The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse

Jean-Yves Camus

ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance

March 2005 The opinions expressed in this work are the responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Council of Europe or of any of the mechanisms or monitoring bodies established by it.

ECRI (European Commission against Racism and Intolerance) Council of Europe F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex

© Council of Europe, 2005

Printed at the Council of Europe Foreword

The European Commission against cal discourse or of a discourse otherwise Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) is a mecha- impacting on racism and intolerance within nism which was established by the first public opinion. It was agreed that the analy- Summit of Heads of State and Governments sis should cover the European Parliament of the Council of Europe (October 1993). elections of June 2004, and national or local ECRI's task is to combat racism, xenopho- elections, which took place between June bia, antisemitism and intolerance at the 2003 and June 2004 in at least three Council level of greater Europe and from the per- of Europe member States. The study was spective of the protection of human rights. forwarded by the consultant to ECRI at its ECRI is composed of independent and plenary meeting from 14-17 December 2004. impartial members, nominated on the basis ECRI decided to adopt at its plenary of their moral authority and recognized meeting from 15-17 March 2005 a Declara- expertise in dealing with matters related to tion on the issue and to publish it together the fight against racism and intolerance. with the consultant's study on 21 March ECRI's programme of activities comprises 2005 on the occasion of the International three aspects: country-by-country Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimi- approach; work on general themes; relations nation. with civil society. In the context of its work on general This publication contains the study themes, ECRI decided at its plenary meeting drawn up for ECRI by Mr Jean-Yves Camus from 22-25 June 2004 to entrust an outside as an outside consultant. It should be noted consultant with the task of preparing a that the study was conducted independent- study on cases where recent European and ly by the consultant and does not fall under national elections have given rise to the use the responsibility of ECRI, or the Council of of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic politi- Europe.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 3

Xenophobic, racist and antisemitic discourse in national and European Parliament election campaigns between June 2003 and 13 June 2004: general analysis and national case studies Jean-Yves Camus

General introduction

In 2004, in both west European and homogeneous to multicultural society in central and east European countries, albeit many countries, the fact of immigrants set- with variants, parties that use racist, antise- tling and founding families and the econom- mitic and xenophobic political discourse are ic crisis), racist and xenophobic discourse increasingly being censured, stigmatised has been reinjected into the political agenda and therefore sidelined. The Charter of by traditional (conservative or liberal and European Political Parties for a Non-Racist sometimes even left-wing) political parties Society adopted in 1997 and the range of or at least by individual members of those national legislation imposing criminal pen- parties. I shall demonstrate that this dis- alties for expressions of racism, course primarily targets immigrants and ref- antisemitism, xenophobia and, as a rule, ugees, especially those from Muslim coun- negation of the genocide of the Jews by the tries, and sometimes Islam itself, as a Nazis reflect a high degree of consensus on religion, often confused with its political the subject among democratic parties and expression, Islamism. Lastly, I shall discuss public opinion. Until recently, the use of the specific case of the resurgence of antise- these topics in political discourse during mitic acts and statements and the discourse and outside election periods was more or referring to them, as well as the very scat- less restricted to parties classified by politi- tered but very real instances of antisemitic cal scientists as far-right.1 As we shall see, prejudice in political parties which nonethe- these parties scored modest results in the less remain marginal. European elections, including in the coun- tries newly admitted to the European Finally, I shall make three case studies of Union. But I shall show that under the pres- the use of racist, xenophobic and antisemit- sure of both the international context (the ic discourse in countries belonging both to rise of radical Islamist terrorism) and specif- the Council of Europe and to the European ically European trends (the shift from Union: Belgium, the Republic of Ireland and Latvia. To conclude this introduction, I 1. For a theoretical definition of the far right, see the should like to make one point clear. Firstly, thesis of the Dutch political scientist Cas Mudde: a reference to a given political party or The Extreme Right Party Family; University of Leiden, country in this report does not in any sense 1998. For an up-to-date review of the forces within this movement: Pierre Blaise/Patrick Moreau (ed.): imply an intention on my part to stigmatise Extrême-droite et nationaux-populismes en Europe de that party or country or make a value judg- l’Ouest, Editions du CRISP, Brussels, 2002. ment denying its democratic nature (except

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 5 in the case of parties unanimously recog- the international organisations they belong nised as anti-democratic). All the parties to (or of the European Union or the Council mentioned operate legally, as evidenced by of Europe). While the facts mentioned in their participation in the electoral process. this report call for discussion and possibly Where one of them breaches the law, it is for for changes in attitude, and in some cases the courts of the country concerned, and for require legal penalties, they do not warrant them alone, to punish that party. Likewise, a blanket derogatory judgment on the all the countries mentioned are democracies country concerned. which support the founding principles of

Part one: The far right, the traditional vehicle for racist, antisemitic and xenophobic discourse, has scored modest election results in recent years

Any study of the use of racist and xeno- score rose from 15.1 to 23.16% of the Dutch- 1. Election results: an phobic themes in an election campaign pre- speaking electoral college vote, while the outline interpretation supposes an analysis of the presence of far- Front National, standing in Wallonia and right parties and their results. From this Brussels, scored 7.45% of French-speaking standpoint, the outcome of the June 2004 vote (as against 4.1% in 1999). This success elections was undistinguished and cannot was confirmed by the regional elections held be regarded as a landslide for xenophobic on the same date and was indisputably the nationalist parties. A country-by-country best result scored by a far-right party in examination shows a decline in Austria, western Europe. The increase was also spec- where the FP scored 6.33% and only one tacular in Poland, where the League of seat as against 23.4% and five seats in 1999. Polish Families (LPR) scored 15.92% and In Germany, far-right parties remain very the Samobroona (Self-Defence) party much on the sidelines, since the National- 10.78%. It was substantial in Greece, where demokratische Partei Deutschlands (NPD) ex-New Democracy MP George Karat- scored 0.9% and the Republikaner 1.9%. In zaferis’ party LAOS obtained one seat with France the Front National admittedly pro- 4.11% of the vote. It was real in Slovenia, gressed (9.81% as against 5.69% in 1999), where the SNS (Slovene National Party) but this increase should be viewed with scored 5.2%, with no seats, but progressed caution because the 1999 score was not rep- by comparison with the general election resentative in the wake of the split caused held in 2000 (4.4%) and above all confirmed by Bruno Mégret leaving the party in this trend in the general election of Septem- January 1999, and the FN’s score was lower ber 2004, when it scored 6.6%. Lastly, the than its score of 12.9% in the 2004 regional Latvian Fatherland and Freedom Party elections. The far right made little progress (LNKK), which ranked first with a score of in Italy: Fiamma Tricolore, an unrepentant 29.82%, is on the borderline between con- fascist party, scored 0.7% where its prede- servative right and far right. cessor, MS-Fiamma Tricolore, had scored There was a much smaller increase for 1.6%, though this loss was offset by the 1.2% the Danish Dansk Folkeparti (6.8% as scored by Alessandra Mussolini’s Alternati- against 7.1%) and the Swedish Sverige- va Sociale list. These two parties obtained demokraterna (1.13% as against about 1%). only one seat owing to the electoral system, In the Netherlands the only reason for the which borders on full proportional repre- increase was that the List Pim Fortuyn, sentation, and while the National Alliance which scored 2.6% this time, did not stand party moved up from 10.3 to 11.5%, it can no in the 1999 election. Lastly, the British longer be regarded as part of the far right. National Party’s score of 4.9%, totalling The Lega Nord (Northern League) showed 808,200 votes, must be viewed as a danger only a very slight increase, from 4.5 to 5%, signal. While the British electoral system perhaps due to the short-term effect of sym- prevented the party from obtaining a seat, pathy for its leader Umberto Bossi, who was its score can nevertheless be regarded as temporarily prevented from heading the list. high in view of its radical racist discourse. So there are few cases in which the far right made significant progress. This hap- However, these successes should not be pened in Belgium, where the Vlaams Blok’s allowed to mask two facts. Firstly, there is

6 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance no far right at all in some countries (Cyprus, 2002, when they lost their representation in Finland, Ireland, Luxembourg) and there are parliament); the Hungarian MIEP scored merely small far-right groups in several 2.35% (4.4% in the general election of April others (Spain, Estonia, Lithuania, Malta, 2002, when it lost all its seats); and in Slova- Portugal). Secondly, in the new EU member kia the SNS (Slovak National Party) implod- countries of eastern Europe, xenophobic ed, with a score of only 2.01% (in the general ultra-nationalist parties, many of which are election of September 2002 the SNS and its the self-proclaimed successors of parties of ally in the European elections, the PSNS, the same type that existed between 1918 and together scored 7%).2 1940, suffered setbacks which confirm the decline observed in the previous national elections. For example, Miroslav Sladka’s 2. For a synoptic table of the far right’s results in the Republikani scored only 0.79% in the Czech European elections, see Searchlight Magazine, No. 349, Republic (1% in the general election of June July 2004, pp.25-26.

2. The far right: a brief As I said in the introduction, these par- right and the peoples of eastern Europe analysis of its discourse ties’ racist, xenophobic and antisemitic dis- takes on special significance because the course was widely heard during the cam- party concerned demands a return to the paign for the June 2004 European elections, 1937 borders and sold a “Kalender des as in national elections, and remains the Nationalen Widerstandes” (National main source of racist political discourse Resistance Calendar) during the campaign, during and outside election campaigns. To featuring an article on “the myth of the understand its scope, one must also remem- Reich and its historical borders” and ber that even far-right movements with another on “the Waffen SS volunteer army”. little electoral impact usually receive broad Lastly, the NPD sets itself apart from the and sometimes disproportionate media cov- other German parties with its use of openly erage, which focuses more attention on antisemitic rhetoric, as reflected for example them and gives them a higher profile. A in an article in the June 2004 issue of “Deut- series of examples will serve to illustrate the sche Stimme” entitled “State Terror under far right’s racist discourse. the Star of David”, illustrated by a photo of The most radical expressions of racism Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and sub-titled and antisemitism are to be found in “Israel eliminates the leaders of the Palestin- Germany in the propaganda of the Nation- ian liberation movement one after the aldemokratische Partei Deutschlands other”, a reference to the Hamas leaders. In (NPD), which achieved significant scores in the particular context of Germany attention one Land (Saxony: 3.26%) and in a number should be drawn to what political scientists of kreis such as Sächsische Schweiz (7%) call the “grey area” between the conservative and Riesa (7.7%), also in Saxony.3 The NPD, right and the far right, consisting of periodi- whose campaign slogans were Out of the cals and organisations that welcome contri- European Union, A Europe of fatherlands, butions from intellectuals and elected repre- For a strong nationalist group in Strasbourg, sentatives who are not members of is opposed to Turkey entering the EU and in extremist groups. Before enlargement, the the April issue of its monthly Deutsche new right journal Junge Freiheit, on sale at Stimme published a photo of Turkish newsstands, published many articles on the women loaded with large packages walking theme of the “invasion” from eastern Europe, along a road, with the caption Europe faces the “Romanian immigrants problem”, the another Turkish assault. Another of the “crime wave” and the “cost of Poland’s NPD’s major concerns is Europe’s enlarge- accession” – all variations on the theme of ment to the east: in an interview published the “danger from the east”, the leitmotiv of 4 in “Deutsche Stimme” in April 2004, a party German ultra-nationalism. official, Rolf Haschke, said that “millions of In Austria the FP continued to use the people from Poland, Hungary and the Baltic standard xenophobic rhetoric to the effect countries will cross into western Europe as that enlargement of the European Union cheap labour and seek work, especially in was dangerous because of the predictable Germany”. Here, this exploitation of the influx of labour from the east. In May 2004, usual antagonism between the German far 4. On the theme of eastern Europe in Junge Freiheit: see 3. Full results available from: www.npd.de/npd_info/ “Flut aus dem Osten”, in: Antifaschistische Infoblatt No. wahlen/europawahl_2004.html 62, spring 2004, pp.42-43.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 7 Hans Kronberger, a candidate in the Euro- language and customs”. The party says pean elections, thus came out against the “Denmark is not and has never been an Greens’ proposal that enlargement include immigration country, so we shall not allow the entire Balkans, which he described as a it to be turned into a multiethnic society”. “highly explosive powder keg”. He also During the election campaign the party voiced concern at the consequences of Slo- newspaper Dansk Folkeblad continued to vakia’s accession, pointing up the problem devote extensive space to criticism of Islam, of Slovakia’s nuclear power plants. At the for instance commending Ibn Warraq’s same time, Magda Bleckmann, the party’s book, Why I am no longer Muslim5 and placing Secretary General, spoke out against Tur- the article next to a photograph of a crowd key’s entry into the EU, referring to Islamist of Muslims praying, with a few men in tradi- organisations’ action against the Turkish tional clothing in the foreground, though state’s secular system and stating that “if there is nothing to suggest that the picture Turkey joined, Europe would be financially was taken in Denmark. The same issue of and culturally overwhelmed”. The FPÖ the newspaper contained an article entitled drew up a “ten-point platform”, a sort of “Den evige kommissaer”, a long indictment government programme starting with the of Ms Beate Winkler, Director of the EUMC proposal to introduce a basic monthly in Vienna, and of the work of this centre, income of 1 000 euros. But the second point which the article accuses of introducing a is headed “Stricter regulation of immigra- new form of totalitarianism. The Dansk tion and the right of asylum: Austria is not Folkeparti’s ideology should be viewed in its an immigration country”. Along the same proper context: it is extensively influenced lines, the party launched two campaigns on by the thinking of a private far-right founda- asylum-seekers, one called “Asyl stop”, con- tion, Danske Forening, and its newspaper fined to the Land of Carinthia, whose Minis- Danskeren. Unlike the party, which seeks to ter-President is Jörg Haider and whose deny any connection with extremism, slogan is “Carinthia can’t take in any more Danske Forening does nothing to hide its immigrants”, and the other called “Asyl extremist ties, as demonstrated by a text on eldorado”, calling for a halt to the giving of its website (www.dendanskeforening.dk) social rights to asylum seekers, who alleged- entitled Det nationale gennembrud; Euro- ly misuse the benefits given to them by the Austrian state. Lastly, the FPÖ’s head of list pæiske modstandere af multikulturalismen, and sole MEP Andreas Mölzer had acquired by Peter Neerup Buhl, who includes among a reputation in the past as editor of the the European opponents of multicultural- Viennese weekly Zur Zeit, which was inde- ism his own organisation, the Vlaams Blok, pendent of the party but voiced the thinking the French Front National, the FP, the of the national-conservative movement and Republikaner and even the Serb Radovan attracted attention on several occasions Karadzic and the antisemitic Russian move- with its overt xenophobia and antisemitic ment Pamyat. The list of recommended innuendo. Before he was elected, Mölzer, books on the same website under the who used to be Haider’s cultural adviser, heading dissident literature includes the proposed to several European parties works of the above-mentioned parties’ lead- including the French Front National and the ers, and others such as La Colonisation de Vlaams Blok that they set up an “anti-immi- l’Europe; discours vrai sur l’immigration et l’Islam gration group” in the European Parliament. by Guillaume Faye, published in Paris in He is a key figure in the attempts to forge a 2000 by the neo-nazi publisher Æncre – an permanent, institutionalised link between outright call to racial war.6 Just before the European far-right parties. start of the campaign for the European elec- tions, the newspaper Danskeren also adver- During recent election campaigns in tised a book by Rolf Slot-Henriksen, who Denmark the Dansk Folkeparti’s xenopho- runs various anti-Muslim Websites, on the bic ideology was expressed in the actual Islamist peril in Denmark.7 terms used in the party platform – the idea that the Danish people are homogeneous in 5. Dansk Folkeblad, No. 3, 2004. religious, cultural and ethnic terms, so that 6. It will be noted that the Dansk Folkeparti does not “the country is grounded in the Danish cul- state its opposition to a multicultural society, i.e. to tural heritage, and Danish culture must communitarianism, which remains a democratic choice of social model. It rules out a multiethnic therefore be reinforced and preserved”. The society, and therefore the presence of people from platform defines culture as “the sum of the other countries, even if they are integrated into Danish people’s history, experience, beliefs, Danish culture.

