For Whom? Questioning the Food and Farming Research Agenda

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda

A special edition magazine from the Food Ethics Council

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 1 CONTENTS This collection of articles addresses key questions about how the research agenda is set Editorial: Big questions and radical change 3 in food and farming, unmasks The big question: and challenges the dominant How can food and farming research deliver for the long-term public good? 5 research paradigm, and highlights inclusive alternatives to deliver public good. In doing Challenging the status quo Research for the public good so, the Food Ethics Council seeks to challenge accepted Managing conflicts in nutrition Industry-sponsored science is opinion and spark fruitful research: a historical perspective 9 clouding the picture of how debate about the future food Marion Nestle food systems impact health 36 and farming research agenda. IPES-Food Agroecological research in EC programmes 11 Fairness and food safety: Les Levidow a research gap 38 The Food Ethics Council is a charity Dr Liza Draper that provides independent advice UK agricultural research: a different on the ethics of food and farming. approach is urgently needed 13 Pathways for the amplification Its goal is to create more conscious Helena Paul of agroecology: matching practice food systems that are fair to all with discourse 39 Research strategy for food people, animals and the planet. Clara Nicholls and Miguel Altieri and farming 15 Steve Tones Measuring farming outcomes for the public good 41 The views of contributors to this What good food research could do 16 Steve McLean magazine are not necessarily those Tim Lang of the Food Ethics Council or its How to unlock the contribution of members. Please do not reproduce An ethical research agenda agroecology in farming? 17 without permission. Articles are Susanne Padel and Nic Lampkin copyright of the authors and images Setting an ethical research agenda: as credited. Unless otherwise Agriculture research in India: the role of the public sector 43 indicated, all other content is what is and what should be 18 Ruth Segal copyright of the Food Ethics Council. Suman Sahai Ethical priorities for future agrifood research 45 Inclusive alternatives Ben Mepham Edited by: Liz Barling Co-ordinated by: Dan Crossley, Democratising food and Final viewpoint Anna Cura and Patrick Mulvany agricultural research 21 Michel Pimbert Design: James Adams Calling for a paradigm shift 48 Learning from farmer-led research 24 Food Ethics Council Publication date: January 2018 Tom MacMillan

Listen to farmers: an interview Further reading 51 Food Ethics Council with Ibrahima Coulibaly, Kings Cross Hub President of CNOP-Mali 26 34b York Way, London N1 9AB

Food and farming research T: 0333 012 4147 for the public good 28 Molly D. Anderson [email protected]

An interdisciplinary and www.foodethicscouncil.org participatory approach to setting research priorities in Brazil 30 Renato S. Maluf The Food Ethics Council is a registered charity (charity number: Community led food and 1101885) and a company limited by agricultural research: reflecting guarantee (company no. 03901671), on experiences from Africa 32 registered in England and Wales. Liz Hosken EDITORIAL Big questions and radical change Dan Crossley Executive Director, Food Ethics Council

Food is at the heart of many cultures. Food is also at the heart of many of the problems faced by society today. Research is the bridge between the problems of today and the solutions for tomorrow.

Research is about addressing questions, important voices are, it seems, too but many questions underpinning the often not being heard. The questions food and farming research agenda are ‘for whom is the research being done?’ seldom asked. and ‘who should be involved?’ are more For whom? By whom? Serving pertinent than ever. whom? For what? We are not the first In highlighting lessons from farmer- to ask these questions, and I hope we led research in the UK, Tom MacMillan will not be the last. If they sound like writes that “Farmers are in high demand... big questions, it is because they are – yet it is still unusual for farmers to be in unashamedly. When the future of our the driving seat, setting the questions food systems is at stake, it is important and getting centrally involved in research to ask big questions. It is also vital to design and analysis.” This is echoed by challenge assumptions, contest the Ibrahima Coulibaly’s powerful plea to status quo, and push for ways forward “Listen to farmers! Listen to farmers! that address inequity, hunger and Listen to farmers!” damage to ecosystems and agricultural Contributors call for radical changes. biodiversity. Michel Pimbert argues that “Nothing less There are many tensions surrounding than a paradigm revolution is needed food and farming research. For starters, to democratise food and agricultural how can we ensure the impartiality of research for the common good and the research but at the same time ensure it wellbeing of the planet.” In this context, has practical relevance? What should Claire Robinson asserts that “Food and the role of corporates be? And, if farming research has taken a wrong turn corporate involvement at some level in the UK due to successive governments’ is desirable or inevitable, then how obsession with genetically modified (GM) to avoid conflicts of interest? Marion crops.” While, Clara Nicholls and Miguel Nestle explores just that issue within the Altieri present the case that “transitioning realm of nutrition research. to an agriculture based on agroecological Several of our contributors call for principles would provide rural families the research-setting process to become with significant social, economic and considerably more inclusive. The most environmental benefits, and feed the

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 3 EDITORIAL

world equitably and sustainably.” A paradigm shift from industrial In drawing out insights from the agriculture to diversified agroecological “We need a high- International Assessment of Agricultural systems” shows, yet again solutions are Knowledge, Science & Technology for available; much research by its nature is quality research Development (‘IAASTD’) that took place long-term – but not all. Long-term in the a decade ago, Molly Anderson highlights wrong direction is no good to anyone. agenda which the need for public sector research for We need a high-quality research agenda the public good and argues the case which strengthens a food system that strengthens a food for small-scale farmers, as being the serves people, the planet and animals “largest category of people suffering from – and that helps deliver ‘good food, for system that serves chronic undernutrition.” In the context everyone, forever’ (to borrow a phrase of small-scale ‘peasant’ producers who from Colin Tudge). people, the planet provide most people in the world with Professor Ben Mepham, our founder, food, Pat Mooney points out “Peasants’ articulates the need for research policy and animals” agroecology could be scaled up [but to be revised to address the priorities for cannot] because of the intellectual food supply, namely that they should be property policies, the kinds of research “sustainable, universal nutrition, by means orientations and the many ways the that mitigate environmental degradation; private sector has all the facetime with and respect for the rights of humans and politicians.” Suman Sahai, writing from nonhumans while remaining sensitive to India, summarises the challenge as “the the diversity of cultural norms.” real problem however, is the traditional There are three things we would like to patriarchal approach to determining see. Firstly, we want transparency in the what’s good for agriculture and farmers.” research-setting process, so that everyone Indeed, we asked our ‘big question’ can see how it is funded and who is about ‘How can food and farming research involved. Secondly, we want inclusivity in deliver for the long-term public good?’. how the research agendas are set – with Much debate remains on the detail of citizens put at the heart of this, including the ‘how’, but that it should deliver for biodiversity-enhancing farmers, who the long-term public good is surely not have perhaps most to offer, most to gain up for debate. We hear from a range of and most to lose. And thirdly, we want a contributors on this, including Jonathon framework introduced to ensure that all Porritt, shadow food and farming minister research delivers for the long-term public David Drew MP, Helen Browning and Liza good and that it contributes to fair, Draper, to name but a few. healthy, humane and environmentally Professor Tim Lang rightly says that sustainable food and farming systems “in the UK, our food research agenda is both in the UK and internationally. In our currently paralysed by the enormity of ‘final viewpoint’, we share further thoughts Brexit”, which may increase the pressure, on what we at the Food Ethics Council as Helen Paul warns, for “the UK … to believe is needed. export its industrial research platforms to No-one yet has all the answers. But other regions, especially Africa.” There is we hope you agree that this publication also talk of the need to ‘take back control’ brings together invaluable insights from from Liz Hosken, but this time not in a UK history, from different geographies Brexit context. Liz writes of the power of and from different perspectives. community-led research and the need Together we can make an ethical to build “‘affectionate alliances’ with food and farming research agenda communities in a process of taking back a priority. And of the question ‘for control of their knowledge, practices and whom?’ Surely the answer should be ‘for decision making…” everyone’, including the children and Many will feel that progress in the grandchildren of the world? Hence, we past decade has been frustratingly as food citizens should get involved in slow. However, as last year’s IPES-Food shaping a better future for those that report “From Uniformity to Diversity: will inherit our legacy.

4 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda THE BIG QUESTION Melanie Welham Toby Hodgkin, Annelie Bernhart BBSRC Chief Executive and Dunja Mijatovic Platform for Agrobiodiversity Research

Meeting the demands of a rapidly If food and farming research is to deliver growing global population will require for the public good, it must ensure that How can food substantial improvements in agricultural such research takes adequate account of productivity, whilst agriculture must agrobiodiversity – the diversity of crops, and farming become more sustainable and resilient. animals, fish and other species that are Food and farming research is helping part of all production systems. research us achieve these goals, to ensure a Agrobiodiversity is necessary to safe and high-quality supply of food secure the long-term sustainability of deliver for sufficient to deliver future food and food production systems, achieve food nutritional security. security, and embed the principals the long-term Research is delivering significant of food sovereignty in food systems. improvements across the agriculture and Research on improved use and availability public good? food system and providing economic of, as well as access to, agrobiodiversity and social benefits to the UK through will be fundamental to achieving these increased productivity, improved quality objectives. and safety, increased trade and exports, Agrobiodiversity must be included and protecting the wider environment for in debates on the nature and content generations to come. of food and farming research. This Our world-class research capabilities means making sure that the farmers in institutes, centres, universities and and communities who are developers businesses are harnessing the genomics and custodians of that diversity are fully revolution in crop and livestock engaged in the research setting process. breeding for improvements in traits It also means ensuring that the research including resilience, sustainability and agendas recognise and respond to their resistance to pests and diseases. We roles and needs, and takes full account are developing and using new tools of their importance for the continuing and digital technologies, robotics and maintenance and use of that diversity. autonomous systems, big data, machine Farmers and communities that learning and artificial intelligence to maintain agrobiodiversity include revolutionise farming practices in the UK indigenous peoples and farmers and further afield. in marginal environments who are To understand real-world challenges, often excluded from the research research into sustainable agricultural setting processes and whose cultural systems is integrating the biology of and production practices are often crops and farmed animals with farm undervalued, if not denigrated. These management and the wider environment. include shifting cultivators and pastoral This requires balancing production peoples around the world. (including optimising potential trade-offs) Their inclusion in any research setting with maintaining the natural capital on process and in the development of which agriculture and other ecosystem research priorities is therefore an essential services depend. part of the development of an ethical Food and farming research is of key research agenda that delivers for the economic and social importance to the long-term public good. This will require UK and globally. As the UK’s largest transdisciplinary research approaches that public sector funder of agriculture and take account of different world views and food security research, BBSRC takes traditional knowledge. its responsibility for future generations seriously. Our community is harnessing the step changes in understanding the biology of crops and farmed animals and combining this with novel innovations and new technologies to help address the global food and farming challenges.

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 5 David Drew MP Helen Browning Claire Robinson Shadow Farming Minister Organic farmer and member of Editor, GMWatch the Food Ethics Council

I have always cared about the As a farmer, it seems everyone wants Food and farming research has taken a relationship between environmental to sell you stuff that they tell you – often wrong turn in the UK due to successive sustainability and food security. With with little evidence – will magically governments’ obsession with genetically 52% of the food we eat coming from increase your yields by tonnes. This modified (GM) crops. Our research insti- the UK, more research is needed to find was one reason why I began to farm tutes and scientists have misused public ways of ensuring that our food supplies organically. I wanted to see what I could money to align the research agenda with are secure, particularly in the face of achieve using my own resources, such the interests of GM corporations. This has issues such as Brexit and its implications as rotations, good manure management come at the expense of public interest for the agricultural workforce. and excellent husbandry research into areas of practical benefit, We live in a time of technological At first it felt like a research project. such as crop rotation, non-toxic pest revolution, and food production and I had ideas that seemed worth management, and building healthy soil farming are no exception. Through investigating, and questions that I wanted – which in turn make healthy crops and research we can make use of new to answer. But support for this kind of healthy people. technologies such as automatic milking, work, which I knew would have many Even GMO promoter Achim robotic farming and hydroponics, which environmental – and potentially financial – Dobermann, head of the UK’s Rothamsted can be labour saving, environmentally benefits was in short supply. Research, has finally admitted that GM sustainable and secure. There was some interest in organic crop technology is not a “major solution However, we must also give thought methods, but it was mainly focused for agriculture”. We’ve known for years to reversing the massive rise in intensive on policy differences rather than that GM simply isn’t up to the task of factory farming and mega-farms. As performance improvements. Practical producing more or better food – including well as concerns about animal welfare, work was conducted on research units the new gene editing techniques, which these also have negative implications for rather than working farms, leading Dobermann claims “will change the whole public health. For example, almost three to delayed and hard-to-find results. picture” of farming. In reality, new GM quarters of factory-farmed pork and Sometimes, as industry began to co- poses the same risks as old GM and will chicken sold in UK supermarkets has been fund R&D, inconvenient results were lead us down another blind alley. found to be contaminated with antibiotic- smothered, with commercial partners Dobermann’s institute has swallowed resistant bacteria such as E. coli. delaying publication until they’d taken millions of pounds of public funding We could also carry out more research advantage of the funding. This despite since it jumped on the GM bandwagon. into our eating habits. For example, can public finance bearing the lion’s share of Yet this arm of its work has produced we realistically sustain our insatiable the cost. nothing of benefit to farmers or the appetite for meat? If we want to continue That’s why I’ve long been keen to see public. It’s ironic that the UK government delivering food for the long term, a diet two things. In applied research, I want and scientific establishment are trying with less meat would reduce the need for the farmer/end user to be in the driving to impose this failed system, which intensive farming. seat, ideally being funded to do the trials only benefits GM seed and chemical Finally, we would do well to ask how themselves, with support from scientists, companies, on other nations. It’s time we use the food we generate. Our country as in the Soil Association’s Innovative to focus on participatory research that throws away more than seven million Farmers network (part of the Duchy involves farmers and the public in a tonnes of edible food each year. With a Future Farming Programme). transparent way from the outset. steadily growing population we need to For ‘blue skies’ research, the public We already produce enough food for find more efficient and environmentally should be involved in determining the 14 billion people. Over 400 world experts friendly ways of using the food and farms work to be done. Otherwise, our new agree that non-GM breeding, integrated we already have before expanding in an technologies will carry high levels of pest management and agroecology unsustainable way. sunk cost that drive the need for them to can meet our present and future food succeed commercially – even though they needs in a sustainable way. Scientists may have little relevance to the public should look at how they can serve these interest. This conflict wastes everyone’s objectives while retaining the support of time, energy and money, when R&D could the public that pays their wages. be used for the betterment of society.

6 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Professor Ralph Early Pat Mooney Jonathon Porritt Harper Adams University and member Former Executive Director of ETC Group Founder Director, Forum for the Future of the Food Ethics Council

It is often said that the food system We need research to start delivering There’s an intergenerational problem in is broken. Globally, obesity and diet- public goods again. A few decades ago, setting a ‘fit for purpose’ R&D agenda related disease are increasing1. Nutrient the role of public research was fairly for food and farming in the UK. How can levels of fruits and vegetables have clear. It was directed to the interests of research bodies do justice to today’s declined over the last 50 to 100 years2. farmers and consumers. That’s faded short-term commercial pressures, without The University of Sheffield reported in away so that most has become more letting those pressures overwhelm the 2014 that British soils may support only a subsidy to the private sector than a need for a longer-term examination of 100 more harvests. Industrial farming benefit to citizens or producers. There’s what will ‘make for success’ in 20 to 30 has created many negative externalities: agreement that research is important years’ time? biodiversity loss; the eutrophication but without a blessing from the private That may sound like hyperbolic of water courses with phosphorus and sector, the research does not happen in rhetoric. But ask yourself: with at nitrogen; the development of antibiotic the public sector. least 80% of today’s R&D invested in resistant bacteria in animal production; We see that globally in the CGIAR. conventional intensive farming, how and the loss of insect pollinators linked to Their research institutes are increasingly much of that spend has realistically neonicotinoids. being asked to pay their own way. That factored in the dramatic impacts of We now understand that current means they are taking out Intellectual accelerating climate change – not just methods of food production present Property Rights, Patents and Plant here in the UK, but in those countries on many challenges to sustainability3. To Breeders Rights on what had been the which we currently depend for significant meet them, the food system must change. public goods in their genebanks and imports of food and raw materials? How Research is required which places people licensing their research to companies. much of it has factored in the inevitability and diet-related health at the heart of The reason for doing this is not so much that we will not be able to use man- farming and food industry practices, and to make profits but that they get ‘credits’, made nitrogen and phosphorus-based targets the restoration and enhancement from international donors, for being fertilisers in the ludicrously irresponsible of ecosystem services. ‘valuable’ to the private sector. What had way that we do today? The dilemma is that many of the been public goods are being taken away Have research councils and academics food system’s failings are caused by from smallholder producers. got to grips with the fact that fossil intensive, high-input agriculture driven There are many research challenges fuels can no longer underpin our by corporate-funded research intended that could be addressed, from ambient wholly spurious notions of agricultural to secure greater profits; but not temperature seed storage to improvements productivity, where we use somewhere necessarily to benefit human health and in small-scale farm machinery, but these between 12 and 20 energy calories to food system sustainability. Solutions are ignored and young scientists are being produce one calorie’s-worth of food? And enabling long-term sustainability and pushed in the direction of addressing the what of the soil? Reputable soil scientists healthy people may offer reduced profits needs of the companies. here in the UK tell us we have no more for corporations. If so, who will fund the There is a need to recognise that the than 100 harvests before it’s game-over research? only way to get through the next decades for any serious farming enterprise in much The answer is to embed food with climate change is through a highly of the UK. Do the maths. and farming research strongly within decentralised, highly creative approach These are big questions. national food policy. Governments must that links together high-tech, which covers Unfortunately, today’s beguiling but recognise their moral duty to fund such lab research, and wide-tech research utterly hollow terminology about research for the long-term public good. being done by grassroots organisations ‘climate-smart agriculture’ or (even more and peasant movements around the cynically) ‘sustainable intensification’ 1 Ezzati, N. (2016) Trends in adult body-mass index in world. The two could be complementary tells us all we need to know about the 200 countries from 1975 to 2014: a pooled analysis of 1698 population-based measurement studies with 19·2 if there were mutual respect and good delusions of those who set today’s million participants. NCD Risk Factor Collaboration. communications and if the barriers to agenda for the future of food and Lancet, 387: 1377–96. expanding, for example, agroecology, farming in the UK. 2 Davis, D.R. (2009) Declining fruit and vegetable nutrient composition: What is the evidence? could be removed. Peasants’ agroecology Horticultural Science, 44, 15-19. could be scaled up if they could stand 3 Pretty, J. (2014) Agriculture and food systems: our up. They are not being allowed to stand current challenge. In, Rosin, C., Stock, P. and Campbell, H. (Eds.) Food Systems Failure. London: Routledge. up because of the intellectual property policies, the kinds of research orientations and the many ways the private sector has all the facetime with politicians while peasants have almost none.

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 7 Challenging the status quo

8 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Managing conflicts in nutrition research: a historical perspective History shows that pooling money into an ‘independent’ research fund doesn’t work. Marion Nestle charts failed attempts and corporate take-overs over the years.

