Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism

ABSTRACT: racism. Overall, my aim is to discuss In this paper, I will explicate how the importance of embracing dialectical generalizations, oversimplifications, , instead of dualism, in improving and reductionism are the inevitable human progress and comprehension consequences of dualistic approaches in of the phenomenon of racism, and in understanding the complex phenomenon uncovering the limitations and destructive of racism. Such racial-dualistic frameworks consequences of the dualistic approaches are not only inadequate and ambiguous, produced by capitalism. but could be harmful on many levels. By Introduction utilizing a comparative analysis of Marxist Racism is not only a subject of debate dialectical-monist approach and a non- and examination in the realm of academia, Marxist dualistic approach, I will contend but it has been publicly foregrounded the effectiveness of the former approach in modern times. For decades now, as being more elucidating in treating the emancipatory social sciences have interwined issue of race and racism. I relentlessly aimed at finding a unified will start by providing an introduction and definition of the concept of racism. Yet, definition of race and racism by tracing until this moment, social scientists have their origins in history and commonplace not offered a clear-cut definition, but a discourse. Second, I will examine two wide array of different accounts. This different racial binary theoretical paradigms lack of consensus among scholars led to i.e. the Superiority/Inferiority Paradigm the overuse and abuse of the concept of (Eugenics theory) and the Black/White "racism." Miles and Brown (2004) note in Paradigm. In this analysis, I will attempt to their book Racism that: offer a thorough critique, discuss capitalist Like many sociological concepts, agendas and their consequences, and racism has an everyday use and suggest alternatives to such misleading many everyday meanings. During and uninformative paradigms. I will the last fifty years or so, it has present, define, and suggest the Marxist become a key idea in daily discourse dialectical-monist approach as an as well as in sociological theory. Like alternative in comprehending race and

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other elements of ‘common sense’ they are not the same (27). However, some discourse (Gramsci 1971:323–33), researchers believe that many people, much of the everyday language is regardless of their color, are racially uncritical, taken-for-granted. (Miles prejudiced through a learning process in and Brown:3) childhood. They suggest that humans are Thus, there is a growing body of research either taught or have developed themselves pointing out the negative consequences certain preconceived misconceptions of overusing the concept of “racism” about people from different religious and in everyday life. Many social scientists ethnic backgrounds (Zastrow 2009; Lane argue that the overuse of the concept of 2008; Barndt 1991). “racism” will eventually “diminishes the Rattansi (2007) on the other hand moral force of the word” and weaken the offers a nuanced approach on the issue of societal concern towards “racism and prejudice stating that: other racial wrongs” (Blum 2002:2). Blum the historical and anthropological makes it clear that “not every instance of evidence suggests that outsiders racial conflict, insensitivity, discomfort, and strangers are not inevitably miscommunication, exclusion, injustice, subjected to hostility. Empathy, or ignorance” constitutes a racist act curiosity, tolerance, dialogue, and (2). Although people perceive acts such co-operation are human traits as xenophobia, prejudice, injustice, and that are as common as hostility bigotry as racism acts, social scientists and prejudice. Outsiders are not have been arguing for more than two automatically feared or hated; they decades now that a distinction must be are as likely to be admired, found made between these terms (Blum:3; Isaac sexually attractive, to provoke 2004; Ridley 2005; Rattansi 2007). For ambivalence, or be envied. (3) instance, in his book Dismantling Racism: Rattansi asserts that fear and hatred The Continuing Challenge to White of strangers are not innate traits of America, Barndt (1991) argue that even humans. Instead, he suggests that though all acts of racism, prejudice, and the possibility of celebrating perceived bigotry cause negative consequences,

40 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism differences of strangers is parallel to word "race" was neither used to inferorize that of hating or fearing them. With the or superiorize people nor was it used to majority of people confusing acts of racism assign biological distinctions to them. with that of xenophobia, researchers The shift of the usage and the meaning have emphasized the importance of of the word “race” took place in the late distinguishing between the two concepts eighteenth and early nineteenth century. (Bourdeau 2010). For instance, Bourdeau Many thinkers of diverse backgrounds notes that while racism is the belief (e.g. philosophy, science) started to use that one race is superior to another, the term “race” to inferorize, superiorize, xenophobia is merely "the irrational fear and assign biological distinctions to or distrust of foreigners" (1). Therefore, certain groups of people. Social scientists, this paper will examine the phenomenon however, disagree in their explanation of racism in an attempt to uncover the of the reasons of such sudden shift of generalizations and oversimplifications in the meaning of “race.” While some have terms of understanding “race” and racism. argued that it is due to the advancement in Definitions and the History of the scientific inquiry “to explain the physical Race and Racism and cultural diversity that had been exposed through European colonialism In their attempts to trace the roots and overseas expansion," others viewed of “race” and racism in history, social the shift as a product of the “class structure scientists unanimously agreed that the and configuration of power relations” word “race” has been around since the (Satzewich:3). In the latter view, the shift fifteenth century, while the concept of is caused by the bourgeoisies who utilized racism is of a very recent origin (Miles “race” as a tool to enslave those “others” and Brown 2004; Reilly et. al. 2003; Blum who do not share the same biological, 2002). They presuppose that before the social and intellectual capabilities. In his late eighteenth century the term “race” article “Race, Racism, and Racialization: was used merely to refer to “a lineage or Contested Concepts,” Satzewich (1998) line of descent where particular groups writes about “race”: of people were attributed with a common history” (Satzewich 1998:2). Hence, the Rather than being used as a