8 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance Extremist nationalist parties in Spain ly, it is the only one to advocate “co-opera- also made use of xenophobic discourse, and tion with moderate Arab countries” (which Democracia Nacional, which aims to be the it does not identify) and secondly, it is one modern spearhead of a far right that still of the very few parties to explicitly chal- bears the stamp of the Falangist legacy, lenge the United States on account of their extensively imitated the slogans and pro- alleged share of responsibility for the spread gramme of the French Front National. The of Islamism – it urges the Americans to “stop party’s slogan is “Spaniards first”. Its favour- supporting Muslim factions in the world, ite campaign themes are set out in a speech especially in Europe, as they do in Kosovo, by its leader, Rafael Ripoll, at a public Bosnia, Macedonia and Chechnya”.9 The meeting in support of the Swedish national- Front National also geared its campaign to ist party Ny Demokraterna on 10 June 2004.8 Turkey’s entry into the EU and to migration Naturally, the terrorist attacks perpetrated flows from Turkey and eastern Europe. At by radical Islamists in Madrid on 11 March the party’s end-of-campaign banquet in 2004 offer the movement an excuse to claim Paris on 10 June 2004, Jean-Marie Le Pen as that Spain, together with other parts of usual stoked up fear of the influence of Islam Europe including Serbia, has become a land and challenged Muslim immigrants’ loyalty open to conquest by Islam. According to to their host country, even where they have Ripoll, like the rest of Europe, our country is French nationality: “In a Europe of 25 coun- in a decadent downward spiral and the tries today and 27 in three years – and then blow can be fatal: given the Third World’s why not 30, or 35, or 40, with Turkey! with population boom, combined with our falling Kosovo! – France will have no more power birth rate and cyclical economic crises, or influence at all, it will be a vassal of the Europe’s peoples are clearly in danger of Germans or the Americans. […] Michel extinction”. Like other parties of the same Barnier is even already thinking of introduc- ideological persuasion, the movement ing an “exceptional partnership” – those are describes the European Union as a “tower of his words – with Morocco! This obscure Babel dreamed up by internationalist oli- status would put Morocco, according to the garchs”. But its use of the “Muslim peril” Foreign Ministry, I quote, ‘halfway between theme (since Democracia Nacional is also association and accession’ to the European against Turkey’s entry into the EU) remains Union! But why stop halfway! When one is an isolated case although Spain was so halfway, one doesn’t usually turn back, one deeply affected by the March terrorist carries on to the finishing line, and the fin- attacks: the entire political spectrum ishing line is Morocco’s entry into the Euro- showed definite restraint when it came to pean Union, which would at least have the exploiting issues such as immigration and advantage of being logical in view of the Islamism, including during the campaign for number of Moroccans already living in the the general election. Union, or who have dual nationality, that of their host country, France, and that of their Far-right parties in France, on the other real motherland, Morocco!” Referring to the hand, kept to their traditional themes: the drastic security measures taken for the cere- alleged links between immigration and inse- monies commemorating D-Day (6 June curity or terrorism and between immigra- 2004), he also made an automatic connec- tion and economic crisis. Bruno Mégret’s tion between immigration, Islamist terror- Mouvement National Républicain, for ism and France’s suburbs, saying, “Inciden- example, campaigned on the slogan “Keep tally, it doesn’t seem to me very logical to be Turkey out of Europe” and, at the same time, afraid of terrorists arriving from abroad to “Islamists out of France”. In brief, the kill off Mr Bush when you only have to put MNR’s policy is that “immigration is the an ad in any slightly sensitive suburb to nest of Islam in France and Islam is the nest recruit all the volunteers you need!”. of Islamism”. Two features distinguish this party from its European counterparts: first- In Italy the Libertà di Azione list headed by MP Alessandra Mussolini campaigned on 7. R.Slot-Henriksen: Muslimke ekstremistbevaegeler i Den- the basis of an insidiously xenophobic plat- mark, published by Rafael, 2003. The book, which form, defining the essence of Europe as was produced for Dansk Kultur Forening, is listed Greek in its thinking, Roman in its values of in Danskeren No. 1, February 2004. In his list of extremist groups the author jumbles together Hizb justice and civic sense, and Christian in the ut Tahrir, Salafists, the Sufis. 8. Posted on the party’s website: www.democraciana- 9. MNR leaflet: Islamists out of France: let’s put cional.org. France to rights with Bruno Mégret”.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 9 values that shape and motivate it. It also the grounds that for Muslims, the mosque is stressed that Europe was rooted in 3 000 not only a place of worship but also a place years of culture and history and, although it for meeting other Muslims socially and rein- did not call for foreigners living in Italy to forcing their identity, making judgments on leave, it concluded that migration flows are society and issuing political watchwords. not inevitable. The fact that Roberto Fiore, On the basis of a number of cases in which leader of the overtly racist and antisemitic places of worship were proved to have been movement Forza Nuova, was in second used to propagate radical Islamism, the position on the list obviously sheds a differ- author then generalised about the link ent light on this platform. A government between the existence of a mosque and the party, the Lega Nord per l’Indipendenza growth of terrorism: Numerous investiga- della Padania, also makes regular use of xen- tions conducted by various public prosecu- ophobic discourse. A May 2004 issue of its tors have amply demonstrated that pro-ter- newspaper, specially produced for the elec- rorist activities are carried out in mosques tion, included on page 6 a photograph of a and Islamic centres in various cities in ship loaded with illegal immigrants, topped Padania such as Milan and Cremona. The by the caption “Never again”, and the National Alliance, a right-wing conservative picture of an election poster bearing the party which took over from the neo-fascist headline “No to immigrants’ right to vote” Italian Social Movement, used much more with a text including assertions such as moderate language on immigration and “The right to vote cannot be the starting nationality issues and devoted minimal time point of citizenship, it is an end point” and to them in its election campaign. The “The right to vote is a symbol; no party can grant it to immigrants, nor can Parliament, National Alliance’s position on the revision only the people can”. The article on the same of the Bossi-Fini law, stated shortly after the page welcomed the 61.5% increase in depor- election itself (29 June 2004), in fact con- tations and the 37 655 instances of immi- firms this attitude: the party proposed grants being escorted back to the border setting up a Ministry of Immigration and since the adoption of the “Bossi-Fini law” of making the deportation of illegal immi- 30 July 2002 on illegal immigration. grants subject to a court order. While some of its proposals – such as stricter conditions Lastly, in the same issue, one of the Lega Nord candidates in the European elections for issuing residence permits, or the possi- who was elected in June 2004, Mario bility of deporting a non-Community immi- Borghezio (who holds the entirely unofficial grant who commits the offence of selling title of President of the Government of counterfeit goods – are indisputably strin- Padania), signed an article entitled No to gent, the movement takes the opposite the Islamic invasion which included the fol- approach from that of Lega Nord: according lowing statement: Islam has positioned to Ignazio La Russa, the Lega Nord’s nation- itself in the world arena with strong expan- al co-ordinator, “these measures are not sionist intentions which follow highly spe- simply punitive, but also facilitate integra- cific strategies for gaining ground in moder- tion”. Integration thus remains an objective, ate Muslim countries and in Europe. The whereas the Northern League pursues the author, adding that under these circum- aim of massively deporting non-Community stances there is nothing unrealistic about immigrants and halting migration flows, protests against the building of mosques in and also confines itself to an ethnic defini- our countries, approved of these protests on tion of citizenship.

Part Two: racist and xenophobic discourse appears in mainstream parties

One of the most disturbing develop- ate’s vote and a key element in political ments of recent years is the fact that racist debate, especially in western Europe. As a and xenophobic discourse is no longer con- result of the events of 11 September 2001 and fined to the fairly limited sphere of far-right more generally the rise of radical Islamism, parties. Issues relating to immigration the theory of the “clash of civilisations” is policy and the right of asylum, in particular, now acceptable and it is permitted to query have become major factors in the elector- the Muslim religion’s compatibility with

10 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance democratic values. In addition, the persist- that in several countries the majority of citi- ent economic crisis has justified proposals zens are in favour of stringent curbs on for curbing migration flows in a few coun- immigration and on the right of asylum. It is tries, though several have opted for mass not the purpose of this study to give an regularisation of illegal immigrants (includ- account of the debates that have arisen on ing Italy, Spain and Portugal, while the these issues in political circles and civil “Chevènement law” in France has led to the society in European countries outside elec- regularisation of more than half of the coun- tion campaigns, so I shall simply give a few try’s illegal residents). The tone of some examples of the way in which these issues democratic parties’ discourse on the subject may have over-determined the electoral has indisputably hardened, to the extent climate in 2004.

1. The special case of Clearly, the political option of rejecting immigration was also one of the MPF’s “ten “Euro-sceptic” or “pro- federalism and preferring a Europe of commitments” for the European elections. sovereignty” parties nations, as well as criticism of the growth of The movement came out against “a commu- Community prerogatives encroaching on nitarian Europe” and stated that in the face national sovereignty, are democratic choices of the “immigration explosion” each country which do not as such comprise any form of needed to take back the prerogatives that racism or xenophobia. Xenophobia is totally Europe had conferred on itself for control- absent from movements such as Paul Van ling migration flows. The MPF also takes a Buitenen’s Dutch list Europa Transparant highly restrictive view of what Europe’s cul- and Hans-Peter Martin’s Austrian list. On tural foundations should be. After the Butt- the other hand, several “Euro-sceptic” lists iglione affair, it explained that “after the ‘yes’ made dangerously manipulative use of to Turkey and the refusal to refer to nationalist and xenophobic rhetoric, some Europe’s Christian origins in the draft Con- with the aim of taking votes from far-right stitution, we now have proof that the Euro- parties (as the MPF did in France in relation pean Union has become an anti-Christian to the Front National), but with the danger club”.11 Lastly, the Euro-sceptic party that of legitimising this type of discourse in tra- scored the best result in western Europe ditional right-wing and sometimes even left- was the British UK Independence Party wing parties. The distinctly right-wing (16.1% of the vote). Xenophobia was not French list of Mouvement pour la France, UKIP’s campaign theme, since it focused headed by Philippe de Villiers, geared its entirely on its slogan “Say No to European campaign to the issues of Turkey’s entry Union”. But the head of list, journalist into the EU, immigration and Europe’s Robert Kilroy-Silk, had already sparked Christian identity. The issue of Turkey controversy in early 2004 when he pub- ranked second behind employment in the lished an article in the Sunday Express refer- MPF’s campaign platform, which supported ring to the “Arabs who killed more than “a European Europe in which France will 3 000 civilians on 11 September” then preserve its identity and influence”. It was “danced in the streets” for joy, also describ- reflected in the campaign posters, which ing them as “suicide bombers” and “limb displayed the slogan “No to the Constitu- amputators”. Kilroy-Silk was forced to tion; Keep Turkey out of Europe” next to the resign from the BBC, where he had hosted a photo of the head of list. The party launched programme for the last 17 years, and said in a national petition asking the President of his defence that he had meant the regimes of the Republic to hold a referendum. Philippe some Arab countries, not Arabs in general. de Villiers, speaking to his movement’s He is not from the far right, but from youth members, justified his position as fol- Labour. UKIP, which was formed in 1993, lows: “Turkey’s entry into Europe means the has always done its utmost to expel racist end of Europe; it is no longer Europe, but elements from its ranks. Its founder and first Eurasia, as if France was applying to join the leader, the historian Alan Sked, had to expel African Union. If Turkey comes into Europe, one of his own London School of Economics there is a risk that the President of Europe students, Mark Deavin, who had become a might be Turkish: for my part, that is a pos- member of the party’s national executive sibility I rule out. Turkey will be the top and was in fact a member of the far-right power in demographic terms, with more British National Party. Deavin had helped to votes and more MEPs than France. Today it is the hub of illegal immigration from the 10. Text available from http://mpf26.free.fr. whole of Asia into Europe”.10 The issue of 11. Press release of 28 October 2004.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 11 write the antisemitic book “Who are the take. […] Nine out of ten immigrants arriv- Mindbenders?” by Nick Griffin, Chairman of ing in the United Kingdom stay here. In the BNP and head of its list. In 2001 one of social terms immigration causes many prob- the party leaders, Mark Lester, who is lems that can only get worse”. This is a more Jewish, left the party after discovering that radical version of the party’s official position the UKIP manager for Scotland, Alistair that “immigration is out of control” and MacConnachie, had written a letter casting “Britain is full”. UKIP’s election platform doubt on the scale of the Holocaust, and pinpointed “five freedoms” it intended to especially after the party executive had uphold: freedom to leave the EU; freedom decided that the penalty imposed – a five- not to be a victim of crime; freedom from year suspension – was to be reduced to one “bureaucratic politicians” and “political cor- 12 year. UKIP’s current leaders include rectness”; and freedom from overcrowding Ashley Mote, who was elected MEP and has by immigrants. The platform obviously has written a book entitled Overcrowded Britain: xenophobic overtones, although UKIP tried Our Immigration Crisis Exposed. The publisher to distance itself from extremists during the presents the book as follows: “political cor- campaign for the European elections. Just rectness has hijacked our freedom to discuss before the ballot, for instance, it made David one of the burning issues of the day. This Abbott, seventh on its list in the south east, book offers a full, open and if necessary con- sign an undertaking that he would not take troversial discussion of immigration. It his seat if he were elected. The party had looks at the facts and squarely faces up to discovered that Abbott had attended a many of the consequences of mass immigra- dinner attended by the Trafalgar Club, a tion and the urgent decisions Britain must BNP fund-raising body, and had taken part,

12. On individual relationships between UKIP mem- with Nick Griffin, in an event organised by bers and the far right, see Searchlight, July 2004, pp 8- the extremist group American Renaissance 9. in the United States.

