such net or other fishing gears. Notwithstanding anything contained in these Regulations no person shall: (a) use for fishing a monofilament net in all fresh and marine water fisheries; (b) import into Tanzania monofilament net for the purpose of fishing in Tanzanian Mainland waters; (c) possess, sell, stock or use monofilament nets for the purpose of killing fish in any water bodies. (e) use for fishing, a gill net of mesh size less than 3‖ in a fresh water body (f) use for fishing, a gill net of less than six inches or 152.4 millimetres in Lake Victoria for Nile perch fish catching. (g) use for fishing, a gill net of less than five or 127 millimetres in Lake Victoria, in distances of

more than 500 meters from the beach watermark, except for research purposes (URT,

2009).

2.9.2 Environmental law

It states that, without prejudice to section 57 of the Environmental Management Act, the Minister may, by an order published in the Gazette, prohibit human activities to be conducted beyond sixty metres from a water dam or reservoir or a water source (URT,

2009).

2.10 Formal institutions in water resources management worldwide

Malano et al, (1996) reported that, general principles of good allocation and rational water resources management are transferable from one context to another, no package or formula in doing so is viable. For instance in Australia, the two political units, New

South Wales and Victoria had two different paths of institutional development, though within the same Murray-Darling river basin, implying that local-level conditions and initiatives for change are vital in establishing new policies and institutions for water resources management.

Also, Rogers (2002) revealed that, water resources management was prompted by policies set out in the National Development Plan (1989-94). The National Water Plan

(1975) provided the legal basis for water resources management and development and a new National Water Law was established in 1992 to supersede the Federal Water Law of 1972. A National Water Commission (CAN) was created in 1989 as an Apex body responsible for the administration of water within watersheds and for providing technical support to 32 State offices.

2.11 Formal institutions in water resources management in developing countries

WWAP (2001) observed that, the creation of centralized policy and planning mechanisms is a logical and necessary step for comprehensive and coordinated management of unitary water resources. In practice, however, such centralized arrangements are frequently underfinanced, understaffed and may lack real operational authority. This lack of success should not, however, negate the essential justification of coordinated resource planning. Not only should national planning mechanisms be above sectoral agencies, but there must also be commitment and authority to formulate policy and to ensure that water programs and projects are in practice consistent with national policies and plans. Tunisia is an example of a country that has benefited from effective centralized

Many countries have established centralized mechanisms for policy and planning.

Typically, overall control and co-ordination are exercised by a council, comprising of senior officials from different ministries and departments involved in aspects of water resources, supported by a professional secretariat. The council may be chaired at the highest level of government (for instance, in Morocco by the King), reflecting the political importance of water resources and the high priority attached to water issues by many Middle East and North Africa (MENA) governments (Kroll ,2002).

The improvement of resource use efficiency is partly a technical problem, but more the challenge is to create better policies, rights and institutions. Key ingredients to sustainable water resources management are the appropriate policies, rights and institutions that can provide incentives to users to regulate uses and invest in improved water resources. This is achieved by allocating secure rights of ownership or use to individuals or households or, in the case of common property resources, by eliminating or regulating open access. However, given the rapid pace of change in most developing 23

countries, water policies and institutions are generally inadequate to address growing water challenges. As a consequence, in many parts of the developing world, resources are degrading for want of better institutions (Boserup, 1965).

2.12 Efforts taken by EAC for water resources management in LVB

The Partner States of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania adopted the convention. It establishes the Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO). The objectives of the convention are to foster cooperation among the parties; harmonize national measures for the sustainable utilization of the living resources of Lake Victoria; and, develop and adopt conservation and management measures. Evidently, given the importance of the

Lake Victoria fishery, the National Fisheries Policy must take account of Uganda‘s obligations under this convention (EAC, 2004).

Fisheries research is undertaken by the National Agricultural Research Organization

(NARO) through its affiliate Fisheries Resources Research Institute (FIRRI) and

Makerere University. There exists some degree of human resource capacity at FIRRI and the institute has, over time, received some funding from donors. To avoid duplication of efforts and to improve upon efficiency, institutional co-ordination will be essential through information exchange, symposia, seminars and joint development of research priorities between users and researchers (UG, 2004).

A decentralized approach to fisheries management with effective central oversight necessarily entails the establishment of new fisheries management institutions. The central agency must have direct control over and be directly accountable for key regulatory functions. To be effective, such institutions need to have adequate financial and other resources. While such resources can be provided from central funds, institutions may be both more efficient and more flexible if they can generate their own

funds from new sources related to their management tasks, such as resource rents and levies. Institutions must also continue to be functionally relevant to the stakeholders and communities whom they represent. Involving stakeholders in the institutional design process is an important factor in achieving this (UG, 2004).

2.13 Treaties for natural resources management

The Community brings together the three partner states of Kenya, Uganda and

Tanzania. The treaty was signed on November 30, 1999 by the heads of state of the participating governments. Article 114 provides for the management of natural resources. The partner states agreed to take concerted measures to foster co-operation in the joint and efficient management and the sustainable utilization of natural resources within the community for the mutual benefit of the Partner States. In particular, the Partner States agreed to adopt common regulations for the protection of shared aquatic and terrestrial resources. The Partner States agreed to cooperate through the adoption of common policies and regulations for the conservation, management and development of fisheries resources amongst others.

2.14 Challenges facing water resources management in LVB

Lack of transparency is closely related to increasing cases of corruption. In EAC region most of these indicators are disfavoring good governance. The corrupt activities associated with lack of transparency are widespread in the five states except for Rwanda, though at different magnitude. The Transparency International (TI) an organization dealing with advocacy of good governance has released the state of corruption in Eastern Africa. According to 2009 report by the East Africa Bribery

Index (EABI), Burundi is leading followed by Kenya and the rest of other EAC member states (TI, 2010). Governance institutions were top in bribery. Law

enforcing and financial institutions like police and revenue authorities respectively were found to be top on the list. Education can help address some of these challenges.

However, appropriate education is needed, that consider the context of study area and the need for adopting integrated water resource management.

Furthermore, local capacity alone will not be sufficient to safeguard the livelihoods of people depending on fisheries resources and the centre must have the capacity and mandate to intervene directly. This situation will be found on large, international water bodies where control of piracy and handling of multinational issues will be beyond the competence of LGs Central Government National Fisheries Policy for Uganda can be expected to take direct responsibility for dealing with major issues (e.g. encroachment by foreign nationals) and emergencies (e.g. fish poisoning outbreaks or disease epidemics in aquaculture). However, communities are expected to support LG in day to day safeguarding of their natural assets and livelihood strategies (UG, 2004).

Despite its social-economic, political and environmental importance, water resources in LVB have traditionally faced two major challenges: rapid population growth and urbanization. It is estimated that by 2025 population in East

African region will double, with much growth occurring in urban areas. The most recent statistics show that LVB is home to 30 million people or about 25% of all EAC population. Population growth exhibits similar trends with urbanization. Cities and small towns within LVB and around water resources are growing very fast.

Mwanza in Tanzania, Kisumu in Kenya, Kampala and Entebbe in Uganda are key examples. Both population growth and urbanization lead to negative impacts on quality and quantity of the water and hence threatening the sustainability of the whole basin ecosystem. Some of these impacts are water pollution, eutrophication as

a result of many but poor agricultural practices, siltation as a result of increased runoff from bare lands, deforestation as a result of expansion of agricultural land and meeting fuel wood and charcoal demands in the urban areas (Tarver, 1996) .

2.15 Challenges facing policies involve in water resources management in

Tanzania

The policy, however, seems to afford more attention to formal institutions while informal institutions of water resource management are not afforded the same. Other sector-specific policies in Tanzania include the Agricultural Policy, the National Land

Policy and the National Forestry Policy which are all equally important in governing natural resource use and management. Since these policies are sector-specific they sometimes create conflicts in their implementation. The National Environmental

Policy, for example, failed to harmonize sector-specific policies with a view to creating a common policy which cuts across different related sectors such as forestry and water.

The National Environmental Policy describes the role of sector-specific policies without necessarily indicating how different sector-specific policies merge. The conflicting natural resource policies could be one of the exacerbating factors that contribute to natural resource degradation in the country and accordingly, does not contribute to establishing a sound formal policy and legislative base to address issues such as the impacts of climate change. The challenges associated with conflicting formal and informal systems of natural resource management are further exacerbated by the fact that local people have limited knowledge about the policies and legislation governing water resources (URT, 1997).

Moreover, in Tanzania, some policies and laws lack clear strategies and mechanisms to protect the environment from degradation. For instance, water laws seem to be

inadequate to facilitate proper catchment management and to protect water sources from degradation (URT, 2002).

2.16 Suggestions towards water resources management

Governments would therefore be well-advised to integrate formal and informal systems for sustainable natural resources management. Gillingham notes that the existing environmental problems in river basins are accelerated by the tendencies of formal river basin-based institution officials to ignore the basic principles of customary systems of natural resources utilization. To show the need to integrate customary and formal legal systems in natural resources management Gillingham writes: ‗If water managers attempt to impose change on water users by altering statutory law, such initiatives can be rendered ineffective if the water users do not integrate them into the customary rules which govern their daily water use. It is further important to note in this respect that formal and informal systems can contradict or complement one another in natural resources management (North, 1990).

2.17 Knowledge gap

There is little knowledge about options to increase effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management. Different past studies were made at the impact of poor agriculture practices on water resource management (Machiwa, 2002); the effect of agriculture runoff in nitrogen loads in water bodies (Kiwango and Wolanski, 2008), illegal utilization of LVB water resources and high water resources degradation

(Mvuma, et al., 2012). Having this information/knowledge gap, this study is therefore undertaken to assess options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management as a stepping stone towards sustainable management of water resources in the study area.