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category to define the “self”, it of biological differences between was now used as a way to define various races and the superiority “others,” be they “Arabs,” “Asiatics,” of one of them”; “A theory of the “Jews,” “Negroes” or “Blacks”. But hierarchy of races based on a in addition to changes in to whom belief that social conditions depend the concept of race referred, there on racial characteristics” (Robert); were also changes in its meaning. “A theory of racial hierarchy Categorizing certain groups as which claims the necessity of races became linked with the preserving the so-called superior negative evaluation of the “other’s” race from miscegenation and the social and biological capacities. (3) right to dominate other races” So far, it is evident that the task of (Petit Robert), ..UNESCO’s 1978 defining “race” is almost impossible “Declaration on Race” defines because races do not exist in a real or racism as “any theory claiming the biological sense, as many would like to intrinsic superiority or inferiority believe. As a result, it is also problematic of racial or ethnic groups which to give a clear definition of racism as a would give to some the right commonplace concept in the academic as to dominate or even eliminate well as political realms. In his study "What others, presumed inferior, or is Racism?" Benoist (1999) traces some basing value judgments on racial of the historical and recent definitions of differences.” Ruth Benedict racism. He cites various dictionaries to writes: “Racism is a dogma investigate the differences and similarities according to which one ethnic of the definition of the concept "racism." group is condemned by nature to Benoist makes a comparison between the congenital superiority.”…… Arthur following definitions: Kriegel has written: “Racism is an ideological-scientific system which “A system which affirms the divides the contemporary human superiority of one racial group species into sub-species, resulting over the others” (Larousse); “A from separate development and doctrine claiming the

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endowed with unequal average the oldest forms of racism (4). Although, aptitudes. Miscegenation with the word was coined in the 1930s, these inferior sub-species could Fredrickson (2002) stresses the fact that only result in half-breeds inferior to the “phenomenon” itself existed long before the favored race.” (3) that. Fredrickson notes, though, that our Benoist’s thorough analysis of the perceptions of what constitutes racist acts various old and present definitions of the shifted and changed throughout history (5). term racism led him to two major findings: Rattansi (2007) sides with other scholars (1) All of the definitions overlap; and (2) all of and argues that the definition of racism the definitions neglect behavior and focus is extremely complex and “it requires on theories that suggest that inequalities of relatively sophisticated treatment” (1). Yet, races legitimize the domination of “inferior” what distinguishes Rattansi’s approach is races by “superior” ones (Benoist:4). the fact that he pointes out the ontological Researchers, therefore, note that problematic in understanding racism as agreeing upon one definition of the word a social phenomenon. He expresses his “racism” is a problematic and challenging strong disagreement with social scientists, task (Miles and Brown 2004; Blum 2002; historians, and political scientists who Stoler 2002; Benoist 1999). Nonetheless, treat the issue of racism using dualistic there is a consensus between prominent . His contention is that in order scholars in the field on when, where, and to understand the phenomenon of racism how the word racism came into existence. “public and academic debates should The word racism was introduced in the move away from simplistic attempts to 1930s “as a response to the Nazi project divide racism from non-racism and racists of making Germany judenrein, or “clean of from non-racists” (Rattansi 2007:2). Thus, Jews” (Rattansi 2007; Fredrickson 2002; social scientists should recognize their Blum 2002; Montagu 1997). Yet, Rattansi underlying ontological considerations believes that the “Nazi Project” is only one when dealing with the issue of racism. phase out of many phases throughout To better understand how to avoid these history that reflects an immemorial past of ontological problems, one should ask anti-Semitism, which he considered one of the following question: What is dualistic

KUFA REVIEW: No.9 / 2015 43 KUFA REVIEW: Academic Journal in comparison with non-dualistic see as the problematic and specifically ontology? dualistic ontological commitments of many Dualistic Social Ontology: sociological researchers. But, what is the Definition and Implications meaning of “ontological dualism” in a sociological context? Regardless of passing intellectual fashions, ontological questions have According to De Quincey (2002), always been of great significance for “ontological dualism” refers to “a philosophers and social theorists. Neges fundamental split of reality itself.” He (2013) argues assuredly that those who explicates ontological dualism by stating: are not interested in the question of “what The idea is that there are two really exists in the world” have no place fundamentally different kinds of in the realm of academia (2). Although reality – in this case, 1) matter or the word “ontology” sounds intimidating physical reality of things extended to many, it is “understood broadly as a in space (e.g., atoms, tables, concern with the nature of being” (Lawson, mountains, animal bodies), and 2) Spiro, and Martins 2007). It should be mind or spiritual reality of things noted, however, that in recent years without any extension in space social scientists have displayed a growing (e.g., thoughts, feelings, desires, interest in reviving and utilizing ontology beliefs, souls). Somehow, these in their analyses, thereby eschewing the two utterly different kinds of reality positivist inclination to pejoratively equate happen to interact – one can cause ontology with metaphysics. While rarely effects in the other. The perennial engaging directly with the concepts and riddle for philosophy is how? How methods of contemporary academic could something as ghostly as a philosophy, they have begun to question thought, a mind, or a soul impact the practice of taking “scientific theories anything as solid as a human and their ontological presuppositions body? (17) for granted regardless of their empirical Similarly, in his article “Against Dualism: record” (3 - 6). Furthermore, some social Marxism and the Necessity of Dialectical scientists have pointed directly to what they