Whenever I talk about the conflicts committee to review applications and little favours according to their interest!” of interest induced by food-industry award grants, but its decisions had to King insisted that the foundation was not funding of nutrition research, the first be approved by the board of trustees. run that way. Its charter specified that no“ suggestion I invariably hear for solving Because the board included food founder or sustaining member of The the problem is to pool contributions into industry representatives, this requirement Nutrition Foundation, Inc., shall refer to a common research fund administered allowed the board to control the research his membership in this corporation in his by an independent third party. In theory, agenda, even though its approval process advertisement of his products; or make this method should protect researchers appeared pro forma. any other commercial reference to said from feelings of obligation to any one In his 1979 history of the foundation, membership.” King’s history quotes a donor company, and prevent the well- Dr. Charles Glen King, who headed speech given to the foundation’s trustees established unconscious, unintentional, the scientific advisory committee, said in 1972 by its then-president, William and unrecognised tendencies to “the work of this committee and its Darby: “The Nutrition Foundation… will produce study results favourable to the rapport with the trustees were of such a not become a lobbying agency and must funder.1,2 But history is instructive; it quality that no grant recommendation remain scientifically detached in debates demonstrates that the idea works better to the board of trustees was denied or affecting any particular segment of the in theory than practice. restricted in any way during my 21 years of food industry.” In 1942, Dr. Karl Compton, president experience as Director or President.”3 But scepticism should have been of the Massachusetts Institute of However, this statement also raises in order. Grant recipients thanked the Technology, announced that he had questions about independence. If foundation for funding in their published agreed to head the board of trustees of members wanted to remain on the papers, and the foundation made sure a newly formed Nutrition Foundation, committee, and if the foundation wanted that donors got something in return. established through donations from donations to continue, everyone would It established an industry advisory fifteen leading food manufacturers, need to meet the trustees’ and donors’ committee to keep member companies including Campbell’s Soup, General spoken or unspoken expectations. Gifts apprised of the foundation’s work, giving Foods, Quaker Oats and United Fruit. create obligations. them early information about study The foundation’s purpose was to create Dr. King repeatedly emphasises the results, and providing them with informal a strong and independent programme independence of the scientific committee. access to leading nutrition scientists. to support basic nutrition research to “It is a great satisfaction to report the There also were tax advantages. improve the food, diet, and health of fact that in no instance during 21 years of Because the foundation’s funding the American public, and applied food service did a member of this committee model required repeated commitments science research to help food companies or the Board of Trustees suggest from participating companies, it created with technical problems and product undertaking any grant or other activity ongoing pressures to please. Such development. By “strong,” Compton that would work selfishly in the particular pressures became more pronounced meant adequately funded. The initial interest of his own organisation or against when the foundation expanded its food industry members would commit any other worthy organisation.” activities beyond awarding research $10,000 a year to the foundation for five Despite these protestations, grants. The foundation published years. By 1947, 54 food, beverage and some nutrition scientists must have its own journal, Nutrition Reviews supplement companies were making been dubious about the claims of (which still exists), but gradually took annual contributions of $500 or more. independence. King quotes an unnamed on additional missions. It helped “Independent” meant separation member of a nutrition society: “Of course establish similar foundations in other of the funding from the science. The you will have to scratch the back of your countries, gave awards, published foundation appointed a scientific advisory member companies occasionally and do books, funded conferences and entered

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 9 into partnerships with other nutrition the safety of caffeine, food additives, they are immune from such influence.” organisations. Its financial needs and other chemical substances in foods. But the director of NIH’s alcohol institute expanded accordingly. Although ILSI now supports research NIH assured the reporter, “the trial will be Pressures to please might explain on a much broader range of topics, immune from industry influence.”5 why reporters viewed foundation continues to publish Nutrition Reviews, I can think of only one possibility that officials as spokesmen for the food and describes itself as “a nonprofit, might actually work: an industry-wide industry on matters of nutrition and worldwide organisation whose mission is research funding programme paid for health. Examples include: to provide science that improves human by a tax or levy. Contributions would 1962: Charles Glen King told a health and well-being and safeguards be mandatory, not voluntary, thereby reporter that Rachel Carson’s just- the environment,” it is widely recognised eliminating the need to please donors.6 published book, Silent Spring, was as a front group for the food industry. This idea, in theory, would require “bordering on hysteria.” The article The moral: it takes more than pooling all food, beverage, and supplement identified King as the head of a “research- funds from food companies to maintain companies with sales over some set level sponsoring organisation largely research independence. to pay a fee in proportion to revenues, supported by the food industry.” perhaps along the lines of the USDA’s 1967: Horace L. Sipple, then executive industry “checkoff” programmes. A director of the foundation, suggested “Anything short of a government agency or foundation could that mothers could fix their families “hot mandatory levy is a collect the funds and administer them in dogs and malted milks or even pizza for much the same way as such institutions breakfast. It’s better than nothing at all,” compromise that allows currently administer grants. A system like he said.” industry funding to bias this has its own sources of bias, but these 1974: The foundation’s president, would not be commercially driven. William Darby, denounced academics the research, induces But in practice? I score its political concerned about the hazards of conflicts of interest, and feasibility at zero. Food companies do agricultural chemicals for their not like taxes and invariably oppose them, “McCarthyite” attack on the pesticide leads to erosion of trust and the U.S. tax code or Congress are industry. in nutrition science.” unlikely to permit something like this. But 1982: Dr. Darby, identified by a anything short of a mandatory levy is a reporter as president of a foundation compromise that allows industry funding “whose trustees include top officers of A more recent example of pooled to bias the research, induces conflicts of corporations in the food field such as funds is the nonprofit Foundation for interest, and leads to erosion of trust in Oscar Mayer, Coca-Cola, General Foods, the National Institutes of Health (FNIH), nutrition science. Swanson and Nabisco,” said of recently authorised by Congress to collect published dietary guidelines, ‘’I don’t funds from private donors to support Marion Nestle is professor of nutrition, think we should look at food-stuffs as research and education.4 In 2016, the food studies, and public health, New being dangerous things…If we cut down FNIH distributed more than $55 million York University and author of several on animal products such as lean red dollars, mostly for research partnerships. books about food politics. She blogs meats we remove one of our best sources This money comes from hundreds of almost daily at www.foodpolitics.com of protein, B vitamins and iron.” donors, ranging from grateful patients and tweets @marionnestle. This article But times were changing. Government to large corporations, listed by the size is based on material in her forthcoming research funding, which had increased of their contributions: $250 to more “Unsavory Truth: How Food Companies rapidly after the end of World War II, now than $2,500,000. Here too, lines blur. Skew the Science of What We Eat.” targeted cancer, heart disease, and other FNIH actively seeks donors for specific Basic Books, 2018. chronic conditions rather than vitamins. projects and permits donors to specify

Most large food companies closed their areas for research. 1 Lo B, Field MJ (2009) Conflict of Interest in Medical basic research units and shifted resources This earmarking was evident form a Research, Education, and Practice. Washington, DC: to product development and marketing. front-page story in the New York Times National Academies Press 2 Krimsky S. (2004) Science in the Private Interest: Through mergers and acquisitions, the about how five alcoholic-beverage Has the Lure of Profits Corrupted Medical Research. food industry consolidated. All of this companies had pledged $67.7 million to Rowman and Littlefield left fewer companies to contribute to the FNIH for a study to determine whether 3 King CG. (1976) A Good Idea: The History of the Nutrition Foundation. The Nutrition Foundation. The the foundation’s work, and its financial one drink a day prevents heart attacks. This quotations from this report appear, in order, on pages situation deteriorated. may sound like science but the funders, 10, 11, 25, 163, and 118. In 1985, the foundation merged the size of their donation, and the research 4 Zachwieja J, Hentges E, Hill J O, et al. (2013) Public- private partnerships: The evolving role of industry into the International Life Sciences question raised red flags. I’m quoted in funding in nutrition research. Adv Nutr. 2013;4(5):570-2 Institute (ILSI), a group organised in the article: “Research shows that industry- 5 Rabin RC. (2017) Is alcohol good for you? An industry- 1978 by Coca-Cola and other food sponsored research almost invariably backed study seeks answers. NY Times, Jul 3, 2017 6 Marks JH. (2014) Toward a systemic ethics of public- companies to promote research, but favours the interests of the industry private partnerships related to food and health. for a specific purpose: to demonstrate sponsor, even when investigators believe Kennedy Inst Ethics J. 2014;24(3):267-99

10 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Agroecological research in EC programmes The European Commission’s commitment to the organic sector is becoming stronger, with CSOs holding it to account. Les Levidow traces recent developments.

The European Commission (EC) has a advocate organics and agroecosystems first expert report, farmers often develop history of funding research on organic research for an alternative ‘knowledge- modest innovations, which are dismissed production and certification issues, based bioeconomy’.3 They built broad or ignored.6 A more fundamental but it was marginal to the main priority stakeholder support, including relevant problem is that research agendas have on biotechnology within the EC’s agri- commercial actors across the agro-food become more distant from producers’ food research programmes from the value chain and environmental NGOs. knowledge, instead favouring specialist 1980s onwards. Eventually they published a Vision for laboratory knowledge for agricultural However, there have been new an Organic Food and Farming Research inputs and processing methods.6 opportunities for organics research since Agenda to 20254, with the aim of setting As ways forward, the expert group 2005, when the European Commission up a Technology Platform Organics. advocated agroecological approaches, rebranded biotech as Life Sciences for a This was followed by a Strategic in situ genetic diversity, farmers’ new agenda: The Knowledge-Based Bio- Research Agenda, which linked the term knowledge, etc.7 It also advocated Economy (KBBE).1 ‘innovation’ with public goods, efficiency, new kinds of Agricultural Knowledge The KBBE vision extended the post- farmers’ knowledge, learning and and Innovation Systems (AKIS) beyond 2000 Lisbon agenda, which has sought competitive advantage. It elaborated the the formal research system: ‘The greater R&D investment in a knowledge- concept of ‘eco-functional intensification’, AKISs that have been developed based economy to make Europe ‘the i.e. ‘more efficient use of natural outside the mainstream, to support globally most competitive knowledge- resources, improved nutrient recycling organic, fair trade, and agroecological based economy by 2010’. In practice, techniques and agroecological methods systems, are identified … as meriting the term ‘competitive’ emphasised for enhancing diversity and the health of greatly increased public and private proprietary knowledge which could be soils, crops and livestock’.4,5 This vision investment’.7 Agroecological approaches inserted into global value chains. advocated horizontal integration between should be given priority: ‘Approaches The EC’s dominant agenda for a agriculture and energy production, that promise building blocks towards bioeconomy envisages that natural partly from waste materials, as a means low-input high-output systems, integrate resources provide renewable biomass to shorten agricultural cycles and as a historical knowledge and agroecological which can be converted into industrial substitute for external inputs: ‘Diversified principles that use nature’s capacity and products via a diversified biorefinery. land use can open up new possibilities for model nature’s system flows, should This approach horizontally integrates combining food production with biomass receive the highest priority for funding’.8 value chains across industrial sectors.2 production and on-farm production of The report linked agroecology with a It is a capital-intensive agenda that has renewable energy from livestock manure, sufficiency perspective, a counterpoint to been driven by European Technology small biotopes, perennial crops and semi- the dominant productivist agenda. Platforms, and which links multinational natural non-cultivated areas.’5 These expert reports gave greater companies, sectoral lobby organisations Indirect support for this agenda force to Technology Platform Organics’ and research institutes. came from changes in research policy. agenda and its specific proposals for The KBBE vision has shaped EC The EC’s Food, Agriculture, Fisheries research themes. Framework Programme research priorities since Framework and Biotechnology (FAFB) research 7 eventually gave greater prominence Programme 7 (between 2007 and 2013). programme hosted expert foresight to agroecological themes, though It was broadly defined as ‘the sustainable, studies exploring wider knowledges for ‘agroecology’ remains implicit; only eco-efficient transformation of renewable agricultural innovation. The exercises ‘organic’ relevance is explicit in the texts. biological resources into health, food, were commissioned by the EU’s Standing Drawing on proposals from TP Organics, energy and other industrial products’. Committee on Agricultural Research FP7 calls included the following Organic research organisations (SCAR), with support from some national production methods: ecological services seized the opportunity this afforded agencies promoting farmers’ knowledge based on eco-functional intensification, by forming a stakeholder network to of natural resources. According to the enhancing soil management and

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 11 recycling organic waste via mixed concept ‘ecological intensification’; it has 1 DG Research (2005) New Perspectives on the farming, replacing chemical or copper included greater funds for research themes Knowledge-Based Bio-Economy: conference report. pesticides with bio-control agents, relevant to agroecological practices. Brussels: DG Research, European Commission. 2 Becoteps (2011) Bioeconomy 2030: Towards a enhancing on-farm production of Alongside specific themes, TP European Bioeconomy that delivers Sustainable renewable energy, etc. – generally as Organics has also advocated multi- Growth by addressing the Grand Societal Challenges. substitutes for external inputs. stakeholder involvement in research: Brusssels: Bio-Economy Technology Platforms (Becoteps) [link] Some research topics have sought ‘Stakeholders along the whole food 3 IFOAM-EU Group (2006) Technology Platform to facilitate knowledge-bases necessary chain … [should be] … able to participate for Sustainable Organic and High Welfare Food for embedding agroecological in this development and civil society and Farming Systems, proposal to the European Commission for a Specific Support Action (SSA). methods within wider institutions, must be closely involved in technology International Federation of Organic Agriculture e.g. through community-supported development and innovation’.5 This Movements (IFOAM) agriculture, agricultural extension basic idea has been incorporated into 4 Niggli, U. et al. (2008) Vision for an Organic Food and Farming Research Agenda to 2025, Brussels: IFOAM- services, food retailers and territorial the EC’s research agenda as the ‘multi- EU Group [link; link] labels. Knowledge for and about closer actor approach’, whereby research 5 Schmid, O. et al. (2009) Strategic Research Agenda producer-consumer relations was proposals should demonstrate how for Organic Food and Farming, Brussels: IFOAM- EU Group [link] the focus of a new topic, ‘Short chain they will involve all relevant actors in 6 SCAR FEG (2007) Foresight Expert Group, FFRAF delivery of food for urban-peri-urban the research process. Farmers’ and civil report: Foresighting food, rural and agri-futures, areas’ (food localisation). Another topic society organisations (CSOs) have been Brussels: Standing Committee on Agricultural Research emphasises ‘sustainable solutions for eligible for funds in the EU’s research 7 SCAR FEG (2008) 2nd Foresight Exercise: New water management and nutrient recycling’ programmes since Horizon 2020. challenges for agricultural research: climate change, as a task for institutional interactions, A multi-actor approach likewise food security, rural development, agricultural knowledge systems. Brussels: Standing Committee on e.g. in ‘the relation between peri-urban informs the European Innovation Agricultural Research, Consultative Expert Group pressures and the participation of Partnership for Agricultural Productivity 8 SCAR FEG (2011) Sustainable Food Consumption farmers and other stakeholders in rural and Sustainability (EIP-Agri). Its agenda and Production in a Resource-Constrained World. Brussels: Standing Committee on Agricultural development measures’. encompasses all types of innovation, Research, Foresight Expert Group. https://ec.europa. Despite modest success in including capital-intensive Life Sciences eu/research/scar/pdf/scar_3rd-foresight_2011.pdf influencing the KBBE programme, the and farmers’ knowledge of natural 9 ARC2020, IFOAM EU, and TP Organics (2012) Agro-ecological Innovation Project: Progress and European Commission’s senior officials resources. It ‘pursues the “interactive Recommendations, Agricultural & Rural Convention continued to exclusively promote the innovation model” which focuses on 2020, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Life Sciences vision of a bioeconomy. forming partnerships: using bottom-up Movements (IFOAM), Technology Platform Organics [link] This dominated documents for a 2011 approaches and linking farmers, advisors, 10 EIP-A (2013) Strategic Implementation Plan: European public consultation which was meant to researchers, businesses, and other actors Innovation Partnership, Agricultural Productivity and inform future research priorities for a in Operational Groups that engage in Sustainability [link] 11 TP Organics (2017) Innovating for Organics: Organics 10 European bioeconomy. In responding practical projects’. Those Groups have in EIP-AGRI Operational Groups. Brussels: Technology to the public consultation, TP Organics facilitated farmers’ joint knowledge- Platform Organics. [link] criticised the Commission for favouring production with experts, including 12 Levidow, L. and Neubauer, C. (2012) Opening up societal futures through EU research and innovation ‘specific new technologies (such as agroecological methods, resulting partly agendas, EASST Review 31(3): 4-11 [link] genetic modification) and capital- from proposals from TP Organics (2017).11 13 Global Health Advocates (2017) For Peace, People intensive “innovation” at the expense of Beyond the agri-food sector, EU-wide and Planet: A Civil Society perspective on the next EU Research Framework Programme (FP9) [link] agriculture’. Its intervention proposed CSOs have attempted to broaden the 14 FoEE (2014) Agro-ecology: Building a new food system agroecological methods and agro-food EC’s research agenda to encompass for Europe [link] relocalisation for a different bioeconomy: diverse alternatives, especially in the run- government should value agricultural up to FP7.12 CSOs are currently attempting knowledges which have already to influence the post-2020 priorities.13 been developed over many decades, CSOs have also promoted agroecological especially in co-producing agriculture practices for transforming the European with public goods. agro-food system.14 Such initiatives offer In all those ways, the intervention an opportunity for UK groups to clarify strategy has sought an explicit place for and promote their own research priorities. an agroecological vision in EU policy documents and long-term resources Dr Les Levidow is Senior Research Fellow for stakeholder knowledge networks. at the Open University. Since the late Given the central role of ‘innovation’ in 1980s he has been researching agri-food EU policy, agroecology was promoted issues such as agbiotech, bioeconomy as an innovative practice integrating and and agroecology. He is a member of the enhancing farmers’ knowledge.9 The Advisory Board of Technology Platform successor to Framework Programme Organics. For his publications, see 7, Horizon 2020 (2014-20), featured the http://dpp.open.ac.uk/people/les-levidow

12 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda UK agricultural research: a different approach is urgently needed Helena Paul argues that the dominant assumptions in UK agricultural research need to be challenged, opening it up to a wide range of voices and disciplines.

Currently the power in UK agricultural The UK science establishment – include the Crop Improvement Research research lies firmly with the UK science a brief outline Club (CIRC), established in 2012. CIRC establishment and its seven research The government funds major parts of the members include Innovate UK, BASF, councils. 1 These will soon, along with UK science establishment, with a strong Syngenta and Monsanto.8 The Sustainable Innovate UK and Research England, emphasis on working with business. Of Agriculture Research & Innovation Club be consolidated into ‘UK Research and the seven UK Research Councils, the (SARIC) is a joint NERC and BBSRC Innovation’.2 They fund institutions such as most obviously involved in agricultural initiative.9 Members include Syngenta, Rothamsted Research and the Open Plant research are the Biotechnology and Monsanto and Bayer. Synthetic Biology Research Centre and Biological Sciences Research Council BBSRC also gives grants to more look to business for additional money. (BBSRC)3 and the Natural Environment than thirty UK Universities. OpenPlant The focus of UK agricultural research Research Council (NERC).4 These are Synthetic Biology Research Centre is a has barely shifted in twenty years and funded (a total of around £1 billion in joint initiative between the University of remains firmly fixed on growth and 2016) through the science budget of the Cambridge, John Innes Centre and the innovation, especially in genomics and government’s Department for Business, Earlham Institute, funded by the BBSRC industrial agriculture, mainly through large Energy and Industrial Strategy. and EPSRC as part of the UK Synthetic farms, corporate agribusiness and the In turn, BBSRC provides funding to Biology for Growth programme.10 industrial food sector. The UK also aims to seven institutes; the Earlham Institute, This brief look at the composition of export its industrial research platforms to John Innes, Institute of Biological, UK agricultural research suggests that other regions, especially Africa. Environmental and Rural Sciences (IBERS), the situation described by Genewatch Decisions on agricultural research Quadram Institute, Pirbright Institute, the back in 2010 has not really changed: are made by a small group whose Roslin Institute and Rothamsted Research. A small number of advisors, often composition and interests have also Together they make up the National with close links to a narrow range changed little in two decades. Scientists Institutes of Bioscience.5 of commercial interests, are highly and companies may lack sufficient Rothamsted Research, founded in influential in setting the research agenda detachment to assess their projects 1843, is one of the oldest agricultural for the biosciences. These people and dispassionately, yet there are few research stations in the world, funded by institutions reappear repeatedly on alternative viewpoints and little genuine the Lawes Agricultural Trust and BBSRC, multiple committees and task forces.11 debate. Instead, policy is narrowly with Syngenta, NERC and SARIC (see focused on science and technology for below) as ‘partners and funders’.6 The The first and second wave industrial production. It largely excludes Lawes and Rothamsted boards currently of GM crops advocates of different approaches include a number of advocates of the Genetic engineering has been offered to agriculture such as agroecology genetic engineering/synthetic biology for the past twenty years as a solution and organic; and ethical and societal approach to agriculture. to research questions that have also considerations. Beyond occasional public There are also six Research and changed very little. We are now seeing engagement exercises where alternative Technology Clubs that are “supported the promotion of genome editing and views and suggestions are marginalised, jointly by BBSRC, other funding bodies gene drives, as new plant breeding the public is also largely excluded. and consortia of companies”.7 They techniques (NPBT). Some claim that these

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 13 are more precise, cheaper, easier to use Similar claims and promises have Act, section 43(2): “…there is a public and can solve many problems – including been made regularly by the UK science interest in ensuring that the commercial those caused by the first wave of GM establishment for at least 20 years. interests of external businesses are not crops. Suggested applications include However, problems have arisen in damaged or undermined by disclosure rendering herbicide resistant weeds connection with all GM crops so far of information which is not common vulnerable to pesticides again. commercialised globally. GM drought, knowledge and which could adversely Many advocates insist that these salt and stress-tolerant crops, promised impact on future business of these new techniques do not constitute GM, for even longer, have not materialised. stakeholders.” and therefore do not need regulation. Despite this, interests associated In 2014, Rothamsted Research held Critics respond that the techniques may with GM crops and the so-called NPBTs16 four workshops with members of the produce many unintended mutations and related patents continue to have a public and stakeholders21 on how it at unexpected sites with unknown strong influence on the direction of UK should engage with industry. The report implications; and that they should not be research.17 Current Brexit plans to draw quotes an insightful comment from a applied and their products released into closer to the US science and corporate participant: “Rothamsted seem confused the environment without regulation or risk establishments, and to increase exports – is it for commercial interest or is it for assessment to at least the same level as of these techniques, particularly to Africa, public benefit?” It also includes some GM crops.12 could increase that influence.18 ideas from the public about how they could be more involved in decision- Another obsession: Neglected approaches to making – but with a telling final sentence: the focus on wheat agriculture “However, there was not sufficient time at There is an ongoing focus on increasing These assumptions are not likely to be the workshops to explore these ideas and wheat yields, e.g. the Wheat Genetic challenged, because the approach to the methods further with participants.” These Improvement Network (WGIN) (2003- topic lacks diversity. The UK agricultural examples show how far we are from a 18)13 and the BBSRC funded Designing establishment fails to look beyond a genuine, inclusive debate on the future of Future Wheat (DFW) programme technical approach with its constant agriculture in the UK. (2017-22)14 which involves Rothamsted emphasis on innovation19 and narrowly BBSRC highlights its public Research (RRES), the John Innes defined yields. It makes no real effort to engagement activities22 guided by the Centre (JIC) and Earlham Institute (EI), bridge the widening gap between its BioScience for Society Strategy Advisory with additional contributions from own increasingly technocratic approach Panel.23 In 2014 it held a six-hour dialogue the National Institute of Agricultural and broader agroecological perspectives with 19 selected members of the public Botany (NIAB) and several universities. such as organic agriculture, permaculture, on BBSRC’s emerging Food, Nutrition and A current project involves GM wheat biodynamic, that see agriculture as part of Health Strategic Framework.24 The report trials at Rothamsted, funded by an interactive set of biodiverse ecological reveals that the public had questions BBSRC. It is designed to increase the systems. The soil food web is critical to about how BBSRC governs its work with ‘efficiency of photosynthesis by genetic the quality, health and productivity of industry, challenges industry interests modification’15 rather than looking crops, along with pollinators, beneficial and maintains independence from at wheat cultivation in the context of predators and different crops and government. However, no discussion of food systems, biodiverse ecosystems, varieties. These are just a few elements these issues is recorded. altered cropping systems or agronomic of the dynamic biological diversity that research on a wider range of crops. underpins food production and should Conclusions be central to research efforts. To challenge the assumptions underlying Justifying their position current UK agricultural research, it needs The proponents of industrial agriculture Public consultations: perfunctory to be opened up to a much wider range repeat the mantra that population and lacking transparency of voices and disciplines, and information growth, climate change, biodiversity Major funding goes into marketing the should be more accessible, with BBSRC loss and changing food habits mean products of the industrial food system. strategy advisory panel papers openly we must increase production without But there is little real public debate available online. taking more land. We therefore need about agriculture in the UK, and some The science should be much broader ‘innovative’ approaches to ‘sustainable of what does exist is hard to access. In and embrace ecological systems intensification’, using all the latest 2012, for example, the government called approaches to the issues. There are clear techniques and technologies, often in for evidence on ‘Shaping a UK Strategy societal concerns about values, ethics, combination with each other, to increase for Agri-Tech’.20 The results were only corporate influence and the framing of yields. This may sound reasonable, but released in 2015 through a Freedom of the issues to be addressed. Practices such continuously seeking to modify plants Information request. The documents as organic, biodynamic, and agroecology rather than increasing resilience through remain redacted. The response to the must drive research. a systems approach to cropping systems request acknowledges a public interest Farmers, especially small farmers, and production is a dangerously narrow in knowing who said what, but notes produce high quality food for citizens and, perspective on the role of agriculture. that under the Freedom of Information through biodiverse ecological production