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

3.1.1 Selection of the study area

The study was conducted in four villages namely Mtoni, Nansio, Kakerege and

Muluseni in Ukerewe district (Island) in Mwanza region. The rationale for selecting this district were, first it is located within the Lake Victoria Basin. Secondly, the majority of its population depends on fishing and agriculture as their major sources of income for their livelihood (Okey-Owuor, 1999). The four villages were selected because fishing and agricultural activities are predominantly (Ikingura and Akagi,

1996) hence they largely depend on Lake Victoria water resources.

3.1.2 Description of the study area

Ukerewe District is situated in the western part of Tanzania and it is 50 km long and between 25 to 35 km wide as well as 45km from Mwanza city centre to the North direction. Ukerewe district is an island in Lake Victoria located between latitudes 1045‘

- 2015‘ South of the Equator and 32045‘ - 33045‘ Longitude East of the Greenwich

(URT, 1997). The district covers a total area of 6400 km2. The district comprises of 27 islands located in Lake Victoria. In the north and east Ukerewe district is bordered by

Musoma Rural and Bunda districts in Mara region, while in the south it is bordered by

Magu and Ilemela districts and Sengerema district lies on the west. The district headquarters is located in Nansio which also serve as the main gateway into Ukerewe.

The district has a total population of 261,944 persons according to 2002 population and housing census (URT, 2002). With the growth rate of 2.3%, the population projection in 2011 is estimated to be 323,562 persons.

The Lake Victoria fishery is the most important in Tanzania in terms of quantity landed, value and provision of employment. Over the past three decades the Lake

Victoria fishery experienced substantial changes mainly owing to rapid proliferation of the exotic Nile perch (Lates niloticus). Changes occurred in historical species assemblages, which not only brought an ecological change but also led to technical and socio-economic transformation.

Following the boom, the Nile perch market shifted from domestic to export market.

The trade has developed tremendously making Nile perch fillets and by-products become one of Tanzania‘s major export commodities, with EU representing its largest market.

On the other hand, the Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is mainly sold in the domestic market whereas, the Lake Victoria sardine (Rasteneobola argentea) is sun dried before being sold in both domestic and regional markets. It has been reported that some importing countries have even started re-exporting the sardines to other distant countries.

Figure 2: Map of Ukerewe district (Island)

Source: (http://www.google.co.tz/imgres?imgurl=http://mappery.com/maps/18/4/2012)

3.1.3. Climatic and rainfall

The lowland of Ukerewe is under Equatorial climatic regime whereby the climate is

Equatorial which is characterized with Equatorial/or continental temperatures. The highest temperatures are reached in September to February and lowest during May to

July. The daytime temperature ranges from 25oC min (June) to 28oC max (August).

Ukerewe district generally experiences a bi-modal pattern of rainfall with long rains between March and May and short rains between November and January. The average annual rainfall varies between 750 mm in dry areas and 1200 mm in wet areas (URT,

2008).

3.1.4 Population and economic activities

The demography of Ukerewe is very crucial due to the fact that the district has got large and densely population which are useful in various economic activities such as fishing, agriculture, trade as well as tour guides which seem to predominantly in the Ukerewe district due to its geographical position. According to URT (2002), the district had

261,944 people, of whom 46.2% were males and 53.8% females with a general growth rate of 2.3% thus in 2011 the population projection was estimated to be 323,562.

There are several occupational activities which the people of the Ukerewe are involved in and these include: fishing, farming, bee keeping, trading activities, quarrying and sand mining. Fishing is the main economic activity in Ukerewe and it is undertaken for both subsistence and commercial goals. Most of the fisher folk have been fishing over the years as a source of their livelihood. In the past decade fishing became increasingly commercialised threatening even the nutrition source for the Ukerewe inhabitants. Most fish and particularly Nile Perch is sold to fish processing plants or other agents as a result increased prices that are out of reach of most poor to average households (Okeyo-Owuor, 1999).

Agriculture by far is another main economic activity of Ukerewe inhabitants. Farming of food and cash crops is practiced in Ukerewe district. Food crops include maize, bananas, cassava, sorghum, millet, rice, sweet potatoes and an assortment of vegetables and fruits Main cash crops include coffee, cotton and sugar care. The contribution of

Ukerewe to their respective economies is also significant in terms of GDP (Ikingura and Akagi, 1996).

3.2 Research design

Research design is a conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it consists of the blueprint for the collection and analysis of data. Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible (Kothari, 2004). An efficient design yields optimal information required at a minimum cost in terms of money, efforts and time

(Kothari, 2004). This study adopted a cross-sectional type of research design. A cross- sectional design is used for research that collects data on relevant variables one time only from a variety of people, subjects or phenomena. A cross-sectional design provides a snapshot of the variables included in the study, at one particular point in time. The choice was based on analyzing research questions and objectives of the study established.

3.3. Sampling design

3.3.1 Sampling frame

A sampling frame is a list of individuals/objects to which a sample for study is drawn which has the property that could identify every single element and include any in sample, with appropriate contact information (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). In this study, the types of respondents were the households in the study villages as well as the key informants. A sampling frame for the households was a list of the households obtained from the local government offices in the study area. Key informants were government employees and selected members of NGOs working in the study area and their lists were obtained from their respective district and village local government offices.

3.3.2 Sample size

The research covered a sample size of 100 respondents. This sample size was obtained from equation 1 as described in details by Rwegoshora (2006).

N = N/[1+ N*(e)2]……………………………………………………………..(1)

Where n = the desired sample size e = precision desired (1-10%)

N = Estimate of the population size

According to URT (2002), the population of Ukerewe was 261,944 with growth rate of

2.3%. Thus the population projection in 2011 was estimated to be 323,562 persons.

Therefore, using N=323,562 with precision of 10% the estimated sample size was 100 respondents. The sample distribution was as indicated in Table 1 making a total of 104 respondents. The rationale for equal distribution of sample among the villages was that, almost all the four villages had equal household size. However, the additional of one village chairperson from the four villages resulted into a sample size of 104 respondents as shown on table 1.

Table 1: Sample distribution

Respondent category Respondents (size) Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege District Total Households/community 7 9 6 8 30 members 10 9 12 11 42 8 7 7 6 28

Key informants 1 1 1 1 6 10 Total 26 26 26 26 104

3.3.3 Sampling procedure

Sampling procedure refers to the process of selecting a number of individual or objects from a population (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). Sampling procedures can either be probability like simple, stratified, systematic and cluster random samplings or non probability with components such as quota, convenience, purposive and snow ball samplings (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). Regarding to this study, both probability and non probability sampling methods were employed. Probability sampling included simple random sampling to obtain representative of community members from the four villages while non probability sampling using purposive sampling method was used to select key informants. Purposive sampling techniques which sometimes known as judgment sampling for meaning that researcher chooses only those elements or members which he/she believes will be able to deliver required data (Tripathi, 2007).

Thus, it provided chance to researcher to include or exclude some of the elements in the sample depending on possession of their expertise or experience concerning the problem of the study. Under this study, purposeful sampling was done for the selection of head of departments because of their position and experience. Also, the selection of one village chairperson from each village was due to the fact that normally there was only one village chairperson in each village.

3.4 Data collection

3.4.1 Data types and sources

Both primary and secondary sources were used in this research. Since the source and type of data differ depending on the research question, the following explanations put clearly the kind of information which was collected pertaining to each research question.

Research question 1: What are the formal institutions that are dealing with water resources management in the study area?

In order to answer this research question, the researcher collected data related to types of formal institutions, roles in water resources management and linkage to each other.

Research question 2: What are the strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in the study area?

In attempting this question, data related to policies, laws, implementation strategies, participation, mechanisms, formulation process and responsibility was collected.

Research question 3: What are the possible strategies to improve water resources management in Ukerewe district?

Descriptive analysis was also used in this objective in which cross-tabulation, frequencies and percentage of data from objective 1 and 2 were synthesized. It analyzed the information from objective one and two through opinions from community members, community groups, Non-Governmental Organizations, Local Government,

Central Government and the researcher professional background about the appropriate ways for water resources management in LVB.

3.5 Data collection methods

The following data collection methods and tools were used:

3.5.1 Primary data

These are data gathered by the researcher through communicating with respondents for the reason of answering research questions (Kothari, 2004). In the case of this study the following methods were employed to collect primary data.

Observations

Krishnaswami and Ranganatham (2007) define observation as ―a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study‖. Also, Gans (1999) defines field observation as a systematic description of events, behaviors and artifacts in the social setting chosen for study. The method normally involves hearing and seeing by the researcher in the way things are taking place. In this study, the researcher collected data by attending regular meetings which were held in each village and made observation especially on the group composition/structure and facilitation in the learning process.

Being aware of the behavioral change of respondents during observation, the researcher applied other methods of data collection like interview and focused group discussion to collect data on the same variables so as to validate the information obtained through observation. Also, observation is used to triangulate the methods.

Interviews

An interview is a direct contact or interaction between individuals where researcher and respondents will be involved into face to face interrogation or discussion initiated to obtain certain relevant information for a specific study (Krishnaswam & Ranganatham,

2007). This method is not commonly used now days. However, postal or internet interviews can be applied in the process of data collection. This method can be used through personal interviews or through telephone interviews (Kothari, 2004). Basing on this study, personal interview was applied. During interview, structured questionnaire

(Appendix 2 & 3) with both closed and open ended questions were used.

Focused Group Discussion

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) can produce a lot of information quickly and are good for identifying and exploring beliefs, ideas or opinions in a community (Kombo and

Tromp, 2006). This approach was used to provide room for effective interaction of all members and therefore various issues for example the reasons for ineffectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management, the effects of prolonged ineffectiveness were discussed as well as the way forward. Moreover, it was used as a triangulation tool for incorporating other information which was collected by other methods. The researcher conducted one FGD in each of the four villages and the size of the group consisted of six to ten members from each category of farmers/peasants, fisheries, business people as well as the key informants. Each category represented their ideas in a group.