Less frequently, racist and xenophobic 19 March 2003 the ADR submitted an appli- 2. The parties of the discourse can be heard even in potential cation for an amendment to the Constitu- parliamentary right government parties, usually when political tion, which would henceforth include the debate causes the electoral agenda to focus provision that “the national language of on issues linked to national identity, immi- Luxembourg citizens is Luxemburgish”. On gration and the status of asylum-seekers. I 23 January 2004 it spoke out against the have recorded a few examples of what can government plan to open reception centres be regarded as outright “contamination” of for refugees. The ADR is also one of the few democratic parties. European parties in favour of abolishing citi- 14 In Luxembourg the general election and zens’ right to hold dual nationality. It also the European elections took place on the wants migration flows to centre on the same day. The Aktiounskomitee fir countries that have common cultural foun- Demokratie a Rentegerechtegkeet (ADR) dations and values, i.e. the current and scored 9.5% of the vote in the general elec- future member countries of the European 15 tion, with 5 MPs, and 8.03% in the European Union. The ADR’s demand was not met on elections, with no MEPs. The ADR opposed the issue of granting the right to vote to Turkey’s entry into the EU, since it consid- non-Community foreigners, since the Elec- ers that Turkey is not a European country, toral Law of 18 February 2003 provided for partly for historical and geographical rea- this right subject to five years’ residence in sons, but chiefly for cultural reasons.13 One Luxembourg. of its MPs, Mr Jacques-Yves Henkes, also In Sweden the debate revolved around a tabled a bill amending the law of 3 April challenge to the well-established consensus 1996 establishing a procedure for considera- on access to social benefits for all European tion of asylum applications. The explanato- Union nationals. The only parties to oppose ry report to the bill takes up the theme of access were Sverigedemokraterna and the asylum shopping, which in the author’s view “prompts illegal immigrants to choose 14. Interview with Christian Schaak, of the ADR, on the country where abuse of the asylum pro- RTL, Neen zur duebler Nationalitit, 19 January 2004. cedure has the best chances of success”. On 15. The ADR proposed setting up schools for inte- grating immigrants through tuition in Luxembur- 13. Press release of 24 September 2004. gish.

12 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance far-left party KPML(r) (Kommunistiska Minister and to the interviewed official of Partiet Marxist-Leninisterna, Revolution- the Ministry of Trade, who had simply rerna). The Prime Minister Gran Persson explained the existing regulations, which he himself (Social Democrat, Arbetarepartiet- merely applied. The Sverigedemokraterna Socialdemokraterna) was in favour of it. harnessed the content of the programme for After the trade unions in the transport and its own purposes the very next day, sending construction sectors among others had the media a press release which included voiced some discontent in October 2003, the long quotations from the programme. On government had worked out a compromise, 28 April 2004 the Social Democratic Party’s agreeing to this opening up of social protec- proposal to restrict access to social benefits tion but at the same time calling for stricter for nationals of the new EU member coun- controls on undeclared labour and illegal tries was rejected when Parliament put it to immigration. the vote. The ruling party lost by 137 votes Suddenly, on 21 November 2003, Prime for, 182 against and 4 abstentions. Conserva- Minister Gran Persson changed his mind. In tive leader Per Westerberg (Moderata Sam- an interview on Dagens Eko (a current affairs lingspartiet) accused Gran Persson of programme broadcast every hour on the paving the way for xenophobic views, while main public radio station Sveriges Radio, Liberal MP Erik Ullenhag (Folkpartiet) whose editorial staff are said to be close to said, it is a shameful taint on the European the Social Democrats) he advocated restrict- flag to propose that a citizen’s rights should ing the access of nationals of new European depend on his or her national origin”. Union member countries to social benefits, On 7 September 2004 the daily Dagens explaining that we want the free movement Nyheter published statistics demonstrating of workers, but not social welfare tourism. that “social welfare tourism” had by no We must not be naive. He explained that means flooded the country, since the the situation was outrageous because an EU number of applicants for residence permits national needed to work only ten hours a recorded between 1 May and 31 August 2004 week to be fully entitled to Sweden’s social had increased by only 780 over the same benefits. period in 2003. This news was broadcast in a television In the Netherlands xenophobic dis- report on 11 November 2003 under the head- course has hardened still more markedly in line “Anxiety about enlargement to the recent years, as evidenced by the success of East”, produced by journalist Johan Zackris- the List Pim Fortuyn in the 2002 general son Winberg in the programme “Uppdrag election. This success was short-lived, but granskning”, whose content was widely Fortuyn’s legacy is thoroughly alive. It is criticised for its xenophobic overtones. The reflected in civil society, as demonstrated by report was based on the case of an Estonian the poll conducted in November 2004 by nurse who came to work for ten hours a the TV channel KRO to elect “the greatest week in Sweden and immediately brought Dutch person of all time”: Fortuyn was in her husband, her two children and both chosen ahead of William of Orange and pairs of grandparents, all of them receiving Anne Frank, whose nationality was in dis- various social welfare allowances; it pute. But it is also apparent in political cir- explained, without proof, that this person cles: for several years now, many politicians was costing Swedish citizens 320 000 Krona have spoken out on the failure of the Neth- a year. The report also included an interview erlands’ communitarian model. A striking with a representative of the Social Welfare feature of the campaign for the European Fund who explained how people fraudu- elections was the debate on the reform of lently drew allowances. The programme the right of asylum carried out by Jan Peter forecast that this fraud would increase after Balkenende’s government. On 17 February enlargement of the EU and explained that 2004, despite criticism from a substantial wages would fall as a result of this addition- section of the population and several human al foreign competition on the labour market rights organisations, Rita Verdonk, the from probably tens of thousands of east (Liberal) Minister for Integration, got Par- Europeans. Lastly, xenophobic prejudice liament to adopt a bill providing for the was reflected in the programme’s closing deportation of 26 000 asylum-seekers who sentence: “The question is: how much gener- had arrived in the Netherlands before 1 April osity can we and do we want to offer?”. 2001. Although the government regularised This biased presentation of the issues 2 300 asylum-seekers at the beginning of the sparked a wave of protests both to the Prime year, those whose applications were reject-

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 13 ed will now be returned to their countries of unacceptable comparison that the govern- origin by 2007, regardless of the time they ment plan to issue immigrants with a certifi- have spent in the Netherlands. This drastic cate spelling out their degree of integration measure triggered a crisis in the ruling coali- reminded him of the Second World War tion: the head of the Liberal parliamentary years, particularly the yellow star imposed group Jozias Van Aartsen accused the on Jews by the Nazis. This part of his state- Christian Democrat Prime Minister of ment prompted a forceful response from the failing to give his minister sufficient sup- Liberal leader, Gerrit Zalm, who regretted port;16 Balkenende replied that the bill the wording of his comparison and would be adopted without amendments, in explained that government policy was “very spite of the discontent simmering inside his much misunderstood”. But the debate did own party, the CDA, some of whose grass- not stop at the government bill on asylum- roots members were against the bill. The seekers. Another government bill which Prime Minister basically said that his party provided for juvenile delinquents from the had to introduce this reform, adding, “It isn’t Dutch West Indies who had committed an easy, but it’s necessary”. According to a poll offence in the Netherlands to be sent back to conducted by the NIPO institute on 14 Feb- the West Indies, recently had to be (tempo- ruary 2004, two-thirds of Netherlands citi- rarily?) dropped. The minister in charge of zens were in favour of more flexible legisla- relations with former colonies, Thom de tion for asylum-seekers who had been living Graaf, took the opposite stance on the in the country for more than five years. The subject from Rita Verdonk, who in the end debate on this new legislation fuelled set up a committee to “work out measures to numerous verbal excesses. On 24 January, regulate migration” between the Dutch for example, Radio Nederland, a state radio West Indies and the Netherlands.18 There is station broadcasting internationally, hosted also an ongoing debate on the issue of a discussion of immigration issues with the whether to make blasphemy a criminal 19 VVD MP Stef Blok, party spokesperson on offence. Overall, the debate on immigration the right of asylum and immigration; and integration has been more impassioned student Jamila Faloun, Vice-President of the than ever since film director Theo Van Gogh Association of Muslim Women al Manar, was murdered on 2 November 2004. How- and journalist Robbert Bodegraven, publish- ever, the Minister for Integration Rita er of the weekly magazine Contrast, pub- Verdonk nevertheless chose to contain it lished by Forum – the Institute for Multi- within the normal bounds of a democratic cultural Development. In brief, Mr Blok said discourse by stating that the Muslim com- during the discussion, “Therefore we should munity should not be held responsible as transfer the responsibility for learning the such for Van Gogh’s murder, but according language to the country of origin. I don’t to a poll published by the daily “Algemeen want the Dutch taxpayer to pay for the fact Dagblad” on 6 November, Islam has a poor that somebody chooses an 18-year-old bride image in the Netherlands. 79% of those [from his country of origin], who may be questioned consider that the murder reflects illiterate, and then we have to pay for two or a deterioration in the country’s social three years’ education to teach her Dutch”. atmosphere; 51.7% do not believe the He also stated his view that “successful inte- murder reflects a failure of Moroccan inte- gration calls for less immigration”. On the gration, but almost a quarter (23.9%) other hand, dissenting voices were heard believe it does. Unusually, more women even among the ranks of the Liberal party. (52.9%) than men (43.2%) take the view But there were also some inappropriate that the integration of Moroccans has failed. statements made by the former Deputy More than 80% demand extra measures to Prime Minister Hans Dijkstal, for example, combat Islamist extremism: a tougher judi- he said that it was shameful to stigmatise cial system (65%), heavier prison sentences Muslims and judge immigrants according to 17. Statement of 6 June 2004, published by the daily their degree of integration into Dutch socie- Algemeen Dagblad. ty. “Muslims are being stigmatised,” he said. 18. On this point, see the Aruba newspaper A.M of “An entire religion is under attack, whereas 28 September 2004. most Muslims are moderate and respectable 19. The CDA Minister of Justice, Mr Donner, suggested 17 in mid-November that persons who committed people”; and then claimed, by making an contemptuous blasphemy should be prosecuted more often under Article 147 of the Criminal Code. 16. Statement by Van Aaartsen broadcast by the radio The Lower House (Tweede Kamer), however, plans station NOS on 2 February 2004. to repeal the article in question.