14 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda systems, provide additional public goods 1 www.rcuk.ac.uk 18 For example see this report [link] on the Bakubung such as clean water and healthy soils, 2 www.ukri.org workshop: Capacity building for the bioeconomy in adding to the resilience required for 3 www.bbsrc.ac.uk Africa, which focuses on synthetic biology for ‘low-cost, 4 www.nerc.ac.uk breakthrough technologies’ that do not need GM future food production. They should be 5 www.nib.ac.uk regulation central to discussions, not marginalised 6 Rothamsted Research Annual Review 2015 /2016 [link] 19 the word appears 27 times in the 28 pages of the or excluded from the debate about UK 7 www.bbsrc.ac.uk/innovation/sharing-challenges Rothamsted Research Strategic Report 2017 2022 8 www.bbsrc.ac.uk/innovation/sharing-challenges/circ 20 UK Government consultation outcome (2012) Shaping agriculture and its importance to society. 9 www.nerc.ac.uk/innovation/activities/sustainablefood/ a UK agri-tech strategy: call for evidence [link] Genuine public consultation should saric 21 Rothamsted Research (2014) Guiding principles be an evolving, ongoing and integral 10 www.openplant.org for working with industry. Public dialogue on how 11 Helen Wallace (2010) Bioscience for Life? Who decides Rothamsted Research should engage with industry process, and corporate power in the food what research is done in health and agriculture? [link] [link] see pages 93-6 system must be challenged. All this is vital, 12 See the European Network of Scientists for Social and 22 www.bbsrc.ac.uk/engagement or UK agricultural research will continue to Environmental Responsibility statement: [link] 23 www.bbsrc.ac.uk/about/governance-structure/panels/ 13 www.rothamsted.ac.uk/projects/wheat-genetic- society be dominated by a few narrow interests. improvement-network 24 www.bbsrc.ac.uk/engagement/dialogue/activities/ The importance of agriculture goes way 14 www.jic.ac.uk/research/designing-future-wheat/ food-nutrition-health beyond narrow issues of yields, or even 15 https://www.rothamsted.ac.uk/projects/wheat- 25 More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total genetic-improvement-network flying insect biomass in protected areas: Hallmann production, and there are many key issues 16 Also called new genetic engineering techniques C.A., Sorg M., Jongejans E., Siepel H., Hofland N., to research, from the way we use our (NGETs) Schwan H., Stenmans W., Müller A., Sumser H., land to the nature of our food systems, 17 e.g.: the Agricultural Biotechnology Council [link], Hörren T., Goulson D., de Kroon H. (2017) More than consisting of BASF, Bayer, Dow AgroSciences, 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect especially in the context of climate change Monsanto, Pioneer (DuPont) and Syngenta biomass in protected areas PLOS ONE [link] and biodiversity loss.25 ,26 26 M.J. Ascott, D.C. Gooddy, L. Wang, M.E. Stuart, M.A. Lewis, R.S. Ward & A.M. Binley (2017) Global patterns of nitrate storage in the vadose zone Nature Helena Paul is co-director of EcoNexus Communications 8:1416 [link] and has worked on land rights, agriculture, climate change, biodiversity, genetic engineering, synthetic biology, geoengineering and corporate power. www.econexus.info

Research strategy for food and farming

Steve Tones, AHDB Horticulture’s Strategy Director

The food and farming industry is plates. ADHB’s Feeding the future1 and with the strategic outcomes, but large, complicated and fragmented. It (2013) and Inspiring success2 (2017), in the synergies that can be created by consists of tens of thousands of farmers both recognise the need to re-focus bringing together organisations and and growers who produce our crops agri-food research and associated people with the same purpose. and livestock. There are also many knowledge exchange on industry The proof of the pudding will be in consultants, distributors, engineers, innovation. Ultimately, such focus the eating. Decades of fragmentation government departments and agencies, will drive up productivity, increase may take more than a few years to levy bodies, lobbyists, manufacturers, competitiveness, build resilience and overcome. But a worthy start has been marketing organisations, processors, restore the UK to its former position as a made and a clear common goal agreed, researchers, retailers and suppliers who global leader in agri-technology. which can now be carried forward into help put the safe and nutritious food we The big challenge lies in setting out the government’s Industrial Strategy. enjoy on our tables. how this might be achieved by the many The structural and technological providers of research and knowledge complexity of the industry requires exchange involved. The key is in the an overarching government research way the various private and public 1 Chris Pollock et al. (2013) Feeding the Future – Innovation Requirements for Primary Food strategy to deliver a secure future for funding streams available are directed Production in the UK to 2030 [link] the sector, and for the food on our and aligned; not just with each other 2 AHDB (2016) AHDB Strategy 2017 - 2020 [link]

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 15 What good food research could do Professor Tim Lang considers why history matters for UK food-related research and argues for more ‘good food research’ that is independent, public and interdisciplinary.

The UK has a long and rich tradition Times and The Lancet, with Wakley costs from ever cheaper food. Yet the of outstanding food-related research. trumpeting in the Commons. This was food system nevertheless is locked into a Almost as soon as industrialisation began an early example of brilliant UK food self-defeating illogicality, with researchers at the cusp of the 18th and 19 th centuries, campaigning with a small number of compromised too often. people began to see the chance to apply people wearing multiple hats! They We should not be surprised. Research its fruits to farming and food. This took at were effective in winning legal change does not operate in a vacuum. It is framed least two research directions. One was to but, arguably, the right of the British by intentions, both tacit and overt. That’s use chemistry to unpick what made things people to have decent, safe good quality why there are such ethical issues over grow. Another was to use it off the land to food wasn’t finally settled until various research funding and over working ‘industrialise’ food. One focussed on life amendments to the 1865 Act were with industry. Over the last 40 years, itself and the other on labour. strengthened decades later.5 But the much food research has been heavily One of the first food transnationals battle over food quality and the role of incorporated into tweaking rather than to incorporate research was the Anglo- research had begun in earnest. reviewing food system performance. But German-Uruguayan-Argentine meat the tensions are becoming clearer. And extract behemoth which produced Bovril food companies are acutely aware they and later Oxo, applying the science “In the UK, our food face disaster for instance if they fail to rein pioneered by Justus von Liebig at research agenda is back their impact on climate change. No Giessen.1 As food chains became longer, wonder, older more critical traditions of the opportunities for fraud emerged, currently paralysed by science and research have re-emerged, applying both crude and sometimes the enormity of Brexit” questioning what is meant by a ‘good sophisticated science. This distortion of food’ system. So often they emerge within research is beautifully summarised in the civil society, rather than academic science. classic account by Ingeborg Paulus in Why does this history matter? Because But, remembering Wakley, Hassall and 1973,2 and again more recently and very here we are in the early 21st century, with The Lancet, it was ever thus. readably by Bee Wilson3. ample evidence that the food system What do we need ahead? More A long fight ensued throughout the has serious flaws again and the role of public and independent research. And 19 th century to clean up British food. research is implicated. So much R&D more interdisciplinary pursuit of ‘big Although an early chemist (Frederick works for the food system rather than picture solutions’. Why? Because the Accum) first exposed adulteration in unpicking its impact. Some consequences data show conclusively that dietary 1820,4 it was not until The Lancet’s are intended by researcher – such as the change is now the biggest source of founding editor, Thomas Wakley MP, systematic mining of the environment premature death and (perhaps more created an arms-length Lancet Analytic or deliberate ‘ultra-processing’ of mass ominously) healthcare costs.6 7 The data and Sanitary Commission run by Arthur foods – and some are unintended. I also make clear that the food system Hill Hassall, that the clean-up really don’t think anyone sets out deliberately needs to change pretty dramatically began. The grand-sounding Commission to spread childhood obesity or to break from its current intensification and over- (actually tiny!) gave its exposés to The the NHS by externalising vast healthcare production (particularly of animals), and

16 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 8 that the ecosystems on which Darwinian enormity of Brexit. Yet this is precisely the 1 Lewowicz, L., LEMCO (2016) Un coloso de la industria ecological diversity depends are being moment where we should stop and ask carnica en Fray Bentos, Uruguay [The Meat Industry’s most actively destroyed by what ought to fundamental questions about what sort of colossus in Fray Bentos]. Montevideo Uruguay: INAC. 2 Paulus, I. (1974) The search for pure food. Oxford: be a means of subsistence – food. food research is most needed to put the Martin Robertson No discipline or perspective has UK (and other rich nations) onto a more 3 Wilson, B., Swindled: From Poison Sweets to the answer to this systemic challenge. sustainable track, and to shift food culture Counterfeit Coffee (2008) The Dark History of the Food Cheats. London: John Murray. It requires more collaborative, less amongst the general public more rapidly 4 Accum, F. (1820) A treatise on adulterations of food and self-serving research. Universities have than has ever happened other than in culinary poisons. London: Longman not helped with their football league wartime. This requires interdisciplinary 5 Lang, T. (2016) Food, the law and public health: Three models of the relationship. Public Health, 120 approach to the Research Excellence research, and more social science, not (October): p. 30-41 Framework (‘REF’). just the Life Sciences’ pursuit of ever more 6 Global Burden of Disease study 2010, Global Burden I’m not all gloomy, however. Some microscopic dynamics, fascinating though of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 2013. 380 (9859): p.861-2066. http://www.thelancet.com/themed/ great research comes out, clearly in and those may be. globalburden-of-disease for the public interest, while ticking the Helping deliver sustainable diets from 7 WHO (2015) WHO estimates of the global burden of REF boxes. The policy pick-up, however, sustainable food systems surely ought to foodborne diseases: Foodborne diseases burden epidemiology reference group 2007-2015. Geneva. p. is weak. There’s a failure of politics at be the framework for all food research. 225. present with regard to food. Vast data and 8 Lang, T., E.P. Millstone, and T. Marsden (2017) Food and studies point to the need to restructure Tim Lang is Professor of Food Policy, Brexit. University of Sussex Science Policy Research Unit: Brighton. https://tinyurl.com/y9lp63dq the food system, but too little happens. Centre for Food Policy, Dept Sociology, Here in the UK, our food research School of Arts & Social Sciences, City, agenda is currently paralysed by the University of London.

How to unlock the contribution of agroecology in farming?

Susanne Padel and Nic Lampkin, Organic Research Centre

Food and farming research can farms (e.g. investment in soil fertility). 1 APPG on Agroecology (2014) Agroecology. What it deliver public good by focusing on Farmers need accepted definitions, is and why we need it [link] agroecology1,2 But how can farmers measurements and indicators of the 2 Lampkin NH, Pearce BD, Leake AR, Creissen H, Gerrard CL, Girling R, Lloyd S, Padel S, Smith J, 4,5 make use of agroecology in practice state of resources and sustainability so Smith LG, Vieweger A, Wolfe MS (2015) The role of and what can research can do to they can benchmark their activities. agroecology in sustainable intensification. A Report support them? Research must be clearer on the for the Land Use Policy Group Organic Research Centre, Elm Farm and Game & Wildlife Conservation Two studies we undertook for the evidence for practices that farmers can Trust. Newbury and Fordingbride. [link] Land Use Policy Group provide insights. implement. It must provide reliable 3 Padel S, Rubinstein O, Woolford A, Egan J, Leake A, The first2 demonstrated clear potential indicators for monitoring that consider Levidow L, Pearce B, Lampkin N (2018) Transitions to Agroecological Systems: Farmers’ Viewpoints. contribution and called for better resource use and long-term financial Organic Research Centre and Game and Wildlife information and knowledge exchange implications and risks. Our Agricology Conservation Trust. Newbury and Fordingbridge. systems on agroecological practices, project tries to address the need. 4 Buckwell A, Nordang Uhre A, Williams A, Polakova J, Blum WEH, Schiefer J, Lair G, Heissenhuber A, building on tacit farmer knowledge and It is a collaboration between many Schiebl P, Kramer C, Haber W (2014) The sustainable active farmer participation, alongside organisations to provide information intensification of European agriculture. RISE. an agroecological focus in training, on Practical, Sustainable Farming 5 Hill S (2014) Chapter 22: Considerations for Enabling the Ecological Redesign of Organic and education, research and innovation. Regardless of Labels. Conventional Agriculture: A Social Ecology and The second3 concluded that farmers Psychosocial Perspective. In: Bellon, S. and Penvern, want clarity on long-term indicators that S. eds. Organic Farming, Prototype for Sustainable Agricultures. Dordrecht: pp. 401. consider the finances and resource use to help them future-proof their

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 17 Agriculture research in India: what is and what should be Agriculture research in India is still dominated by the Green Revolution’s philosophy and goals, argues Suman Sahai. Increasing production of the major staple crops continues to claim centre stage and the bulk of the agriculture research budget.

The annual budget of the Indian Council undergone dramatic changes on the of Science and Technology, a number of Agricultural Research (ICAR), India’s ground, like the widespread feminisation of public sector research institutes, 51 leading agency for agricultural research of agriculture. Faced with declining universities, 118 research institutions and is not insubstantial: for the year 2014- returns from farming, men migrate to 64 agri- based industries were engaged in 15 it was Rs 61.45 billion.1 Of this, the cities for better opportunities. Yet this research on more than twenty GM crops.3 bulk (about 20%) was devoted to crop enormous shift finds no resonance in Transparency in research, especially sciences, 11% to animal science and setting research priorities even though it’s on GMOs, is a serious challenge as both eight percent to horticulture. Strategic recognised that women farm differently. public and private sector institutions and frontier application research on the Then there is the withdrawal of the are reluctant to provide information. other hand, got less than two percent. agriculture extension service that linked In 2006 Gene Campaign requested This reflects a lack of focus on research farmers to scientists, which means there the biosafety data generated on Bt to prepare for the current and future is now no communication between the brinjal, under the Right to Information challenges facing farming and farmers. two. Previously, the extension service Act.4 The Government refused, saying This is surprising given that India is would pick up problems in the field, such the data was ‘Confidential Business already confronting climate change in as when a successful variety was failing or Information’. Gene Campaign had to seek real time and feeling its brunt every year a new pest had appeared. This feedback the intervention of the Supreme Court, in unseasonal rains, deficient monsoons informed research which then sought a arguing that information with a bearing and unpredictable droughts and floods, solution. This is no longer the case. on public health could not be considered leading to shortfalls in total food output. The adoption of Genetically Modified ‘confidential’. The Court then instructed Although natural resource management (GM) technology is a good example the Government to make such data (e.g. for soil and water) got approximately of how research agendas are moving available in the public domain. 12% of the budget in 2014-15, the further away from farm needs. Critics Defining research programmes for approaches are conventional, for have often said that GM crops were a coping with climate change demonstrates instance using chemical fertilisers to “solution looking for a problem”. Farmers yet again that the research establishment ‘improve’ soil health. were never consulted about the need for works on its own, without consulting The real problem however is the GM crops, nor were the pros and cons stakeholders. The National Mission for traditional patriarchal approach to discussed with them. Some fifteen years Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) is one of determining what’s good for agriculture after Bt cotton was adopted, farmers are eight Missions set up by the Government’s and farmers. Decision-making is top still not fully aware of what this technology National Action Plan on Climate Change down, with almost no consultation with really does. The mandatory insect refuges (NAPCC) in 2008.5 NMSA’s Research and farmers and other stakeholders on their are still not being planted and the number Action Plan provides no information on needs, the problems they need solved or of pesticide sprays have not always come the methodology adopted for identifying their options for diversification. Formulae down. As for the research itself, regulatory the priority areas for research, nor does are worked up in scientific institutions to violations are commonplace.2 it mention the persons involved in solve this or the other problem or achieve Although exact figures are not developing the agenda. The document this or the other goal. Underlying all available for the money channelled to reiterates positions taken decades ago. this planning is the sole commitment to GM research, there are indications that it For instance, on rainfed farming, the increasing production. takes a substantial amount of the research NMSA’s sole approach is watershed On the other hand, farming has funds. According to the Department development, a position that the

18 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Government took about 70 years ago Management and Extension must be set equipment and instruments for use when it adopted the National Watershed up in each of the 128 agro-ecological by women, given the widespread Development Programme for Rainfed zones. The Centre should prepare feminisation of agriculture. Most farm Areas (NWDPRA).6 computer simulation models of weather equipment is designed for men, which The NMSA looks to biotechnology to probabilities and develop farming physically smaller women find hard to use. address the multiple problems of climate system approaches to minimise the Move away from exclusive subsidies change, even though India’s sole GM crop adverse impact of unfavourable weather to chemical fertilisers. Create financial is Bt cotton and its research is restricted and maximise the benefits of a good structures to subsidise farmer initiatives to insect resistance via the Bt route, monsoon. Field research stations must that improve soil health using different and to herbicide tolerance. Curiously, house dynamic research and training composts and organic matter. genetic diversity, widely recognised to programmes on building soil health, Develop early warning systems for be an effective tool in global efforts to pest management, water conservation timely detection of new pests, which counter climate change7, receives scant and the equitable and efficient use of climate change is bringing in to new attention. Yet India is a powerhouse natural resources. areas. Data on pest types should be of agrobiodiversity and could provide Genetic evaluation of traditional compiled and shared with farmers, along real solutions to coping with drought, varieties and animal breeds must be with training on the best approach to submergence, salinity, temperature rise undertaken to identify valuable traits for control specific pests. An Integrated Pest and new pest profiles. future breeding, including tolerance to Management programme incorporating Stakeholder inputs can bring new higher temperatures, drought and salinity; traditional community knowledge of ideas, new approaches and out of the as well as feed conversion efficiency and pest detection and control should be box thinking informed by practical field disease resistance in animals. developed. experience. But the Indian research Participatory and formal plant Focus research on developing true establishment continues to turn its back breeding must be promoted to breeding seeds rather than hybrids. on this advantage. Likewise, it fails to take develop climate resilient crops that Private seed companies and public- seriously or build on agriculture-related are temperature, drought and salinity private research collaborations tend research conducted informally by farmers tolerant. to develop hybrids which serve as an and civil society groups. In crops, genotypes with a higher per- intellectual property instrument without Stakeholders continue to use day-yield potential must be selected, to necessarily benefitting the farmer. diverse platforms to speak up about counter the yield loss from heat induced There was consensus that an effective what they would like agricultural reduction over the growing period. extension system must be restored, research to address. Below are the Developing balanced ration, feed including both education and responsive recommendations that emerged from and fodder regimes are required that will research to fix field problems. two national consultations organised increase milk yield of indigenous cattle by Gene Campaign on identifying and reduce methane emissions. Dr Suman Sahai is trained in genetics. current research needs and improving In another national consultation to She is founder chairperson of the Gene farming. In a 2010 national conference on celebrate its 20th anniversary in 2013, Campaign (www.genecampaign. ‘Ensuring Food Security in a Changing Gene Campaign brought together org), an India based NGO which works Climate’8, priority areas for climate scientists, civil society groups, farmers, on agriculture, food, nutrition and adaptation research emerged from policy makers and media professionals livelihoods. Twitter: @sumansahai consultations with a range of experts and to discuss what was needed to make practitioners from 22 States. farming profitable and farmers 1 ICAR Budget Book 2016-17 [link] prosperous. These deliberations yielded 2 Sahai S. (2009) Mahyco’s GM rice contaminates natural Specific recommendations a wealth of suggestions9, some of which rice in Jharkhand. Press release [link] A knowledge-intensive, not input- are flagged below: 3 Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. List of Indian Institutions with Research Areas. intensive approach should be adopted Farming’s goal cannot now be the Accessed 01/10/2017 [link] to develop sustainable farming systems. maximisation of yield (as in the Green 4 Gene Campaign. Using The RTI Act [link] Accessed Traditional knowledge about farming Revolution model of high yield at all cost). 27/11/2017 5 Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, and coping with adverse weather Minimising risk is crucial in today’s era of Government of India. National Action Plan on Climate should be incorporated into research climate turbulence. Minimising damage to Change [link] Accessed 01/10/2017 programmes to address the uncertainties the natural resource base is key. 6 Watershed development programme in India [link] Accessed 02/10/2017 of climate change, build resilience and Map local resources and crop and 7 CGIAR. Preserving genetic diversity: a climate change reduce emissions. animal genetic diversity; develop local solution. https://ccafs.cgiar.org/blog/preserving- A special research focus is needed resource based farming systems. genetic-diversity-climate-change-solution#. Wkt0M1SFiCQ. Accessed 02/10/2017 for rain fed areas and a diversified model Develop region specific sustainable 8 Gene Campaign (2010) National Conference on including crops, livestock, fisheries, farming systems to exploit the genetic Ensuring Food Security in a Changing Climate, 23- 24 poultry and agro forestry should be potential of existing varieties rather than April, 2010 New Delhi [link] 9 Gene Campaign (2013) Report of the Expert developed to minimise risk. breed new ones. Brainstorming session on Profitable Farming and A Centre for Climate Risk Research, Develop gender appropriate farm Prosperous Farmers [link]

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 19 Inclusive alternatives

20 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Democratising food and agricultural research Nothing less than a paradigm revolution is needed to democratise food and agricultural research for the common good and the wellbeing of the planet, argues Michel Pimbert.