3.5.2 Secondary data

Any data that have been gathered earlier for some other purpose are secondary data in the hands of an individual who is using them (Beri, 2003). Main use for secondary data in this study was to explore more information about the study.

In the current study secondary data was collected through reviewing the documents from the District Environmental Department, District Fisheries Department and District

Community Development Department. Other relevant information was obtained from

Journals, reports which were obtained from respective offices and internets.

3.6 Data Processing and Analysis

3.6.1 Data processing

Technically, data processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis (Kothari, 2004). Regarding this study, the collected data was processed manually where codes were developed and templates created. Editing and coding of the questionnaires was done and data was entered in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences computer program (Sospeter,

2006).

3.6.2 Data Analysis

Analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data groups (Kothari, 2004). In this study, both descriptive and inferential analyses were made through SPSS computer program SPSS

(Sospeter, 2006). Descriptive analysis was used to obtain frequencies and percentages pertaining to general characteristic of respondents such as age, education level, economic activities, household size and marital status. Specifically, the analysis involved the following:

Objective one: To identify formal institutions related to water resources management in Lake Victoria Basin.

Descriptive analysis was employed in this objective whereby frequencies, percentage and cross tabulation were used. Frequency and percentage were calculated and used for making comparison of the proportion of responses in each category while cross- tabulation was employed to cross check the relationship/compare the results within and between different study area or organizations (Agresti and Franklin, 2007).

Objective two: To examine strategies used by formal institutions to manage water resources in Lake Victoria Basin.

In this objective, frequencies and percentage were computed and analyzed by making comparison of the findings between different categories in different studying sites, while cross-tabulation was employed to cross check the relationship of the results between different categories in different study areas (Kothari, 2004).

Objective three: To identify the possible strategies to improve water resources management in Lake Victoria Basin.

3.7 Data reliability

Reliability refers to the consistency with which repeated measures produce the same results across time and across observers (Patton, 2002). The questionnaire was pre- tested with a sample of 10 people who are engaged in fishing, agriculture and business activities before the actual implementation. This was done in the village that had similar characteristics to the study area. The results of the pilot study were used to revise questionnaire for improvement of its reliability.

3.8 Data validity

Validity refers to the extent to which the concept one wishes to measure is actually being measured by a particular scale or index such as the extent to which an account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers (Babbie, 1992). The questionnaire was tested in order to check its construct and face validity. Content validity ensured that the instrument contains is an adequate sample of the domain of content it is supposed to represent. Face validity dealt with format of the instrument and included aspects like clarity of printing, front size and type, adequacy of workspace and appropriateness of language among others. Construct validity determined the nature of psychological construct or characteristics being measured by the instrument.

Supervisor, experts and classmates had helped in the reviewing to ensure the instrument accurately measure the variables it intended to measure in the study. Lastly, the researcher expected to tell the respondents about the intention of conducting the research and to promise that no name is exposed in order to capture their confidence.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, results of the study are presented and discussed based on objectives.

Finding from the field that include characteristics of respondents based on sex, age, place of birth, marital status and education level, household size, major economic activities, types of formal institutions dealing with water resources management in

LVB, strategies used for water resources management in LVB and options proposed to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB are discussed.

4.2 Characteristics of the respondents

4.2.1 Sex

Results in Table 2a indicate that there is large number of male respondents with an average proportion of 98% in the four villages. Female were very few with proportion of 4% in Nansio and in Kakerege. The results reflect the situation in most African culture where the majority of the head of the households are males. The implication of these results is that, intervention on water resources management should not focus on the head of the household as they will miss the female group. Therefore, basing on head of household in decision making is ill-approach on women involvement. These results are similar to the findings by Nkhoma-Wamunza, et al.; (1989) who reported that, in

Tanzania women's participation in decision making at both the household and community level is minimal. In this case the decision on the size of land for crops allocation, labour hiring and financial investment for purchasing farm implements were dominated by men.

Table 2a: Respondents Characteristics

Variable Description Respondents (%) Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N = 100 Sex Male 96 100 100 96 98 Female 4 - - 4 2

Age (years) 18-32 48 52 48 52 50 33-47 44 48 48 40 45 48-62 8 - 4 8 5 Place of Within the birth village 84 96 96 68 86

Secondary 12 4 4 4 6 Education College 12 - 4 8 6

Source: Field Data, 2012

4.2.2 Age

Results in Table 2a indicate the age of respondents grouped into three categories of young (18-32 years), middle (33-47 years) and old (48-62 years). With regards to these categories, the results indicate that on average about half (50%) are young and about

45% are in middle age while few (5%) are old in all the four villages. The observation shows the most of the economic activities in the study area are largely dominated by youths and middle age groups as they require energetic persons. Such activities are fishing, farming and pet trading. Thus, it is crucial to involve youth and middle age groups in efforts to address unsustainable activities that results to water resource degradation in LVB. These results are similar to findings by Abila (2000) who observed the increase of young entrants joining the fishery in Lake Victoria as compared to decrease to 11% of older people who had been in the fishery for over 22 years decreased to 11%.

4.2.3 Place of birth

Results in Table 2a indicate that, majority (80%) of respondents in Nansio, Muluseni and Mtoni were born within their respective villages. This differs from Kakerege whereby relatively small proportion (68%) of respondents was born within the village.

This implies that, Kakerege being a main business centre hence attracts people from outside. Thus, Ukerewe district is not only occupied by the indigenous people but also with other people from outside hence cultural diversity. Cultural diversity is likely to influence water resources management as each culture can have its own attitude towards water resources management in LVB.

4.2.4 Marital status

The results related to marital status of the respondents in Table 2a indicate that, majority (70%) of respondents were married. Marriage is a sign of respect and prestige according to most African cultures. Marital status partly influences water resources management as married people have family responsibilities, a situation that may force them to be involved in activities that degrade the resources for the sake of fulfilling family needs. On the other side marriage may indicate a stable community which can easily be convinced on the long term benefits of proper management of the resources for the current and future generations.

4.2.5 Level of education

The results in Table 2a indicate that, on average less than half (46 %) of respondents had primary school education. The largest proportion is in Nansio and Muluseni with a proportion of 53.6% and 57.1% respectively. The number of respondents with no formal education is also considerable high ranging from 56% in Muluseni to 32% in

Kakerege. There is large number of respondents without formal education in Muluseni

because they are living along the lake shore and they take fishing activities as part and parcel of their lives hence they do not give due importance to education. This low education level can be a stumbling block towards water resources management in LVB.

This relates to EAC (2007), which views that, low literacy level as among the challenges facing LVB.

4.2.6 Household size

Results in Table 2b indicate that, almost all (90%) the households in the four villages comprised of one to three household members. Fewer households (20%) had more than five household members. This is almost the same to the number of household size found in Tanzania rural areas. Thus, these finding relates to the observation by URT

(2005) which noted an average household size decline over the period from 5.7 to 4.9 members. This is partly attributed by decline in fertility rate.

Table 2b: Household size and major economic activities of respondents

Variable Description Respondents (%) Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N = 100

Household <3 44 60 52 60 54 size (No) >3 44 36 32 28 35 >5 12 4 16 12 11 Major Fishing 52 72 52 84 65 economic Farming 32 12 36 8 22 activities Employment 16 16 8 8 12 Business - - 4 - 1 Source: Field Data, 2012

4.2.7 Economic activities

Results in Table 2b indicate that, more than half (65%) of respondents are involved in fishing as their major economic activities. Few (22%) are involved in farming and very few (12%) in employment. There is large proportion of respondents who are engaged in fishing activities since the study areas are closer to the Lake Victoria. Large number of households is involved in fishing; however, some are using illegal fishing methods

(Plate 1 & 2) which contribute to LVB water resources degradation. Similar results were found by Okey-Owuor (1996) who observed that, majority of population in

Ukerewe depends on fishing and agriculture as their major means of earning income for their livelihoods.

Plate 1: Some of the local illegal fishing tools used in LVB

Photo taken by, Casilla Oswin (05/07/2012)

Observations and discussion with key informants indicated that, farming activities are encroaching to the lake (Plate 2); contributing to the degradation of water resources hence threatened the sustainability of water resources in LVB. This is causing not only water pollution but also land and environmental degradation in LVB. During the rainfall period, the run-off causes the loose soil from the cultivated land to be deposited in the LV resulting to siltation. This adds to observation by other scholars like Balirwa

(1998) who reported that, the catchment area of Lake Victoria is slowly being degraded due to deforestation coupled with bad agricultural practices in the lake.

Plate 2: Picture showing bad farming activities close to the LVB

Photo taken by: Casilla Oswin (5/7/2012)

4.3 Formal institutions related to water resources management in LVB.

Results in Table 3 indicate types of formal institutions related to water resources management in LVB and their roles.

4.3.1 Types of formal institutions

Governmental institutions

Results in Table 3 indicate four governmental institutions which are governing water resources in LVB. These are Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MOW & I), Ministry of

Livestock and Fishery Development (MOL & FD), Ministry of Agriculture and Food

Security (MOA & FS) and local government authority (LGA). These governmental institutions can be also categorized into two groups based on coverage. There are those formal institutions that covered the country which include Ministry of Water and

Irrigation (MOW & I), Ministry of Livestock and Fishery Development (MOL & FD),

Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (MOA & FS) and those formal institutions which covered the district level like local government authority. These governmental institutions focus on effective water resources management in LVB. However, the situation is different to the targeted goal of these formal institutions for management of water resources due to the persistence of degradation of water resources in LVB. This implies that, formal institutions are ineffective in the management of water resources in

LVB hence more efforts are needed to improve effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in LVB.