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Monism,” Smith (2009) defines ontological noteworthy problems associated with dualism as: ontological dualism is the “problem of …a metaphysical world view interaction.” This problem has been that conceives of reality as divided viewed as the difficulty to understand how into two substantially opposed and two separate realities (for example, mind “estranged” spheres: the natural and body) can interact. To conceptualize and the supernatural; the physical how fundamentally separate and distinct and the mental; the material and entities can interact or at least act together the ideal. (357) to produce a particular outcome, event or phenomenon is not only extremely In a historical analysis of the notion difficult; it would seem to be impossible of dualism, Smith contends that modern in principle. Another well-known problem dualism can be traced to the opening of ontological dualism concerns the stages of the Age of Reason (the 17th “ultimate subjectivity of experience.” How century). He maintains that “Descartes’ is it possible for humans to experience mind-body” and “Locke’s external objects objective reality through their subjective – ideas” dualisms were adopted by many experiences and perceptions and mark early-modern, modern and postmodernist the boundaries between two separate European thinkers. Well-known ontological domains? (Proctor and philosophers and social theorists such Capaldi: 463 - 464). These are two as Immanuel Kant, Max Weber, Anthony philosophical problems of dualistic Giddens, Michael Hardt, Antonio Negri ontology, and there are many other well- and many other influential intellectuals documented issues and difficulties as have all explicitly or implicitly utilized far as ontological dualism is concerned dualistic ontology (362 - 364). (Refer to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Now, why exactly is it so important for Philosophy 2011). At bottom, however, social scientists to become cognizant of from a scientific point of view, the dualistic their ontological commitments? And why perspective is problematic because is ontological dualism so problematic? it presents an obstacle to identifying, Philosophically, one of the most locating and mapping the myriad elements

KUFA REVIEW: No.9 / 2015 45 KUFA REVIEW: Academic Journal making up reality and disclosing their aspects of human existence. (366) manifold relations. And it does this in order It is noteworthy that humans commonly to sustain a metaphysical separation of tend to simplify and make sense of their matter and mind. lives by utilizing dualistic worldviews Many social theorists have voiced their (e.g. light and darkness, black and white, concern and underlined the negative good and evil), and that various other consequences that result from adopting, polar contrasts continue to dominate explicitly or implicitly, a dichotomous our thinking. Smith suggests that the framework when conducting emancipatory continuing domination of such a distorted social-science research. According to dualistic worldview is due to the fact Smith, the inevitable consequence of that, at specific points in history, certain ontological dualism is dualistic social societal conditions have strengthened ontology. Such ontology, he argues, the appeal of this particular outlook. The negatively impacts modern social theory, separation of intellectual and manual labor and therefore the quality of intellectual (associated with class division), as well and political debates. In elaborating on the as the separation of exchange and use shortcomings of dualistic social ontology, (associated with commodity production), Smith argues forcefully that it fails, above are among the more significant all, to recognize the crucial and irreducible “historically specific conditions” that have role of the social relations of production helped perpetuate dualism as a dominant in determining the concrete realities of a worldview. The predicament is that, historically constituted totality: although there is great resistance by most dualistic social theory philosophers and some social theorists necessarily “misses something” to dualism, the problem of ontological that is of utmost significance dualism is pervasive in mainstream (non- to the “human condition”: the Marxist) social science. Indeed, a growing social relations of production in body of research suggests that social the dialectical mediation of what scientists, whether aware or unaware of dualism posits as the “material– their ontological proclivities, are generating natural” and “ideal–cultural” distorted and partial analyses based on