14 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (62%), deportation of militant imams (60%) a literal view of the text, which applies to all and stricter controls on mosques (52%). religions, Peter Skaarup, speaking on behalf 48% of those questioned are even in favour of the DF, admitted that “in theory these of abolishing the right to dual nationality. rules concern all religions, but in practice The political outcome of this climate is that they are aimed at imams”.23 if elections were to be held now (November I shall conclude this overview with the 2004), the new party that soon will be case of Switzerland. In elections to the formed by (ex-VVD) MP Geert Wilders, National Council on 19 November 2003, the who is firmly against the multicultural soci- Swiss People’s Party (Schweizerische ety, would become the country’s third party Volkspartei) became the country’s top party with more MPs than the Liberals.20 Both with 26.6% of the vote. The SPP is a typical Wilders and a part of the Liberal right are example of those government parties which influenced by the neo-conservative founda- belong neither historically nor ideologically tion Edmund Burke Stichting, which pub- to the far right, but to the agricultural right, lished a second edition of its political mani- and have evolved over the years, in this case festo “De crisis in Nederland – en het under the leadership of the current Minister conservative antwoord” (by Bart Jan Spruyt of Justice Christoph Blocher, towards xeno- and Michiel Visser) at the beginning of phobic populist positions reflected in 2004. The manifesto spotlights the prob- speeches on the need to halt immigration lems of crime, “immigration and multicul- and reduce the number of asylum-seekers tural togetherness” and Islamism, expressly (requérants d’asile, as the Swiss call them). referring to Huntington’s theory of the “clash of civilisations”21 and using fairly During the general election campaign, radical terms.22 SPP representatives again targeted asylum- seekers. At a press conference on 6 January This uncertainty about identity, based in 2003, Yvan Perrin, municipal councillor for particular on the obvious fear of the funda- La Côte aux Fées in the canton of Neuchâtel, mentalist components of Islam taking root, spoke out against criminal asylum-seekers Denmark also affects Scandinavia. In , for in terms that amounted to generalisation, example, the government had a law on resi- repeatedly referring to drug trafficking, dence requirements for religious preachers criminals, acts of violence and racketeering. adopted in February 2004. The text, He added that conditions of detention for inspired by the Dansk Folkeparti, is in fact criminal asylum-seekers and criminal illegal specifically designed to control the entry of immigrants should not be the same as for imams into the country. According to the other prisoners, echoing an argument com- Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen, it monly brought up in xenophobic security- has so far been too easy for foreign mission- oriented discourse – that of the privileged aries to obtain residence permits, while a conditions of detention granted to foreign- government spokesperson said that the new ers, which prompted him to say, We must law was intended to assure us that [mis- give up all forms of luxury when it comes to sionaries] are worthy of the trust that these individuals.24 On 21 August 2003 the society shows in them by letting them enter. Deputy Chairman of the party, Toni Brun- The law in fact reflects the danger of far- ner, elected representative for the canton of right ideas catching on in a country where St Gall, took up the theme of the growing the centre-right government’s parliamentary proportion of criminals of foreign origin and majority is entirely due to the benevolent the more recent theme of criminal tourism, neutrality of the DF, which can in return comparable to the right-of-asylum tourism impose part of its political agenda. While mentioned elsewhere. He then played on the guarantees required of clerics entering one of the favourite themes of xenophobic Denmark are not exorbitant in themselves populist discourse: the fact that honest citi- (a minimum level of education, financial zens are fed up with foreigners’ abuse of independence and membership of a recog- social benefits – “but the citizens of this nised religious community), the double- country don’t simply feel powerless in the speak used in presenting the law is face of rising crime; they also feel very dis- unhealthy: though the Prime Minister took turbed at the increasing abuse of our social system”. However, this sentence was simply 20. Algemeen Dagblad, 17 November 2004. 21. Text available from www.burkestichting.nl. the prelude to a much more violent diatribe: 22. Viz the title of the article co-signed by Spruyt and Wilders in Het Parool of 22 October 2004: “Halt the 23. Quoted by the Guardian on 19 February 2004. import of Islamic culture”. 24. Text available from www.svp.ch/?page_id=176&1=3.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 15 “In this country we don’t simply offer a for mass naturalisations” – wording wage to imprisoned criminals so that they designed to conjure up the fantasy of the earn more than they would doing a normal native population being swamped by for- job in their countries of origin; no, we even eigners. The text would introduce “integra- allow whole families to enter Switzerland tion by order, not in reality”, simply because illegally and send their children to school, the SPP considered the criteria for becoming even without having residence permits, and Swiss too lenient (five years’ study in Swit- benefit from a highly developed public zerland). What the party criticised was the health system. There are even leaflets giving plan to allow the law, instead of the resi- undocumented immigrants and other illegal dents of the municipalities concerned, to say entrants precise instructions on how to get who could become Swiss. It claimed that the social benefits. Not to mention the pseudo- government (which nevertheless included refugees whose asylum applications have Christoph Blocher in the key post of Minis- been rejected, but who still manage to stay ter of Justice) maliciously intended to carry in Switzerland by all sorts of tricks, by ficti- out “mass naturalisations by eliminating the tious marriages or simply by digging their sovereign (author’s note: the people) for the heels in. If they’re clever enough, they even sole purpose of vamping up the statistics on get themselves an AI pension to live off com- foreigners.26 On the same date National fortably in their countries of origin – which Councillor Jasmin Hutter (St Gall) said that they fled because they were allegedly perse- naturalisation must neither be degraded nor cuted there”.25 made automatic.27 She used an interesting line of argument against selling off the right The party’s September 2003 platform to Swiss citizenship, drawing on the results document entitled “In favour of an inde- of the Irish referendum, which she said had pendent foreign policy” confirms that the been held to stop citizenship tourism. On SPP is extremely suspicious of anything that the same date, Yvan Perrin expressed indig- comes from abroad, and particularly from nation at fictitious marriages and the fact the European Union. It repeats the party’s that not much attention is paid either to the view that joining the European Union possibility of a criminal past or to knowl- would level Switzerland down: “Switzer- edge of one of the national languages. Quite land’s accession to the EU must be rejected obviously, being married to a Swiss citizen essentially for economic reasons. It would is enough for a foreigner to be considered have many disadvantages for the Swiss both honest and integrated. The party’s offi- economy, especially higher taxes and rents cial manifesto on the subject entitled “Twice and declining prosperity”. The document No to mass naturalisations”, published in also comes out against the Schengen and June 2004, stated the SPP’s usual line: “this Dublin agreements on the grounds that practice [ : easier naturalisation] signing them would leave Switzerland with author’s note will make our country still more attractive a “security deficit” because there would be to foreigners without resources or training no more border controls. who come to Switzerland solely to be natu- Lastly, the SPP made wide use of xeno- ralised and thus enjoy the generous social phobic discourse during its campaign for benefits provided for Swiss citizens. the two popular votes held on 26 September 2004 with a view to facilitating the naturali- In May 2004 the SPP counterattacked sation of second and third generation for- with a proposal for a popular initiative enti- eigners. This time a campaign poster was tled In favour of democratic naturalisations, even more telling than the party’s writings which involved restoring exclusive power to and speeches: the SPP poster showed a box the municipalities to decide by a vote full of Swiss passports towards which whether a candidate for Swiss nationality hands, several of them coloured, were was to be naturalised. This meant reversing stretching out with a grasping air. The the decision given in mid-2003 by the caption was “Mass naturalisations? Twice Federal Tribunal, which had ruled that as a NO to the naturalisation plans”. At a press vote on the matter was not subject to conference on 13 August 2004, National appeal, the right to decide on naturalisation Councillor Ulrich Schlüer, representing the could no longer be conferred on citizens and canton of Zurich, revealed the party’s true any decision to reject an application should thinking: he claimed it was a “deceitful plan 26. Text available from www.svp.ch/ 25. Text available from www.svp.ch/ index.html?page_id=1191&1=3. index.html?page_id=612&1=3. 27. See www.svp.ch/index.html?page_id=1192&1=3.

16 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance be subject to appeal. The text presenting the they are in favour of a political centre repre- proposal also contained a xenophobic senting another culture establishing itself passage aimed at a fairly specific target: the on Slovenian territory. I myself am taking SPP explained that in Switzerland the state my distance on this issue”.29 The Mufti of has the monopoly of violence and that as a Slovenia, Osman Djogic, answered that result, the practice of vendetta and violence Slovenia’s Muslims wish to live in an atmos- for purposes of personal revenge was pro- phere of tolerance with their fellow-citizens hibited; it concluded that the citizens of this of other religions”. To date, although the country are therefore entitled to refuse the local referendum was not held in the end, right of citizenship to individuals or members and in spite of D. Simsic’s support for the of ethnic groups for whom the principle of per- planned mosque, the latter has not yet been sonal revenge in response to an injustice built. The campaigns for the European elec- they have suffered […] is self-evident. This is tions and the October 2004 general election clearly aimed at refugees from the Balkans, in Slovenia were marked by two other who are one of the SPP’s regular targets, and instances of xenophobia. Firstly, according possibly at Muslims. Above all, the SPP does to the daily Delo (1 February), Prime Minis- not consider individuals’ acts alone, but ter Anton Rop (Liberal Democratic Party – their membership of an entire group sus- LDS) described the leader of the populist pected of perpetuating local customs in opposition party Nova Slovenia as “Argen- Switzerland. It is this jump to a presump- tinian citizen Anton Bajuk”, although the tion of collective guilt that makes the dis- latter is Slovenian and was born in Ljublja- course xenophobic. na, even if his family emigrated to South Racist and xenophobic discourse is also America after 1945. Secondly, on 4 April used by democratic parties in eastern 2004, the Slovenians voted in a referendum Europe, in the countries newly admitted to on restoring the rights of persons “deleted” the EU. The controversy that marked the from the register of permanent residents in first four months of 2004 in Slovenia over February 1992. In October 2003 Parliament the plans to build a mosque in the capital had adopted a law retroactively restoring Ljubljana was a typical case of exploitation permanent resident status to the thousands of xenophobia, in a country which is never- of citizens who had been illegally deleted theless highly democratic and ethnically from the state registers in 1992, thereby homogeneous and has never been hit by ter- losing their rights: when Slovenia became rorism. Slovenia has only about 50 000 independent, more than 30,000 former Muslims out of 2 million inhabitants; most Yugoslav citizens were deprived of all their of them come from the countries of former rights overnight. According to official fig- Yugoslavia (Bosnia and Macedonia), and ures, 18,000 people were left with temporary they have been trying to secure a place of residence permits or without legal status, worship since 1969. In December 2003 the while 11,000 left the country. Prime Minister municipality of Ljubljana agreed to the con- Anton Rop’s centre-left government called struction of what was to be the country’s on the electorate to boycott the referendum, one and only mosque. However, a petition which was held with the support of the launched by the ultra-nationalist municipal opposition parties. About 30% of the 1.6 28 councillor Mihael Jarc (Slovene National million registered voters took part in it. The Party – SNS) and signed by 12 000 citizens law on the manner in which the rights of prompted the municipal council to consider “deleted” persons could be restored was holding a local referendum on the project in rejected by 94.6% of the voters, while 3,8% April 2004, although the mayor, Danica voted in favour. The outcome will not have Simsic (Democratic Party – SDS) had any legal consequences: an authoritative decided to ask the Constitutional Court decision by the Constitutional Court whether such a referendum was legal. At requires the Ministry of the Interior to give Christmas 2003 the Catholic Archbishop of the persons concerned permanent residence the capital, Mgr France Rode, announced permits. But the campaign was smattered that he was against the project and said on with xenophobic statements. Firstly, Dr the television channel Pop TV, “Slovenian Miha Brejc, Deputy Chairman of the Social policy-makers must ask themselves whether Democratic Party (SDS) and one of those who promoted the referendum, wanted to 28. He said on BBC news on 2 April 2004, “In the Middle Ages our ancestors were attacked by prevent former officers of the Yugoslav Peo- Muslim soldiers who did nasty things here. It’s our historical subconscious”. 29. Reported by the daily Dnevnik on 18 January 2004.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 17 ple’s Army (JNA) from being covered by the income gap between the two countries; sec- law: “No former officers of the Federal ondly, anti-Jewish rhetoric, a peculiar form Army!” he said, “We don’t agree that these of antisemitism without Jews (who now 450 officers, or perhaps more, should be number only about 3,000 as against 3 given what they don’t deserve – they acted million in 1939), based mainly on popular against us!”. Secondly, in February, Janez and religious prejudice. Thus, the Samoob- Jansa, Chairman of the SDS party, claimed rona MP Rafal Majewski voiced his anxiety that the injustices committed against those at the number of Israelis of Ashkenazi origin who had been deprived of their rights had who in his view were likely to emigrate to affected “a few illiterate cleaning women”,30 Poland to flee a difficult situation in the an obvious allusion to former Yugoslav citi- Middle East. “Their influence is growing in zens from Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Poland,” he said. “They are buying property Kosovo, and to Roma. and investing in businesses. Poles don’t I now come to the borderline case of want to feel like second-class citizens in Poland, where two Catholic-inspired31 their own country”. He added, “I don’t want parties which are against joining the Euro- it thought that I am speaking out against pean Union, regarded by some as retiring Jews, but we want to preserve our children’s and by others as far-right, achieved high rights”, also saying he was convinced that scores last June: the League of Polish Fami- “60% of the press is controlled by Jews”.33 lies (Liga Polskych Rodzin), whose pro- The League of Polish Families (LPR) exudes gramme states its aim of fighting to ensure the same anti-Jewish prejudice, and so to an respect for Catholic morality and keep the even greater extent does the radio station national heritage in Polish hands, and Self- close to the party, Radio Maryja, headed by Defence (Samoobrona), whose leader the redemptionist priest Tadeusz Rydzyk (a Andrzej Lepper carefully avoids such station alleged to have 4 to 6 million listen- phrases and simply proposes a programme ers). In 2004 the convicted antisemitic pro- based on a social market economy as advo- pagandist Dariusz Ratajczak said on the cated by several European Churches.32 radio station, Since the Holocaust has been Nonetheless, two types of xenophobic dis- on the school curriculum, everyone believes course operate in these movements’ policies: that Auschwitz was a death camp rather firstly, anti-German rhetoric – especially in than a normal labour camp. He added, In a Samoobrona, a populist agrarian party – due Catholic country like Poland, as long as to fear of the return of those who were most ministers are Jewish and stink of expelled, chiefly from Silesia, and are sus- onions, Poland will never be Polish.34 The pected of wanting to retrieve their land, newspaper Nasz Dziennik and the television which would be all the easier because of channel TV Trwam, which belong to the Germany’s strong economy and the wide same group, undoubtedly played a major role, together with Radio Maryja, in the 30. Remarks quoted by the daily Mladina on 15 March LPR’s and Samoobrona’s winning their elec- 2004. 31. While both parties state in their platforms that they torate in the European elections. draw their inspiration from the Church’s social doc- trine, it is quite clear that neither has ever received 33. Majewski made these remarks, which were the slightest mark of approval either from the Polish reported by the English-language newspaper Gulf Church or from the Vatican or a fortiori from Pope News on 3 June 2002, during a trip to Dubai, where Jean-Paul II. this daily is published. 32. Speech before the European Parliament on 4 May 34. See Sarah Elsing in: www.cafebabel.com.fr of 28 2004. May 2004.

Part Three: Antisemitic rhetoric in the European election campaign remains marginal, but importing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict into national political debates is likely to generate excesses

Antisemitic rhetoric played only a mar- inspired by a form of Islam that can be ginal part in the European election cam- described as fundamentalist, standing for paign, as it did in the earlier national elec- election either in an attempt to organise a tion campaigns. However, new trends political party or to express, via a grassroots include ethnic and religious lists, many organisation, a form of antizionism which