Table 3: Roles of organizations in water resources management

Type Coverag Organizatio Roles e n GOs Country MOW & I Policy formulation, Rural water supply and sanitation, Urban water supply and sewage, Development and management of water resources Country MOL & FD Formulate policies and strategies, Improve livelihood of livestock and fisheries dependent communities, compromising animal welfare and environmental conservation. Country MOA & FS Policy formulation, Promote sustainable use of natural resources and environmental management, Create enabling environment for effective implementation of agriculture, Improved institutional and regulatory frameworks and human capacity building District LGA Formulation of by-laws and regulations, Enforcement of laws and Water resources allocation, Engagement in water resources management and Planning and development of water resources, Conflict resolution according to laws and regulations NGOs Regional LVEMP Sustainable management of the environment and natural resources, Capacity in management of and knowledge base building on lake resources, Studying water quality, circulation and hydrology aspects, Assessing pollution and inflows; and surveying biodiversity Regional BMU Development of management plans for water resources management in LVB, Encourage community participation in resources management and development, Training and sensitization on sustainable utilization of water resources Regional LVFO Development and management matters of the LVB, Policy harmonization for LVB resources management and utilization Regional Vi-Tree Halt desertification by planting trees and making the area green, Promote more rural based agroforestry technologies Planting and Offering good living condition for small holder families Local EMEDO Advocacy training that includes education in relevant laws, policies and sustainable management of the natural resources Source: Documentary review

Non Governmental institutions

Regarding Non-governmental institutions that are involved in water resources management in LVB, results in Table 3 indicate five Non Governmental institutions that are governing water resources in LVB. These are Lake Victoria Environmental

Management Project (LVEMP), Beach Management Unit (BMU), Lake Victoria

Fishery Organization (LVFO), Vi-Tree Planting and Environmental Management

Development Organization (EMEDO). These Non governmental institutions can be grouped into two groups depending the coverage like those institutions which covered the regional level which include Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project

(LVEMP), Beach Management Unit (BMU), Lake Victoria Fishery Organization

(LVFO) and Vi-Tree Planting while Environmental Management Development

Organization (EMEDO) covered at local level. These Non governmental institutions focus on management of water resources in LVB. Also, some of these Non governmental institutions were well-known due to their operational of their activities.

These are BMU which covered regional level but it carries out its activities at local levels whereby it operates in all beaches that are found in LV while Vi-Tree Planting also covered regional level and it conducts its activities at local levels by planting trees.

Regarding EMEDO, it is famous because it is found at local level and operates its activities at local levels. Even though water resources degradation was noted, still these

Non-governmental organizations were working hard to address this problem. These institutions showed efforts like provision of environmental education, patrol, aforestation and fishing keeping in LVB.

4.3.2 Roles of formal institutions

Results in Table 3 indicate the roles which are carried out by both Governmental and

Non -governmental institutions related to water resources management in LVB. Both governmental and Non-governmental institutions are playing similar roles except the formulation of policies, laws, regulations and by-laws which is done by governmental organizations. Apart from similar roles, also there is duplication of activities which are training, sustainable management of the environment and natural resources, offering good living condition for small holder families and planning and development of water resources. This situation of duplication of roles may weaken water resources management to the community. These results are in agreement with what Lake Victoria

Basin Commission (2011a) which suggested the harmonization and reducing conflict over management of the Lake Basin resources, and to eliminate future duplication and overlaps between various programs/projects. Furthermore, the main implementer of the policies issued by governmental institutions is the Local Government Authority. The findings are similar to the study by Agrey-Duah (2006) who observed that, local government authorities are responsible for the implementation of policies and legislation issued by sector ministries. Despite the roles played by formal institutions in water resources management, the degradation of water resources in LVB does exist.

This could be the outcome of different levels in operation of formal institutions in water resources management in LVB and the duplication of activities in management of water resources in LVB. This calls for harmonization of activities related to water resources management in LVB to increase the effective management of water resources in LVB.

4.3.3 Coordination of activities of formal institutions

Results in Table 4 indicate activities carried out by both governmental and Non- governmental institutions that are governing water resources in LVB. These include the prevention of illegal fishing, the provision of education, research, fish keeping, resources inventory and security. Among these activities, there are only four activities which are coordinated and these are the prevention of illegal fishing, the provision of education, resources inventory and security. Therefore, the coordination of activities is not sufficient for effective water resources management in LVB hence water resources degradation is continuing in LVB. The possible explanation of the persistence of water resources degradation in LVB is that, these uncoordinated activities partly reduce the effectiveness of activities for water resources management in LVB.

Table 4: Coordination of activities between organizations in water resources management in LVB

Variable Description Organization

I & MOW FD & MOL FS & MOA LGA BMU EMEDO LVEMP LVFO Tree Vi Planting Coordination Prevention          of activity of illegal Provisional          of education Resources         inventory Security          Research    Fish  keeping Source: Documentary reviews 52

4.3.4 Community awareness about formal institutions related to water resources management in LVB

Results in Table 5 indicate that, majority (85.5%) of the respondents from the four villages were aware of the MOL & FD (―Bwana samaki1‖) while 64.5% were aware of

MOA & FS (―Bwana shamba2‖) as responsible institutions for water resources management in LVB. However, none of the respondents was aware of MOW & I and

LGA as the governmental institutions that are governing water resources in LVB. The community does not perceive MOW & I and LGA as governmental institutions that are responsible for water resources management in LVB. Moreover, the results in Table 5 show awareness of the community about Non-governmental institutions that are responsible for water resources management in LVB, results (Table 5) indicate that, more than half (58%) of the respondents were aware of BMU, 38% of respondents were aware of EMEDO and 34% of respondents were aware of Vi Tree Planting as formal institutions that are involved in water resources management in LVB. This implies that, BMU is famous to the community due to large area of operation. This calls for others like LVEMP, LVFO, EMEDO and Vi-Tree Planting to increase areas for operation of its activities for effective water resources management in LVB. This implies that, effective water resources management depend on the level of the community awareness of formal institutions governing water resources in LVB.

Furthermore, community awareness about coordination of activities, the results in

Table 5 show that majority (70%) of the respondents were aware of prevention of illegal fishing while 30% of the respondents were aware of provisional of education.

1 Bwana samaki is a Swahili term referring to fishery officer specialized in fishing matters. 2 Bwana shamba is a Swahili term referring to extension officer specialized in agricultural matters. 53

None of the respondents disclosed research, fish keeping, resources inventory and security. Therefore, there is low awareness of the community about coordination of activities in water resources management in LVB. This implies that, it is difficult to implement all activities regarding water resources management in LVB hence the community awareness is crucial for effective water resources management in LVB.

Table 5: Community awareness about formal institutions governing water resources in LVB

Respondents’ awareness (%) GO Types Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N = 100 MOL & FD 89.3 92.9 81.5 78.8 85.5 MOA & FS 78.6 78.6 59.3 40.7 64.5 MOW & I - - - - - LGA - - - - - NGOs BMU 48 64 56 64 58 EMEDO 28 44 52 28 38 Vi Tree 32 52 32 20 34 Planting LVEMP - - - - - LVFO - - - - - Coordination Prevent of activities illegal 76 56 68 80 70 fishing Provide 32 24 32 32 30 education Research - - - - - Security - - - - - Fish - - - - - keeping Resources - - - - - inventory Source: Field Data, 2012

4.4 Strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in

LVB

Results in Table 6 indicate type of strategies which are used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. The strategies include:

4.4.1 Policies

Results in Table 6 indicate policies that are governing water resources management in

LVB. There are seven (7) policies which are involved in water resources management in LVB. These are Water Policy, Environmental Policy, Fishery Policy, Agricultural and Livestock Policy, National Irrigation Policy, National Forest Policy and National

Land Policy use Policy. These policies play various roles like Water Policy deals with governance and utilization of water resources (URT, 2002), Fishery policy plays the roles of regulating, promotion, conservation, development and ensuring sustainable exploitation and utilization of fish and other aquatic living resources (URT, 2002),

Environmental policy involves with ensuring sustainability, security and equitable use of resources for meeting the basic needs of the present and future generations without degrading the environment or risking health or safety (URT, 1997), Agricultural policy aims at providing a mechanism for linking with other sectors in the noble mission of protecting and enhancing environment (URT, 1997), National Irrigation policy intends to ensure sustainable availability of irrigation water and its efficient use for enhanced crop production, productivity and profitability that will contribute to food security and poverty reduction (URT, 2009), National Forest Policy aims at preventing and controlling degradation of land, water, vegetation and air which constitute our life support systems (URT, 1998) and National Land Policy deals with promoting and ensuring a secure land tenure system, to encourage the optimal use of land resources,

and to facilitate broad-based social and economic development without upsetting or endangering the ecological balance of the environment (URT, 1997).

Moreover, these policies have got weakness, for instance Agricultural Policy encourages the use of modern farming tools to increase production to meet high demands of food due to the growing population hence this can be a source of people to cultivate closer to water resources. Coordination of these policies is also another factor that reduces ineffectiveness of policies in water resources management in LVB because there are ministries which are responsible to the Vice President Office and others to the

Prime Minister‘s Office.

Table 6: Strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB

Organization

Strategies

cription

De I & MOW L & MOF FS & MOA LGA BMU EMEDO LVEMP LVFO Tree Vi Planting Policies    Programmes     Projects       Research    Training Workshop          Advice          Source: Documentary reviews

4.4.2 Programmes

Results in Table 6 indicate some of the programmes which are carried out in LVB for water resources management. These include Mount Elgon Regional Ecosystem

Conservation Programme (MERECP) whose oversight, coordination and supervision was delegated to the Lake Victoria Basin Commission (Kaelo et al., 2007), Nile

Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Programme (NELSAP) to achieve sustainable socioeconomic development through the equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the common Nile Basin water resources (Mati et al., 2005) and Environment and Natural

Resources Management Programme to guide management of shared trans-boundary resources such as those of the Mara River Basin (MRB). These programmes are implemented by governmental ministries and local government authorities. These programmes aim for management of water resources in LVB. Despite the existance of these programmes for water resources management in LVB, the degradation is still persisting. This could be partly attributed by the uneven coverage of these programmes in LVB.