46 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism problematic dualistic presuppositions. theory and understand the reality behind In his book The Structure of Social the various social phenomena and Theory, King (2004) supports the view problems facing humanity today? that nowadays many social theorists are committed to ontological dualism. Indeed, Marxist Dialectical-Monistic he suggests that there is an evident threat Ontology of the dominance of ontological dualism Smith (2009) argues that Marx’s within the social sciences. On the other dialectical-monistic ontology is hand, Smith (2009: 356 - 366) argues fundamental to effectively countering that ontological dualism has long been ontological dualism in general and dualistic dominant, whether acknowledged or social ontology in particular. Although not. Furthermore, it is unfortunately true some social scientists have argued against that contemporary social scientists, by dualism and in favor of ontological monism accepting a dualistic social ontology, are (King 2004, De Quincey 2002), Smith is encouraged to neglect what is actually precise in insisting upon the uniqueness the most crucial element in the analysis and indispensability of Marx’s dialectical- of social reality, what Karl Marx called monistic ontology for critical-emancipatory the social relations of production and social science: reproduction. Against all forms of idealism Now, considering the serious and and dualism, Marx embraced a arguably misleading consequences of materialist–monist perspective, applying the assumptions of ontological one distinguished by the idea dualism in modern social theory, it that reality is unified and that its seems reasonable to pose the following manifold elements are dialectically questions: Is there an alternative? What interrelated within a material world kind of ontology should social scientists — an ontology that regards all the commit themselves to when conducting elements of a dynamic and ever- sociological research? And what is the changing reality as implicated in most effective ontology that can be complex processes of mediation implemented to develop modern social

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with one another. (366) In an attempt to explicate the role of The above passage clearly signals two each of these ontological fields within a crucial concepts: monism and . It unified ontological triadic system, as well is important to clarify these two concepts to as their dialectical interconnections in understand Marx’s social theory. The term shaping the human condition and history, “monism” is very broad, and it can assume Smith defines and articulates these triads a materialist or an idealist form. According with respect to the specific element or to the Concise Routledge Encyclopedia field that is being given analytical priority of Philosophy, monism “is the doctrine (17- 20). However, for him, the three triads that there is only one substance, or one are all grounded within the production/ ‘world’, or that reality is in some sense reproduction process of humanity – and one, that is, unchanging or indivisible this underlines the fact that two of the or undifferentiated. For instance, the approaches reviewed in this paper (the alternative claims that ‘everything is Superiority/Inferiority approach and the mental’ or ‘everything is material’ are Black/White approach) place themselves crudely expressed forms of monism, beyond the boundaries of Smith’s each opposed to the common-sense conception of the triad. What distinguishes dualism of mind and matter” (2005:258). the Marxist understanding of the elements Smith argues that Marx’s ontology is both of the triad from the dualistic approach(es) dialectical and materialist-monistic. He discussed in this paper is precisely defines the as the “interrelations their divergent ontological assumptions of two or more terms,” and “materialist concerning these three elements. While monism” as the “fundamental oneness” Marxism emphasizes the centrality of of material reality (369). Smith asserts the production and reproduction process that within this oneness, Marxist monistic as encompassing and connecting these ontology posits the dialectical interplay of elements, the dualist approach involves an three distinct, yet overlapping and inter- ahistorical, reductionist and metaphysical penetrated “ontological fields”: the Natural understanding of them. (N), the Social (S), and conscious Activity For Smith, dialectical-monist ontology (A). involves the need to elaborate a

48 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism specifically “historical-materialist system of conscious Activity calls attention to the dialectical triads” at the center of which is the fact that the categories of human thought A‹–S–›N triad, one which calls attention to the are “historical and transitory products of determining role of The Social (particularly human practical activity and, potentially the historically constituted “social relations at least, veritable ‘forces of production’ in of production and reproduction”) in their own right.” (377) mediating the relationship between The 3) A‹–S–›N. This dialectical triad Natural and Conscious Activity. The three emphasizes the role of the Social (S) triads comprising the system of triads are in mediating between the Natural and defined in greater detail as follows: Conscious Activity. S refers precisely to 1) S‹–N–›A. This dialectical triad “modes of cooperation as constituted emphasizes the role the Natural (N) in by definite relations of production and determining the range of specific “natural” reproduction.” Smith underscores the features available to A (conscious Activity) importance of the social relations of and to S (the Social). The Natural refers production and reproduction for “the to the natural laws that are beyond human Social,” arguing that the “social relations control (e.g. the laws of thermodynamics), of production and reproduction are at the to human corporeal organization, and to heart of ‘the Social’; they are both defined the forces of production, that is, to “the by and constitutive of such social forms as capacities that humans have devised to commodity exchange, wage labor, capital, subdue nature, manipulate its laws, and social class, gender, race, citizenship and reduce the burden of toil and material the family.” (375) insecurity that afflicts humankind.” (373) Thus, on the basis of a careful 2) N‹–A–›S. This dialectical triad analysis of Marx’s social ontology, Smith points to the role of conscious Activity (A) introduces a “system of dialectical triads” in social life, that is to the “active relations whose implementation is crucial to that humans establish toward ‘Nature’ adequately understanding social reality and toward each other, as well as the in its rich complexity. Ignoring any one of capacities they develop through these the “ontological fields” or any one of the relations” (377). An analytical focus on dialectical triads will inevitably lead to