Expanding grassroots innovation Box 1: Examples of self-managed research and grassroots innovation and self-managed research networks constructing knowledge for food, agriculture and well being Historically, knowledge about food and farming has been produced by people The Campesino a Campesino (CAC) movements in Central America and Cuba without any professional university Campesino a Campesino (Farmer to Farmer) is a grassroots movement that training. Well before scientific institutions originated in the early 1970s in Guatemala and spread through Mexico, Nicaragua and agricultural research stations and Cuba. Using their own farms as classrooms, the peasant farmers rely on existed, farmers and livestock keepers principles of popular education and peer-to-peer learning to build local capacity, generated a huge diversity of locally autonomy, and empowerment. The CAC process has generated effective site- adapted crop varieties and livestock specific agroecological solutions and empowering forms of non-hierarchical breeds by working with nature. Even communication for social change throughout Central America and the Caribbean. today, farmers and ordinary citizens are engaged in the production of knowledge The Peasant Seeds Network in France on a significant scale outside universities In 2003, the Reseau Semences Paysannes was created in France by the and research institutes. Confederation Paysanne, the National Coordination of Defenders of Farm Seeds, Self-organising grassroots and several organic farmers’ associations. The Reseau Semences Paysannes research and innovation plays an comprises over 70 member organisations. Members of the network engage increasingly important role in larger in participatory and evolutionary plant breeding and they facilitate grassroots social movements working for food research and innovations in agroecology. sovereignty, agroecology and biocultural URGENCI and community supported agriculture diversity. Farmers, indigenous peoples, URGENCI, the international network for Community Supported Agriculture pastoralists and other citizens engaged (CSA), emphasises the need to consider citizen-consumers as key subjects in in grassroots research and innovation peer-to-peer learning on agroecology and food sovereignty. Popular education rarely work alone. They are usually about the realities of farming and the entire food system is at the heart of the members of a collective of peers, an CSA movement and its knowledge creation processes. affinity group, or an association. Self-organised peasant-led research L’Atelier Paysan in France and Farm Hack in the USA and innovation processes are typically These communities of farmers and mechanics use internet platforms to share part of horizontal socio-cultural networks knowledge about farm tools and machinery they design and build on their that usually span large geographical farms or in community workshops. These grassroots communities of innovators areas (Box 1). and self-managed research develop and share open-source tools for resilient These decentralised and distributed agriculture. They also assemble offline in face-to-face meetings, workshops, and forms of people-led research and hands-on build events. Lastly, these grassroots networks are inclusive of different innovation sharply contrast with the types of knowledge holders and comprise not only farmers but also people with a organisation and practice of mainstream common interest: engineers, designers, architects, tinkerers, and programmers. science and technological research and

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 21 development (R&D). They work from the bottom up and tend to be organised on the basis of a more horizontal and egalitarian logic. They often rely on forms of critical education to build the capabilities and confidence of wo/men participants in grassroots networks. Farmers and other citizens are part of non-hierarchical ‘peer-to-peer’ collectives which typically seek to go beyond the concepts, categories, criteria and epistemology of dominant knowledge in the sciences and humanities. Focussed on problem- solving, the knowledge and innovations they develop can either be conceptual, methodological, technical and/or institutional. Some horizontal networks for The Raita Teerpu: a citizens’ jury on the priorities of agricultural research, autonomous knowledge-creation State of Karnataka, India. (Photo: Pastapur Yesu) distance themselves from the state and rely on self-mobilisation and self- financing. But most peoples’ networks countervailing power. Reversals from of knowing and focus on priorities promoting the democratisation of normal practices ensure that peasants – decided by citizens through inclusive food and agricultural research often rather than scientists alone – determine processes of direct democracy. Some consciously adopt a dual power research priorities and oversee a of the transformations required in the approach to transform existing power-equalising process of knowledge governance, culture, organisation and knowledge, policies and practices. creation in farmers’ fields and the entire professional practice of public research For example, farmers, pastoralists R&D cycle. are briefly highlighted below. and indigenous peoples engage with Deepening democracy and scientists in participatory research on social inclusion in the construction of Putting citizens at the heart of the basis of clearly negotiated roles, knowledge for food and agriculture decision making in research rights and responsibilities, while also depends on further strengthening Existing governance and funding bodies maintaining a decentralised network of grassroots research and innovation for R&D can be reformed and opened up safe spaces for more autonomous and networks. This can be done by to wider citizen participation by including plural ways of knowing (for example, supporting several mutually reinforcing more gender-balanced representation experiential, local, tacit, feminine, transformative processes including: of peasant farmers, indigenous peoples, phenomenological). education for critical consciousness and pastoralists, fisherfolk, farm workers, place-based learning; horizontal peer artisanal food processors, and citizen- to peer learning for the production of consumers. However, this more equitable “Nothing less than a collective knowledge; building extended representation of citizens in structures paradigm revolution is peer communities to validate and protect that govern research (e.g. boards, funding collective knowledge; and strengthening bodies, expert committees) must be needed to democratise local organisations to scale out complemented by more transformative food and agricultural grassroots research and innovation to and direct forms of democracy that create more people and places. space for the voice and agency of hitherto research for the common excluded people. good and the wellbeing Democratising and transforming In practice, a range of public research methodological approaches and of the planet.” Many farmers and people ‘out there’ processes can be used to facilitate recognise the liberating potential direct participation of farmers and This dual approach reflects of modern science and technology. citizen-consumers in different stages an awareness of the partial and A simplistic rejection of all research of the R&D cycle. Several institutional incomplete nature of all knowledge and science will not do. Instead, the and methodological innovations can be systems. Self-managed research and challenge is how to transform existing used to enable the direct participation grassroots innovation networks also research systems (e.g. universities of farmers and citizens in the upstream help democratise the politics and and research centres) so that they definition of research priorities; the production of knowledge by exerting can embrace more inclusive ways framing of national policies for scientific

22 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda research and development; decisions inquiry calls for power reversals and and strengthening monitoring and on research funding and budget new roles for research, donors and enforcement. Significantly increased allocations and in risk and sustainability development professionals. In essence, government funding for public research assessments. Examples of these people – their knowledge, and the is also necessary to reverse the methods for deliberative and inclusive diverse environments that sustain privatisation and corporate capture of processes (DIPs) include citizens’ juries them – become central, instead of higher education and research. and scenario workshops that link hitherto university research centres, government excluded voices in policymaking and departments, scientific peer groups Reclaiming universities agenda setting. and the narrow ‘research excellence’ as a commons for metrics used to evaluate academic knowledge democracy Embracing transdisciplinarity papers and their impacts. A significant Ensuring that the cultural, intellectual and methodological pluralism shift to a new professionalism and and other resources of universities are in research participatory praxis for transdisciplinarity accessible to all members of society – Transdisciplinary ways of knowing also requires profound transformations and are held in common, rather than emphasise the importance of in the governance, culture, operational privately controlled or owned – is key methodological pluralism to integrate procedures, staff training, and reward for an inclusive knowledge democracy. different traditions of knowledge and structures of research organisations and Inspiring stories of peoples’ struggles multiple sources of evidence. Novel funding agencies. to regain control over the commons and methodological mixes are needed the production of knowledge can offer to dismantle boundaries between Protecting public research from new models for the governance, re- disciplines, disrupt knowledge privatisation and corporate control structuring, organisation, and practices hierarchies, foster respectful The casualisation of the academic of agricultural research. intercultural dialogues between the workforce is increasingly widespread Power-equalising processes are knowledge systems of scientists and and seriously undermines the quality central in the two complementary farmers, and co-produce knowledge of university education and research. pathways described here for with different social actors. Moreover, After spending years earning their democratising food and agricultural this co-creation of knowledge by doctorates more than half (53%) of the research. These transformative scientists and peasant farmers should academics teaching or doing research processes include respecting and increasingly be part of a participatory in British universities have to manage on valuing all knowledge systems process driven by a transformative logic some form of insecure, non-permanent (cognitive justice), reversals from of changing society – rather than just contract. Lack of job security militates normal professional practice, interpreting it. against the changes in attitudes and deep organisational change, the Transdisciplinary co-inquiry is a behaviours needed for transdisciplinary strengthening of horizontal networks challenge for university departments co-inquiry. It promotes conformity to of local organisations, as well as that have historically been engaged established research traditions and institutional and methodological in relatively specialised education and their cognitive routines. Similarly, it innovations that can enable citizens’ research. Building internal capacity to is difficult to see how universities can direct democratic control over research ‘walk the talk’ of transdisciplinarity first re-invent and transform themselves for priorities and its governance. requires recruiting more staff familiar participatory and transdisciplinary ways Deeper-seated political and with its theory and practice. Second, the of knowing when so many academic economic changes are also necessary uptake and spread of transdisciplinarity staff experience job insecurity, stress, throughout society, including policies in universities and research centres low morale, lack of recognition, and low that can reverse the ongoing economic also requires a large-scale effort to pay. As both the products and victims genocide of farmers as well as provide the re-orient, re-skill, and train currently of the capitalist division of labour, ‘free time’ and ‘material security’ which employed researchers and teaching academic workers will probably need food producers and other citizens need to staff. Much of this educational effort to engage in joint action with citizens fully engage in participatory democracy in universities and research institutes and social movements to reverse these and the construction of knowledge. should focus on working with peoples’ debilitating trends. This paper is a summary of the last knowledge and reversing enduring Insulating research from corporate book chapter in Pimbert, M.P (2017) Food systemic biases against the knowledge abuse and capture is also a top priority. Sovereignty, Agroecology and Biocultural of women, indigenous peoples, under- The Union of Concerned Scientists Diversity. Constructing and Contesting represented ethnic groups, and other in the USA has identified key areas Knowledge. Routledge, London. disadvantaged groups. where governments can act more to protect science against undue Michel P. Pimbert is Professor of Professional reversals and corporate influence and corruption, Agroecology and Food Politics and organisational transformation including protecting scientists from Director of the Centre for Agroecology, Given its emphasis on peoples’ censorship, retaliation and intimidation; Water and Resilience at Coventry knowledge, transdisciplinary co- reforming the regulatory process; University, UK.

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 23 Learning from farmer-led research Tom MacMillan wants to see more agricultural research led by farmers. Why isn’t it the norm, and what can be done to redress the balance?

Farmers are in high demand. They are designed with them in mind. working with very poor smallholders the subjects of farm business surveys, Even by the least imaginative who could not afford inputs such as and host variety and product trials, as measures, policies to drive agricultural pesticides. They helped farmer groups well as being customers or end-users innovation are struggling. Yields of some to identify pests and predators, study of countless research results. Yet it is key crops like wheat have plateaued their lifecycles, and develop practical unusual for farmers to be in the driving despite being a key focus for public and strategies to manage the pests’ natural seat, setting the questions and getting private investment.1 The fact that yields in enemies. This was innovative integrated centrally involved in research design trials have continued to rise suggests the pest management, and hands-on, basic and analysis. Farmer-led research of this research is irrelevant to what farmers are research, born out of necessity. sort is the exception, but it has huge doing on the ground. Although a 2014 meta-analysis of untapped potential. Third, there’s more to farming than 71 FFS evaluations found that farmers’ yield, and innovation is not one line along experiences varied widely, in targeted Why farmer-led? which we just travel slower or faster. initiatives participants gained knowledge, Why have farmers at the centre? First, for Having farmers at the centre changes changed practices and consequently accountability. Much public research is the aims and focus of research. Much netted higher yields and incomes.3 done in the name of farmers, with grant applied agricultural research investment A growing number of UK initiatives applications setting out the potential – public as well as private – is premised on support participatory and peer-to-peer business benefits, without so much as the hope of a commercial return to the approaches to farmer learning. However, asking a farmer what they think. There is investor. So, a lot goes into things farmers their focus has generally been on the a growing focus on funding projects with will ultimately buy, such as new breeds exchange of existing knowledge and best ‘impact’ and including partners outside and varieties, medicines, pesticides, practice (e.g. through benchmarking) research institutions, but the scrutiny of fertilisers, machinery and software. rather than deliberately supporting claims that projects will have an impact By contrast, all else being equal, the experimentation or helping farmers is relatively weak and those partners are ideal solutions for farmers are free of develop novel approaches. rarely farmers. charge, available year after year, and Some UK initiatives have directly Second, to boost innovation. Practical adaptable. The public return on these supported farmer R&D and innovation, innovation by farmers has been central to kinds of R&D investment is indirect, including: ‘stable schools’ that helped the development of modern agriculture through the agricultural economy and peer groups of dairy farmers to reduce and continues to play a vital role in ecosystem services. But it is potentially antibiotic use; projects by producer the development of key practices and more valuable and more sustainable than organisations, especially in horticulture; systems such as minimum tillage. Some investing in new stuff to sell to farmers. and sector-specific innovation networks farmers do their own R&D – reviewing run by institutes or advisory businesses, the literature, trialling new approaches, International and UK experience such as NIAB-TAG and Kingshay. They piloting – if usually without the level The recognition that farmers are have generally been sector- or topic- of rigour and resources that scientists innovators has informed a number of specific and, in some cases, the results can bring to bear. Social scientists and approaches to supporting agricultural are restricted to the farmers and policy makers have developed ‘systems’ innovation in international development. growers involved. models of innovation that recognise One of the best-known methods is the A new wave of initiatives is expanding the process is non-linear, disruptive and Farmer Field School (FFS). More than 10 the scope and scale of farmer-led path-dependent, rather than a straight million farmers have taken part in FFSs research in the UK. The most extensive line from ‘Eureka’ to the field. Research across Asia, Africa and Latin America.2 is the Innovative Farmers network that funding has yet to catch up, with most The UN Food and Agricultural we coordinate at the Soil Association. farmers feeling remote from the ‘applied’ Organisation set up the first FFS in Others include Rothamsted’s FarmInn research projects that are supposedly 1989, in Indonesia. Extension staff were programme, the network of ‘satellite

24 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda farms’ being developed by the changing farming practices. The depend primarily on their publication Agricultural Engineering Precision latest independent evaluation by the record for career advancement, Innovation (Agri-EPI) Centre, and the Countryside & Communities Research notwithstanding the growing attention European Innovation Partnership Institute found that nine out of 10 farmers to ‘research impact’. Measures that for Agricultural Productivity and involved would recommend it to others could help recognise, celebrate and Sustainability (EIP-Agri). and half had made or planned changes reward scientists who support farmers to their farming system. effectively include: an awards scheme Emerging evidence from The findings are shared through a web with prize funding for researchers UK initiatives portal (www.innovativefarmers.org), farm working on farmer-led projects (similar The EIP-Agri deliberately supports walks, webinars and conferences. The to wider innovation awards run by the innovation by farmers, providing a network also reaches wider through the research councils); training to help mechanism for governments to fund farming press, a key source of technical researchers work effectively with farmer ‘operational groups’ through the Rural and business information for farmers groups; and involving farmers and other Development Programme. throughout the industry. Innovative practitioners more in reviewing research Defra and the Scottish and Welsh Farmers’ reach last year of 1.9 million grant applications. governments opted to implement the meant that, on average, every UK farmer EIP-Agri. The initiative has experienced would have heard about the field labs Investing in innovation support services. teething problems across the EU, about half a dozen times. Experience shows that farmer-led including bureaucratic application innovation projects benefit from processes, confusing eligibility conditions, Development opportunities professional support. This can include: requiring one party in a group to carry As the UK prepares to leave the EU, facilitation and project management; the financial risk and expecting groups farming is set to enter a period of research advice to design and analyse to front costs, all of which have hindered transformation driven by changes in trade, trials or other types of research; and progress. An EU-wide evaluation of markets, labour and support payments. communication to ensure the learning the EIP-Agri praises it as a pioneering To weather this change, and make the is shared widely. Innovative Farmers is initiative but highlights that there is still best of it, farmers will need to innovate. an example of an innovation support much to learn in effectively implementing Opportunities to support them in this service. The EIP-Agri has a facility to this kind of practical innovation support.4 through farmer-led R&D include: develop ‘innovation support services’ Innovative Farmers has been in action to provide such support, which is being longer than the EIP-Agri. It is part of Advancements in data collection and implemented in Wales and Scotland, but the Duchy Future Farming Programme, analysis. Developing research designs not yet in England. principally funded by the Prince of Wales’s and analytical techniques that suit farmer- Charitable Foundation. It is coordinated led R&D is an important methodological Connecting farmer innovation projects by the Soil Association, with LEAF, challenge for scientists. One example is better into KE networks. AHDB is Innovation for Agriculture, the Organic the Agronõmics project led by ADAS, leading efforts to coordinate the UK’s Research Centre and Waitrose. Sponsors which is developing new statistical KE landscape, so farmers find it easier include the BBSRC, AHDB, Anglia approaches to detect small treatment to obtain the solutions and advice they Farmers, Buccleuch, Produce World effects in real-world situations. need. Innovation support services such as Group, Riverford and Robin Appel. Innovative Farmers need to link effectively It is a not-for-profit network that gives Targeting farmer-led projects with into this KE activity. farmers and growers research support research funding. Only a small fraction and funding on their own terms. At the of the UK’s public agricultural R&D Dr Tom MacMillan is Director of heart of the initiative are farmer groups investment – perhaps as little as 1% Innovation at the Soil Association, and running ‘field labs’. The network provides – supports practical projects led by co-founded Innovative Farmers. He was facilitation, administrative support, farmers. Significantly increased, it Executive Director of the Food Ethics collaboration tools, research support and could transform farming. For example, Council from 2003-2011. @IFarmers micro-grants. allocating £35 million per year (10% Since the pilot phase began in 2012, of agricultural R&D investment) would around 1,000 farmers have taken part support around 500 substantial farmer- 1 Grassini, P. et al. (2013) Distinguishing between in field labs on over 50 topics, and led projects at any time. Because much yield advances and yield plateaus in historical crop production trends. Nature Communications. 4, 2918. over 5,000 farmers have taken part in of this investment would ultimately go 2 Waddington, H. & White, H. (2014) Farmer Field the programme’s wider knowledge to researchers to take part in projects Schools: From Agricultural Extension to Adult exchange (KE). developed by farmers, there would be Education. International Initiative for Impact Evaluation. 3 Waddington, H. & White, H. (2014) Farmer Field The field labs are getting results. little net effect on public funding for Schools: From Agricultural Extension to Adult Findings range from how to reduce research institutions. Education. International Initiative for Impact Evaluation. antibiotic use in dairy to ways 4 Coffey et al. (2016) Evaluation study of the implementation of the European Innovation farmers can improve soil health and Rewarding researchers for practical Partnership for Agricultural Productivity and reduce pesticides. This is already research. Researchers currently Sustainability.

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 25 Listen to farmers: an interview with Ibrahima Coulibaly, President of CNOP-Mali. In conversation with Patrick Mulvany in September 2017, in the Nyéléni Centre, Mali, Ibrahima Coulibaly discusses the crucial role of smaller-scale farmers in agricultural research.