4.4.3 Projects

Results in Table 6 show some projects which are conducted for water resources management in LVB. These include Integrated Conservation and Development Projects

(ICDPs) which aims to generate the scale of revenues needed to prevent the development of land degradation (Norton-Griffiths, 1995), The Community Based

Integrated Forest Resources Conservation and Management Project (COMIFORM) which works with communities surrounding the Maasai Mau Forest and the Narok

County Council (the custodian of the Maasai Mau Forest) to introduce a shift from unsustainable land use practices to sustainable management (Mutie et al., 2006) and

Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project (LVEMP) which aims to reverse the environmental and natural resources degradation of Lake in Lake Victoria Basin

(URT/World Bank, 2004). These projects tarteged for effective water resources management in LVB. Despite the existance of these projects for water resources management in LVB, the degradation is still persisting. This could be partly attributed by the uneven coverage of these projects in LVB.

4.4.4 Research

Results in Table 6 indicate some of the researches as among the strategies which are applied by governmental institutions in water resources mangement in LVB. A research is a systematic investigative to increase knowledge by discovering new facts. The intention of conducting research in LVB is to get more information about the situation of water resources for management. These researches are under governmental ministries which are responsible for water resources management in LVB. Some of the researches which were carried out in LVB like Water quality management and sustainability (Machiwa, 2002), Monitoring of fish and human exposure to mercury due to gold mining in the Lake Victoria goldfield, Tanzania (Ikingura and Akagi, 1996) and

Simulation of the sensitivity of Lake Victoria basin climate to lake surface temperatures

(Anyah and Semmazzi, 2004). Weaknesses is lack of feedback of research findings across stakeholders particularly to local people partly contribute to ineffectiveness of water resources management in LVB.

4.4.5 Training

Results in Table 6 indicate training as a part of strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. Training is an organized activity aimed at imparting information. The intention of training the community is to provide

knowledge about water resources management in LVB. It is conducted in the form of workshop. Despite the knowledge provided to the community through training, water resources degradation in LVB is still taking place. Trainning is not an effective means for effective management of water resources due to the nature of the activties in LVB which frequently comprise of new comers who are looking for better life and have little knowledge on water resources managment. This calls for continued education to be provided to the community about the strategies used for effective water resources management in LVB.

4.4.6 Advice

Results in Table 6 show that, an advice is also an instrument which is used in management of water resources in LVB. Advice is referred to opinions offered as worthy bases for thought, conduct or action. Both governmental and Non

Governmental institutions used advices to advice the community about the management of water resources in LVB. This approach is not effective in water resources management due to difficulties of change in attitudes to some people who are conducting activities in LVB.

4.4.7 Community awareness about strategies used in water resources management in LVB

Results in Table 7 indicate that, more than half (54%) of the respondents were aware of

Water Policy, 59% were aware of Environmental Policy and Fishery Policy, 58% were aware of Fishery policy, 41% were aware of Agricultural and Livestock Policy while

30% were aware of training as the strategies used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. The number of respondents who were aware of

Agricultural and Livestock Policy is low because agricultural activity is not their main

economic activity. However, none of the respondents was aware of National Irrigation

Policy, Forest Management Policy and Land Use Policy. This implies that, the respondents did not perceive National Irrigation Policy, Forest Management Policy and

Land Use Policy as among the strategies used for water resources management in LVB.

Also, the respondents‘ awareness about training as among the strategies used in water in management of water resources in LVB is low. Regarding the community awareness about training as an instrument used for water resources management in LVB, the results in Table 7 indicate that, less than half (30%) of the respondents from four villages were aware of training as an instrument used by both governmental and Non

Government institutions in water resources management in LVB. Moreover, the community were not aware of programmes, strategies and advice as among the strategies used for water water resources management. The awareness of community about training as the strategy used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB is low. This calls for continued awareness raising for effective water resources management in LVB.

Table 7: Community awareness about strategies used in water resources management in LVB

Variable Description Respondents (%) Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N=100 Policies Water policy 52 56 44 64 54 Environmental 60 56 72 48 59 policy Fishery policy 60 72 48 52 58 Agricultural & Livestock policy 28 56 20 60 41

National - - - - - Irrigation Policy National Forest - - - - - Policy National Land - - - - - Use Policy Training Workshop 32 24 32 32 30 Programmes - - - - - Projects - - - - - Research - - - - - Advice - - - - - Source: Field Data, 2012

4.5 Instruments

Instruments used to enforce policies in water resources management in LVB are as follow:

4.5.1 Laws

Results from field study indicate that, laws are among the instruments which are used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. Laws are the governing body of all legal matters. The aim of laws is to enforce policies that are dealing with water resources management in LVB. However, water resources degradation is still

persisting despite the presence of laws. This is due to a combination of several factors which include lack of enforcement capacity (financial, human and technical resources), social tiers, piracy and corruption among officials. This is similar to the findings by

Ong‘ang‘a & Awange (2003) who reported that, lack of enforcement of laws and institutional capacity aggravates environmental degradation in the basin area.

Field observation witnessed poor farming activities carried out along the lakeshore

(Plate 3) despite the law that does not allow agricultural activities to be conducted within sixty metres from water sources (URT, 2009).

Plate 3: Picture showing farming activities closer to the LV

Photo taken by: Casilla Oswin (6/7/2012)

4.5.2 Regulations

Results from field study show that, regulations are also among the instruments used by formal institutions to enforce policies which are governing water resources in LVB.

Regulation is referred to the process of the promulgation, monitoring, and enforcement of rules established by primary or delegated legislation. It aims at enforcing policies that are governing water resources management in LVB. Also, this proves failure due to similar factors like lack of enforcement capacity (financial, human and technical resources), social tiers, piracy and corruption among officials hence water resources

degradation is continuing in LVB. This implies that, effective water resources management in LVB depend the enforcement of regulations.

Field observation and discussion with the key informants also revealed that, the community members possess and use openly illegal fishing gears (Plate 4) despite the existence of Fisheries Regulations which forbidden the use of illegal fishing gears

(URT, 2005).

Plate 4: Picture showing fishermen preparing unauthorized small nets along the

LV Photo taken by: Casilla Oswin (6/7/2012)

4.5.3 By- laws

Regarding by laws that are governing water resources in LVB, results from field study show that, by law is one of the instrument used by formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. By law is a rule or law established by an organization or community to regulate itself, as allowed or provided for by some higher authority. The intention of by laws is to enable effective management of water resources in LVB.

However, lack of enforcement capacity (financial, human and technical resources), social tiers, piracy and corruption among officials causes water resources degradation to continue in LVB. Therefore, there is a need to enforce by laws that are governing water resources in LVB for effective management of water resources.

4.5.4 Community awareness about the instruments used to enforce policies governing water resources in LVB

Results in Table 8 show that, less than half (36%) of the respondents from the four villages were aware of laws, 25% were aware of regulations while 40% were aware of by laws as the instruments used to enforce policies governing water resources in LVB.

There is low awareness of the community about instrument used to enforce policies which dealing with water resources management in LVB. The possible explanation of low awareness of the community about laws, regulations and by laws as the instruments used to enforce policies in water resources management is due to means of communicating with the community which rely on gathering and provide training whereby it is not possible gather the whole community. Therefore, Integrated

Communication Technology (ICT) can be applied to increase the level of community awareness about laws, regulations and by laws that are used by formal institutions to enforce policies governing water resources in LVB by disseminating information without gathering the community. This implies that, the community awareness of laws, regulations and by laws which are used to enforce policies in important for effective water resources management in LVB.

Table 8: Community awareness about nstruments used to enforce policies governing water resources in LVB

Variable Description Respondents (%) Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N = 100 Instrument Laws 68 16 48 12 36 Regulations 20 40 40 - 25 By laws 36 44 40 40 40 Source: Field Data, 2012

4.6 Effective strategies

4.6.1 Formulation of laws, regulations and by-laws

Results from field study indicate the responsible organ for formulation of laws, regulations and by- laws. The results show that, laws are formulated by the parliament, regulations are formulated by the governmental ministries or its agent and by- laws are formulated by the local government authorities. Laws are the governing body of all legal matters, regulations help to facilitate the implementation of laws and by laws are laws which are formulated to suit a particular locality. This is similar to the findings by

Agrey-Duah (2006) who portrays that, The Union Parliament of Tanzania is responsible for making laws, representing citizens and exercising oversight of the executive and Shadrack (2010) reported that, one function of local government authority in Tanzania is to make by- laws applicable throughout their areas of jurisdiction. Moreover, the results also show level of respondents awareness about who is responsible for formulation of laws, regulations and by -laws as indicated in Table 9 whereas more than half (65%) of the respondents were aware of the parliament as the law makers, few (25%) were aware of the government ministries as a responsible organ for making regulations and 40% of the respondents were aware of the district council as

the organ which is responsible for making by laws. This shows that, the community level of awareness of the organs which are responsible for formulation of regulations and by laws is low. This is because the government ministries and local government authorities are less popular to the community as organs responsible for formulating regulations and by laws. This implies that, low level of awareness of the community about the responsible organs for formulation of regulations and by laws may affect the implementation of these regulations and by laws hence the continuing of water resources degradation in LVB. This calls for the application of ICT for providing education about organs which are responsible for formulating regulations and by laws for effective water resources management in LVB.