KUFA REVIEW: No.9 / 2015 49 KUFA REVIEW: Academic Journal an inadequate analysis of a given social that are inherent in the social relations of phenomenon. Thus, within the framework production and reproduction, as the latter of the system of triads, Smith argues that: are defined by and constitutive of race …S‹–N–›A, taken in among other things. This hint will open the isolation, lends itself to “vulgar” way for our discussion of race and racism or “mechanical” versions of within the dialectical monistic triads. In , to one-sidedly my analysis, I will focus on two dualistic “naturalistic” explanations of ontological paradigms: the Superiority/ social phenomena of the type Inferiority (Eugenics), and the Black/White associated with sociobiology and (Racism). By applying Smith’s system of evolutionary psychology, and/ or dialectical triads (the Natural, the Social, to a spurious universalism (such and the active Conscious) on the dualistic as technological determinism). A ontological paradigms; I will explore fixation on N‹–A–›S, on the other three main themes: 1) Social scientists' hand, tends to be associated with understanding of eugenics and racism subjective idealism, , as approaches which give priority to the and a voluntaristic social Natural in the dialectical triad S‹–N–›A, constructionism. Although central and 2) A meta-critique of social scientists' to and definitive of historical- accounts of the phenomenon of racism to materialist inquiry, the N‹–A–›S demonstrate that they themselves have triad, when considered alone, is given the priority to the conscious Activity also inadequate to the extent that N‹–A–›S , and finally 3) I will introduce an it understates the essential role alternative model which gives the priority of material–natural conditions to the Social A‹–S–›N, to better understand in shaping the social and/or the the reality behind racism. necessary role of conscious 1) Eugenicists and "White" Racists Activity in effecting social change. First, let us explore how researchers (372) have described eugenicists’ ideology and In Smith’s quote about the Social, “race” examine their accounts. In her article "Sex is enlisted with many other social forms and the ordinary Cuban: Cuban physicians,

50 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism eugenics, and marital sexuality, 1933- the science of improvement 1958," Arvey (2012) defines eugenics of the human race germ plasm as “the science of improving human through better breeding” and as breeding based upon theories of heredity” “the study of agencies under social (94). Arvey emphasizes the fact that control which may improve or the eugenics project represented a new impair the racial qualities of future way of the scientific application to the generations. (Paul 1998:99) regulation of sexual reproduction during In addition, in his book In the Name the period of the late nineteenth century of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of and the early twentieth century. According Human Heredity, Kevles (1985) notes that to Arvey, eugenicists claimed that the the main argument that was introduced by mere purpose of their practices was to the founder of the faith of eugenics, i.e. produce better quality of humans. She Francis Galton, was the “natural ability” explicates this claim in detail and argues (3). Inspired by his distorted understanding that there were two methods by which the of his cousin’s ideas (Charles Darwin’s eugenics project achieves this purpose. evolution theory), Galton was thinking The eugenics project was carried out by about ways to get rid of the undesirable either: (1) The removal of the “undesirable” traits of humans and “improve” the offspring as decided by the government desirable ones (Isaac 2004). His “sincere” (e.g. by killing the infants as in the past; goal was to encourage humans to take or by (2) practicing forced sterilization, charge of their own evolution (Kevles:3). euthanasia, and abortion in modern Thus, he believed in the possibility of times), or selective breeding to produce producing “highly gifted race of men superior types of people. Also, in her by judicious marriages during several book The Politics of Heredity: Essays on consecutive generations” (Kevles:4). Eugenics, Biomedicine, and the Nature- Galton’s heredity analysis advocates the Nurture Debate, Paul (1998) pointes out idea that “talent was rarely impaired by Francis Galton’s (the founder of the term) social disadvantage” (4). In analyzing definition of eugenics; which he described Galton’s way of thinking, Kevles (1985) as: makes it clear that:

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Galton heredity analysis “black” racism and that is: proceeded from the premise that ….because there is no reputation – especially the kind that centuries-old system of racialized earned a place in a dictionary of subordination and discrimination eminence – truly indicated ability, designed by African Americans that the lack of it just as reliably that excludes white Americans bespoke the absence of ability, from full participation in the rights, that neither outcome depended privileges, and benefits of this upon social circumstance. (4) society. Black racism would require Based on the above accounts, it is clear not only a widely accepted racist that eugenicists’ racism was concerned ideology directed at whites but with producing “fit” society by eliminating also the power to systematically the “unfit” individuals. However, what exclude whites from opportunities about “white” racists, do they share the and rewards in major economic, same beliefs with eugenicists i.e. the cultural, and political institutions. conviction that heredity and biological (3) superiority are worth promoting? Now, let In his book Blacks in Colonial America, us turn to the “white” racists and explore Reiss (2006) notes that one of the most how did researchers define this group prominent intellectuals in American history, of people? According to Feagin et. al. i.e. Thomas Jefferson, emphasized the (2001), the phenomenon of “white” racism physical differences between “black” and is “centuries-old system intentionally “white”. Jefferson believed that there are designed to exclude Americans of color significant differences between “blacks” from full participation in the economy, and “whites” in terms of their hair, color, polity, and society” (2). Notably, “white” and figure (Reiss:12). Jefferson viewed racism points out the oppression faced by “blacks” as inferior to “whites” physically, African Americans and other non-“white” as he stated that: people by “white” Europeans and “white” Blacks had less hair on their Americans (3). Feagin et. al. (2001) bodies and faces. They secreted argues that there is no such a thing as