Why is agricultural research important? foremost to listen, particularly to the its role in agroecology but only if the Agricultural research is important. It needs of farmers. And to do research agenda is set by farmers. was so in the past, it is today, and it can and produce results based on these be tomorrow, but under one condition: farmers’ needs. It is worthless to do lots You said that farmers have the knowledge Research always has to come from a need; of research that will then sit in drawers of about seeds and soils, fertility, about specifically a need from the farmer1. research institutions. Results that are not agroecology. What stops the researcher Agricultural research that stems immediately transposable to smallholder from taking that knowledge and stealing from artificial needs or is imagined by farmers are not useful to them. that knowledge? researchers will always miss the real needs This is a difficult question. The knowledge of farmers. The real question should be Should smaller-scale farmers be setting that smaller-scale farmers share is with “can we have research that is useful?” Yes priorities for the research agenda? an understanding that it should not be we can, and that is agricultural research Exactly! Participatory approaches have privatised. Knowledge is a common that works for the needs of farmers. been tested across the world where good. The risk that researchers use that smaller-scale farmers have gathered and knowledge for their own gain is always How would a useful agricultural research defined what their research needs are. there. It is important to find solutions to agenda be developed? Today more than ever, when we talk a avoid going down that path. I was just To develop the agenda, it is important lot about agroecology, it is becoming a talking with my colleagues from Togo, to have mechanisms for inclusive necessity because nowadays there are who have an agroecological farm, and participation of researchers, farmers, real needs for research. For example: we said: We smaller-scale farmers need and governments (via policies). They protection of cultures. There are lots to document/record our experiences – all need to talk to each other, and most of basic needs that have yet to be met. this way, no one can steal them, because importantly, they need to understand There is also a lot of local knowledge there would be a farmers’ publication that each other. How the problems faced by that needs to be tested by research, e.g. shows the source of the knowledge. farmers are taken up by researchers, and fertilisers – there are so many options that how the results are then shared back to have yet to be formally researched, such Do you think that researchers farmers, and government, ensuring that as Foliar Fertilisers. They get minimal understand ‘Farmers’ Rights’ – or ‘Free, the greatest number possible of farmers research in today’s agenda. There is so Prior and Informed Consent’ under can have access to that knowledge; in that much scope to diversify research, but the Biodiversity Convention? Do they lies the question. it isn’t tapped into. And smaller-scale understand their legal obligation to farmers don’t have the time to do the protect the knowledge and ensure the And what is the role of the researcher? research. They can’t be both farmers and knowledge is not stolen? The role of the researcher is first and [formal] researchers. Research can have I don’t think researchers understand this,

26 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda at least currently. Only a few are sensitive research councils, by funding bodies, cataloguing them, and making sure that to these questions and concerns. There multinationals, powerful countries, they are preserved and maintained year is a need to educate researchers and but, in the end, GMOs have no place in after year, so that our future can rely on explain that the world has changed, and smaller-scale farming and don’t answer these varieties, and not the GMOs. that they too have to change with it. If the needs of farmers. We don’t want it, they don’t, they’ll become dinosaurs, and not now, not ever, in our fields. And livestock as well? disappear. If they are not able to transition Of course, it also includes livestock towards working with smaller-scale In Nyéléni 2007: forum for food species; chicken, sheep, goats, cows as farmers today, farmers will have to live sovereignty, there was a very clear well. All traditional breeds. without researchers. declaration against GMOs. Ten years on we are in the same wonderful venue And soils, bees? La Via Campesina and others have which you constructed for the forum – Yes all of this. It is the entire environment said very critical things about the the Nyéléni Centre – and we are again that we preserve. ‘Régéneration naturelle international agricultural research reasserting the same things. assistée’ is a method used by farmers to programmes promoted by the CGIAR True, but there has been progress regenerate biodiversity on-farm. and similar organisations, and about nevertheless. In 2007 we were at a very corporate-led agricultural research, low point, because Burkina Faso had Over the past 10 years, the industry and which dominates the North and Africa. introduced GM cotton, which created researchers have developed GM 2.0 (e.g. What are your views on that? a lot of problems for farmers. Today, synthetic biology). It includes all sorts of Those who claim that they work for there is no denying that GMOs have technologies such as gene editing and farmers but are actually just promoting impoverished farmers and brought gene drives, which the industry calls chemical agriculture and the interest nothing positive to the government of ‘new science’ rather than GMOs. Do you/ of multinationals who only work on Burkina Faso either. It is sad that 10 years Via Campesina/ROPPA/ have views on conventional agriculture are not worth were wasted to reach this conclusion. industry’s development of this? it. If researchers don’t understand that, What we say is that although it was We will never venture there. It has no they won’t have a future. Researchers painful for farmers, it is a great lesson interest for us at all. What matters to need to go beyond those multinationals’ for other African countries. GMOs are farmers is ‘what seeds do I have, and needs and think about the planet. an illusion, they don’t answer any real which ones can I keep for the following Environmental degradation, human developmental need in Africa. year?’ It isn’t complicated. We have health impacts, etc.. They need to work developed fertiliser techniques that for these issues, not for multinationals. we can control, that don’t require us to “Agricultural research go on the market dominated by large But multinationals have commercial that stems from multinationals, with artificial fertilisers interests for their profits and they are and pesticides. We want an agriculture encouraged by governments in the North; artificial needs or is that is manageable, and controllable they are pushing GMOs in Africa. The imagined by researchers by us the farmers, that makes us live programmes of AGRA and many other healthily and is sustainable for our institutions across Africa are forcing will always miss the real children’s generation. this chemical-dependent genetically- needs of farmers.” modified agriculture on the smaller- Your message for researchers – from scale farmers. What actions should Via those who produce most of the food for Campesina, ROPPA, and other social In 2007, we didn’t only talk about most of the people in the world and who movements take, or are taking, to try and the importance of seeds, but also all would realise food sovereignty – is…? stop this type of research? agricultural biodiversity, and how this Listen to farmers! Listen to farmers! Listen Here in Mali, we have done a great forms part of the environment and to farmers! ‘mobilisation’ to stop GMOs from ecology that underpins production. entering the country. It has been one of Yes, I think we planted a seed that CNOP-Mali is a member of Via the most important mobilisations ever germinated very well, by resisting. Campesina. Ibrahima Coulibaly is organised in West Africa. It is thanks to [Farmers’] seeds are important, more also President of ROPPA: Le Réseau this that GMOs haven’t made it to Mali. so than the more engineered/certified des organisations paysannes et de This shows that it is possible to stop versions of governments. Today, AGRA, producteurs de l’Afrique de l’Ouest them. We don’t want GMOs to come Bill Gates Foundation, are forcing (Network of Peasant Organizations and and disrupt local farming production African governments to put in place Agricultural Producers in West Africa). and our traditional farming systems. policies for [the adoption of] what they Patrick Mulvany is an agriculturalist and a Researchers have to understand that call ‘improved seeds’. These policies member of the Food Ethics Council. GMOs aren’t the answer. Following benefit the organisations, not the the corporate agendas isn’t the farmers. We cannot lose the power solution. They may be promoted by big of farmers’ seeds. This is why we are 1 Paysan/ne i.e. a man or woman smaller-scale farmer

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 27 Food and farming research for the public good The global food system is literally killing us, writes Molly D. Anderson. Here’s what we need to do to fix it.

At least 815 million people across Too much of past investment had focused through public sources must support the world suffer from chronic severe on single sectors of the food system (e.g. the former, and governments must undernutrition1 because they cannot agricultural production) or single goals set limits on the ways in which the access sufficient food. Approximately (e.g. maximising productivity), rather than latter further enhances political power one in five deaths globally is due to considering systemic trade-offs and the through campaign contributions eating poor diets.2,3 multifunctionality of food systems. and lobbying at the national and Agriculture and other food system Private sector funding of agricultural international scales. practices are huge contributors to research has grown rapidly, while public IAASTD authors found that environmental degradation. Considered sector research has correspondingly some kinds of research, including as a whole, the food system emits up to become increasingly less prevalent participatory research with farmers 57% of greenhouse gases.4 Agriculture (particularly in the United States, once and women’s organisations, furthered uses about 70% of the global freshwater a leader in agricultural research). sustainable development. Research on supply5, and about one third of arable Between 2008 and 2013, for example, agroecology, crop diversification and soil has been acutely degraded by real (inflation-adjusted) public food and their implementation helped achieve agricultural practices.6,7 agricultural research and development in better environmental quality and health the US fell by about 20% while real private outcomes. Can research mitigate these social research and development increased by Small-scale farmers are the largest and environmental costs? 64%.8 The interests of the private sector category of people suffering from chronic To imagine and design a better research are quite naturally in goods and services undernutrition. The tools and knowledge system, one must understand how that will return profits to companies, that they need are low- or no-cost, research has contributed to the system we including strong protection of intellectual focused on minimising waste, recycling all have now. In the International Assessment property rights; there is little appetite for useable materials for nutrients or energy, of Agricultural Knowledge, Science & research that is simply good for people restoring or enhancing soil fertility, and Technology for Development (IAASTD), and the planet. growing the greatest amount of nutritious over 400 scientists from 52 countries The kind of development the world food sustainably on small parcels of painstakingly investigated the outcomes needs has more recently been articulated land. Such practices are the essence of investment in science, knowledge in 17 Sustainable Development Goals of agroecology, but promise very little and technology since the middle of the (SDGs) and their 169 targets, including profit to those purveying farm inputs and 20th century, to determine where future SDG 2 which aims to end hunger, achieve marketing agricultural products across the investments should be directed in order food security and improved nutrition, and world. That is why public sector research to achieve sustainable development. promote sustainable agriculture. for the public good must lead in this area. As we unravelled past investment Whether the world reaches this Likewise, research into developing local patterns, we found that ‘business as goal will be determined by many and national markets where small-scale usual’ (i.e. increasing investment in actors, but whose voices should farmers can sell extra produce needs to industrial agriculture in developing and dominate discourse, and who should happen, to counterbalance extensive industrialised countries) clearly could not set research priorities? The stakes are research on international trade. produce healthy food sustainably into high: ecological integrity, public health Research for the public good would the future. The IAASTD documented and decent livelihoods for marginalised pay greater attention to low-income decades of negative social, environmental people on one hand, versus greater consumers and those whose health has and health consequences due to the profits for and control by the private been severely compromised by poor spread of industrialised food systems. sector on the other. Research funded diets, such as colonised indigenous

28 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda peoples. At present, these groups are which allowed relatively wealthy agencies must continue to monitor and targeted as potential markets for the farmers who were able to adopt Green document the status of world health junk food that has already saturated Revolution seeds and technologies to and the environment. This monitoring markets in the Global North.9 Research become more prosperous. should include input from those whose could help illuminate how to encourage Specific policy levers will depend on livelihoods are being destroyed by consumption of traditional healthy foods, country context. In countries where the environmental degradation, in addition and innovative ways to distribute food, private sector has overrun public sector to the technical teams which are usually such as those piloted in sharing and research, increased funding for public tasked with data gathering. solidarity economies or through right-to- competitive research on topics that Through renewed attention to the food policies that provide healthy food at directly benefit agroecosystem quality social contract between governments and minimal cost. and human well-being is essential. their citizens, a new ‘Social Contract for The focus must be on the expressed This may require extensive revision of Science’11 and integration of knowledge needs of marginalised people. They existing programmes. Opening up the from the public into science, publicly have not benefitted from the global laws for licensing and patents of the funded research can help point the way food system. Rather, they have suffered products of private sector research to toward a sustainable future for all. under the practices of a few elite players allow wider access may also be needed, who have become fabulously rich by to ensure that public corporations Molly D. Anderson is the William R. extracting wealth from the relatively actually provide public goods. Research Kenan, Jr. Professor of Food Studies powerless people and countries whose on climate change mitigation is needed at Middlebury College, Middlebury, plights continue to worsen. Their lands to avoid global breakdowns of food Vermont, USA. She was a Coordinating and waters have been grabbed by systems, from the provision of essential Lead Author of the IAASTD and currently speculators or wealthier governments for ecosystem services to crop production is a member of the International Panel of their own benefit, evicting users who lack under conditions of severe stress. Experts on Sustainable Food Systems. secure tenure rights. Their agricultural Research on mitigating food systems’ future is threatened by industries that are contributions to any of the ‘planetary 1 FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), IFAD, allowed to pollute the atmosphere and boundaries’ identified by the research UNICEF, WFP and WHO (2017) The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building cause climate change, which exacerbates group at the Stockholm Resilience resilience for peace and food security. Rome, FAO. conflict within and between countries and Centre will additionally help to keep 2 The Lancet (2017) Special Issue on the Global Burden has led to famine conditions in several food systems sustainable. of Disease Study. The Lancet 390 (10100). 3 Boseley, Sarah. 14 September 2017. Poor diet is a factor 10 countries in 2017. Every country and region requires a in one in five deaths, global disease study reveals. The process for gathering and synthesising Guardian www.theguardian.com/society/2017/sep/14/ broad citizen input into research poor-diet-is-a-factor-in-one-in-five-deaths-global- disease-study-reveals Accessed 27/11/2017 “To imagine and design priorities. Advisory groups dominated 4 GRAIN. 11 September 2011. Food and climate change: a better research system, by industry voices are not adequate to The forgotten link. www.grain.org/article/entries/4357- this task. The ‘people’s food policy’ plans food-and-climate-change-the-forgotten-link Accessed 27/11/2017 one must understand that many countries have developed 5 World Bank (2014) World Development Indicators: how research has (e.g. Canada, Australia) give rise to Annual freshwater withdrawals, agriculture (% of total immediate research needs for how the freshwater withdrawal) [link] 6 UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat contributed to the will of the people can be implemented Desertification). 2017. Global Land Outlook. [link] system we have now.” most effectively, at the lowest cost, whilst 7 Watts, Jonathan. 13 September 2017. Third of earth’s providing good jobs to citizens. soil is acutely degraded due to agriculture. Euractiv. www.euractiv.com/section/agriculture-food/news/ While we know from the IAASTD and third-of-earths-soil-is-acutely-degraded-due-to- Focusing research on improving the many subsequent reports that ‘business agriculture Accessed 27/11/2017 health and well-being of marginalised as usual’ will not suffice, the path forward 8 Clancy, Matthew, Keith Fuglie and Paul Heisey. 10 November 2016. U.S. agricultural R&D in an era of people, or on producing food while into a sustainable and equitable food falling public funding. Amber Waves. Economic enhancing soil fertility, sequestering system is not yet clear. Research is needed Research Service, US Department of Agriculture. carbon and maintaining biodiversity, will to compare different transformational 9 Jacobs, Andres and Matt Richtel. 16 September 2017. How big business got Brazil hooked on junk food. New benefit all people by helping to create strategies that are being piloted, to York Times, Section A1. food systems that serve the public good. examine their results on the ground. 10 Food Security Information Network (2017) Global It puts those who have been largely At the international level, an institution Report on Food Crises [link] 11 Keeler, Bonnie, Rebecca Chaplin-Kramer, Anne D. excluded from the benefits of food that focuses on agroecological research, Guerry, Prue F.E. Addison, Charles Bettigole, Ingrid G. system research and development centre with the imprimatur and funding levels Burke, Brad Gentry, Lauren Chambliss, Carrie Young, stage, redressing wholescale human of the largest CGIAR institutes, is long Alexander J. Travis, Chris T. Darimont, Doria R. Gordon, Jessica Hellmann, Peter Kareiva, Steve Monfort, Lydia rights violations. And it helps reverse overdue. Communication and outreach Olander, Tim Profeta, Hugh P. Possingham, Carissa several decades of environmental to poor farmers, including peer-to- Slotterback, Eleanor Sterling, Tamara Ticktin and degradation and deleterious health peer sharing of practices about what Bhaskar Vira (2017) Society is ready for a new kind of science— Is academia? BioScience 67(7): 591-592 impacts related to diet. This is the is already known, is vital to the success opposite of Green Revolution research, of such an endeavour. International UN

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 29 An interdisciplinary and participatory approach to setting research priorities in Brazil The new Brazilian Research Network on Food and Nutrition Sovereignty and Security offers a positive alternative to the old established ways of doing food and agriculture research, argues Renato S. Maluf.

The Brazilian Research Network on subject of FNSS and the human right to food and nutrition sovereignty and Food and Nutrition Sovereignty and food (RtF) in universities and research security. Security promotes academic research on institutions throughout the country. This 3. Independence and autonomy from food, nutrition and agriculture. It takes has happened in parallel with hunger governments, political parties, national an interdisciplinary perspective that and food becoming priorities on Brazil’s and international organisations and focuses on public policies, dialogue with public agenda in the 2000s. The National private interests. organisations and social movements, Council for Food and Nutrition Security 4. Permanent commitment to reducing and recognises different ways of (CONSEA)2 has emboldened researchers inequalities and promoting gender, producing knowledge. to adopt multidisciplinary approaches ethno-racial and generational equity. These perspectives have guided the to FNSS and RtF, and at the same laid 5. Supporting food quality, and development of the Research Network bare the lack of opportunity for dialogue adequate and healthy food in terms since 2012. Its official constitution was between researchers that adopt this that respect socio-environmental approved during the third National perspective, and the lack of institutional circumstances and cultures. Meeting of Research, held between support (e.g. from development agencies) 6. Generating knowledge that November 8th and 10 th 2017, which capable of harbouring such approaches. contributes to public policies and brought together hundreds of researchers The Research Network on Food and to positioning at national and on the campus of the Federal University of Nutrition Sovereignty and Security was international levels free from conflicts Paraná, in Curitiba (PR), Brazil. developed by a group of researchers who of interest. The Network emerged in part due to wanted to practice citizen science that Likewise, the Network’s action the construction of what could be called produced academic knowledge, whilst guidelines aim to promote, among the ‘socio-political field’ of food and at the same time valuing other forms of other things: (a) cooperation between nutrition sovereignty and security (FNSS) knowledge production. They wanted national and international researchers; in Brazil initiated in the late 1980s. This to prioritise dialogues that fitted with (b) methodological diversity; (c) multi-, era saw the country’s re-democratisation, the agendas of social organisations and inter- and trans-disciplinary characteristics bringing together social organisations, public policies, without compromising of the production of knowledge; (d) public managers and academics with their own academic autonomy. Their knowledge for new forms of teaching significant repercussions for public other aim was to construct adequate and extension; (e) knowledge exchange policies from 2003 onwards1. The research methods without compromising with organisations, movements and social process led to an understanding that new academic rigour. groups; (f) professional, institutional, approaches to research were needed. This research concept is expressed in regional, gender, generational, cultural The dominant paradigm of disciplinary the six principles that guide the Network’s and ethnic-racial diversity; (g) strategies research was not able to adequately performance, namely: for disseminating scientific production contemplate multidimensional issues 1. Interdisciplinary and multi- and knowledge in the academic field including hunger and malnutrition, the professional academic knowledge, and the society; (h) interaction between right to adequate and healthy food, respecting diverse forms of knowledge, policy and action; and (i) diversified family-based agriculture, and knowledge generation and action, funding and partnerships free of the adoption of agroecological principles. methodological diversity. conflicts of interest. There has been an increasing number 2. Citizen research committed to Much has already been achieved of research groups working on the overcoming hunger and promoting with the approach proposed here, which

30 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda constitutes a solid base for the Network. access restrictions and consumption curricular structures of undergraduate This can be seen in the volume and habits; food and nutrition education; and, particularly, graduate education quality of academic papers, analysis of and intersectoral and participatory need to provide reflection and research socio-economic and political dynamics, public policies. activity which promote the characteristics diagnoses of underlying public policies This new Network is in direct and contents highlighted here. One way and actions, and construction of contradiction to the research this could be achieved is to address the indicator matrices. establishment that reflects the old lack of adequate institutional support disciplinary tradition. This ‘establishment’ from the development and funding promotes standards of food production, agencies that host interdisciplinary “… [the research] distribution and consumption that projects or those based on ethnic-cultural ‘establishment’ promotes contribute to Brazil’s high levels of social diversity and knowledge. inequality, environmental damage and Academia has been affected by the standards of food neglect of cultural and genetic heritage, destabilising parliamentary coup of 2016. production, distribution as well as the reproduction of global As well as experiencing budget cuts and trends towards poor diets. Based on regulatory backsliding, it is suffering and consumption that scientific legitimacy conferred by the direct and violent attacks on freedom contribute to Brazil’s high traditional academic community, the of thought and expression. This means old disciplinary tradition is given priority that, alongside the expected roles of levels of social inequality, support by governments, the private the Brazilian Research Network on Food environmental damage sector and international organisations. and Nutrition Sovereignty and Security, This interaction can sometimes involve it will need to join with other resistance and neglect of cultural conflicts of interest, posing crucial instruments that are being erected and genetic heritage, as questions related to public-private throughout the country. relations in initiatives with social impact. well as the reproduction The Network is undoubtedly a Renato Maluf is professor of the of global trends towards promising initiative that will strengthen a Graduate Programme of Social Sciences field of research that demands visibility in Development, Agriculture and poor diets.” and legitimacy both in academia and in Society (CPDA), Coordinator of the society as a whole. It promotes a form Reference Centre on Food and Nutrition More than 300 research projects of citizen science that is committed Sovereignty and Security (CERESAN), from all regions of the country were to eradicating hunger and promoting Rural Federal University of Rio de debated during the recent Third adequate and healthy food, to Janeiro, Brazil, Councillor (2003-2016) National Meeting. The long list of challenging inequality and valuing diverse and former President (2007-2011) of the issues being addressed included: and sustainable patterns of production National Council for Food and Nutrition the various forms of family-based and consumption. It is an approach that Security (CONSEA).2 and diversified agriculture and their must be constantly reaffirmed through interaction with access to equally open debate and cooperation between diverse healthy food; meanings and those who practice it and those to whom 1 Leão, M.M. & Maluf, R.S. Effective public policies and active citizenship: Brazil´s experience of building requirements for the adoption of the it is addressed. a Food and Nutrition Security System. Brasilia (DF), agroecological approach; sustainable To be sure, there are conceptual Abrandh and Oxfam, 2012. food provisioning; determinants of and methodological challenges, many 2 CONSEA is an advisory body of the Presidency of the Republic of Brazil to propose and monitor public overweight and obesity; nutritional of which are recorded in the annals of policies related to food and nutrition security and the deficiencies and their relationship with meetings promoted by the Network. The right to adequate and healthy food.

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 31 Community led food and agricultural research: reflecting on experiences from Africa Agricultural research requires a profound paradigm change if it is to face the multiple crises caused by arrogant notions of human superiority. Liz Hosken considers how community- led research can serve to transform the whole food and farming system.