Table 9: Community perception on responsibility in formulation of laws, regulations and by laws

Stage Responsible Respondents Perception (%) Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N = 100 Formulation Parliament 68 80 56 56 65 of laws District 48 36 56 40 45 council Regulations Government 20 40 40 - 25 ministries By laws District 40 52 36 48 44 council Source: Field Data, 2012

4.6.2 Community participation in formulation of laws, regulations and by-laws

Results in Figure 4 show that, very few (9%) of the respondents from the four villages reported that, they participated in the process of formulation of laws, regulations and by laws related to water resources management in LVB. The number of respondents who had involved in the process of formulation of laws, regulations and by-laws governing

water resources in LVB is low hence it is difficult to implement these laws, regulations and by laws governing water resources. Therefore, the involvement of the community in the process of formulation of laws, regulations and by laws is necessary because the community is the primary stakeholders in water resources management in LVB. This calls for more participation of the community in formulating laws, regulations and by laws for effective management of water resources in LVB by using ICT. ICT can help the community from a distance to channel their contributions to the responsible organs in formulation of laws, regulations and by-laws for effective water resources management in LVB.

Figure 3: Community awareness about level of participation in formulation of laws, regulations and by laws

4.7 Community awareness about levels in adherence to laws, regulations and by laws

Results in Table 10 indicate that, majority (84%) of the respondents had rated low level of the community adherence to the laws and regulations, 12% rated moderate while very few (4%) rated high. The reasons for low levels of the community for adherence to laws and regulations are as follow:

4.7.1 Limited alternatives

Results in Table 10 indicate that, majority (76%) of the respondents‘ commented alternatives to fishing as among the major cause of low adherence to laws and regulations. The study area had got few economic activities where people can be employed like industries hence the community relied on water resources from LVB.

Similar results were found by Wandiga (2003) who reported that, few alternatives activities have pushed traditional fishermen to resort to the use of destructive fishing methods to sustain their level of livelihood and food requirements.

Table 10: Low level of community adherence to laws, regulations and by- laws and reasons

Respondents (%)

Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total

n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N = 100

Low level of the community adherence to laws, regulation and by-laws

84 80 84 88 84

Reasons for low adherence to laws, regulation and by-laws

Limited 80 84 68 72 76 alternatives

Corruption 96 96 84 100 94

Limited capacity to enforce laws 60 80 76 84 75

Piracy 92 80 72 96 85

Source: Field Data, 2012

4.7.2 Corruption among officials

Results in Table 10 indicate that, almost all (94%) of the respondents portrayed that, corruption among governmental officials as among the major causes for low adherence to laws and regulations. Corruption is the action of giving and receiving something from someone for a favour. This is caused by insufficient income among governmental officials and they take bribe as the sources of increasing income or may be due to lack of commitment of some governmental leaders who are responsible for supervising water resources in LVB. These results are similar to the findings by Pfliegner (2008) who commented that, some government officials and politicians who undermine the policies can force honest government officials to adopt corrupt practices.

4.7.3 Limited capacity to enforce laws and regulations

Regarding limited capacity to enforce laws and regulations, results (Table 10) indicate that, majority (75%) of the respondents disclosed limited capacity to enforce laws.

These include human, financial and communication facilities. These findings concord with the findings by DED (2012) who reported that, lack of financial, boats, cars and motor bicycles for patrol are among the major problems facing the management of water resources in LVB. This implies that, water resources management in LVB should go hand in hand with the increase of the enforcement capacity.

4.7.4 Piracy

Results in Table 10 show that, majority (85%) of the respondents‘ revealed piracy.

Piracy is the crime of attacking ships and boats at sea or lakes in order to steal. It discourages the fishmen to buy modern fishing gears hence they engage in using illegal fishing gears. These results are similar to the findings by Ntiba, et al.; (2001) who agree that, theft (of fishing gears, vessels) and piracy are rampant on the LVB. This implies

that, security should be strengthened not only for water resources management but also to the properties of the fishermen in LV so that the community is not discouraged to buy modern fishing gears due to the piracy.

4.8 Options to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB

Results on the options to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB are shown in Table 11. The results indicate the following:-

4.8.1 Policy options

Subsidies on fishing tools

Result from field study suggested that, the community should buy legal fishing tools because the fishing community has sufficient income for purchasing of legal fishing tools. These results are similar to the findings by Mbasa (2010) in Ilemela who reported that, the fishmen have income greater than 52,000/= Tshs per day. Thus, regarding few

(17%) of the respondents awareness (Table 11) on appealing for the government provision of subsidies to buy legal fishing tools suggest that, majority were able to purchase these fishing gears without government support for effective water resources management in LVB.

Table 11: Options proposed to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB

Respondents (%) Types Options Nansio Muluseni Mtoni Kakerege Total n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 n = 25 N = 100 Policy Subsidies on 8 16 44 - 17 fishing tools

Micro Credit 80 80 60 40 65 Schemes

Administrative Prevention of illegal 68 64 48 76 64 fishing

Fight 48 52 44 44 47 corruption Capacity 24 12 40 12 22 building

Technical Technology 8 16 32 36 23

Education 12 4 8 24 12

Source: Field data, 2012

Micro credit schemes

Results from field study suggested the establishment of micro credit schemes in the community living around LVB. This can be done through banks which can be established by the government or private sectors. Also, the community is supposed to join together to form Saving and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOSS). These are helpful because some members in the community can borrow money for the purpose of establishing other business activities hence to avoid overdependence on water resources in LVB. The evidence that shows the success of micro credit schemes is found by the report of UN (1995) which revealed that, informal and small-scale lending existed in many parts of the world and it is successful. Good examples are schemes in Ghana,

Kenya, Malawi and Nigeria. Also, discussion with respondents (Table 11) indicate that, more than half (50%) of the respondents proposed the establishment of micro credit schemes in the community living around LVB as the best solution towards effective water resources management in LVB.

4.8.2 Administrative options

Prevention of illegal fishing

Field observation has shown that illegal fishing is discouraged by both governmental and non governmental institutions. The prevention of illegal fishing activities is still taking place but it proves failure. This can be achieved if the community is willingly against illegal fishing gears and be able to provide information to the authority dealing with water resources management wherever illegal fishing gears are found. Also, those loopholes which accelerate illegal fishing gears to be imported or to be produced are closed. Moreover, those who are responsible for water resources management should abide to the laws. With concerted efforts, prevention of illegal fishing is likely to prove positive changes for example in Sierra Leone improvement in the management of the fisheries resource and increasing marine biodiversity conservation is successful due to co-management framework for the implementation of fisheries management issues including enforcement of the ban on illegal fishing and the establishment of Marine

Protected Areas (MPAs) (Sesay, 2012). Responses from community indicate that, a substantial number (64%) suggested the prevention of illegal fishing as indicated in

Table 11. This implies that, the community believes the prevention of illegal fishing tools is still needed and the best solution towards effective management of water resources in LVB.

Fighting against corruption

Results from field study suggested fighting against corruption as an appropriate option for water resources management in LVB. Corruption is the exploitation of a position of influence for private benefit. Corruption can be the outcome of low income among those people who are responsible for supervising water resources in LVB. Fighting against corruption exists for a long time and it is continuing. The successful of fighting corruption is through teaching good morals to the community and to be part and parcel of the education curriculum. Another measure of achieving war against corruption is that, measures taken to those who received and offered corruption should be known by the public and to announce them in the public places. This will discourage others who are in the system of giving and receiving corruption. Fighting against corruption has been successful in countries like Finland. The report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland (2006) shows that, Finland has succeeded in fighting against corruption due to the establishment and maintenance of a social order that offers no fertile ground for corruption to take root. Social order is characterized by specific strengths, particularly moderation, self control and a sense of the common good. This is also supported by

47% of the respondents who proposed fighting against corruption as indicated in Table

11. This implies that, there is a need of continued fighting against corruption for effective management of water resources in LVB.

Capacity building

Results from field study proposed the need of having capacity building to the community living around LVB. Capacity building can be in the form of empowerment of the community, advising about viewing water resources as their own and for their benefits hence the use of illegal fishing gears affect the resources and their lives, creation of job opportunities and good infrastructure for the community to conduct

other economic activities apart from relying on water resources in LVB. The evidence that show the success of capacity building is found in the study by Dejene (2003) in

Ethiopia who points out that, The Government‘s contribution is used for capacity- building, generation and dissemination of appropriate soil and water conservation measures at local and community levels and it is successful in Tigraye where positive development has been reported of community action on soil and water conservation self-help activities. This option was also suggested by few (22%) of the respondents who proposed the establishment of capacity building to the community for effective management of water resources in LVB as indicated in Table 11. Despite few respondents suggested the establishment of capacity building, there is a need of capacity building that can enable the community to utilize water resources in a sustainable manner and not to rely heavily on them.

4.8.3 Technical options

Technology

Results from field study proposed that, there is a need of improving technology which includes cars, modern ships, motorcycles and mobile phones for making patrols and communication to those who are engaged in water resources management in LVB.

Therefore, Integrated Communication Technology (ICT) can be the proper solution for effective water resources management in LVB. This option has been achieved in

Canada as Randy (2012) highlights that, operation high seas driftnet aims to deter illegal fishing activity using ongoing aerial, patrols and the use of sophisticated satellite technology including Canada‘s Radarsat-2. This is also supported by few (23%) of the respondents who proposed the improvement of technology for effective water resources management in LVB (Table 11). This implies that, although there is low number of

respondents who suggested the improvement of technology, there is a need of improving it for effective water resources management in LVB.

Provisional of education

Results from field study suggested the provisional of education for effective management of water resources in LVB. Education for water resources management in

LVB is still proving and it is needed to be provided because fishing is an activity which involves people who are moving from different places in Tanzania and they come to

LV for seeking good life through the engagement in fishing activities (in and out).