18 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance has antisemitic overtones or associations. In Jewish clichés which feature in standard national elections, this trend was most far-right discourse as a means of designating apparent in Belgium. Two Islamist parties the Jewish community, without naming it, stood in the general election of 18 May 2003 as the source of the country’s ills. During its (results for the Chamber of Representatives campaign for the European elections, the only): Noor (1 141 votes; 0.02%) and the PCP (which no longer includes Bastin Parti Citoyenneté Prospérité (PCP – Citi- among its members) distributed a leaflet zenship Prosperity Party) (8 258 votes; entitled “Sheikh Bassam calls you to vote 0.13%), as well as the “Resist” list (10 059 PCP – List 16”, illustrated by a photograph votes; 0.15%) produced by the alliance of a of the Omar Mosque in Jerusalem surround- far-left party (the maoist Belgian Labour ed by Israeli tanks and soldiers, with Pales- Party) and a radical Islamic/Arab nationalist tinian women and children in tears beside party (the European Arab League – EAL). them. The daily Le Soir (15 June 2004)36 The Noor Party had a highly reactionary described the leaflet as intended to “import platform comprising various points mod- the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and stoke up elled on the Sharia (abolition of banking hatred in passing”. The party defended it on interest, marriage at adolescence, introduc- the grounds that “Palestine symbolises the tion of sexual segregation in public places suffering potentially generated by state ter- and schools, setting up of a statutory alms rorism. It also symbolises cohabitation fund), but with no antisemitic slant, not between the three great monotheistic reli- even a reference to the Middle East situa- gions, which could very easily live in tion. The PCP on the other hand, headed at harmony if the country was not under the the time by the Salafist Jean-François yoke of a seemingly democratic, but in fact Bastin, not only had a programme calling for selfish and racist tyrannical regime which the Sharia to be introduced as the country’s oppresses one people the better to satisfy law for Muslims, but also had very close ties another”. The third grouping, “Resist”, was to the Molenbeek Islamic Centre and its closely dependent on the radical antizionist imam, Sheikh Bassam Ayachi. The centre’s slant of the European Arab League, which website Assabyle.com had been prosecuted expresses views close to those of the Leba- following a complaint lodged in 2002 by the nese Hisbullah. Underlying its simultane- Centre pour l’Egalité des Chances et la Lutte ously Islamist and Arab nationalist (namely Nasserist) ideology is a form of antizionism contre le Racisme (Centre for Equal Oppor- which does little to mask antisemitism. tunities and Action Against Racism) on “Resist” in fact refers to Israel as the “Zionist account of the website’s Jihadist and antise- entity” (zionistische entiteit in its Flemish-lan- mitic content, which overtly advocates the guage documents). During the campaign for destruction of the State of Israel.35 Because the 2003 general election the controversy of the legislation on antisemitism, the PCP’s surrounding the EAL revolved around discourse is heavily coded. Its programme several issues. Firstly, the possibility of dis- for the 2003 election thus stated its opposi- solving it (under the law of 29 July 1934 tion to “certain obscurantist religious ten- banning private militias) on account of its dencies which claim to combat or dismiss decision to set up a private militia to patrol economic and technical advances conducive neighbourhoods with a large immigrant to general prosperity” and to “any ideology, population, officially for self-defence pur- doctrine, party or ethnic group that monop- poses, after the murder of Mohammed olises political, economic or cultural power Achrak, a young teacher of Moroccan origin, solely in its own interest, to the detriment of by a 60-year-old racist in Antwerp on distinct original modes of expression”. The 26 November 2002, followed by two nights PCP, which also condemned “ultra-liberal of rioting between EAL activists and the big capital”, thus used a battery of anti- police, which the League accuses of institu- tional racism. 35. Assabyle closed down in spring 2004 after the Brus- sels Court in Chambers referred its Webmasters Abdelrahmane Ayachi and Raphaël Gendron to the The second issue that arose was the pos- Criminal Court on 7 May 2004 for contravening the sibility of proceedings to withdraw Belgian laws against racism and negationism. The com- nationality (under Article 23 of the Nation- plaint concerned a text posted on the website explaining that “Nazism and Zionism are the same” ality Code) from Dyab Abou Jahjah, leader and comparing the body movements of David Levy, former Israeli Minister for Foreign Affairs, to those 36. M. Bousselmati, “Des prémices d’extrême droite of Adolf Hitler. The website immediately reap- musulmane” (The beginnings of a Muslim far right), peared under the name www.ribaat.org. Le Soir, 15 June 2004.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 19 of the EAL, on the grounds that he had lied of Paris with large Muslim populations.37 to obtain Belgian nationality in 1996. Lastly, The Europalestine list was in fact mounted the possibility of both prosecuting and dis- by an association supporting the Palestinian solving the League was raised after it held a people, the Coordination des Appels pour demonstration in favour of the Palestinian une Paix juste au Proche-Orient (CAPJPO – people near the Jewish district of Antwerp Co-ordination of Appeals for a Just Peace in on 1 April 2002; the demonstration sparked the Middle East), whose policy is to intro- antisemitic excesses such as a firebomb duce the Middle East issue into French being thrown at a synagogue on the previ- political debate whenever an election takes ous night and demonstrators breaking the place. This approach was disavowed by Ms windows of Jewish shops and publicly Leila Shahid herself, the General Represent- burning a dummy wearing the traditional ative of the Palestinian Authority in France, orthodox Jewish hat. In the end, the Centre who termed it “counter-productive” and pour l’Egalité des Chances et la lutte contre asked for the list to be withdrawn. The first le Racisme lodged a complaint against the ingredient in the controversy was the pres- EAL, which had a text posted on its website ence on the list of the Franco-Cameroonian stating that “Antwerp is the bastion of comedian Dieudonné M’Bala M’Bala, who Zionism in Europe, which is why its must had caused considerable upset during the become the Mecca of pro-Palestinian campaign with a television sketch that the action”. Over and above the issue of notably authorities representing the Jewish antisemitism, other EAL activities during community in France and anti-racism the 2003 and 2004 election campaigns organisations considered antisemitic. In the helped to heighten its intolerant image. In particular context of the resurgence of 2003, when the Flemish ecology party antisemitic acts in France since the begin- Agalev put up posters in the streets showing ning of the Second Intifada (Autumn 2000), a homosexual couple in traditional Muslim several of which made the headlines during clothing, the EAL demanded the withdraw- the election campaign, the Jewish communi- al of the posters, which it considered offen- ty authorities had already been seriously sive to Islam, and official apologies from the dismayed at the list’s campaign manifesto ecologists. As none were forthcoming, death because of its unilateral analysis of the threats were twice made against the Chair- causes of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict: man of the Agalev youth organisation, among other things, the manifesto con- Karim Bouziane. In 2004 Abou Jahjah also demned the “Israeli Government [which] campaigned in favour of women wearing the turns its back on peace and flouts interna- Muslim headscarf; he held a demonstration tional law and the basic rights of an entire on this issue in Brussels on 22 February people which it ceaselessly decimates, 2004 and on the same day sent an EAL dele- imprisons and plunders with impunity and gation to the demonstration held in Paris for with George Bush’s blessing” and the “con- the same reason. On 28 June 2003, the EAL stant blackmail designating those who took note of the failure of “Resist” and demand a just peace in the Middle East as founded the Muslim Democratic Party, antisemitic” and the construction of an which scored 0.1% of the Dutch-speaking “apartheid wall”. However, these expres- college vote in the regional election of June sions of antizionism remained within the 2004. As the League had set up a Dutch legal bounds of normal ideological dispute. branch headed by Mohamed Cheppih, the But in Paris on 8 June, the list’s big cam- same controversy broke out in the Nether- paign meeting took on a different tone when lands. On 5 May 2003, during the celebra- Dieudonné denounced “Zionist propagan- tion of the end of the German occupation of da” as being all-powerful in France, and the the Netherlands, Islamist supporters of the writer Alain Soral and the artist Siné got the EAL chanted antisemitic slogans and tried audience to whistle at the names of various to burn an Israeli flag before they were French Jewish personalities, and to identify arrested by the police. and name the authors of various pro-Israel Among the controversies that arose quotations: this gave the audience the during the campaign for the European elec- opportunity to boo, with all the anti-Semitic tions, there is the unique case of the Europalestine list, which stood in France, in 37. For an on-the-spot report from Garges les Gonesse, where Europalestine achieved its highest score the Ile de France region only; it scored an (10.75%), and distinctly antisemitic quotations average of 1.83% of the vote, but exceeded from supporters of the list, see the Communist daily 5% in several municipalities on the outskirts L’Humanité of 22 June 2004.

20 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance connotation given by the list, Roger Cukier- 2004 school year. His announcement came man, President of the CRIF (Representative in the wake of the report submitted on Council of the Jewish Institutions of 12 December by the Stasi commission on France), Dominique Strauss-Kahn, present- secularism set up by the President on 3 July ed as a member of the “Zionist party”, the 2003. As soon as the President announced historian Alexandre Adler and the philoso- his decision to ask Parliament to legislate, pher Alain Finkelkraut. Speeches were what many Muslim associations perceived made by Tawfik Mathlouti, founder of the as an ad hoc law against the Islamic head- private Paris radio station Radio-Méditer- scarf prompted several demonstrations in ranée, who never names Israel and refers to Paris and other large cities in France, espe- it as “the Zionist entity”, and by Christophe cially on 21 December 2003 and 17 January Oberlin, head of the Europalestine list, who 2004. Each demonstration attracted wide accused Israel of being “a racist country” and media coverage of a kind that effectively Patrick Gaubert, UMP candidate for Ile de injected into the political debate attitudes France and President of the LICRA (Inter- both querying the compatibility of Islam national League Against Racism and with the republic (and secularism). The Antisemitism) of “waving the flag of involvement of the law was presented by antisemitism”. These speeches may raise the some Islamist organisations and their allies question of whether the boundary has not from the anti-globalisation movement as been crossed between free judgment of casting a religious and ethnic stigma on Israeli policy and systematic criticism of Muslims opposed to the law whilst they are individuals on the basis of their religious not at all proven to be in the majority, and affiliation, together with denial of Israel’s even a discussion of whether the provisions right to exist. Fortunately, Europalestine of the future law were not too lenient to remains an isolated case. A similar attempt cope with the scale of the alleged “Islamist was made, along different lines, in Italy, peril” – with some people advocating an where Bassam Saleh, leader of Rome’s Pales- outright ban on wearing the Muslim head- tinian community, founded the Europalesti- scarf in public or the adoption of provisions na association (in liaison with its French prohibiting patients in public hospitals counterpart) and stood for election in the from choosing the sex of the doctor who Lazio area on the list of the Partito dei examined them. Above all, the nature, Comunisti Italiani. The Palestine Forum, of content and real aims of the law were mis- which he is one of the organisers, published represented. a text entitled “Palestine and the forthcom- ing European elections”, which includes a After the demonstration of 21 December, dubious reference to “Europe’s collusion in for example, the RTL radio station the plan hatched by the Israeli authorities to described the bill as targeting the Muslim wipe out the Palestinians”.38 headscarf alone (“Some 3 000 people demon- strated in Paris on Sunday against the future In France, a study of the conduct of the law banning pupils from wearing the campaign for the European elections shows Muslim headscarf at school”, RTL, that even where overt expressions of racism 22 December). After another demonstration and xenophobia were few and far between, on 17 January, the television channel at least among mainstream political parties, France 5 referred to a demonstration the climate leading up to the ballot was “against the law banning pupils from nonetheless partly shaped by the entry into wearing the Islamic headscarf at school” the debate of issues concerning the position (current affairs programme C dans l’air, of Islam in the public arena, the nature and 17 January). More than any other (a third scale of expressions of antisemitism, and demonstration was held on 14 February), more broadly, secularism and national iden- the demonstration on 17 January helped to tity. ethnicise the political debate. It was organ- It must first be remembered that on ised by a small radical Islamist group, the 17 December 2003 the President of the Parti des Musulmans de France (PMF), Republic, Jacques Chirac, announced his with the participation of other radical intention of tabling a government bill groups from abroad (Parti Citoyenneté banning the wearing of “ostensible” reli- Prospérité and European Arab League). gious symbols in state schools, which came Mohammed Ennacer Latrèche, Chairman of into force at the beginning of the September the PMF, uttered antisemitic slogans which received broad media coverage. On 38. Text published on 19 May 2004. 22 January the Communist daily L’Humanité

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 21 reported that “the Paris public prosecutor and statements identified as such, whether has opened an investigation into the alleged- made by politicians or intellectuals. The ly antisemitic remarks made by the Chair- controversy escalated further in March 2004 man of the Parti des Musulmans de France when the Communist Party chose as its (PMF). The investigation ended in January head of list for the regional election in Ile de 2005 for lack of evidence. During the pro- France the President of the anti-racist Muslim headscarf demonstration last Satur- organisation MRAP (Mouvement contre le day, Mohammed Latrèche said that ‘Zion- Racisme et pour l’Amitié entre les Peuples – Move- ism is an apartheid-based ideology and we ment Against Racism and for Friendship fight it as we fight Nazism’. He immediately among Peoples), Mouloud Aounit: some said he was the victim of a ‘slander cam- people interpreted this as an attempt to paign’, since in his view, the Minister of harness the French-born electorate of North Justice had ‘decided to comply at once with African origin and the opponents of the law the instructions of the Representative on religious symbols, which the MRAP had Council of the Jewish Institutions of France opposed.42 Controversy turned into crisis in and the International League Against the left-wing majority on the Ile de France Racism and Antisemitism (LICRA)”. regional council after 28 March, when the Latrèche had also stated that Le Monde was a Socialist President of the region, Jean-Paul “Zionist newspaper controlled by the Huchon, refused to appoint Aounit as vice- LICRA” and had thrown several Jewish president, contrary to an agreement which journalists to the mob, as it were, especially according to the Communist Party appears Elisabeth Schemla, editor of the online to have been concluded before the ballot. newspaper www.proche-orient.info. At the time, some journalists were reporting, with Another salient feature of the pre-elec- proof on hand, following the discourse by tion climate (leading up to the European the online newspaper Proche Orient Info, the elections this time) was the repeated occur- existence of ties between the PMF and far- rence of antisemitic acts, the most serious of left negationist groups, which introduced a which of which attracted a great deal of further dimension into the debate: that media attention. The most serious of these which highlights the antisemitic tone of was a knife attack committed on 4 June part of the pro-Palestinian discourse. The 2004 against a pupil of a Talmudic school in weekly Le Nouvel Observateur, for example, Epinay-sur-Seine by a young Muslim who reported that “the Parti des Musulmans de was later proved to have also struck several France, led by the Islamist agitator Moham- non-Jewish people on the same spot. The med Latrèche, who denounces the ‘Palestin- series of public statements that immediately ian genocide’ organised by Israel, was frater- followed the attack itself gives a good idea of nising with the negationist Serge Thion, in the way this type of incident is ethnicised. the name of the Palestinian cause”.39 On the basis of eye-witness accounts, including that of the injured boy, the perpe- trator was rightly classified as a “young man This was the climate in which the gov- of North African origin” by the police ernment bill was adopted on first reading by seeking him. A more precise but non-veri- the National Assembly on 10 February 2004 fied version started to circulate immediate- and by the Senate on 3 March, and in which ly. “The young Jewish man was attacked by the French voted in their regional and can- a young man of North African origin who tonal elections of 21 and 28 March 2004. The shouted (God is great)”, Sammy whole period was also marked by the Allah Akhbar Ghozlan, President of the Council of Jewish sudden entry into media vocabulary of the Communities of Seine-Saint-Denis, told the term “Islamophobia” used by the opponents AFP press agency, unhesitatingly linking of the law, such as Islamists from the left as the attack to the existence and influence of well as from the far left, to condemn the alleged stigma it cast and, more generally, 41. According to this website, “In a report published on according to them, the atmosphere of suspi- 24 October 2004, the Collective has recorded over a cion fostered with regard to Muslims, espe- period of 11 months [author’s note: in 2003-2004] 182 cially since 11 September 2001. A Collective Islamophobic acts, of which 118 targeted individ- Against Islamophobia was set up at that uals, including 27 attacks of which 4 were serious, 40 41 and 64 targeted institutions or representations of time to make a list of “Islamophobic” acts Islam, including 28 attacks on mosques and 11 cases of vandalism in cemeteries, desecrating more than 39. Claude Askolovitch, Le Nouvel Observateur, 6 Feb- 200 graves”. ruary 2003. 42. All the press articles are available on the website: 40. Website: www.islamophobie.net. www.aounit2004.org.