In one of the Ugandan community and seasons, and with a multiple of cultural systems to weave back together dialogues that I took part in in, we asked characteristics and criteria to meet the again wherever possible. a participant how they understood needs of the family and community. The deskilling of communities the idea of research. They replied, “it’s Traditional farmers know what they are through the corporate enclosure of when people come with notebooks doing.” the knowledge and skills that are and ask questions to help them count Since the Second World War, the traditionally held communally, is and measure things – it can be plants or push for ‘economic recovery’ has undermining their seed and food soils or seeds.” For these communities, systematically undermined farmers diversity, confidence, and the control research is something that ‘educated’ by the commercialisation of what was and resilience of their farming systems. people do. As to what was done with the held in the commons for millennia – In another community gathering in information the researchers gathered, knowledge, skills, seeds and farming Uganda in early 2017 Praxcida, a small- they were not sure. practices – shared within and between scale farmer, explained that government It has not always been like this. The communities and generations. As extension agents tell them that their enormous diversity of cultural foods farmers nurtured new traits in their traditional seeds are primitive and we enjoy today were developed by seeds, they shared and exchanged that they need to use modern hybrids communities – largely by women farmers them alongside the knowledge that is and chemical inputs so that they can – through careful observation and inextricably embedded in the cultivation produce more to sell to the market. selection, since the dawn of agriculture. of seed diversity and farming practices. She said hesitantly, “we prefer our Their ecological literacy enabled them This was a joyful practice that further traditional crops because they taste so to domesticate crops from the wild enhanced the diversity of seeds, crops, much better, and with the changes in and further develop and enhance the knowledge and cultural food systems climate we find those of us who still have traits they were seeking, from taste to that were highly adapted to local traditional varieties harvest more food. resilience, from aroma to how easily they ecological and climatic conditions. The cassava which the government gave could be stored, to feed the family and us, for example, rots in the soil before for cultural ceremonies. The current situation in Africa we can eat it. Yet many of us give in As Dr Melaku Worede, who set up Across the planet, farming communities to the government and have lost our Africa’s first Gene Bank in Ethiopia, have been demoralised and fragmented traditional seeds.” says, “the rich genetic diversity that we by ongoing pressures to ‘modernise’ By the end of this community see across the planet did not occur by from the aggressive agro-chemical dialogue the farmers agreed that even chance. Farmers have played a key role industry and their allies. The Food if the government continued to give in creating and maintaining this diversity Sovereignty Movement, La Via them ‘foreign seeds’ as they call them, by domesticating and breeding plants Campesina, emerged more than two and chemical inputs, they now had the to adapt to the conditions under which decades ago to build solidarity amongst confidence not to use them. They agreed they were farming. They breed within farmers in resisting this pressure. In that the chemical inputs were killing the context of the varying landscapes Africa our priority is to enable the bio- the soil and “making it thirsty”. They

32 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda committed to continue meeting regularly has to be achieved such as an academic share them with others. They control to recover and share their traditional qualification. In our experience these the process, and those accompanying varieties and to bulk them up so they conditions make it hard for research not them respond to the farmers’ priorities, could share them with others. to be extractive – getting information providing encouragement and tips This is the story of communities from farmers within a certain period as where appropriate. This too is an across Africa, although not many have defined by the research objective or the ongoing process as it takes time for the the support to regain confidence in project funding. Even when the aim is farmers to regain confidence in their themselves. to be participative, it is hard to get away traditional knowledge, seed diversity from these constraints. and farming practices, and to resist the Research for what and by whom? pressure from government and other In Kenya, Teresa is also a small-scale Unravelling research external forces. farmer. She remembers the diversity of As Dr Melaku says, “farmers have This means that the purpose of crops she grew up eating, but now most acute knowledge and capacity to research, if it is to truly serve the people plant the crops promoted by the observe and work within the complex transformation of the food and farming government, and they depend mainly dynamic of soils, seeds, wild biodiversity system, is not singular but manifold. In on maize. After a series of community and climate.” He insists that those this way, it can regenerate ecosystems, dialogues reflecting on why and how working with farmers need to take the farming systems and community things had changed, Teresa, together lead from farmers, and may be able cohesion to deal with climate disruption with other women in the community, to ‘top up or add a bit’ to build on the and the pressures to adopt ‘foreign began to recover their traditional crops seeds’ and inputs. Crucially, it leaves a through talking to the elders who resilient legacy for the next generation. remembered them. Sometimes they had “[the way forward]… to go deep into the rural areas to find an is through building Community-led Research elder woman who they heard might have There are some basic guiding principles a particular variety of sorghum or millet ‘affectionate alliances’ which have evolved over the years in that had all but disappeared. with communities in accompanying communities in their Theresa says: “As we began to research to revive their traditional rediscover these seeds, I started to a process of taking knowledge and practices. These include: experiment by growing our indigenous back control of their crops such as green grams, cowpeas, Recognising that indigenous millet and sorghum in one field, and knowledge, practices knowledge systems are holistic and in another plot, some distance away, and decision making” include a dynamic relationship between I planted the government seeds. I the world of humans, Nature and watched carefully … I harvested four spirit (the ancestral domain). A healthy bags of government green grams and farmers’ priorities. This requires an farming system depends on a healthy six bags of our indigenous green grams. ongoing collaboration with farmers. It is ecosystem. Through observing the I found indigenous crops do better a process, not a time bound project. practice of seasonal ceremonies using when there is less rain, and government Ethio-Organic Seed Action (EOSA) seeds and other sacred materials at crops need pesticides, which don’t help in Ethiopia, led by Dr Regassa Feyissa sacred natural sites, the connection to produce more, but cost more. And who has been inspired by Dr Melaku’s between the three domains is indigenous green grams taste so much work, trains ‘technical’ people, mainly maintained. Seed and food is produced better and are easier to store and sell.” geneticists and agronomists, to do for the family to eat, for communal There are two issues here. Firstly, the research in this way. Their joint objective, ceremonies which play a vital role in corporate appropriation of the inherently agreed with the farmers, is to enhance nurturing community cohesion and the collective farming practice of cultivating diversity in order to increase productivity ancestral relationship with the land. a diversity of crops, is stripping farmers and climate change resilience. This is and agriculture of the very conditions to the opposite approach to industrial Knowledge is understood to develop deal with climate disruption. This is an agriculture, which strips diversity from through practice and is willingly shared ongoing battle to reclaim control of the the field in a drive to extract endlessly for others to explore for themselves. farming system. from the soil and the farmers for Rural communities are traditionally The other issue is the conception corporate profit. highly eco-literate, being able to read of ‘research’ born in the context of In the case of Praxcida’s and Teresa’s the dynamics between the climate, the reductive thinking and industrialisation. communities, it is the women who lead moon cycle, the constellations and the Today, in order to be accepted as valid, the research in exploring what diversity behaviour of animals, plants, insects and research has to meet certain standards they used to have. These women find birds, in indicating what seeds to plant established by academia, and has to the people with a ‘lost’ seed variety, when. This complex knowledge develops be done within a certain timeframe, and learn from them about the variety. over decades of practice and cultivating because of funding or an objective that They go on to multiply the seeds and a relationship with seeds, the land,

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 33 biodiversity and the wider ecosystem. become passionate advocates because communities in a process of taking Through this, communities learn the they learn so much, including how to back control of their knowledge, ecological laws of the land of which they think holistically. practices and decision making; linking are a part. up with others to resist corporate Women in most farming cultures control; and nurturing regenerative The research process takes place through are the main custodians of seed food and farming systems. By ‘de- restoring the traditional community diversity and biodiversity and professionalising’ research it becomes practice of meeting regularly to analyse, traditionally play an important role in the part of the collaborative process of living reflect and transfer knowledge between ceremonies and governance systems. consciously, participating with each generations. Given the breakdown of As Teresa demonstrates, women other in observing the cycles and laws community cohesion and the loss of tend to have a profound relationship of Nature which govern our food and confidence in their traditions, these with seeds and farming and enjoy farming systems and building resilience ‘community dialogues’ as we call them, researching into different varieties and in the context of climate disruption and are spaces for communities to learn from sharing their findings. Rural women corporate domination. their elders and to revive their knowledge in Africa, and elsewhere, have been and practices. Research is understood as severely undermined by the colonial Liz Hosken co-founded The Gaia a practice which communities have had and globalisation processes and their Foundation, based in the UK. During for generations, and is revived through traditional knowledge and role is poorly the first decade of Gaia’s work Liz spent the dialogues too. It is a reflective, understood or recognised. many years in the Amazon, where she empowering process that builds was “initiated” into indigenous ways collective knowledge and understanding. Conclusion of seeing the world, which resonated Unmasking research as currently with her own. Together with partners Those who accompany this community- understood requires a profound and indigenous communities, they led research process encourage and paradigm change. It is part of the systemic developed a methodology for support the community to take the lead transformation required of us to face the accompanying communities to revive in deciding what they want to explore multiple crises caused by our hubristic their indigenous knowledge and and revive. They can ‘top up’ with ideas of human superiority. As we are practices. When Liz returned to her information so that communities can seeing, it is not through ‘counting and continent she was inspired to share make informed decisions about issues measuring’ to extract endless amounts these lessons and search for ways to that are foreign to them, like the story of of ‘objective’ information that we will restore Africa’s rich cultural, spiritual the origin of pesticides; or augment their understand the complexity of the living and ecological heritage. Liz now agro-ecological knowledge, or introduce systems of which we are a part, nor is this teaches the philosophy and practice useful tools such as eco-cultural mapping information changing our behaviour. of this approach, which is rooted and calendars. Those practitioners who In our experience it is through in experiential learning and Earth engage with communities in this way building ‘affectionate alliances’ with Jurisprudence.

34 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Research for the public good

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 35 Industry-sponsored science is clouding the picture of how food systems impact health How scientific research is structured, framed and financed has a major bearing on our understanding of the challenges facing society — and none more so than the burgeoning health risks generated by our food and farming systems, argues IPES-Food.

In many countries and many sectors, the risks – is falling through the cracks. This 1996; Scollo et al., 2003), and industry- commitment of governments to fund is reflected in the lack of interaction related delays, suppression, or dissuasion research as a public good, or even to between different disciplines in many regarding the publication of specific make data and research results available agricultural colleges (O’Brien et al., 2013) results (Bero, 2005; Lexchin et al., 2003; as a public good, has been increasingly the lack of attention to the complex Okike et al., 2008). compromised (e.g. New, 2017). In the interactions between the natural Influence over the framing of the past few years, many governments have environment and human society (Francis research agenda and the terms of the reduced their support to all forms of public et al., 2003), and the high proportion broader scientific debate has also been research, including national surveys, as of doctoral and post-doctoral research identified through a range of additional well as international research organisations topics in highly specialised fields of practices, e.g. employing individual (Dalrymple, 2008). Public sector biotechnology as compared to research researchers as consultants or inviting agricultural research has been dramatically on agroecology (Francis, 2004). them to sit on company boards in order to scaled back over recent decades on the Second, the privatisation of research signal objectivity and legitimacy; funding back of government funding cuts to higher has implications for the validity of the professional and academic associations; education institutions (King et al., 2012; research that does emerge. While private publically critiquing established but Muscio et al., 2013). funding can produce – and often has “inconvenient” evidence and sowing These cutbacks have generated a void produced – important contributions doubt about its validity, often through the that is increasingly being filled by private to the evidence base, industry-funded use of front groups; and using corporate interests, creating several problems. research has in a variety of contexts and social responsibility programmes as Firstly, some issues of high public interest sectors been found to disproportionally marketing campaigns (e.g. to shift may not attract funding from private favour outcomes aligned with industry the focus from obesogenic diets onto investors. For example, the gradual interests (Bhandari et al., 2004; Lexchin et the importance of active lifestyles by privatisation of agricultural research al., 2003; Perlis et al., 2005; Scollo et al., sponsoring sporting events). funding has come alongside an increasing 2003). This can occur through conscious The empirical evidence on the focus on those commodities for which or unconscious influence on the definition influence of industry-backed studies in there is a large enough market to secure of research questions (Bero, 2005; shaping understandings – and ultimately a significant return on investment (Piesse Lesser et al., 2007; Scollo et al., 2003), policy – is largest for the medical, and Thirtle, 2010). In this context, minor the experimental design (Djulbegovic pharmaceutical, and tobacco sectors. species and traditional crop varieties have et al., 2000; Lexchin et al., 2003), the However, emerging research supports been neglected (Rahman, 2009), despite implementation of statistical analyses the hypothesis that some corporations their nutritional benefits. (Lesser et al., 2007), the interpretation in the agri-food industry operate in a Meanwhile, holistic analysis of food of statistical results (Alasbali et al., 2009; similar fashion and have meaningfully systems – and the social-ecological Golder and Loke, 2008), the extent or impacted debates around nutrition interactions that generate human health quality of peer review (Barnes and Bero, (Brownell and Warner, 2009; Nestle, 2016;

36 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda The PLoS Medicine Editors, 2012). Lesser Clinical Nutrition, the Journal of Nutrition, pave the way for major improvements in et al. (2007) show in a review of nutrition and Advances in Nutrition. Meanwhile, monitoring and mitigating food systems research on soft drinks, juice, and milk that the ‘Nutrition Fact Sheets’ produced impacts, e.g. by deploying farm-level the funding source may have a significant and publicised by the American Dietetic soil data to enable more targeted use impact on study conclusions, with 0% Association (ADA) have been called into of chemical inputs. However, current of industry-backed studies reporting an question on the grounds of industry trends raise concerns about how that unfavourable outcome (as compared to partners having paid to co-write them data will be used and to whom it will 37% of publically funded articles). (Brownell and Warner, 2009). be available; vertical integration is Major discrepancies have been The increasingly prominent role of continuing apace across the agri-food found between the results of industry- private actors, and the declining role of sector, with a handful of firms gaining funded and non-industry-funded studies public research, also raises questions an increasingly dominant position, and (including systematic reviews) on the about data availability and access. company information becoming ever- health impacts of sugar consumption Access to data on farm-level trends, more opaque (IPES-Food, 2017). and sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) environmental conditions, disease Research priorities, structures, (Bes-Rastrollo et al., 2013; Vartanian et incidence and the properties of foods is and capacities therefore need to be al., 2007). Explicit attempts from the essential in order to build understanding fundamentally realigned with principles 1960s onwards to divert attention from of the various health risks in food of public interest and public good, and sugar to fat as a heart disease risk factor systems. Privatisation of data production the nature of the challenges we face, i.e. were recently uncovered, and are seen and access is already raising major issues cross-cutting sustainability challenges to have significantly derailed decades of of transparency and accountability and systemic risks. medical research around sugar (Kearns across food systems. For example, lack The challenge is not simply to curb et al., 2016; O’Connor, 2016). Popkin and of data collection by industry, or lack of the production of research and data Hawkes (2016, p. 175) conclude that it access to that data, has been identified by private actors; these activities form is only studies funded by the sugar and as a major obstacle to identifying a crucial part of the evidence base. beverage industries that continue to cast the health impacts of Concentrated Nor does public research represent doubt on the substantial weight gain and Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) a panacea. In a context of increasing cardiometabolic risks from SSBs. on surrounding populations (National privatisation, public-sector research Research Council, 2015). Risk has tended to echo the emphasis of assessments for new technologies and private research agendas, e.g. mirroring “… [it is important] to chemicals (e.g. Endocrine Disrupting the focus on increasing productivity Chemicals, or EDCs) also tend to rely for a small number of tradable crops redefine research for the on data generated and controlled via technological innovation (Jacobsen public interest and the by major agri-business firms, while et al., 2013). Moreover, without major information around biotech crops is reinvestment in public data gathering, public good, to reassert notoriously difficult to access. In 2009, private firms will continue to be best- scientific integrity, and 26 university crop scientists wrote to the placed to conduct monitoring of risks and US Environmental Protection Agency outcomes across food systems. ultimately to address complaining that patents on engineered A series of inter-connected steps the burgeoning health genes were preventing public sector are therefore required in order to scientists from researching the potential reassert public interest across the board, impacts of food impacts of GM crops (Pollack, 2009). and to counter the risks of industry- systems.” While most biotech companies now sponsored science. have agreements with universities on Firstly, scientific integrity could be use of their patented technologies for bolstered through changes in the rules Industry funding of professional research, scientists must still negotiate governing scientific journals, e.g. around associations has also been alleged to permission to conduct these studies disclosure of conflicts of interest, and steps heavily influence the framing of prominent from the companies themselves (Haspel, to make that information more visible. public debates (Nestle, 2013; Simon, 2014; Stutz, 2010). Risk assessments for Some medical and nutrition journals 2013, 2015). For example, the scientific novel food additives are particularly have already taken significant steps in objectivity of the American Society reliant on industry data and private this direction. For example the American for Nutrition (ASN) and the Academy sector governance: under US law, it Journal of Clinical Nutrition policy (AJCN, of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND) has is the responsibility of manufacturers n.d.) now requires that all clinical trials and been called into question on the basis to assess whether new substances are observational studies (including nutrition of strong ties to the food and beverage generally regarded as safe – ‘GRAS’ – by trials) be registered in an appropriate industry (Simon, 2013, 2015). This has scientific experts. Notification to public public trials registry upon initiation of major implications since the ASN is the authorities is voluntary, with little scope the study. Meanwhile, the Journal of the publisher of three widely read nutrition for public scrutiny. American Medical Association policy science journals, the American Journal of Recent advances in Big Data could (JAMA) requires that statistical analyses be

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 37 independently conducted by researchers Thirdly, a more fundamental WHO-led Initiative to Estimate the Global who are not employed by the funder, reorientation of research agendas and Burden of Foodborne Diseases offers an in addition to any statistical analyses modalities is required. Siloed approaches example of collaborative data generation performed by the sponsoring industry in science and policy make it possible and capacity-building. After a decade- (Fontanarosa et al., 2005). for dominant actors to separate the long effort, this initiative was able to Secondly, to address the problem problems from one another and to frame produce an authoritative estimate of the at root, measures may also be required the debate around narrowly defined, global foodborne disease burden in 2015, to reduce the reliance of researchers on one-dimensional solutions. Promoting while drawing considerable stakeholder private funding. The interaction between more holistic and integrated approaches attention to this problem (WHO, 2015a). researchers and industry funding is in science and policy alike – ‘food Another example of a global initiative that highly complex, since in many instances systems thinking’ – is therefore essential. aims to redress the imbalance in regional researchers are required to attract private Different forms of research involving a data availability is the mapping of poverty funding sources and voluntarily approach wider range of actors and sources of and likely zoonoses hotspots by the industry actors in search of grants. knowledge are also required to rebalance International Livestock Research Institute Such situations require at a minimum a the playing field and challenge prevailing (ILRI et al., 2012), one of the CGIAR careful analysis of potential conflicts of problem framings (e.g. industry-leaning research centres. interest. Initiatives to fund and mandate approaches; a global North bias). For Together, these steps can help independent scientific research and example, participatory research, which to redefine research for the public independent journalism on the health and includes the people whose health is most interest and the public good, to reassert environmental impacts of food systems affected by food systems, can help to scientific integrity, and ultimately to are therefore needed. overcome narrow research questions that address the burgeoning health impacts Securing the necessary resources exclude impacts on certain populations. of food systems. may require innovative funding models Encouraging a broader shift in and the involvement of a range of public research modalities requires different This text is based on the October 2017 and private actors (e.g. philanthropists). incentives across academia. It also report from the International Panel of Reflection is also required on the role requires assurances that studies of this Experts on Sustainable Food Systems of trade associations and industry- type will not be relegated to inferior or (IPES-Food): ‘Unravelling the Food–Health linked information portals and ‘front anecdotal status, and will be considered Nexus: Addressing practices, political groups’. These bodies may have greater side-by-side with other types of inquiry, economy, and power relations to build capacity than public health agencies to forming a meaningful part of the evidence healthier food systems’ (Lead author: communicate around food-related health base for assessing food systems. Cecilia Rocha, Editorial lead: Nick Jacobs). risks, but also face key conflicts of interest Fourthly, further investment should Available here (including references) and tend to blur the boundary between be made in large-scale data gathering industry and education (Heiss, 2013). by intergovernmental organisations. The

Fairness and food safety: a research gap

Dr Liza Draper, Food, Nutrition and Public Health Division, University of Westminster

Food safety is generally thought of as uncomfortable truths about animal framework. Consideration of fairness a rather dull and technical issue. Most and worker welfare. It is only when a and ethics rarely, if ever, feature. of us take it for granted that the foods food scare, such as BSE, Horsemeat Now, however, with concerns about we put into our mouths do not contain or the recent revelations about the 2 sustainability and food security high dangerous pathogens or chemical Sisters Food Group occurs, that these on the policy and research agendas, substances. are exposed. there is an opportunity to re-frame The ways in which foods The safety of global food supplies is food safety to extend beyond concerns are marketed and retailed in vital, but the current research agenda about consumer health, and to include industrialised countries such as the on food safety remains extremely potential harm to others involved in the UK, do not encourage us to look narrow, with a focus on risk assessment food chain to ensure that food is fair for back along the food chain. This is and management along the food all, including animals and workers. particularly true in regard to animal supply chain. Risks are framed primarily foods, as this might remind us of from a toxicological or epidemiological

38 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Pathways for the amplification of agroecology: matching practice with discourse The sophisticated analysis on food sovereignty is not always matched by concrete agroecological initiatives on the ground. There is an urgent need to translate agroecological principles into practical strategies to enhance production and resilience, so that they can be widely disseminated and expanded among thousands of farmers, write Clara Nicholls and Miguel Altieri.