These new comers normally have no knowledge of proper fishing activities hence there is a need of providing continued education to the community along LVB. The provisional of education is successful in Kenya as it is reported by Agnew & Agnew

(1994) who pointed out that, education was used to resolve the issue of land ownership and use whereby members agreed that resource utilization in the swamp will fall under wise use guidelines and those activities detrimental to the wellbeing of the swamp will be disallowed. This implies that, despite the existence of education about water resources management, there is still a need of continued providing it because fishing activities involve new comers. This was also suggested by few (12%) of the respondents who proposed the provisional of education for effective water resources management in LVB as indicated in Table 11. However, the number of respondents who viewed education as among the option is low, but education is crucial in the process of water resources management in LVB.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The general objective of the study was to assess options to promote effectiveness of formal institution in water resources management in LVB. Several findings emerged from this study and therefore this chapter presents the summary of main findings and recommendation emanating from these findings. The chapter also identifies area for further research.

5.2 Summary

This study aimed at assessing options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in LVB using Ukerewe district as a case study.

Specifically it targeted to identify formal institutions related to water resources management in LVB. It also aimed to examine strategies used by formal institutions to manage water resources in LVB. Furthermore the study aimed at identifying the possible strategies to improve water resources management in LVB.

The findings revealed four governmental and five Non-Governmental institutions which are involved in water resources management in LVB. Strategies used in water resources management are training in the form of workshop, policy, projects, research, laws, regulations, by laws and advice. Options to improve water resources management include subsidies on fishing tools, micro credit schemes, prevention of illegal fishing, fighting corruption, capacity building, technology and provision of awareness education.

Both governmental and Non-governmental institutions are play ing similar roles except policy formulation and there is duplication of activities.

Moreover, some of the activities carried out by governmental and Non-governmental formal institutions are uncoordinated.

Furthermore, some governmental and Non-governmental formal institutions dealing with water resources management in LVB were unknown by the community.

Apart from that, some policies can be the sources of people to cultivate closer to water resources because they aim to increase productions. Also, these policies are coordinated by different governmental organs as there was poor implementation.

Programmes and projects have an uneven coverage and researches lack feedback of research findings across stakeholders particularly to local people.

There was low awarenes of the community about strategies used by both governmental and Non-governmtal formal institutions in water resources management in LVB.

The study also revealed that, the existing laws, regulations and by- laws have proved failure due to lack of enforcement capacity (financial, human and technical resources), social tiers, piracy and corruption among officials.

In addition, respondents had low awareness about laws, regulations and by-laws due to the means of communicating with the community are through gathering.

Options suggested on effective water resources management in LVB to be used by governmental and Non-governmental formal institutions are based on three categories which are policy like micro credit schemes which include banks and SACCOS while administrative are prevention of illegal fishing, fighting against corruptions and capacity building. Furthermore, technical options include technology and provision of education.

5.3 Conclusion

This study has revealed categorically that formal institutions governing water resources in LVB are ineffective for water resources management hence optional to promote effective formal institutions in water resources management in LVB is crucial.

Based on the findings, it can be concluded that local people are key and important stakeholders for effective and sound management of water resources in LVB. Thus, it is necessary to involve them in water resources management so as to strike a balance between ecological objectives and societal goals.

It was observed that, not all activities related to water resources management in LVB are coordinated. Therefore, it is necessary to coordinate all activities that are related to water resources management for effective management of water resources in LVB.

Given that the 1997 Tanzania Agricultural Policy which encourages increasing production to meet high demands of food due to the growing population hence it can be a source of people to cultivate closer to water resources.

Programmes and projects should increase areas of coverage and the findings from researches should be sent across stakeholders particularly to local people who are residing along LVB for further measures in order to increase effective management of water resources in LVB.

The study revealed low awareness about the strategies used by formal institutions in management of water resources in LVB thus the effective management of water resources should accompanied with the community awareness about those strategies in place.

It was found that, the involvement of the community in the process of making laws, regulations and by laws is very low. It is, therefore, evident that, given their low knowledge about laws, regulations and by laws governing water resources is a threat to water resources management in LVB. Therefore, the community knowledge about laws, regulations and by laws is crucial for a sound water resources management in

LVB.

Also, the community had low knowledge about laws, regulations and by laws governing water resources. This would be safely stated that the community did not abide to the strict laws, regulations and by laws governing water resources in LVB, a feature which signals future for the community continue degrading water resources in

LVB.

Lack of enforcement capacity (financial, human and technical resources), social tiers, piracy and corruption among officials have caused the failure of the existing laws, regulations and by laws in management of water resources in LVB.

The application of ICT is paramount for effective water resources management in

LVB because it can facilitate to know what is taking place as quick as possible.

The increase of variety of economic activities is important for effective water resources management in LVB because the community would not rely on water resources in LVB.

Also, the study concluded that, the establishment of micro credit schemes, prevention of illegal fishing, fighting against corruptions, capacity building, technology and provision of education are the best options to be applied for effective management of water resources in LVB.

5.4 Recommendations

Based on the findings from this study, the following are important recommendations to promote effective formal institutions in water resources management in LVB:-

The government should set demarcation of responsibility among governmental and

Non-governmental formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. There should be a guideline to show demarcation of responsibilities.

The policy makers and the government should involve stakeholders from different sectors in developing policies, programmes and projects. This can be done through the use of ICT whereas people may channel their ideas.

Programmes and Projects coordinators should disseminate the information about their programmes and projects to the community. This can be done through the application of ICT whereas the outcome will be easier to reach to large number of people.

Researchers should provide research findings to the study community in order to benefits the knowledge obtained from these findings and in cooperate in water resources management in LVB.

The Parliament, Governmental ministries and Local government authorities who are responsible for formulation of laws, regulations and by-laws should increase the

involvement of community in formulation. This is possible through the use of ICT which can enable the community to participate through channelling their ideas.

The government and Non- governmental organizations should direct more resources like money, human and technical for management of water resources. This can be done by employing more conservationists, revenue collected from water resources should be used for management and to buy vehicles and telecommunication equipments.

The government and Non-governmental institutions should ensure security to the fishermen against piracy. This can be done through the establishment security with more involvement of community.

The government and Non-government institutions should increase awareness to the community about laws, regulations and by-laws because these are the stakeholders in water resources management in LVB. This can be done through the application of ICT whereas information may spread quickly to the community. Apart from that, government and Non-governmental institutions should reinforcement laws, regulations and by laws. This is possible through committed leaders and those measures taken to those who abuse their power should be published.

The government should encourage the establishment of banks and SACCOS and this can be done by creating favourable environment which could attract private organizations and people. Also, the government and Non-governmental formal institutions should emphasize the community to join together to establish SACCOS by educating the importance of SACCOS.

The government and Non-governmental formal institutions should prevent illegal fishing by improvement the management of the fisheries resource and increasing LVB biodiversity conservation, enforcement of the ban on illegal fishing and the establishment of LVB Protected Areas. Moreover, fighting against corruption can be

done through the establishment and maintenance of a social order that offers no fertile ground for corruption to take root. Social order is characterized by specific strengths, particularly moderation, self control and a sense of the common good. Furthermore, the government and Non-governmental institutions should create capacity building in the form of empowerment of the community, advising about viewing water resources as their own and for their benefits, creation of job opportunities and good infrastructure for the community to conduct other economic activities.

Governmental and Non-governments formal institutions should introduce operation on

LVB driftnet so as to deter illegal fishing activity using ongoing aerial, patrols and the use of sophisticated satellite technology. Moreover, education for water resources management should be provided because fishing is an activity which involves people who are moving from different places in Tanzania and they come to LV for seeking good life through the engagement in fishing activities (in and out).

5.5 Suggestions for further research

This study has focused much on options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. However, permanent and realistic solution to the options to promote effectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management may be obtained by understanding the causes of ineffectiveness of formal institutions in water resources management in LVB. There is a need for research on indigenous knowledge in water resources management in LVB and other areas with similar problem.

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URT (2005), National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (Tanzania) and ORC Macro, Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey, Calverton, Maryland, USA: NBS and ORC Macro.

URT (2008), Mwanza Regional Socio-Economic Profile, The Planning Commission Dar es Salaam and Regional Commissioner‘s Office Mwanza

URT (2009), National Irrigation Policy: Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Dar es Salaam.

URT (2009) The Fisheries Act, 2003 No. 22 of 2003 (Made under Section 57), Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, Dar es Salaam.

.Wandiga, S., Aloo-Obudho, P and Achola, P. (2003), Environmental assessment of East African Rift Valley lakes. Aquat. Sci. 65, 254-271 . World Bank (1999), Indonesian Water Sector Adjustment Loan: Presidents Report, World Bank, Washington DC.

The World Bank‘s (1993), Water Resources Management Policy Paper provide a framework to guide these reforms, Washington DC.

WWAP, (2001), Water Security: A Preliminary Assessment of Policy Progress since Rio, United Nations World Water Assessment Programme, Bonn.

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for households/Community members

Questionnaire ID Number……………………..

Date………………………….

1. Village name……………………………………….. Ward……………………..

2. Name of respondent…………………………………

3. Sex of the respondent

i. Male ii. Female ( )

4. Relationship to the household head i. Wife ii. Husband iii. Father iv. Mother v. Child vi. Grandmother vii. Grandfather

viii. Other (Specify) …… ( )

5. Age of respondent…………….years

6. Place of birth of the respondent

i. Within the village ii. Outside the village ( )

7. Tribe of respondent ( )

i. Kara ii. Kerewe iii. Kurya iv. Haya v. Sukuma vi. Others

(Specify)…………………

8. Marital status of the respondent

i. Married ( ) ii. Divorced ( ) iii. Single ( ) iv. Living together ( )

ii. v. Separated ( )

9. Household size: - Number of Female……………………

Male……………………..

Total……………………..