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less from their kidneys and more the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries) from their skin; this caused a strong, supported the idea of “blacks” as inferior disagreeable odor from their skin. to “whites” "whites." Some physicians They were more tolerant of heat argued that “blacks” did not originate and less of cold because of these from the same source as “whites”, others skin secretions. Black lungs were said “blacks” resembled apes (ibid:12- different, and they did not extract 14). Reiss argues that many believed heat from air….Blacks required that “slavery was a structure of divinely less sleep; after hard labor, they ordained nature. The ape had dominion could stay up until midnight for over his slaves, the lower animals; the amusement despite the need to white had dominion over his slaves, the get up for more labor at dawn. They Negroes” (14). were brave as whites, but more Now, by comparing and contrasting “adventuresome,” perhaps owing eugenicists’ racism and “white” racism, it is to a lack of the foresight needed to evident that both groups have implemented recognize danger. (Reiss 2006:13) dualistic ontological assumptions in order Likewise, Jefferson promoted the idea to proceed with their desired projects. On of “blacks” inferiority in terms of their one hand, eugenicists’ dualistic ontology mental capacities, as he accentuated that: is created through the formulation of the They were not reflective, so “fit” vs. the “unfit”, and on the other hand, when not laboring or involved “white” racism dualistic ontology stems in discussions, they slept. Their from the notion of the “superior” race vs. the memory was equal to that of “inferior” race. In utilizing Smith’s dialectical “whites”, but their reasoning and triadic system (the Natural, the Social, their minds were inferior to and and the conscious Activity), it is clear that their thought processes limited: both groups are giving the center to the …They were tasteless and dull in Natural. Eugenicists and “white” racists imagination. (ibid.) are simply suggesting that being “mentally retarded” or “black” is out of their control, It is noteworthy that many physicians (in and for them as “experts” eugenicists

KUFA REVIEW: No.9 / 2015 53 KUFA REVIEW: Academic Journal and “superior” “whites”, it is impossible actions. Social scientists proved that to deny, repeal, or escape these natural these two groups have divided society into “facts.” For eugenicists and “white” racists two categories “fit” vs. “unfit”; “superiors” the Natural features i.e. genetics, of these vs. “inferior.” Thus, this division was “retarded people” or people of color, in this based on a dualistic ontological model case “blacks,” isolate the Social i.e. social that emphasizes the natural features of relations of production and reproduction the “unfit” and “black” individuals. The on one hand, and cover up the conscious dialectical triad system demonstrated Activity behind their approach i.e. human that these two groups i.e. eugenicists and ideas and agency, on the other hand. “white” racists are focusing on the Natural Both groups believe that the role of the element of the triad; considering the Natural has determined their conscious Social and the conscious Activity as static Activity and the structure of their society. elements. With this in mind, we should They do believe that S (social relations of explore the following question critically: production and reproduction) and A (the What did social scientists propose to conscious Activity) are static elements understand the problem of racism? The that are of lesser importance. As a result, following pages will be dedicated to both eugenicists and “white” racists are answer this question by investigating utilizing the following formula: S‹–N–›A, social scientists' focus on the ideological which constitutes an objective relation of standpoint of eugenicists and "white" color to color in “white” racism and body racists. to body in eugenics ("objective relation of In her examination of the eugenics things to things," see Smith:378). practices, Arvey (2012) argues that policy 2) Meta-Critique of Social makers considered eugenics as the only Scientists’ Position on the Reality of way to promote a healthy society free of Racism the divorce problem (118). She asserts The previous section was dedicated that government officials, physicians, and to social scientists’ understanding of the many other professionals believed that dualistic ontological model that eugenicists “with careful planning and policy making, and “whites” racists utilized to justify their nation-states could do much to improve

54 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism the quality and "fitness" of their citizenry” concepts as they were introduced by his (94). Cuban physicians took the role of cousin Charles Darwin, Kevles argues educating Cuban married couples about that: sexuality by “using science to combat To Galton’s mind, the scientific female frigidity and sexual ignorance doctrine of evolution destroyed the (118). Arvey (2012) underlines the fact religious doctrine of the fall from that in “… postwar [WWII] era eugenicists grace. (12) targeted laypersons and promoted Despite that Kevles considers the normative and unequal gender roles within importance of Galton's statistical and marriage as a means to maintain stable, mathematical equations in his study of reproductive family relations" (94- 95). heredity, he describes Galton’s work as Therefore, Arvey argues that physicians' lacking academic rigor. As a matter of hidden agendas were implemented for the fact, Kevles believes that Galton’s work is purpose to maintain a patriarchal society, just some type of work you expect from “a she states that: pass-degree Cambridge graduate”, not a The patriarchal subtext here professional scholar (17). is clear and not surprising for It is clear from Arvey and Kevles a society that often condoned accounts on eugenics that they are married men's extramarital affairs, referring to the idea that the natural features especially those between white of humans i.e. genetics are exploited by men and women of color, and that certain people in pursuing specific goals had condemned married women and achieving certain agendas. For Arvey found in adultery to unequal legal what lies behind eugenics is a patriarchal treatment until the early 1900s. mode of . She shifts the (119) emphasis from the Natural, which is the Also, in his analysis of the history of approach of the eugenicists themselves, eugenics, Kevles (1985) emphasizes to patriarchy as the cause behind the the role of Francis Galton, i.e. founder of doctrine, according to her interpretation. eugenics, and his intellectual attempt to For Kevles, on the other hand, the oppose religion and embrace the evolution