Transitioning to an agriculture based ecological underpinnings of their One early project in the mid-1970s on agroecological principles would complex ecosystems, and then spreading advocating this approach, pioneered provide rural families with significant extensively such principles farmer to by Mexico’s INIREB, unveils a plan to social, economic and environmental farmer has been shown to be effective in build Aztecs’ perfected chinampas – benefits, and feed the world equitably speeding the development of productive, raised farming beds constructed in and sustainably.1 sustainable and resilient agroecosystems. shallow lakes or marshes agriculture Small-scale food producers farming Another avenue is for agroecologists and in the swampy region of Veracruz and less than 25% of all arable land provide farmers to blend traditional and modern Tabasco. A self-sustaining system that most of the food consumed today.2 If knowledge to create novel farm designs, has operated for centuries, allows for the they applied agroecology, these farmers’ well adapted to local circumstances. production of a wide variety of staple a contribution to global food security These lighthouse farms then radiate out crops, vegetables and flowers mixed could be improved and replicated. agroecological principles and lessons to with fruit trees. Abundant aquatic life in Yet, very few resources, and almost no the broader rural communities. the canals provided valuable sources of policy support, have been devoted to Herein we identify and describe a few protein. Although adoption of chinampas agroecology research and extension. initiatives that allowed the amplification was limited due to lack of local market It attracts less than 10% of the funding of agroecology beyond isolated local outlets, the ‘raised beds’ are still in full devoted to the 15 international research experiences to include more farming operation in the swamps of Tabasco, centres of the CGIAR. families in larger territories. as they ensure Chontal Indians’ food There are many ways to overcome security in times of scarcity.4 the barriers to widespread adoption of Reviving traditional farming systems In the Andes, several local equitable and accessible agroecological The failure of the Green Revolution government institutions in collaboration alternatives including: funding more to deliver for the very poor led with NGOs and farmers have restored, or research and education on agroecology, to new enthusiasm for traditional built new, terraces across Peru. Terraces creating an enabling policy and technologies. This spearheaded a quest minimise risks in times of frost and/ institutional environment, providing the in the developing world for affordable, or drought, reduce soil loss, increase right incentives to farmers, and creating productive, resilient and ecologically- cropping options because of their solidarity markets. Equally important sound technologies that enhance small microclimatic advantages and improve there is an urgent need to translate farm productivity while conserving crop yields. Also the revival, at altitudes of agroecological principles into practical resources, promoting biodiversity, and nearly 4,000 m, of ‘Waru-Warus’ – raised strategies for soil, water and biodiversity thriving without agrochemicals. beds surrounded by ditches filled with management to enhance production water – has not only ensured good crops, and resilience.3 but also, warmed by the sun, the water in a ‘In this paper, ‘lighthouse farms’ / ‘lighthouses’ Understanding the ways successful refer to beacons of good practice that radiate out the ditches moderate night temperatures, farmers use biodiversity and the this good practice to others. reducing frost damage.5

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 39 In more arid and semiarid regions, and practices. They emphasise the decentralized structure encompassing generations of farmers have developed design of diversified model farms that 180 municipalities and approximately management options that can increase demonstrate agroecological principles 2,400 families of farmers (around 12,000 the soil’s ability to store water for plant to the community and farmers from other people) organised in associations linked to use, reduce vulnerability to drought and regions. The half hectare agroecological 10 citizens’ ecological food cooperatives.12 help halt soil erosion and degradation. modules established by the Centro de Traditions of hand-dug ‘Zai’ pits for land Educacion y Tecnologia (CET) in Chile, Reconfiguring agroecological rehabilitation have been successfully allowed a family of five to be totally self- territories revived by projects in Burkina Faso and sufficient in food without using external There are many examples of whole rural Niger. The pits act as micro catchments, inputs. The Asociacion Cubana de communities engaged in agroecological holding and concentrating rainfall from Agricultura Organica (ACAO) in Cuba and transition processes at the territorial the area allowing reasonable maize yields Centro IDEAS in Peru established similar level, involving the widespread use of in times of drought.6 demonstration modules, helping hundreds agroecological practices, biodiversity of farmers to rebuild their farms based and resource conservation schemes and Campesino a Campesino (‘CaC’) on strategies that promote efficiency, territory-linked embedded food systems. El Movimiento Campesino a Campesino diversity, synergy, and resilience.10 The network of Globally Important (‘CaC’) is a grassroots movement in Successful farms established by Agricultural Heritage Systems13 and sustainable agriculture that emerged farmers using agroecological principles some of the large settlements of in Mexico 30 years ago and has swept can also be used as demonstration the Movimento dos Trabalhadores across Central America and the world. lighthouses. El Hatico nature reserve in Rurais Sem Terra (‘MST’) in Brazil14 are CaC is a cultural phenomenon creating Colombia features efficient silvopastoral examples of communities preserving innovative teaching mechanisms that link systems (SPS), which combine fodder their traditional systems to preserve, campesino communities across villages plants, such as grasses and leguminous and or secure, land managed under using agroecology and a horizontal herbs, with shrubs and trees for feeding agroecological principles. learning network. It uses participatory livestock and other complementary methods based on local peasant uses. SPS quickly recycle nutrients and Favourable policies needs and encourages the spread of improve soil fertility, nitrogen fixation Although development of public the rich pool of family and community and nutrient uptake from deep soil policies in support of agroecology agricultural knowledge that is linked to horizons. SPS create complex habitats are extremely important, experience their specific historical conditions and and soil food webs that support a suggests that combinations of identities. By exchanging innovations rich biodiversity above and below complementary policies are needed to among themselves, peasants have been ground, and increase connectivity incentivise the spread of agroecological able to make dramatic strides in food between forest fragments. El Hatico initiatives. Public food procurement production relative to the conventional has become a major research and is perhaps the most effective policy sector, while preserving agricultural education demonstration centre that promoting agroecology such as Brazil’s biodiversity and using much lower has benefitted thousands of farmers, National School Feeding Programme amounts of agrochemicals.7 students, scientists and others.11 (‘PNAE’), which by 2012 included the Several hundred thousand farmer- participation of 2000 municipalities promoters have shown that, given Alternative food networks and about 45 million students per the chance to generate and share Today agroecology is recognized by rural day were served. Researchers found agroecological knowledge freely social movements as a transformative that the PNAE offers an economic amongst themselves, smallholders science that is explicitly committed to incentive to small farmers to begin an are perfectly capable of adopting creating a just and sustainable future agroecological transition by creating a agroecological practices. The wide by reshaping power relations from farm price-differentiated market.15 adoption of Mucuna as a cover crop in to table. An ever-increasing diversity Central American hillsides by more than of actors (farmers’ organisations, Conclusions 50,000 families8 - and the more than progressive academics, NGOs, citizens It is well established that small farmers 130,000 farmers in Cuba that since 1990 and environmentalists) are forming can produce much of the food needed adopted agroecological practices and transnational agrarian and food justice for rural and urban communities, in the became the main food producers of movements, under the banner of food midst of climate change and without the island9 - are a living testimony of the sovereignty, that oppose the corporate- dependence on modern technologies. efficacy of this teaching mechanism. dominated global agri-food system. Such contributions could be amplified if Democratising access to healthy food for agroecology were extended to restore Demonstrating agroecological all is a main goal of such movements. and enhance the productive capacities transitions in practice An emblematic example is Ecovida of existing peasant systems. In order Since the 1980s, NGOs have promoted in southern Brazil, an initiative that to realise such potential, successful the integrated use of a variety of builds inclusive and equitable local local agroecological initiatives must be agroecological management technologies commercial networks. Ecovida has a widely spread via farmer to farmer using

40 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda teaching strategies (such as the CaC Transitioning towards agroecology 1 www.agassessment-watch.org/,www.ipes-food.org model), creation of demonstration farms for a more socially just, culturally 2 www.etcgroup.org/whowillfeedus or centres, reviving traditional systems diverse, economically viable and 3 Altieri, M.A. and C.I. Nicholls 2012 Agroecology: scaling up for food sovereignty and resiliency. and reconfiguring whole territories environmentally sound agriculture will Sustainable Agriculture Reviews Sustainable under agroecological management, be the result of the coordinated action Agriculture Reviews 11,DOI 10.1007/978-94-007- all with a focus on sharing experiences of emerging social movements in 5449-2_1 4 http://www.bib.uia.mx/tesis/pdf/014848/014848_06. and strengthening local innovation and alliance with civil society members and pdf problem-solving capacities. researchers committed to support the 5 Altieri, M.A. and C.I. Nicholls. 2013. The adaptation Developing equitable local and goals of farmers’ movements. and mitigation potential of traditional agriculture in a changing climate. Climatic Change DOI 10.1007/ regional market opportunities would s10584-013-0909-y make it more economically viable for 6 Stigter C et al (2005) Using traditional methods and the adoption of agroecology to grow. Clara I Nicholls is a Colombian indigenous technologies for coping with climate Experience shows that policies can agronomist with a Ph.D. in Entomology variability. Clim Chang 70:255–271 7 Holt-Giménez, E. 2006. Campesino a Campesino: be supportive of the agroecological and Biological Control of Pests Voices from Latin America’s Farmer to Farmer transition if they ensure that at University of California, Davis, Movement for Sustainable Agriculture. Oakland, CA, agroecological alternatives are adopted where she now teaches. She is the USA: Food First Books 8 https://www.idrc.ca/en/book/cover-crops-hillside- broadly, and that the resulting production President of the Latin American agriculture-farmer-innovation-mucuna finds guaranteed outlets in local or Scientific Society of Agroecology 9 Rosset, P. M. et al 2011. The Campesino-to- solidarity markets. (‘SOCLA’) and Regional Coordinator Campesino agroecology movement of ANAP in Cuba: social process methodology in the Simple practices that give quick, of REDAGRES, a network of Latin construction of sustainable peasant agriculture and visible results may appeal to farmers for American researchers exploring ways food sovereignty. Journal of Peasant Studies 38(1): early adoption, which has been the basis to evaluate and enhance resiliency 161–191 10 https://idl-bnc-idrc.dspacedirect.org/bitstream/ of the CaC methodology. However, of farming systems to climate handle/10625/34376/IDL-34376.pdf? the goal is to transition farmers to change. Miguel Altieri is a Chilean 11 Murgueitio E, et al (2011) Native trees and shrubs more integrated systems which born agronomist and entomologist for the productive rehabilitation of tropical cattle ranching lands. For Ecol Manag 261:1654–1663. lower production costs and enhance and a Professor of Agroecology at doi:10.1016/j farmers’ autonomy. Although more the University of California, Berkeley in 12 http://ecovida.org.br complex agroecological management the Department of Environmental 13 Koohafkan, P. M. A. Altieri. 2017. Forgotten agricultural heritage: reconnecting food systems depends on a deeper understanding Science, Policy and Management. The and sustainable development. Earthscan, London. of ecological relationships, lighthouse author of many seminal books, he is Also see www.fao.org/giahs/en/ farms can unravel the complexity by internationally regarded as one of 14 http://www.mst.org.br focusing on the principles that underpin the leading scientists in the field of 15 Wittman, H, and J. Blesh. 2017. Food Sovereignty and Fome Zero: Connecting Public Food Procurement such systems rather than on the agroecology, sustainable agriculture, Programmes to Sustainable Rural Development in practices and technologies. and agricultural systems resilience. Brazil. Journal of Agrarian Change 17 (1): 81–105

Measuring farming outcomes for the public good

Steve McLean, Head of Agriculture & Fisheries, Marks & Spencer

Our priority is to develop a supply These provide us with an objective improvement. However, more base fit for the future that drives tool to quantify, monitor and manage importantly, the data is providing innovative products and profitability, our impact on people, animals and direct feedback to the farmers and and allows everyone to reinvest in our shared planet, regardless of suppliers that produce our food on their communities. We don’t own the production system, climate and how they themselves can improve the farms and factories that make location. Having developed and animal welfare, economic, social and the products we sell in our stores, refined both the measures and the environmental performance of their therefore our reputation for quality, bespoke collection system with our farm and operations. innovation and sustainability is built on friends at FAI Farms, we are now A sustainable food future is long-term relationships. One way we regularly collecting data at critical the public good we are all working increasingly build and maintain these points in our supply chain in close towards. We are beginning to see relationships is through collaborative partnership with our suppliers. the signs of how collaborative data data collection. The data is extremely beneficial to collection with our suppliers can help The centrepiece of this approach us for benchmarking and identifying get us there. is to focus on ‘outcome measures.’ best practices as well as areas for

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 41 An ethical research agenda

42 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Setting an ethical research agenda: the role of the public sector Ruth Segal argues that public funding should be directed towards research that works explicitly towards creating a diverse and plural research system and answers the needs of poor and food-insecure farmers.

The concept of research ‘for the public knowledge and power to decide on globalisation processes often have a good’ – and of research outputs as ‘public research agendas. negative impact on food security for poor goods’ – has been understood in different As experience from the Green and marginal communities in countries of ways over time, interpreted to fit with Revolution onwards has shown, forms the South, and have increased inequality3. competing development discourses, and of agricultural research shape modes of The expansion of markets, coupled with has been used to justify a wide range of production. Ten years ago, the IAASTD unequal power relations in the food system public research interventions which are report argued that the global agri-food “…has resulted in the luxury tastes of the often contradictory. To prioritise food and system has been shaped by those with richest parts of the world being allowed farming research for the public good, we the power to do so, and choices about to compete against the satisfaction of the need to consider what we mean by ‘public priorities for research and investments basic needs of the poor.”4 good’, including asking who is the public have been based on a development – or publics? model designed in industrialised nations, Addressing inequalities An ethical research agenda can be often disregarding local knowledge, Policy makers who champion the role defined as one which creates research culture, interests and ecosystems.2 of the private sector in delivering to develop a food system providing IAASTD argued that a focus on food security rarely take into account outcomes of social welfare, food security production and profit, not sustainability power relations within the food system. and environmental sustainability.1 and development goals has given rise Instead, they assume that trade-based To produce these outcomes, policy to the social, health and environmental approaches to food security will enable and research should consider not just problems now confronting both the private sector to deliver desired production goals (quantity of food) but developing and industrialised countries. food system outcomes. By this logic, if environmental and socio-economic Most investment in crop research and the best way of reducing poverty is to goals too: including access to food by all; innovation has ignored locally important connect smallholders to global markets, the nutritional value of food produced; crops that provide vital dietary diversity, then research which enables them to biodiversity; resilience to climate change; or crops that are important for women’s provide products for multinational food the cultural value of food (including livelihoods. Therefore, these ‘orphan corporations could be seen to be ‘for the the relationships between people and crops’ are less economically attractive for public good’. place); the livelihoods people can make many farmers. As a result, research has through producing food and the quality The IAASTD analysis also described overwhelmingly supported market-based of their jobs. the huge impacts of globalisation, approaches to achieving food security, If that is an ethical food system, which has led to a shift in agricultural and more so as private sector R&D then research to support it needs to systems towards export production. increases. While it is impossible to get take multiple approaches, because the Agricultural outputs in developing reliable figures for private investment in answers to those questions look different countries are now often the raw materials agricultural R&D, evidence from sub- to different people, in different contexts, for a global market in processed foods. Saharan Africa shows private investment with different constraints. The type of product produced, where, bias towards a limited number of how, who by and who for, have all been commodity crops.5 Research: who is it for? affected by the integration of agriculture Agribusinesses and processing An ethical agricultural research agenda into global markets. Inputs to the companies employ agronomists to work must move beyond technical questions agriculture system, including research, with farmers, providing them with plant about yield and production to examine are therefore becoming geared towards varieties that best serve their product political questions about access – the incorporation of food production lines, e.g. potato varieties that are best for to productive inputs and outputs, into global food value chains. But such making crisps.6 In this way, such companies

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 43 are shaping the direction of agricultural support to overcome barriers to access. be working explicitly towards creating research directly on the ground. This Policy research on overcoming these a diverse and plural research system. leaves a huge gap of investment in the barriers is needed to support public This means recognising the multiple crops that could make the most difference agricultural research. routes to food security and different for poorer smallholders. Public good outcomes also depend on research needs for different contexts. It The dominant model of development the usefulness of the research to the end- means supporting multiple methods (agricultural growth leads to economic user. Barriers might include not only the for innovation in diverse contexts, and growth, poverty reduction and a shrinking form in which the knowledge is available, developing mechanisms to bring a wider agriculture sector) underpins this but the relevance of the knowledge to range of voices into research processes, approach. Against this model, civil society the context in which it is to be used. so farmers themselves can identify and farmer groups have developed Farmers are unlikely to use technologies investments that will best meet their radically different visions of how the food which do not address problems they needs. It means asking who benefits from system should operate. Right to Food have identified. Researchers, instead of current approaches and challenging and food sovereignty approaches call for searching for a ‘silver bullet’ technology power and inequality in the current food forms of production, e.g. agro-ecology, that can be applied at scale, should system. It means recognising that ‘good’ which consider context, scale and be working at farm level directly with is different for different people. diversity. Proponents call for food policy small-scale farmers to produce research to focus on goals of social justice, human outcomes that meet their needs. Farmers Ruth Segal, PhD candidate at University rights and environmental sustainability. must be acknowledged for their role as of Sussex, Science Policy Research Unit What research is needed to make innovators, rather than merely as recipients (SPRU) and Oxfam policy adviser on this a reality? The private sector makes of outputs from research centres. This food and agriculture. The views in this most money from technical solutions includes appreciation of the generations of article are the author’s own and do not that can be applied at scale, so there is knowledge and daily research embodied represent Oxfam policy positions. more incentive to invest in research for in ‘traditional’ seed varieties. commercial crops than for those grown by These debates about forms of small-scale farmers. It is difficult to make research have been ongoing for decades, money from poor farmers who cannot buy since the development of ‘farmer first’ agricultural inputs, or are unwilling to take and other participatory and co-creation 1 Ericksen P, Stewart B, Dixon J, et al. (2010) The Value the risks associated with trying out new research methods in the 1980s.8 But such of a Food System Approach. In: Ingram J, Ericksen P, and Liverman DM (eds), Food Security and Global crop varieties. approaches have remained at the margins Environmental Change, London: Earthscan. Publicly-funded research should aim of research agendas. As UN agencies 2 IAASTD (2009) Agriculture at the Crossroads Synthesis to meet the needs of those farmers, report increasing numbers of food Report: A Synthesis of the Global and Sub-Global IAASTD Reports. Washington: Island Press. https:// 9 focusing on ‘neglected’ crops and crops insecure people , there is a new urgency islandpress.org/books/iaastd for bio- and dietary diversity. It should to ensure the voices of farmers are heard 3 Clapp J (2009) Corporate interest in US food aid be explicitly directed towards forms of in research systems. policy: global implications of resistance to reform. In: Clapp J and Fuchs D (eds), Corporate Power in Global research that are not receiving attention But even with better directed research, Agrifood Governance, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. from private sector actors. farmers will not grow crops for local food 4 De Schutter, O. (2014) Final report: The transformative Public research, which produces security if commodity crops provide them potential of the right to food UN General Assembly, Human Rights Council Twenty fifth session, Agenda knowledge and places it in the public with a better income. Policy research item 3 – A/HRC/25/57 domain, should be a public good. is needed to identify mechanisms that 5 Pray, C., Byerlee, D. and Nagarajan, L. (2016) Private- However, publicly-funded research is enable farmers to make a living from Sector Investment in African Agricultural Research in Lynam, J. Beintema, N., Roseboom J. and Badiane, O. often shaped by donor priorities rather growing healthy food sustainably. (eds) Agricultural Research in Africa: Investing in Future that the needs of farmers, and has Research is needed into what incentives Harvests. Washington, IFPRI not always focused on development will enable them to make that shift, for 6 ETC Group (2012) The Greed Revolution: Mega Foundations, Agribusiness Muscle in on Public Goods, 7 outcomes. Not all forms of knowledge instance from cocoa production for global Communiqué January/February 2012 Issue no. 108 are equally available, accessible or markets to crops for diverse diets for local [link] relevant to all publics. Research communities. This could include research 7 Pingali, P., Spielman, D. and Zaida, F. (2016) Changing Donor Trends in Assistance to Agricultural Research centres may produce new seed into emerging rural-urban systems which and Development in Africa South of the Sahara in varieties or knowledge about better support small-holder production.10 The Lynam, J. Beintema, N., Roseboom J. and Badiane, O. farming techniques, but farmers may public sector has a key role to play (eds) Agricultural Research in Africa: Investing in Future Harvests. Washington, IFPRI need additional resources to use this in identifying these policy and other 8 Chambers, R. & Ghildyal, B.P. (1984), Agricultural knowledge, including access to the seeds, mechanisms. Its strategic focus should Research for Resource-Poor Farmers: The Farmer-First- or to extension services so they can learn be on farmers in marginalised areas, who and-Last Model, Ford Foundation Discussion Paper no 16, New Delhi: Ford Foundation new approaches. Without these inputs, are often physically difficult to reach, 9 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP & WHO (2017) The State of research is unlikely to deliver benefits to and socially or politically marginalised. Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017. Building farmers. The public good outcomes from This includes focussing on the needs of resilience for peace and food security. Rome, FAO. 10 Wegerif, M. and Hebinck, P (2016) The Symbiotic Food research therefore depend on policy, women farmers. System: An ‘Alternative’ Agri-Food System Already regulation, infrastructure and institutional Publicly-funded research should Working at Scale. Agriculture 2016, 6(3), 40 [link]

44 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Ethical priorities for future agrifood research There needs to be a revolution in the way science knowledge is obtained, writes Ben Mepham – and ethical reasoning must be a crucial element in decision-making on science and agriculture policy.