22 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance the Europalestine list43 and transforming the January 2004, the number of antisemitic act into a religiously motivated attack. In a acts and threats had dropped by 37% from press release, the President of the Conseil 932 in 2002 to 588 in 2003. Likewise, the Français du Culte Musulman (French number of “serious acts” (attacks, stones Council for Muslim Worship), Dalil Bou- thrown at places of worship and schools, bakeur, Rector of the Paris Mosque, then desecration of graves) had decreased by one “condemn[ed] this horrible, appalling and third from 192 in 2002 to 125 in 2003. It is disgusting act on behalf of France’s Muslim not the purpose of this report to discuss all community” and “express[ed] his solidarity the consequences of the rise of antisemitic with the Jewish community, especially the acts on the one hand and anti-muslim (also victim”. He repeated the theory of a reli- known as “Islamophobic”) racist acts on the giously motivated attack by stating that other, including the increasingly entrenched “invoking the name of Allah, as the perpetra- split between anti-racist associations. How- tor of this attack did, is an instance of abuse ever, it should be pointed out that during and an unacceptable pretext”, while and it the election campaigns a number of Jewish was only suspected that there might be a reli- associations specifically accused the left- gious motive for the attack. Dominique de wing parties, especially the Communist Villepin, the Minister of the Interior, imme- Party, and the far-left parties, especially the diately travelled to the scene. Questioned by Ligue Communiste Révolutionnaire (LCR), the AFP, he firmly condemned “this horrible of accommodating a radical form of attack” and expressed his “profound con- antizionism that these associations consid- cern”. But he added another possible inter- ered tantamount to antisemitism.46 pretation of the act by denouncing “cable I now come to two instances of antise- TV channels that increasingly broadcast in mitic discourse that marred the campaign France and put across messages that have for the European elections and resembled nothing to do with peace”, although there expressions of traditional political was nothing to suggest that the act or its antisemitism, with a partly religious basis perpetrator might be linked to any media and no link to the exploitation of Islam or influence.44 and that moreover, until then, the Middle East conflict. The first instance the government had refused to ban anti- concerns Hungary, where in May 2004 the Semitic channels such as Am Manar. A few head of the far-right MIEP party’s list in the weeks later, after the European elections, European elections, the Calvinist clergy- similar controversies broke out after the fic- man47 Lorant Hegedus, urged Hungarians to titious antisemitic attack staged by a female exclude the Jews before they exclude you. In passenger on a suburban train (9 July 2004) 2002 Mr Hegedus, former Deputy Chairman and the fire at a Jewish social centre in Paris, of the Justice and Life Party (MIEP), had which was presented as an antisemitic act been sentenced to 18 months’ imprisonment whereas the alleged arsonist was a former for a statement made on 16 July 2001 in the (Jewish) employee of the centre (21 August MIEP’s local newspaper in the 16th district 2004). Each time, lack of caution in the of Budapest, Ebreszto, advocating the elimi- immediate responses to the incident, nation of the Galician hordes from public coupled with distortion of the facts in some life;48 in Hungarian coded vocabulary the cases and remarks incriminating a commu- nity and a religion, regrettably helped to 45. The latest example is almost a textbook case: in 45 ethnicise social relationships. Marseille on 17 October 2004, Ghofrane Haddaoui, The frequency of antisemitic acts, which a French girl of Tunisian origin, was killed with blows from stones, which smashed her skull, by a remains high, is also a source of recurring young man of North African origin whose advances controversy. According to the Ministry of she refused. The macho crime immediately turned the Interior’s statistics, it started to rise into … stoning. A demonstration in her memory was again in the first half of 2004: 67 antisemitic held on the spot on 27 November, while Parliament was discussing a government bill on domestic vio- acts and 160 threats were recorded between lence. The famous singer Jean-Jacques Goldmann, January and the end of March 2004, as who demonstrated in Marseille with the associa- against 42 antisemitic acts and 191 threats in tion “Ni putes, ni soumises”, used the term “stoning” the last quarter of 2003. Yet according to the in a statement to the daily Le Parisien on 28 November. This was one of the few newspapers figures presented by Nicolas Sarkozy on 27 to publish a statement by a demonstrator who pre- cisely protested against the use of this inappro- 43. Le Monde of 5 June, “Jewish teenager knifed in the priate term. There is an example of a tragic incident street at Epinay-sur-Seine”. in which the origins of the victim and the murderer 44. The French government decided to ban Al Manar in prompted some media to use a xenophobic stereo- December 2004. type, distorting the facts.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 23 term he used designates Jews. He was month, deprived of public funding for six acquitted on appeal in November 2003. Also months and warned that it might lose its in May 2004, he declared on state-owned frequency if such an incident recurred. The Hungarian radio that he maintained every- radio station management appealed the thing he had said on the subject. In Decem- decision, and the film director Gyrgy Palos, ber 2003, following the court decision to a member of the Tilos management board, acquit him, the former Prime Minister Peter argued that his radio station and that of the Medgyessy’s centre-left government had MIEP were given different treatment: it is promulgated a law against incitement to amazing that such a ridiculous incident racial hatred. However, the Constitutional should have become the top political issue, Council had declared the law unconstitu- he said. Meanwhile Pannon Radio (the tional, ruling that it “unnecessarily restrict- MIEP’s radio station in Budapest) and even ed freedom of expression”, and consequently the state radio call Jews ‘Galicians’ and refused to endorse a law which had been gypsies ‘dark-skinned people’; yet the ORTT adopted in Parliament by a small majority has never found fault with that”.49 During and would have prohibited “public incite- the demonstrations held by the MIEP ment to hatred of a nation or race or national against Radio Tilos in January 2004, several ethnic, or religious minority” and “incite- thousand demonstrators gathered in front of ment to acts of violence against such the radio station’s offices brandishing plac- groups”. In Hungary, where 600 000 Jews ards saying “Buzz off to Israel”, booing the were exterminated during the Second government coalition headed by the Social- World War, there has been a resurgence of ist (ex-Communist) Party with shouts of antisemitism in the past few years. In “Down with this Jews’ government!” and January 2004 an Israeli flag was burned burning an Israeli flag.50 A final distinctive during a demonstration by the Civic Circles, feature of the situation in Hungary is that a political association set up by the former antisemitism is also considered perfectly Conservative Prime Minister Viktor Orban respectable on newsstands, where the just after his defeat in the 2002 general elec- MIEP’s monthly “Magyar Forum” is on sale. tion. Another case shook the country at the The list of books available by mail order start of the campaign for the European elec- from the newspaper in 2003-2004 is tions. A broadcaster on Radio Tilos, a Buda- undoubtedly unique in Europe, since it pest-based private radio station whose offers books applauding the Hungarian name means “banned” in Hungarian, lam- Waffen SS, others honouring Regent basted the Christian religion on the air Horthy, a negationist book on Auschwitz when he presented a programme in an obvious state of drunkenness. The MIEP and a translation of a 1930s French classic and a section of former Prime Minister on the judeo-masonic plot theory – many of Orban’s movement immediately seized on 48. The English version of the statement is as follows: the affair and called it a “Jewish plot” “The Christian Hungarian state would have warded against Christianity. The ORTT, the regula- off the [ill effects] of the Compromise of 1867 had tory body for television broadcasting, not an army of Galician vagabonds arrived who had imposed penalties on the radio station, been gnawing away at the country which, despite everything, again and again, had always been able to which was banned from broadcasting for a resurrect from its ruins the bones of its heroes. If their Zion of the Old Testament was lost due to 46. On Thursday 10 September 2003 the Douai Court of their sins and rebellions against God, let the most Appeal sentenced the Communist mayor of Seclin promising height of the New Testament's way of (Nord), Jean-Claude Willem, to a 1 000 euro fine for life, the Hungarian Zion, be lost as well …. Since it is calling on his local authority departments to boy- impossible to smoke out every Palestinian from the cott Israeli products. Proceedings had been brought banks of the Jordan using Fascist methods that against him by the Association cultuelle israélite of often imitate the Nazis themselves, they are the Département. The LCR lodged a complaint returning to the banks of the Danube, now in the against the President of the Conseil Représentatif shape of internationalists, now in jingoistic form, des Institutions Juives de France, who had stated on now as cosmopolitans, in order to give the Hungar- 25 January 2003 that antizionism is what cements ians another kick just because they feel like doing this current of opinion which extends from revolu- so... So hear, Hungarians, the message of the 1 000th tionary parties such as Lutte Ouvrière and the Ligue year of the Christian Hungarian state, based on Communiste Révolutionnaire to a fraction of the far 1 000 ancient rights and legal continuity, the only left. one leading you to life: EXCLUDE THEM! 47. In a press release dated 21 January 2002, the synod BECAUSE IF YOU DON'T, THEY WILL DO IT TO of the Hungarian Reformed Church very firmly con- YOU”. [In block capitals in the text.]. demned both Mr Hegedus’ remarks and the inclu- 49. Quoted by the French daily Libération on 11 March sion of ten clergymen among the MIEP candidates 2004. in the 2002 general election. 50. Ibid.

24 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance them illustrated by drawings and carica- ganda”, “Zionists control the planet”, “It has tures like those produced by the Nazi been proved beyond doubt that the terrorist Stürmer.51 attack against the Twin Towers in New In Greece, for years now, both the York was due to action by America’s Jewish Central Board of Jewish Communities in Zionists” and “the symbol of the dollar is not Greece, the Simon Wiesenthal Centre and D but $ (SH), which stands for shekel, in the various human rights organisations have honour of the first Jewish currency”; and in condemned the unchanging antisemitic fea- the issue of 29-30 May 2004, “The election tures of MP George Karatzaferis’ discourse. of Rozakis as Greek judge to the European The party he founded, “People’s Orthodox Court of Human Rights is a Zionist victory Alarm” (LAOS), scored an unexpected […] which confirms the dominant trend in success with 13.7% of the vote in the Athens the European Parliament. Clearly, of course, municipal elections in October 2002. The that is a victory for Zionism, with the conse- Greek Helsinki Monitor launched a forceful quences you can imagine” and “What kind campaign against LAOS in the run-up to the of Europe do you like? American, Zionist, European elections of 13 June 2004, pointing internationalist or multicultural?”. Howev- out for example that the party’s local offi- er, it would be a mistake to regard the far cials included four neo-Nazi activists and right alone as responsible for spreading that Mr Karatzaferis had publicly claimed antisemitism in Greece: the left also propa- Mossad was involved in the terrorist attacks gates antisemitism, as evidenced by com- of 11 September 2001. The GHM concluded poser Mikis Theodorakis, who is considered in a press release dated 7 June 2004 that LAOS preached antisemitism “more than close to Communist circles. In an interview any other party has ever done in Greece”. in “Haaretz” on 26 August 2004, he clarifies After the party’s breakthrough in the latest his statement of 4 November 2003 that “the local elections, the Simon Wiesenthal root of evil is the Jewish people”. He main- Centre had called for Mr Karatzaferis’ tele- tained his position, explaining that in his vision channel to be closed down on the view “the root of evil today is Bush’s policy” grounds that it broadcast “antisemitic prop- and adding, “I don’t understand how the aganda”. Below are some of the antisemitic Jewish people, who were the victims of quotations published in the party’s newspa- Nazism, can support this fascist policy” – a per Alpha Ena: in the issue of 5-6 June 2004, statement that reduces the Jews to a single “Zionism orchestrates anti-Greek propa- entity. Again confusing “Jew” and “Israeli”, he then said, “There isn’t a single people in 51. The French author of the translated book is Léon de the world that supports this policy except Poncins. The most striking caricature is on the the people of Israel […]. I’m afraid Sharon cover of the book by Zoltan Bosnyak Szembe Judeaval!, portraying a bearded, hook-nosed Jew will lead the Jews – as Hitler led the with a black felt hat and a menacing look. Germans – to the root of evil”.

Case study No. 1: A case study of Belgium is essential for course in the Belgian political context, it is Belgium several reasons. Firstly, Belgium held region- important to identify the Vlaams Blok’s ide- al elections at the same time as the European ology and programme on these issues. The elections. Secondly, it is a federal state party’s 70-point platform, which has very gripped by inter-community tensions exac- recently been amended for legal reasons dis- erbated by a xenophobic far-right Flemish cussed below, calls for the establishment of nationalist party, which is incidentally in no an independent Flemish republic with Brus- way representative of the entire Flemish sels as its capital. It also advocates “a com- national movement in terms of its history plete halt to immigration”, “restriction of and aspirations. Lastly, one of the main cam- the right of asylum”, “the effective repatria- paign issues was, unusually, the legal steps tion of illegal immigrants and refugees with already taken or to be taken in the future unjustified claims” and “a humane and gen- against this party, the Vlaams Blok: it was erous policy of return [to the country of ori- gaining in popularity at the time and the gin]”. It regards naturalisation only as “the democratic parties had agreed to quarantine culmination of a process of integration and it, which meant refusing to appoint assimilation. This xenophobic view of society members of the Blok to regional or national is obviously aimed first and foremost at non- government duties. So before looking at Community foreigners, but the Blok also racist, xenophobic and antisemitic dis- shows real hostility to Belgium’s French-