10. How many members of your households are able to work?...……………………………….

11. Education level of the respondent

i. Informal education ii. Primary education iii. Secondary education iv. College v.

Other (Specify) ( )

12. What is your social position in this village?

i. Political leader ii. Religious leader iii. Retired servant iv. Community leader v.

Others (Specify)… ( )

13. What are your major economic activities?

( )

i. Fishing ( ) ii. Government employee ( ) iii. Business activity ( ) iv. Farming ( ) v. Retired civil servant ( ) vi. Others (Specify)………………………….

14. What are the water resources in LVB you know?

(i)………………………………….(ii)………………………(iii)………………………

(iv)………………………………(v)………………………….(vi)……………………

15. What benefits are you getting from the LVB water resources you have mentioned above?

(i)………………………………(ii)……………………………(iii)…………………

(iv)………………………………(v)…………………………(vi)……………………

16. What is your rating on the levels of LVB water resources degradation?

Type of Level of degradation Examples/evidences Resource 1 = Non, 2 = Low, 3 = Moderate, 4 = High

17. Are you aware of organizations which are involved in management of water resources management for LVB?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention them and the activities they perform.

Organization/institution Activity

If no, go to question number 19

18. Is there any cooperation between organizations you have mentioned in question14 which are dealing with water resources management in Lake Victoria?

Yes ( ) No ( ) Don‘t know ( )

If yes, mention types/activities i………………………………….ii……………………………..iii…………………… iv…………………………………v……………………………………

19. Are you aware of any policy(s) dealing with water resources management in LV?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention them i…………………………………..ii………………………………….iii……………… iv…………………………………v………………………………….vi………………

20. Are you aware of laws, by-laws or regulation governing water resources uses and management in LV? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention them i……………………...... ii. ……………….iii………………………… iv…………………………..v………………….vi………………………

21. What organizations are responsible for formulation and enforcement of the regulations guiding the utilization of LVB Water Resources?

Law/Regulation Responsible in formulation Responsible in enforcement

22. Have you ever been involved in the formulation of any rule/regulation guiding the utilization LVB water resources? Yes ( ) No ( )

23. Are you personally involved in any activity concerning management of LVB water resources? Yes ( ) No ( )

If involved, what activities are you involved in?

(i)…………………………………(ii)…………………………(iii)……………………

(v)……………………………….(vi)………………………..(vii)……………………

24. Have you attended any seminar/training in water resources management in LV in the past 5 years?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, how often…………………………………………………………….

25. Is the community involved in water resources management? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, explain

……………………………………………………………………………………………

26. What are the illegal utilization of LV water resources in your area?

i...... ii...... iii...... iv......

v………………………………

27. What are the common activities that result to the degradation of water resources in

LV?

i.…………………….ii………………….iii…………………..iv………………… v………………………vi…………………………

28. How do you rate the level of community in adherence to laws/regulations guiding utilization of water resources?

Low [ ] Moderate [ ] High [ ]

29. What are the major reasons for your observations above?

Inadequate knowledge [ ] Adequate knowledge [ ] Lack of alternatives [ ]

Corruption among officials [ ] Limited capacity to enforce by-laws [ ] Limited involvement of Community members [ ]

Others [ ] Specify……………………………….

30. What are the options to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB?

Policy options

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Administrative options

…………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Technical options

………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Appendix 2: Questionnaire for semi-structured interview with VEOs/WEOs

Village/Ward name………………………

Date…………………………..

Background information

1. Name of the respondent…………………………………….

2. Education level

i. Secondary education

ii. Certificate ( )

iii. Diploma

iv. Advanced diploma/degree

Other information

3. What is your experience in the current post? …………………(years)

4. What are the common activities that result to the degradation of water resources in

LV?

i.…………………….ii……………………….iii…………………..iv………………

v………………………vi………………………..

5. What are the common illegal utilization of LV water resources in your area?

i...... ii...... iii...... iv......

v………………………………

6. Do you know who is responsible for taking care for water resources management in

LV?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention them

i. …………………….ii……………………….iii…………………iv……………

v………………………vi………………………………..

7. Are you aware of organizations which are involving in water resources management in Lake Victoria?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention them and the activities they perform.

Organization/institution Activity

8. Are there any linkages between the organizations you have mentioned?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, explain

……………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………….

9. Are you aware of the roles of organizations/institutions you have mentioned in question no.8 that are dealing with water resources? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention i…………………………………ii……………………………..iii……………………… v……………………………………..vi………………………………………..

100

10. Are you aware of any policy(s) dealing with water resources management in LV?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes mention them i………………………ii……………………iii……………………iv………………… v……………………..vi…………………………vii……………………………………

11. Are you aware of laws, by-laws and regulations that are dealing with water resources management in LV? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention i………………………………ii…………………………….iii………………………… iv……………………………..v………………………………vi………………

12. What are the processes of its formulation? i………………...... ii……………………………iii………………… iv…………………………………

13. Is community involved in the process of its formulation? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, explain

……………………………………………………………………………………………

101

14. What organizations are responsible for formulation and enforcement of the regulations guiding the utilization of LVB Water Resources?

Law/Regulation Responsible in formulation Responsible in enforcement

15. Have you attend any seminar/training in water resources management in LV?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, how often in five (5) years…………………………………………………………….

16. What is your rating on the levels of LVB water resources degradation?

Type of Level of degradation Examples/evidences Resource 1 = None, 2 = Low, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Hgh

102

17. How do you rate the level of community in adherence to laws/regulations guiding utilization of water resources?

Low [ ] Moderate [ ] High [ ]

18. What are the major reasons for your observations above?

Inadequate knowledge [ ] Adequate knowledge [ ] Lack of alternatives [ ]

Corruption among officials [ ] Limited capacity to enforce by-laws [ ] Limited involvement of Community members [ ]

Others [ ] Specify……………………………….

19. What are the options to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB?

Policy options

………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………

Administrative options

………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………

Technical options

……………………………………………………………………………………………

103

Appendix 3: Questionnaire for semi-structured interview with key informants

District name………………………

Date…………………………..

Background information

1. Name of respondent…………………………………….

2. Organization………………………………….

3. Education level

(i). Secondary school

(ii). Certificate ( )

(iii). Diploma

(iv). Advanced diploma/degree

4. What is your position/post in the organization……………………………

Other information

5. What is your duration in the current post?...... (years)

6. What are the water resources in LVB you know?

(i)………………………………(ii)……………………………(iii)…………………

(iv)………………………..(v)…………………………….(vi)………………………

7. What are the activities that result to degradation of water resources in LV?

(i)…………………………….(ii)………………………………....(iii)………………

(iv)…………………………..(v)…………………………………(v)…………………

8. What are the common illegal utilization of LV water resources in your area?

(i)……………………………..(ii)…………………………(iii)………………

(iv)……………………………(v)…………………………(vi)………………

104

9. What are the other organizations which are dealing with water resources management in LV apart from yours‘?

(i)………………………(ii)…………………………(iii)…………………….

(iv)……………………..(v)…………………………(vi)………………………

10. Are you aware of the roles of organizations/institutions you have mentioned on question 9 in water resources management? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention them

(i)………………………………….(ii)………………….………(iii)……………………

(iv)………………………………..(v)…………………………(vi)…………………….

11. Is there any link between your organizations with others which are dealing with water resources management in LV? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, explain

……………………………………………………………………………………………

12. What are the strategies used by your organization in water resources management in

LV?

(i)………………………...(ii)………………………(iii)………………………

(iv)………………………..(v)………………………(vi)………………………

13. Are you aware of any policy(s) that is/are dealing with water resources management in LV?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention them

(i)………………………(ii)…………………………(iii)………………….

(iv)………………...... (v)…………………………(vi)………………….

105

14. Are you aware of laws, by-laws and regulations that are healing with water resources management in LV? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, mention

(i)……………………….…….(ii)……………………….(iii)…………………………...

(iv)………………. …………..(v)………………………….

15. What organizations are responsible for formulation and enforcement of the regulations guiding the utilization of LVB Water Resources?

Law/Regulation Responsible in formulation Responsible in enforcement

16. What are the processes of its formulation?

(i)…………………………(ii)…………………………(iii)…………………….

(iv)…………………………(v)……………………….(vi)……………………

17. Who is responsible for its implementation?

(i)……………………………(ii)……..……………………..(iii)…………………

(iv)….………………………..(v)……………………………(vi)………………..

18. How do you rate the level of community in adherence to laws/regulations guiding utilization of water resources?

Low [ ] Moderate [ ] High [ ]

106

19. What are the major reasons for your observations above?

Inadequate knowledge [ ] Adequate knowledge [ ] Lack of alternatives [ ]

Corruption among officials [ ] Limited capacity to enforce by-laws [ ] Limited involvement of Community members [ ]

Others [ ] Specify……………………………….

20. Is your organization conducted seminars/training for water resources management?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, how many in the past 5 years? ……………………………………..

21. Are you aware of the implementation capacity? Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes, explain

……………………………………………………………………………………………

22. What are the instruments used by your organization in the implementation process?

Instrument Reason for using

107

23. What is your rating on the levels of LVB water resources degradation?

Type of Level of degradation Examples/evidences Resource 1 = Non, 2 = Low, 3 = Moderate, 4 = Hgh

24. How do you rate the level of community in adherence to laws/regulations guiding utilization of water resources?

Low [ ] Moderate [ ] High [ ]

25. What are the major reasons for your observations above?

Inadequate knowledge [ ] Adequate knowledge [ ] Lack of alternatives [ ]

Corruption among officials [ ] Limited capacity to enforce by-laws [ ] Limited involvement of Community members [ ]

Others [ ] Specify……………………………….

26. What are the options to improve strategies in water resources management in LVB?

Policy options

……………………………………………………………………………………………

108

Administrative options

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Technical options

………………………………………………………………………………………….

109