What drives research? that ‘ethics’ is relevant to assessment supply) are not mentioned in the BBSRC’s Significant difficulties in making plans of the activities of governmental and narrative. Instead a headlong pursuit of for research priorities lie in adequately commercial organisations, and not just economic growth in the face of a rapidly understanding the present situation, to personal standards of behaviour, has degraded environment, and a marked and accurately forecasting the assumed a high public profile. Now, deterioration in public health, illustrates resulting developments. Given these almost all organisations dealing directly the government’s reliance on out-dated imponderables, and uncertainties with the public have established ethics theory to address new global crises. pervading the Brexit debate, I adopt here committees, and codes of ethics. But this a radical ‘visionary’ approach - hoping that ‘privatisation’ of ethics led to abolition An ethical research agenda if the analysis proves useful, appropriate of many government committees with Much basic research in the biosciences, policy implications will emerge. For, while clearly-defined ethical remits, such when conflated with biotechnology (with ethical deliberation clearly does not as the Agriculture and Environment which it is inextricably entwined in BBSRC exert the clout of legislation, arguably Biotechnology Commission (AEBC, of programmes), aims to address economic it can exercise a significant influence by which I was a member) and the Farm objectives. But when this focus is to informing sound judgments. Animal Welfare Council. Moreover, as the detriment of environmental, animal In Food Ethics (1996),1 my chapter on noted by the renowned US agricultural welfare and public health considerations, research policy began with this quotation ethicist, Paul Thompson,2 “while it is hardly compatible with the aim of from an article by the social scientist people … think of medical ethics as achieving universal prosperity. What seems Howard Newby: “Agricultural science a field where normative assumptions necessary is a much more joined-up, has indeed transformed the practice of and disagreements are analysed and holistic analysis of the ethical implications agriculture. Discoveries made by people debated, ‘food ethics’… [including its of research programmes, to guide sound in white coats ...have been transferred into agricultural dimensions] … tends to be decision-making on research priorities – a farmers’ fields in a bewilderingly short associated with personal conduct” e.g. primary aim of the now-disbanded AEBC. space of time, assisted by a wide network concerning consumers’ choices to eat In another chapter in ‘Food Ethics’ of institutions ... aimed at speeding up foods they consider raised under ‘good (Ethical analysis of food biotechnologies: the process of technology transfer.” Given welfare’ conditions or ‘additive-free’. an evaluative framework) I outlined a Newby’s ”bewilderingly short space of So, in the agri-food context, “the norms conceptual tool, the ethical matrix. Based time,” and the dramatic acceleration of distinguishing right from wrong are on elements of the so-called ‘common ‘technology transfer’ over the last 20 presumed obvious and noncontroversial” morality,’ it sought to facilitate ethical years, it is pertinent to enquire whether because for many people it is not the deliberation on the impacts of proposed ethical analysis has assumed more, or less, role of food ethics to specify, analyse or technological innovations for a range of significance in formulating research policy debate normative commitments. Yet, interest groups (for example consumers, over that period. arguably, this is precisely where ethical farmers, retailers, farm animals and biota In my chapter I suggested, with deliberation is necessary. in the environment). Subsequently, it reference to farm animal welfare, that The Biotechnology and Biological has been used extensively, e.g. by the three types of question should be posed Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), which Food Ethics Council, and across the for ‘rigorous’ ethical auditing: i) are issues funds the UK government sponsored EU – which sponsored a major research assigned a priority commensurate with agri-food research, describes its mission grant to explore its utility. Thompson2 their ethical significance? ii) is the research in a ‘core narrative’.3 In essence, this is surely right that “it is arguably most addressing appropriate questions? and amounts to providing support to the useful as a heuristic device … that iii) is the research conducted in ways that bioscience base, in order to underpin facilitates multidisciplinary conversation respect consumers’ rights to know about the bioeconomy, and build a more and collaboration.” It does not aim to the processes and products employed in prosperous nation. But wider concerns, prescribe ethical decisions, but to clarify food production? In brief, my conclusions such as global environmental sustainability views and justify individual judgements. suggested that in no case had these ethical (adversely affected inter alia by intensive I believe bioethical analysis should be issues been adequately addressed. agriculture) and malnutrition (due to an essential ingredient of BBSRC’s remit. Over the last 20 years, the notion inadequate and/or inappropriate food But it’s a telling fact that, apparently, this

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 45 claim was only once endorsed – when, in until recently this claim was questioned soundness of this thesis. 1997, I was awarded a three-year BBSRC by many economists. Now, for informed A revolution in the way ‘scientific research grant for a project ‘Bioethical and thoughtful people, it’s virtually a knowledge’ is acquired and used is analysis of technology assessment’. truism; for, “to have a chance of avoiding urgently needed. Given the enormous Focusing on two prospective dairy collapse in the resource base in the (not roles played by bioscience and technologies, it involved workshops too distant) future requires a massive biotechnology in our lives, an introduction employing the ethical matrix, surveys of technological shift, wholesale changes to ethical reasoning should be provided retailer, consumer and farmers’ attitudes in patterns of consumer demand; and a to all secondary school children, be a and desktop research. Arguably, it huge international drive for technological prominent feature of tertiary education, provided crucial evidence for the EU’s ban transfer.”6 But there is little evidence of and a crucial element in decision-making on the use of growth hormone in dairying. these objectives in BBSRC research policy. on science policy. Structured approaches, However, a subsequent BBSRC Chief such as the ethical matrix, can facilitate Executive considered that bioethics was Intergenerational justice is crucial sound judgements. outside the Council’s remit. An estimated 800 million of the world’s Priorities for food supply should The ethical matrix is only one of 7.3 billion people suffered from chronic be: sustainable, universal nutrition, several ways to aid ethical assessment undernourishment in 2014-2016. by means that mitigate environmental of scientific research policies. But Addressing this relentlessly self- degradation; and respect for the rights structured deliberation, with input from perpetuating predicament is clearly not of humans and nonhumans (farmed and representatives of different interests in just a matter of stop-gap measures but feral) while remaining sensitive to the society must surely now be a routine of inter-generational justice. Reciting diversity of cultural norms. Research element of prospective technology the UN Declaration of Human Rights is policy should be revised to address policies. The public participatory process cynical and meaningless if not supported these priorities – although this will entail on the future of the Norwegian fishing by serious positive measures. In an substantial restructuring. industry, conducted using an ethical inter-generational context, this ethical matrix, is a notable example of the value obligation needs to ensure: that in future Ben Mepham was founder and of this approach in forward planning.4 the planet is sufficiently well-stocked Executive Director of the Food Ethics with resources to supply everyone with Council (1998-2003). Formerly a reader Food systems for universal, adequate nutritious food; and everyone in physiology at Nottingham University, sustainable nutrition has an equitable access to this total stock. in 1993 he founded and directed the Space limitations confine my focus to Environmental lawyer Edith Brown Weiss Centre for Applied Bioethics, and was this single objective. To economise on proposed two important principles to subsequently appointed to a ‘special citation of references, several key ideas underpin this obligation: conservation professorship’ in bioethics. Since are discussed in earlier publications.5 To of options (ensuring that future uses of retirement in 2005, he has held an illustrate the attitudinal changes required the diversity of the natural and cultural honorary professorship at the Centre. to devise research policies responsive resource base are not unduly restricted); He co-founded the European Society to rigorous bioethical analysis, I suggest and conservation of quality (ensuring the for Agricultural and Food Ethics, and that the following claims need to be planetary resources we pass on are in no was a member, as a bioethicist, of assigned importance. worse condition than those we inherited).7 the UK government’s Biotechnology Commission. Reliance on economic growth Research aims need to is no longer valid be re-directed

Probably, the most important claim Traditionally, the aim of science has 1 Mepham B (1996) Chapter 10 and Chapter 7 Food advanced in recent years, is that future been the acquisition and extension of Ethics (ed. Mepham B) London Routledge prosperity can only be achieved if knowledge. But Nicholas Maxwell’s 2 Thompson P B (2014) Agricultural Ethics: then and now. Agric Human Values DOI10.1007/s10460-014-9519-1 decoupled from economic growth. novel approach to scientific research 3 BBSRC (2017) Core narrative [link] Accessed 27/11/2017 For Tim Jackson, “In a world of limits, – aim-oriented rationalism – makes 4 Kaiser M and E M Forsberg (2001) Assessing fisheries, frugality recalls us to our membership attainment of personal and social wisdom using an ethical matrix in a participatory process. J Agric Env Ethics 14 (2) 191-200 8 in a wider community: prosperity can its principal aims. He argues that, as 5 Mepham B (2008) Bioethics: an introduction for the only be conceived as a condition that science can never be fully ‘neutral’, the biosciences. 2nd edn. London, Oxford University includes obligations and responsibilities aim of research ought to be to acquire Press; Mepham, B (2012) Agricultural Ethics. In: Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics 2nd Ed. Chadwick, to others. It’s a view that is almost totally wisdom rather than just to accumulate R. San Diego, Academic Press, Vol 1, 86-96; and antithetical to the prevailing notion of supposedly ethically neutral facts. He Mepham, B (2012) Food Ethics. Ibid. Vol 2, 322-330. prosperity through individual gain.”6 claims that intellectual priority needs to 6 Jackson T (2017) Prosperity without Growth. 2nd edition London, Routledge But despite the evidence that “excess be given to the dual tasks of articulating 7 Brown Weiss E (1989) Climate change, nutrient loading, species loss, ocean our problems of living, and proposing and intergenerational equity, and international law. http:// acidification and climate change [are] criticising possible solutions. Many years’ scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=2637&context=facpub already representing a serious threat experience as a scientist and reflection 8 Maxwell N (2007) From Knowledge to Wisdom:2nd to the integrity of ecological systems,” as a bioethicist, persuade me of the edn. London, Pentire Press

46 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Final viewpoint

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 47 Calling for a paradigm shift Food Ethics Council viewpoint

There are enough ‘hockey stick’ graphs – of climate change, biodiversity loss, obesity and other negative products of the current industrial food system – to make the case for proper investment in long-term solutions and an appropriate, inclusive, ethical food and farming research agenda. Yet, the evidence has been ignored.

There is a lot known about our food both the public and private spheres, research on traditional crop varieties or and farming systems and their impact are too often operating without social innovation strategies.” on people, animals and the planet. And addressing fundamental ethical there is a lot not yet known about them. questions about the wider purpose of Undue corporate influence – on the While there is greater understanding the research and what its social and research agenda, and associated legal, of genetics of both crops and livestock, environmental implications are. Often political and other measures which greater concern for farm animal welfare the only ‘ethical concern’ explored prevent more progressive research and improved awareness of how in research proposals is whether the happening. Private and publicly funded farming can have a positive impact research has potential for immediate research is becoming more and more on the environment, there is much harm to humans or livestock. While it is imbalanced, with reduced publicly- to be deeply concerned about – the of course important to consider likely funded research increasingly serving endemic exploitation, wastefulness, immediate harm from research, it is also the interests of agrochemical and unsustainability, unfairness, self-interest important to question what impacts the seed companies that have much larger and short-termism. research will have on our food systems research budgets. The public R&D spend Much food and farming research and on society more broadly. The latter for the UK is largely restricted to the is arguably supporting the current should be a critical factor in shaping ‘discovery’ end and not the applied end industrial food and farming systems what research is funded. of research, which is instead mostly left quite satisfactorily. However, flaws in to the market. This gives control to the the current systems mean they are too A narrow agenda – The narrow large multinational corporations whose often asking for research that delivers for productivist mantra dominates the views feedback the ‘targets’ for the private gain, rather than public good. The top line aims of research and shuts off innovation research. This perpetuates the scientific quality of UK food and farming opportunities for other enlightened R&D agenda being for the industrial food research is recognised to be high, but the food and farming research, due to a system. This is concerning given that issue is what is researched and how the number of ‘lock-ins’1. As Pat Mooney BBSRC now has control of some of the use of its products are regulated. writes in IPES-Food’s ‘Too Big to Feed’ UK’s aid budget, as it may mean research (2017): is more likely to be targeted to issues that While industrial food system research “While the volume of R&D spending coerce smallholders into industrialised has delivered benefits for some, it also in the agrifood sector may be high, the production systems and related food has a number of aspects that many would scope remains strikingly narrow. The chains rather than in support of their consider undesirable: consolidation and privatization of R&D biodiverse and ecological, localised food budgets has focused innovation on a webs. There is also a widely held, elitist Failure to address fundamental ethical narrow range of crops, technologies view that applied science is ‘derivative’ questions – Those driving the research and approaches, creating path (i.e. not discovering anything new), hence and industrial innovation agendas, in dependencies that detract from not considered to be ‘good science’ and

48 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda therefore not suitable for funding by UK of smallholder farmers, particularly in assumptions. There will often be an research council committees. the Global South. Smallholders need element of research bias, but as long as to be protected and to be given access there is openness and the biases can be Unacceptable opaqueness – There is a to relevant research (e.g. agronomy). contested, then that is less of an issue. lack of transparency and in some cases However, critically the research needs to ‘murkiness’ over many different aspects be appropriate to those smallholders and A genuinely inclusive and open of research. Without open access to farmer-led, not imported from the UK’s approach – including farmer-led information about priority setting and largely industrial food and farming systems. (particularly by small-scale and related discussions, it is not possible to biodiversity-enhancing farmers) and have inclusive decision-making involving The good news is that there are community-led research – and citizen the wider public. This would include, for alternatives to the ‘status quo’ industrial science done well. As we at the Food example, online access to all the papers research paradigm, examples of which Ethics Council wrote in our ‘Just for the BBSRC’s Advisory Panels and/ or are in the pages of this magazine. A Knowledge’ publication (2004): “The future UKRI Advisory Panels. That might progressive research agenda needs: ethics of science and technology – the seem inconsequential at first glance, but values and assumptions that get built these documents being unavailable for Serious investment in transformational in during research, innovation and public scrutiny is hugely important, as it food, farming, health and regulation – must be opened to greater sets the tone and begs questions about environmental research – to benefit public scrutiny and challenge.” transparency and openness. the world’s main food producers (particularly small-scale), citizens (food The products and intellectual content, Questionable assumptions and eaters), animals, the environment and and their derivatives, of (especially) interpretations – Much current research future generations – in both the UK’s publicly-funded food and agricultural is based on misplaced or questionable international research footprint and research to be kept in the public domain. underlying assumptions, such as the at home. This is even more important We need publicly-funded research oft cited ‘food production has to for the UK as it begins the process of to support smaller scale agriculture, increase by 70% by 2050’. It is also leaving the EU and its research and otherwise it is always going to be the the interpretation of these which is innovation programmes, like Horizon industrial food system that benefits. We often problematic and led by those 2020 and its successors. also need to ensure that the world’s, with vested interests. For example, mainly smaller-scale, food providers have one interpretation amongst agri-food Research that is proportionate to the rights to the resources they require to businesses has been that increasing scale of the challenges faced – Food sustain production, including being able yields is the way to meet expected and farming research must help us to retain access to and control over their demand, rather than also by addressing develop urgent responses to the biodiverse seeds through international the use of much of this ‘food’, food loss, ‘knowns’ of climate change, biodiversity recognition of Farmers’ Rights. food waste and changing diets. loss, obesity, hunger etc. and build social and environmental resilience for Proper application of the precautionary Undue emphasis on immediacy and the unknowns. principle. It is particularly important scientists’ short-term publication post-Brexit that the UK has effective requirements, at the cost of supporting A paradigm shift towards agroecology and appropriate levels of regulation in longer-term approaches with greater and other approaches that value place, especially for technologies used citizen participation in agenda setting. The people, the planet and animals – and a in food and farming, including new latter is a relatively recent phenomenon, framework and political will to shift future biotechnologies such as synthetic biology but vital. The nature of that participation research in that direction. and gene editing. is also hugely important. ‘Partnering’ with other multinationals along the UK’s international research footprint to A proper way to measure effectiveness supply chain which often ends up only support farmer-led research, including of research. Too often research ‘success’ benefitting the major corporations farmers’ informal and biodiverse seeds is measured by the number of peer- themselves, is not ‘participation’ in the systems and peasant agroecology, which reviewed academic papers or number sense used in this magazine. feed the majority of people in the world. of patents / IPRs granted, by growth in Research to enhance smallholder farming productivity yields alone or by securing A neo-colonialist approach to research systems should be aimed at what the matched corporate funding, rather than that is considered suitable to other smallholders want, not imposed from measuring how it improves wellbeing and countries and continents - Imposing industrial food systems. the environment. In the food and farming an inappropriate industrial paradigm context, critically measuring research of research, including a focus on Radical transparency – including from key effectiveness should include how a piece biotechnology and genomics, on the research councils (and in the future UKRI) of research is likely to contribute to fair, UK’s overseas partners. At present there on funding, potential conflicts of interest, healthy, sustainable and humane food is not enough support for the real needs agenda setting processes and underlying and farming systems.

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 49 It is not enough to ask these There are key questions that those setting and conducting research questions. Answers to the above should ask of every proposed piece of research. These include: questions need to be taken seriously, not simply treated as ‘window dressing’ •• How could the research •• How can those likely to be when it comes to funding decisions on accelerate the shift to fair and affected by the research (e.g. future research. sustainable food systems? farmers or citizens) be genuinely April 2018 is the start date for the involved in shaping it? UK Research and Innovation (‘UKRI’). •• What are the underlying It is also the tenth anniversary of the assumptions? What lies behind •• What are likely (intended and International Assessment of Agricultural or under the declared top-line unintended) consequences of the Knowledge, Science and Technology for aims of research such as to research? What will it mean for Development’s (‘IAASTD’) publication ‘Feed the World’, ‘Tackle Climate (particularly small-scale) farmers, of its 22 ’Findings’. What happens in Change’, and so on? animals, environment, citizens, the next decade is critical. The Brexit future generations…? context provides a new opportunity to •• Who is funding the research?2 transform the way UK food and farming •• What options are foregone research is done for the public good at •• Why is the research being by taking the route that the home and overseas. We urge all those funded? Who really wants the researcher selects? involved in food and farming research to research to be done and who gets take responsibility for this much-needed the immediate benefit, including transformation. We require an inclusive financial benefit? And is that research setting process, a transparent benefit fairly distributed? research agenda and the application of socially and environmentally enhancing research that contributes towards food systems that provide for the needs of people, animals and the planet. Questioning for whom food and farming research is carried out is a first step towards this transformation; the next step requires ethical actions.

1 IPES-Food (2016) ‘Uniformity to Diversity’ publication describes “the key mechanisms locking industrial agriculture in place, regardless of its outcomes; it is these cycles that will need to be broken if a transition towards diversified, agroecological systems is to be achieved. Some of these ‘lock-ins’ relate to the political structures governing food systems, some concern the way agricultural markets are organized, and others represent conceptual barriers around the way questions are framed. Each represents a vicious cycle locking in industrial agriculture, as well as a potential entry point for change.” 2 In many cases, the answer is the taxpayer via research council funding.

50 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda Further reading The literature on topics covered by this publication is extensive. The following publications represent a very small selection of suggested further reading.

Clapp J. and Fuchs D. (eds) (2009) IPES-Food (2017) Too Big to Feed: Pimbert M.P. (ed) (2017) Food Corporate Power in Global Agrifood Exploring the impacts of mega-mergers, Sovereignty, Agroecology and Governance consolidation and concentration of Biocultural Diversity: Constructing power in the agri-food sector (Lead and contesting knowledge, Series: etcGroup (2017) Who will feed us? The author: Pat Mooney, Editorial Leads: Routledge Studies in Food, Society and Peasant Food Web vs. the Industrial Chantal Clément and Nick Jacobs) – the Environment Food Chain. particularly the chapter entitled ‘IMPACT Rosset P.M. & Altieri M.A. (2017) Food Ethics Council (2004) Just 3 - Narrowing the scope of innovation: Agroecology: Science Knowledge? Governing research on food defensive and derivative R&D’ and Politics and farming Mills, E., Wilkinson, J., Then, C., Luig, B., Sumberg J. & Thompson J. (2012) Galushko V. and Gray R. (2013) Greenberg, S., Thomas, J., Chemnitz, Contested Agronomy: Agricultural Privatization of Crop Breeding in the C., Herre, R., Rehmer, C., Wenz, K., Research in a Changing World, Series: UK: Lessons for Other Countries, Paper Bartz, D., Moldenhauer, H., Hirtz, S., Routledge, Pathways to Sustainability prepared for presentation at the 87th Alliot, C., Ly, S., De Schutter, O., Frison, Annual Conference of the Agricultural E., Sharma, S., Urhahn, J. & Murphy, S. UNESCO (2016) Indigenous and Local Economics Society, University of Warwick, (2017). Agrifood Atlas - Facts and figures Knowledge(s) and Science(s) for United Kingdom, 8 - 10 April 2013 about the corporations that control what Sustainable Development. Policy Brief we eat, jointly published by Heinrich by the Scientific Advisory Board of the IPES-Food (2016) From uniformity to Böll Foundation, and Rosa Luxemburg UN Secretary-General (5 October 2016). diversity: a paradigm shift from industrial Foundation, Berlin, Germany and Friends agriculture to diversified agroecological of the Earth Europe, Brussels, Belgium systems Pimbert M.P., Barry B., Berson A. & Tran-Thanh K. (2010) Democratising Agricultural Research for Food Sovereignty in West Africa. IIED, CNOP, Centre Djoliba, IRPAD, Kene Conseils, URTEL, Bamako and London.

For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda 51 This collection of articles addresses key questions about how the research agenda is set in food and farming, unmasks and challenges the dominant research paradigm, and highlights inclusive alternatives to deliver public good. In doing so, the Food Ethics Council seeks to challenge accepted opinion and spark fruitful debate about the future food and farming research agenda.

52 For whom? Questioning the food and farming research agenda