KUFA REVIEW: No.9 / 2015 55 KUFA REVIEW: Academic Journal explanation for Galton's enthusiasm for inferiority. This ideology has eugenics is traced in the mediocrity of his dominated white thought from intelligence as “a pass-degree Cambridge the seventeenth century to the graduate.” Similar to Arvey, Kevles shifts twenty-first century. White racism the focus from the Natural to the problem and the black struggle against it of Galton's level of intelligence. have shaped the character not Similarly, social scientists who dealt only of the founding documents with the issue of “white” racism have of the United States, such as the emphasized the importance of focusing Declaration of Independence on the conscious of “white” racists. Reiss and the U.S. Constitution, but (2006) traces the roots of “black” slavery also of a huge body of law and and discusses various prominent political much social practice over the and professional figures throughout history intervening centuries. From the who promoted ideas of “white” “superiority” 1600s to the present, a majority (11 - 16). He argues that “the idea of the of white Americans have held a inferiority of blacks was pounded into range of antiblack prejudices and white consciousness from the legislature, images which are webbed into a the courts, newspapers, and the pulpit” full-fledged racist ideology and (15). As a result, as Feagin et. al. (2001) which have played a dynamic role underlines, in order for researchers to in implementing an extensive and understand all types of racism that are institutionally buttressed set of directed towards other people of “color," discriminatory practices against it is essential to understand “white“ on- African Americans and other “black” oppression (6). Feagin et. al. peoples. (6) (2001) emphasizes that: In Feagin’s quotation, it is clear that In North America a racist racism is explained through different forms ideology was developed of human approaches to the problem, in hundreds of books and such as ideological and legal. Feagin thousands of articles defending et. al. (2001) has shifted the emphasis white superiority and African from the Natural as he understood the

56 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism racists to underline, to the ideological to body in eugenics (“subjective relation (i.e. conscious Activity), which he thinks of people to things,” see Smith:378) is explain the phenomenon. He suggests essential to understand this point; that is that the solution to eradicate racism lies how social scientists perceive eugenicists in correcting the consciousness of the and “white” racists in working persistently many Americans (people of different on “unfitting” and “inferiorizing” certain backgrounds and of different “colors”), groups of people. According to this who should continue to resist “white” formula, the aforementioned researchers racism (220). are emphasizing the role of the conscious Now, let us turn to the dialectical triad Activity in formulating and propagating (the Natural, the Social, and the conscious eugenics and racism. On this view, the Activity) on the accounts offered by all ideas and agency of eugenicists and of these social scientists. According to "white" racists play significant role in the dialectical triad system, each one, shaping the active relations they establish Arvey, Kevles, Reiss, and Feagin, has toward the Natural and among themselves; emphasized the role of conscious Activity thus, their racist actions are real forces of in understanding the phenomenon of change in their own right. It is important racism. As I discussed in the previous to note that these social scientists have section, eugenicists and “whites” racists implemented dualistic social ontology that perceive their actions as necessary and separates between the “material–natural” “normal”, due to their reliance on invariable and “the ideal.” Smith (2009) has defines laws of nature, i.e. genetics; thus they the ideal as “the ideas in people’s head, emphasize the role of the Natural element including their preferences” (379). Further, of the dialectical triadic system; S‹–N–›A. he illustrates this dualistic social ontology However, Arvey, Kevles, Reiss, and Feagin very clearly, by stating that: believe that these actions are merely based … within dualistic social on and stemming from the consciousness ontology, the social aspects of the of people. The following dialectical triadic human condition are understood to system N‹–A–›S i.e. subjective relation of be either immutable manifestations people to color in “white racism” and people or epiphenomena of the natural