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 25 speaking population and even complains of the ruling parties. On 30 January 2004, the its “sometimes contemptuous and racist Chairman of the Flemish Liberal Party attitude to Flanders and the Flemish peo- (VLD), Karel de Gucht, used an expression ple”.52 The terms used by the party in that plays an important part in the vocabu- denouncing the chaos caused by Walloon lary of xenophobia, speaking in the debate state control and the economic gulf between held by the Chamber of Representatives’ the two provinces, together with the claim Domestic Affairs Committee on the bill con- that Brussels is a Flemish city and the accu- ditionally granting the right to vote to for- sation of Walloon harassment of Flemish- eigners living in Belgium.54 To restrict the speakers show this to be another form of scope of the measure, he backed an amend- xenophobic prejudice, which leads as a ment denying the right to vote to foreigners matter of course to the demand for separa- who had unsuccessfully applied for naturali- tion and is sometimes expressed with con- sation, and threatened the government with siderable violence, even where the target is withdrawing his party from the coalition if not named: in his speech in Bruges on 1 May the measure was adopted. In support of his 2004, Frank Vanhecke said that once views, Karel de Gucht, who cannot other- relieved of the burden of the stolen billions wise be suspected of racism and is against (author’s note: stolen by Wallonia), Flanders any alliance with the Vlaams Blok, cited can become a model state in terms of social cases of foreign offenders and drew applause benefits, and repeatedly described native from the Blok MPs. These remarks can only Flemish people as victims of discrimination. be understood in context – that of the In recent years the Blok’s discourse on party’s forthcoming congress (5-7 February immigration has attracted support from 2004) at a time when the party was riddled outside the party: this became apparent in with internal strife and threatened both on 2004 over the issue of whether to grant non- the left and on the right by the Vlaams Blok Community foreigners the right to vote in and the “Liberaal Appel” dissidents; that of local elections, which became one of the key pressure from the Young Liberals in Ant- issues in the political debate preceding the werp, who were overtly campaigning 2004 elections. The Socialist and ecology against granting the right to vote to non- parties have been proposing since the late Community foreigners and had collected the 1980s that the right to vote be extended to 1 000 members’ signatures required to immigrants who have lived in Belgium for at ensure that the issue of foreigners’ right to least five years. Towards the end of 2003 the idea gained ground in the centre and on the vote, which the French-speaking parties and right, dividing the Liberal Party (VVD) and the Flemish Socialists (SPA) supported, was the Christian Democrat Party (CDH), so put before the VLD congress; and lastly, that that some elected representatives belonging of polls in the run-up to the regional and to these two parties (and moderate nation- European elections, forecasting poor results alists belonging to the NVA, the former for the VLD, with the Vlaams Blok close Volksunie) agreed to join an “Action Com- behind it. This last point in particular mittee against granting foreigners the right explained the party Chairman’s choice: he to vote (Actiecomité tegen stemrecht voor feared that giving foreigners the right to vreemdelingen) set up by the Vlaams Blok vote would mean more votes for the far after the adoption of this measure by the right, to the detriment of the VLD. Essen- Senate and headed by a former liberal MP, tially, de Gucht said that “granting foreign- Ward Beysen.53 This in itself was an unprec- edented breach of the quarantine agreement 54. The Minister of the Interior, Patrick Dewael, also opposed this measure, without using any xeno- and entailed intervention by the Chairman phobic arguments, in an interview on the RTBF of the VLD, Karel de Gucht, and the Chair- radio station’s programme Matin Première on man of the CD&V, Yves Leterme, to punish 21 October 2003. He said, “During the previous Par- the culprits. liament we really made it easier for people to become Belgian and in my view that is the best way In this context it was very tempting to to integrate foreigners. If they become Belgian – and try to outgun rival parties in order to give that’s very easy for them to do – they obtain all political rights: not just the right to vote, but also the impression of a shift to the right among the right to be elected. So personally, I believe giving foreigners the right to vote is not the best way to go 52. See “Un programme d’avenir: un Etat indépendant about it”. However, in an opinion column published flamand” (A Programme for the Future: an Inde- by the daily Le Soir on 28 November 2003, he said pendent Flemish State) posted on http:// that in his view the Belgian Government should vlaamsblok.be/site_frans_programme_4.shtml. reverse the decision to halt immigration taken in 53. Beysen then set up his own party, Appel Liberal. 1974.

26 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance ers the right to vote, against the will of the the Ghent Court of Appeal sentencing the great majority of Flemish people, would be a Blok to a fine on the grounds that its propa- dangerous precedent”. He added that in ganda constituted “permanent incitement to adopting this measure, “the French-speak- segregation and racism”. On 14 November, ers are making a serious mistake, for which in order to be able to pursue its activities, they will pay sooner or later”, and asked, the Blok therefore changed its name to “why are they conducting an ideal pre-cam- Vlaams Belang (Flemish Interest). It also paign for the Vlaams Blok?”.55 The Liberal altered its programme, dropping the leader paid a heavy price, since the Federal demand for “large groups of non-European Prime Minister, Guy Verhofstadt, dismissed immigrants to be returned to their coun- him from his post as Chairman of the VLD tries” and confining the demand for deporta- on 12 February. In July 2004, however, he tion to immigrants who “reject, deny or appointed him Minister for Foreign Affairs. combat our culture and certain European values such as separation of the Church and The Vlaams Blok’s legal difficulties were State, freedom of expression and equality another major campaign issue and the Blok between men and women”. This is a stand- spotlighted the question of freedom of ard case of what judicious use of the law can expression throughout the campaigns both do to restrict the use and political exploita- for the European elections and for the tion of xenophobic discourse.56 regional parliaments. On the face of it this may seem irrelevant to the concerns of the The party, which aims to establish an present report. However, it is important to independent Flemish republic, considered see the matter in context so as to under- that the judgment had dealt it a death sen- stand that it is directly relevant to the tence, but said it was convinced that under Flemish far-right party’s power to spread its new name it would see the death of Bel- racist and xenophobic ideas. Following gium, as its Chairman Frank Vanhecke put three complaints lodged on 10 October 2000 it. While the Blok tops the polls in Flanders, by the Centre for Equal Opportunities and the French-speaking parties have voiced a Action against Racism against satellite asso- positive response. The CDH Christian Dem- ciations of the party (Nationalistische ocrats have asked Parliament to adopt legis- Omroepstichting, Nationalistisch Vorm- lative measures that will make it possible to ingsinstituut and Vlaamse Concentratie) on abolish public funding of extremist and the grounds that they had distributed leaf- freedom-hating parties, which would defini- lets supporting the Vlaams Blok’s 70-point tively eliminate the Blok and its successor. platform against immigration, the Ghent For the moment, the bill to that effect is Court of Appeal, ruling on the merits, sen- stuck in the Senate. Also, immediately after tenced these associations to a fine of 12,400 _ the regional elections, the Vlaams Blok’s each on 21 April 2004 for contravening the score put a question mark over the survival law against racism; the Court also awarded of the “quarantine agreement”. Controversy 5,000 _ damages to the Centre for Equal first broke out over the decision by Yves Opportunities and Action against Racism Leterme, who had been appointed to form (CECLR) and 2,500 _ to the Dutch-speaking the Flemish Government, to meet the Blok’s branch of the Human Rights League, both of leaders, even though he clearly stated at the which had claimed damages in the proceed- close of the talks that “a coalition with the ings. This judgment is of crucial importance Vlaams Blok is impossible […] because it because it allows the Belgian Government to bases its discourse on confrontation and on deprive the party of the subsidies to which a conflictual model”. Rik Daems, leader of it is entitled as part of the public funding of the Liberal Party (VLD) in the Chamber of political parties. The Law of 12 February 1999 on the funding of political parties pro- 56. On the French-speaking side, the Electoral Expend- vides that parties which display racist views iture Audit Board of the Chamber of Representa- or infringe human rights may lose part of the tives and the Senate unanimously decided to suspend the Front National’s subsidy for three subsidies they receive from the government. months. The Board members criticised Daniel Moreover, the party’s actual survival is now Féret’s FN for failing to submit a financial report for at stake because Vlaams Blok lost its case 2003. Meanwhile, the FN submitted a document before the Court of Cassation on 9 Novem- stating that its only income was its subsidy, a dona- tion of 1,50 _ and membership fees from forty or so ber 2004: the Court upheld the judgment of members. The Board considered that this document was in no sense a financial report and therefore 55. Wire from the news agency Belga, on 30 January unanimously ordered the far-right party’s subsidy 2004. to be suspended for three months.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 27 Representatives, described the talks as a to form an alliance with the Vlaams Blok, “waste of time”. The Liberal Deputy Mayor which in his view “will continue to progress of Antwerp, Ludo Van Campenhout, consid- as long as it is not given a share in govern- ered them inadvisable, saying that “there is a ment”. The youth branch of the N-VA, the fine line between talking and negotiating”. former Volksunie, a moderate Flemish Conversely, Roland Duchâtelet, Chairman nationalist party allied to the CD&V, also of the Vivant party, an ally of the VLD, asked called for the “quarantine agreement” to be the Christian Democrat Party, the CD&V, dropped.

I have chosen Ireland because on 11 June “yes” vote meant that henceforth only Case study No. 2: 2004 the Irish voted both in the European persons who at birth had at least one parent Ireland elections, in local elections and in a referen- of Irish nationality, or one parent entitled to dum designed to amend Article 9 of the become an Irish citizen, would have a con- Constitution so as to tighten requirements stitutional right to obtain Irish nationality. for obtaining Irish nationality, putting an The “yes” vote also empowered Parliament end to the acquisition of nationality by birth to change the law which currently provides on Irish territory. The Irish case is also of that anyone born in Ireland is Irish.59 interest because Ireland has no far-right parties and racist views are very rarely heard The first point to note is that even in a in the political arena: when this happens, it referendum-type ballot on a particular issue, is due to verbal excesses by elected repre- participation was low (59.95%), which on sentatives of the traditional parties. The the face of it proves that the issue did not latest recorded case occurred during the arouse the electorate’s interest. However, campaign for the 2002 general election, the voters who went to the polls voted “yes” when the MP for Cork Noel O’Flynn by a large majority (79.17%) whereas the 60 described immigrants as “spongers” and “no” vote scored only 20.83%. As regards “freeloaders”.57 On the fringes of the political the manner in which the issues of immigra- scene, the tiny Christian Solidarity Party, a tion and right of asylum were presented traditionalist Catholic party, fielded a few during the referendum campaign, the latter candidates in the local elections and one in in fact revolved around a straightforward the European elections, just exceeding 1% of argument: is it true that women of foreign the vote.58 A grouping was formed on the nationality travel to Ireland on purpose in sole subject of immigration: the Immigration order to give birth there so that their child Control Platform, which fielded three candi- will automatically acquire Irish nationality dates in the elections for Dublin, Cork South and the attendant benefits for the child and Central and Dundalk city councils. But Pat its family? Marginal groups used an overtly Talbot and Ted Neville scored 1.65% and racist line of argument, which was also pub- 1.44% respectively in the first two cities – in licised in the local elections. The Immigra- other words, immigration issues do not tion Control Platform claimed that immigra- appear to command voters’ support in local tion is a local problem, in the words of Ted elections. Neville’s campaign leaflet, which continued, “Services that affect you have to bend over However, at a very late stage, in March backwards to take account of the extra 2004, the Irish Government decided to hold applications due to an unplanned and a referendum on access to nationality. This unwanted influx of immigrants. (…) Nearly was against the background of tougher leg- 1,000 foreign households in Cork city and islation on foreigners – a decision of the county receive a rent allowance, while many Supreme Court in 2003 empowering the workers are struggling to become house government to deport foreigners who have owners and are financing this additional Irish-born children, and the adoption of the burden out of their taxes”. The ICP also took 2004 Immigration Act, which came into the view that “90% of asylum applications force on 13 February 2004. In brief, the refer- are sham” and attacked the government’s endum concerned the following issue: a alleged intention of taking in 20 000 57. See the Irish Times of 31 January 2002. Chinese students a year, asking, “Will the 58. In the local elections, Paul O’Loughlin scored 1.69% in Dublin Inner City and Conor O’Donogue 1.02% in 59. For further information see www.refcom.ie. Limerick 1. In the European elections Barry Despard 60. For a map of the results, which do not correlate scored 1,27% in Dublin. The traditionalist Catholic with the presence of foreigners, see http:// MEP Rosemary Scallon, who scored 13.52%, was www.ireland.com/focus/referendum2004/ not re-elected in the North-West constituency. results_map.html

28 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance government make sure they go back to the Hospitals who had alerted Justice Min- China, or will they be getting in through the ister Michael MacDowell to the need to back door?”.61 In Dublin the independent change the law to prevent the influx of candidate Paul Kangley campaigned for a foreign mothers.66 Then, when the Masters yes vote in the referendum, otherwise we of the Hospitals stated that they had made won’t have enough maternity hospitals for no such request, which the minister himself all the foreign women who want to give admitted on 13 March, the argument turned birth here”, untruthfully claiming that into the idea that the large number of “there are officially almost 200 000 people foreign mothers posed a problem for the who call themselves refugees and live in new hospital system’s capacity67 and that there houses and flats”.62 was genuine and systematic abuse of the Neither the government nor the main- constitutional right to acquire Irish nation- 68 stream parties used racist discourse. The ality. The final argument was that the con- government’s justification for tabling the stitutional change would bring Ireland into constitutional reform bill was a loophole in line with the legislation of the European 69 the current Constitution warranting meas- Union member countries, which is in fact ures to avoid “citizenship tourism” and alle- true, apart from the fact that the chosen viate the workload of already “overbur- wording was so that we do not create unin- dened” hospitals.63 Prime Minister Bertie tended incentives that are unfair to us or to 70 Ahern took care to repeat that he supported other EU member states. The concept of a “liberal” law on the right of asylum and unintended incentives tends to lend weight immigration (27 May). Nevertheless, the to the view that women applying for immi- very idea that “citizenship tourism” exists gration choose the country where they want on a large scale, or at any rate on a scale suf- to settle on the basis of a sort of cost-benefit ficient to require revision of the Constitu- ratio, i.e. precisely by doing what some tion, may be considered questionable. Also people call asylum-shopping. Other govern- debatable is the wisdom of referring, as the ment remarks fuelled controversy, such as Minister for Foreign Affairs Brian Cowen the statement made on 3 June by Mary did, to “genuine migrants” (the Irish Times, Coughlan, Minister for Social and Family 4 June), which suggests that there are “false” Affairs, that a yes vote in the referendum migrants. And lastly, one wonders whether would end the incentive for pregnant it was judicious to encourage the electorate women to put themselves and their unborn to vote in the European elections by display- children at risk by travelling here from 71 ing a poster in the streets portraying a abroad just before birth. woman breastfeeding her baby, which That being said, it is a fact that very few might suggest a link with the referendum on racist incidents occurred during the election nationality (1 June). However, it would be campaigns: according to The Irish Times, a particularly unfair to hold only the ruling candidate of Nigerian origin in Galway parties responsible for these ambiguous lodged a complaint after receiving racist remarks when a man as clearly above suspi- telephone calls. Lastly, it must be pointed cion of racism as Nobel Peace Prize John out that in 2002 the Irish Government set Hume (of the Northern Ireland SDLP party) up a National Consultative Committee on said he wanted the Irish Government to Racism and Interculturalism (NCCRI), award a “certificate of Irishness” to all those which included special articles on the across the world who are of Irish origin,64 National Action Plan Against Racism and which amounts to an ethnically-based view on countering myths about asylum-seekers of nationality. in the first issue of its newsletter Spectrum The main problem with the government’s line of argument was that it was based from 65. On this point, see the article by Aisling Reidy, Director of the Irish Council for Civil Liberties: “The the outset on strongly disputed figures (for need for a referendum considered”, on: www.iccl.ie/ births by foreign mothers who had come to constitution/gen/ar_tcdspeech04.pdf. Ireland specially for the purpose) and on 66. Statement by the Minister on 10 March 2004. facts which do not appear to be proven.65 67. Ibid., 21 April 2004. 68. Statement by the Prime Minister on 12 April 2004. Thus, it was said to be the Dublin Masters of 69. Statement by the Minister of Justice on 9 April 2004. 61. See http://www.immigrationcontrol.org/ 70. Ibid. elections2004.htm 71. A “yes” vote would would end the incentive for 62. Ibid. pregnant women to put themselves and their 63. Metro Eireann, 4 July 2004. unborn children at risk by travelling here from 64. The Irish Times, 10 May 2004. abroad just before birth.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 29 (November 2002). In the face of broad oppo- than those in force elsewhere in the EU. sition from the Churches and human rights However, it is regrettable that the reasons organisations (which criticised it for for the hurried referendum were not clearly exploiting racist feeling to boost its scores stated and that a generalisation was made in the local and European elections), as well about foreigners in spite of the official sta- as from the opposition parties Labour and tistics showing a 10% drop in the number of Sinn Fein, the Irish Government simply births by foreign mothers in Dublin’s mater- exercised its legitimate right to decide how nity hospitals between 2002 and 2003.72 one becomes a citizen. The newly intro- duced requirements are no more restrictive 72. Metro Eireann, 4 July 2004.

The main problem in Latvia is that of remains, however, that Latvia has not rati- Case study No. 3: Latvia relations between the Latvian majority fied the Framework Convention for the Pro- (57.6% of the population) and the Russian tection of National Minorities, while minority (29.6%). A genuine and long- Estonia and Lithuania have. standing feeling of hostility may be said to According to Kaspars Zalitis, co-ordina- exist towards the Russian minority, as tor of the European Week of Action against reflected in standard terminology by the fact Racism and the National Council of Latvian that the period when the country was part Youth, the media don’t talk about racism”.75 of the Soviet Union is referred to as the Yet racism is a feature of daily life: for exam- 73 Russian rather than the Soviet occupation. ple, and contrary to Zalitis’ view, the much In recent years this prejudice has chiefly publicised case of George Steele, a black been voiced with regard to the issues of lan- American citizen living in Latvia since 1994, guage and access to nationality. The prime has proved that insults and harassment evidence for this feeling includes the 1989 make coloured people’s lives difficult; there language law, which makes Latvian the only is also the case of the racist TV advertise- national language, requires proper names to ment for Brivibas Partija (Freedom Party),76 be latvianised and abolishes the teaching of which was convicted for it in September Russian in universities, and the 1994 nation- 2003.77 This party must not be confused ality law, which makes naturalisation with the LNNK (Apvienba Tvzemei un subject to passing an examination in Latvian Brvbai/LNNK), an ultra-nationalist party language, history and law, widely regarded comparable in some respects to the far right as difficult and discriminatory, with the which voices anti-Russian feeling based on result that by 30 September 2004 only deep-seated anti-Communism.78 Brivibas 78 540 naturalisations had been granted. Partija’s advertisement, broadcast during This means that almost 20% of Latvia’s resi- the campaign for the October 2003 general dents are not citizens, cannot take part in election, portrayed two black musicians elections and do not have access to a belonging to a well-known group. One of number of jobs, especially in the public serv- them, dressed as a soldier, was shown ice. However, the picture is not entirely neg- kissing a Latvian woman in front of the ative: in September 2002 Latvia adopted a monument to freedom in Riga. The accom- new law on the right of asylum, and in May panying voice-over said, “Today he’s defend- 2003 a new law on immigration, both of ing your country, tomorrow he might be which the United Nations Committee your son-in-law”. The court judgment given against Torture recognised as incorporating in response to a complaint lodged by the 74 significant advances. It must also be musicians and George Steele is a first in acknowledged that the Russian minority is Latvia, paving the way for the courts to pay free to express itself politically, which closer attention to racist offences. enables it to be represented in the European Parliament by the coalition For Human 75. Article of 27 March 2003 on www.policy.lv. Rights in United Latvia (FHRUL), a party 76. For the party’s platform, see: http://web.cvk.lv/pub/ incorporating numerous former officials of ?doc_id=28214. 77. On these two points, see the interview of George the Soviet Communist Party. The fact Steele on www.policy.lv/index.php?id=102518 (7 January 2003). 73. For example, the Latvian Academic Information 78. In the European Parliament after the June elections, Centre’s Website refers to the 1940 “Russian occu- for example, LNNK tabled a draft resolution upheld pation”. See www.aic.lv/HE_2002/HE_LV/ by MEP Girts Valdis Kristovskis with a view to ret- factsheets/hist.htm. rospectively condemning the Molotov-Ribbentrop 74. Report CAT/C/CR/31/3 of 5 February 2004. pact.

30 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance The main problem during the run-up to amending the existing law; and For Human the European elections, however, was the Rights in United Latvia went still further, reform of the education system, which was organising student demonstrations, calling adopted in February 2004 and came into on pupils to boycott the start of school on 1 force on 1 September. An appeal has been September and demanding closer ties lodged before the Latvian Constitutional between the European Union and Russia – Court against the law, which provides that an argument which is of course unlikely to 60% of subjects must be taught in Latvian, convince the majority of Latvians of the including in Russian-speaking schools. The Russian minority’s willingness to integrate. latter are thus threatened with extinction On the government side, the main argument (in theory, the law also applies to schools in favour of the law is integration: Russian- run by other minorities). In January 2004 speakers would have to speak fluent Latvian the bill sparked a wave of protest among the in order to be able to find a decent job. The Russian-speaking minority, culminating in a argument is acceptable provided that it is demonstration by 30 000 people in Riga on not presented in a form as dubious as that 1 May, in response to a call from several used by President Vaira Vike-Freiberga, organisations: a moderate wing (Lashor – who said that the law was designed to Association of Russian Teachers) and a ensure that Russian-speakers “become more hardline wing (Shtab – Centre for the Latvians of Russian origin”, adding that “if Defence of Russian Schools), both of which they want to be Russian, they can go to Rus- are often accused by the press and govern- sia”.82 This view is apparently shared by pol- ment of being manipulated by Russia.79 A iticians in the other Baltic countries: the number of slogans seen during the demon- former Lithuanian President Vytautas stration, such as Russian is more than a lan- Landsbergis, for example, no doubt believ- guage, could in fact be construed as express- ing there were too many Russian speakers in ing a form of refusal to integrate, or even of Latvia, asked a newspaper, “How would the anti-Latvian feeling,80 while the slogan Stop Germans feel if they suddenly had 60 million apartheid in Latvia is clearly an exaggera- Turks in their country?”, while the former tion.81 Estonian Foreign Minister Toomas Ilves The law also triggered a political crisis: in told the same newspaper, Moscow uses the May 2004 the National Harmony Party [Russian-speakers] rather like Hitler used 83 (Tautas Saskanas Partija), which supported the Sudeten Germans. On the other hand, the government of Prime Minister Indulis one cannot take a balanced view of the issue Emsis (who took office on 9 March 2004 without considering a number of overtly and resigned on 28 October), gave the gov- anti-Latvian statements made by Russian ernment an ultimatum, demanding that it officials: the Chairman of the Duma’s take action on minority rights and the Foreign Affairs Committee, Dimitri reform of the education system. At the same Rogozin, who is a specialist in this area, said time, a right-wing party called for the resig- in September 2003 that “the Nazis have nation of the Minister for Social Integration, come to power in Latvia” and described the 84 Nils Muiznieks (a member of the Latvia latter as “a country of hooligans”. As for First party), on the grounds that he had the ultra-nationalist leader Vladimir Jiri- given too much of a free rein to minority novski, he threatened on 1 April 2004 to demands. Many commentators viewed this destroy Latvia, specifying that commandos demand as a ploy by a party suffering from a were ready to leave Russia to bomb the 85 decline in the polls and internal dissent to Baltic countries’ capitals. boost its image. The issues of minority As regards the forms taken by anti- rights, reform of the education system and Russian xenophobic prejudice, it will first tuition in the Latvian language, together be noted that the government does not deny with that of asylum-seekers, prompted a its existence, nor that of racism in general. debate among the left-wing parties: the At a press conference held during the OSCE Tautas Saskanas Partija headed by Janis Conference on Tolerance and the Fight Jurkans made its support for the govern- Against Racism, Xenophobia and Discrimi- ment conditional on the latter resolving the education problem, preferably without 82. Quoted by the Baltic Times, “Unique elections crys- tallize party differences”, 20 May 2004. 79. See Le Monde of 25 October 2004. 83. Quoted by EU Reporter, 23-27 February 2004, p. 14. 80. Reported by the Baltic Times of 6 May 2004. 84. See Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty report, 81. Reported by EU-Observer of 12 June 2004 in connec- 10 October 2003, by Kathleen Knox. tion with the demonstration of 12 June. 85. Reported by the Baltic Times on 8 April 2004.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 31 nation (Brussels, 13-14 September 2004), of their parents”.87 On 28 September 2004 Minister Muiznieks said that on 25 August the Latvian Supreme Court upheld a judg- Latvia had adopted a National Programme ment given in April sentencing Vassili for the Promotion of Tolerance. While Kononov, an 80-year-old, to 20 months’ pointing out that the National Human imprisonment for “war crimes”, in this Rights Office had received very few com- instance the death of 9 civilians executed plaints of racist acts, he admitted that many during a partisans’ attack on a village in people belonging to visible minorities (from 1944. This verdict perfectly reflects the gulf Africa, the Middle East and Asia) had been between the Latvian and Russian views of subjected to threats or physical attacks, and the war: Latvians regard Kononov as a war added that there was widespread prejudice criminal, while Russians see him as a hero of against Roma, as well as deteriorating atti- the struggle against the Nazis, since the exe- tudes towards Muslims, although there are cutions took place as part of an attack very few of them. He also said that what he against German troops and their local col- called Russophobia was one of the prejudic- laborators.88 Lastly, I would draw attention es the programme was designed to eradi- to a statement reflecting the old Soviet habit cate. of classifying Jews as an ethnic minority A number of incidents and statements rather than as citizens. The government are nevertheless worth mentioning. For spokesman on educational reform, Sergeys example, MP Vladimir Buzayev (FRHUL Ancupovs, apparently said in response to a coalition) was suspended for six sessions for question about MP Jakov Pliners, a member taking the floor to talk about the Russian- of the FHRUL coalition, “He isn’t Russian, 89 speaking students’ demonstrations when he’s Jewish”. the agenda concerned the war in Iraq. In November 2003, MP Martijans Bekasovs, To conclude this case study, I would say then observer to the European Parliament, that there are tensions, verbal excesses and was deprived of his seat in Strasbourg by the attempts to revive prejudice on both sides. It Latvian Parliament, which accused him of is not as such discriminatory to ask a minor- betraying his country’s interests after he had ity to master the majority’s language and circulated a letter to MEPs in September make entry into the public service, for exam- 2003 complaining of the treatment of the ple, conditional on fluent knowledge of that Russian-speaking minority. The LNNK language. A state is even perfectly entitled to party, in particular, campaigned against require people wishing to acquire its nation- him, accusing him of anti-state activities ality to be fluent in the national language. and thus reviving the stereotype of Russian- On the other hand, the Latvian majority speakers’ alleged “treason”.86 An MEP undoubtedly has difficulty visualising Rus- belonging to the Tautas Partija, Rihards sians as full citizens, no doubt on account of Piks, asked by a journalist whether Latvians past disputes which have not been settled. should not forgive Russian-speakers for the mistakes committed by the USSR, replied, 87. EU Reporter op. cit. 88. Agence France Presse, 28 September 2004. “the Bible says children must pay for the sins 89. Quoted by the British Helsinki Human Rights Group in its report Latvia: double standards in the 86. Reported by EU-Observer on 5 November 2003. Baltics, 2004.

General conclusion

To conclude this overview, which is by this end of the political spectrum is no no means intended to be exhaustive, a few longer the only one that spreads racist dis- trends can be identified in political parties’ course, but one may wonder whether its use of xenophobic, racist and antisemitic comparative decline does not sometimes go discourse. Firstly, the rise of the far right as hand in hand with an ideological victory – such is no longer comparable in scale to a that of having succeeded in imposing its political “groundswell” and seems to have xenophobic agenda on some democratic largely stabilised in some countries (Austria, political movements which are keen to France), though it is giving more cause for outdo their rivals or quick to believe, in concern in others (Belgium). Consequently, terms of political tactics, that using the far

32 ECRI: European Commission against Racism and Intolerance right’s language helps to win back its elec- ments by traditional players (the far right), torate or prevent it from emerging. In this but also new players (Islamists) and even a sense, the crucial problem as of now is the fraction of the left and far left; among the need for democratic parties to avoid this latter, criticism of the Israeli Government’s “contamination”, and the main threat to actions that can be considered legitimate democracy lies in the use of this type of dis- sometimes turns into querying or denial of course by mainstream parties rather than by Israel’s right to exist as a state, or even into the far right. Secondly, it is quite clear that truly antisemitic remarks under cover of in the eyes of both extremists and a small antizionism. Generally speaking, the fact of proportion of democratic parties, the issue transposing the terms of the Israeli-Pales- of Turkey’s entry into the EU and that of the tinian conflict into the national political future of Islam in Europe have become argu- debate in some countries (particularly in ments as important as immigration and the France), the growing media coverage of right of asylum. There, the danger lies in mutual accusations of antisemitism and reducing Islam to a single dimension and Islamophobia exchanged by representatives wrongly assimilating it to its most radical of the Jewish and Muslim communities and and violent form. The “clash of civilisations” the debate on the issue of whether to make theory is undoubtedly gaining ground, as is Islamophobic and antizionist discourse a anti-muslim prejudice, whether one calls it criminal offence do much to undermine inte- “Islamophobia” or rejects that term on the gration, social cohesion and secularism. grounds that it is misused by fundamental- Special attention must be paid to these new ists. Thirdly, minority rights remain a deci- forms of xenophobic and antisemitic dis- sive issue in central and eastern Europe. course, both in legal terms and in terms of While the forms of xenophobic discourse education for tolerance. In almost all the associated with territorial disputes have vir- countries mentioned, the basic reason for tually disappeared, the general idea persists the use of xenophobic discourse and that nationality is first and foremost a antisemitism is obviously the fear aroused matter of heredity, language, religion and primarily among socially or economically ethnic group, rather than of a civic decision vulnerable people by the transformation of to live together. Roma and Russian-speak- societies which are comparatively homoge- ing or Hungarian minorities, for example, neous in ethnic and religious terms into are rarely referred to as full citizens in the societies that will inevitably have to move socially dominant discourse, although sub- towards multiculturalism. Accepting this stantial progress has been made in various kind of society, coping with the conflicts it countries (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hun- engenders through a policy of integration gary) in terms of the authorities’ growing and striking the necessary balance between awareness of the discriminatory status respect for individual or group characteris- assigned to Roma in particular and the steps tics and citizenship are the main challenges to be taken to remedy it. Fourthly, it is posed by the existence of an enlarged essential not to underestimate the disturb- Europe and, more generally, the globalisa- ing resurgence of antisemitic acts and state- tion of exchanges.

The use of racist, antisemitic and xenophobic arguments in political discourse 33