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laws of the material universe All of the previously mentioned social (encompassing non-human as theorists and researchers had distorted well as human nature) or an understanding of the reality of racism. objectification of those elements One sociologist, however, i.e. Joe Feagin, of human consciousness that are was near to grasp the real mechanisms considered to have a transcendent of racism. But, if Feagin’s analysis is and essentially non-material origin. accurate i.e. in order for social scientists to (376) understand racism they should focus their Based on the historical-materialist attention on superior-inferior relationship system of dialectical triads it is clear that between “whites” and “blacks”; considering while eugenicists and “white” racists are the “white” as the superior and the “black” imprisoned within the formula S‹–N–›A, as the inferior, one might ask then social scientists analyses are imprisoned Why does the “superior” “white” person within N‹–A–›S. Both have neglected the experience racism too? Why would Social element of the triad; to them it is “white” Jewish or “white” Irish individuals only a byproduct of the Natural and the experience racism? The answers to conscious Activity respectively. According these questions will certainly contradict to the dialectical triads applied in this the limited dualistic paradigms [things to analysis, the social scientists who have things, people to things] implemented. studied the phenomenon of racism have These types of contradictions are the fallen into the trap of ontological dualism. unavoidable consequences that stem from In the following section, I will introduce utilizing dualistic social ontology. the Marxist dialectical-monist approach Feagin et. al. (2001) bases his analysis as an alternative to the previous dualistic of racism on the work of Georges Battaille ontological assumptions that inevitably who developed Karl Marx’s “social produce dualistic social ontology. surplus product” concept (18). Battalille proposed the “excess energy” theory, 3) Marxist Dialectical-Monist in which he argued, “human societies Approach: Effective Alternative in ordinarily generate more energy and Examining the Phenomenon of Racism human resources than are necessary for A‹–S–›N

58 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism sustaining life at a minimal level” (18). deeply embedded myths, that According to this view, humanity produces deprives its victims, its perpetrators, surplus energy that can be either invested and U.S. society as a whole of in positive ways (e.g. the construction much valuable human talent and of castles, pyramids, and cathedrals energy and many social, economic, as was the case in the past), or wasted and political resources (19) in negative ways (e.g. current human A dramatic change in individual, and ecological destruction and labor group, and societal way of seeing exploitation). Although Feagin et. al (2001) requires a change in white thinking bordered on the reality behind racism, his about the history and reality of analysis lacks an exhaustive account of racism. (31) the real forces producing racism. In an We propose that all Americans, otherwise excellent book, Feagin fails to but especially white Americans, bring together the necessary formula to search for more positive and understand this persistent problem. He productive ways of using this insists that the solution lies in rectifying the society’s excess energy and consciousness of the American people. resources. (Feagin et. al. p.32) The following three quotes will plainly show that Feagin’s book has provided Ghaill's study (2002) about racism in an ethical analysis of the problematic of Ireland should serve as a good example racism; throughout his book, he has given of the insufficiency of dualistic approaches the center to the conscious Activity N‹– (e.g. dominant/subordinate, colonised/ A–›S, and neglects the Social forces of coloniser, black/white). He argues that production and reproduction as the main due to the lack of a “well-developed” drive behind racism, he states: theoretical framework, Irish sociologists tend to use the Black/White paradigm (5). A central thesis of this book Yet, Irish sociologists have found that the [“white” racism] is that Americans black-white paradigm is insufficient to deal should see white racism for what it with the peculiarities of the Irish situation. actually is: a tremendously wasteful He maintains that black/white dualistic set of practices, legitimated by

KUFA REVIEW: No.9 / 2015 59 KUFA REVIEW: Academic Journal model is general, reductionist, and Unlike Feagin, I propose that social ineffective in terms of understanding the scientists face a dualistic ontological phenomenon of racism against the Irish in problem that must be addressed. The Britain and the U.S; as well as undermine only way to comprehensively understand the reality of anti-Semitism and racism the reality of racism is to: (1) Reject all against ethnic minorities in Ireland (7). It forms of dualism and idealism; and (2) is inadequate because it views people of apply Marx’s materialist-monist ontology, “color” as the prey, and the “white” as the which proposes that reality is unified and predator. However, in the case of the Irish, all of its various elements, that is, the they are themselves “white.” According to Natural, the Social, and the conscious Ghaill (2002) “…much of British colonial Activity dialectically interplay in a system history, the Irish were seen as black” (12). of dialectical triad. In this dialectical triad, These contradictions suggest that racism the Social element, i.e. social relation of is a complex phenomenon that should production and reproduction, must be be understood beyond a color-coded given the central stage according to Smith dichotomy. (2009): Now, one might pose the following … the crucial role of the social question: What is the most effective in mediating the relation between alternative to understand racism? Feagin’s Nature and conscious Activity proposal that the problem in understanding — the better to not only interpret racism is an epistemological one; he the world, but also to change it mentions: in definite ways. Accordingly, the As we see it, antiracist “practical materialism” affirmed strategies require an eradication here by Marx is one that regards of the separation of knowledge “the Social” as an irreducible and theory from action. Antiracist dimension of the unified material strategies demand alternative reality of which humanity is a part. ways of knowing, conceptualizing, (368) and protesting. (Feagin et. al. The starting point in elaborating the 2001:32, italics added) adequacy of the dialectical-monist triad

60 KUFA REVIEW: No.5 / 2015 Hayder Alkilabi: The Reality of Racism in tackling the problem of racism is the established as historically coordinating Social. According to Smith (2009) "By their efforts in the implementation of social we understand the cooperation eugenics during the 1930s (see Kühl of several individuals, no matter under 1994:15 - 17), a fact that shows that what conditions, in what measures and to eugenics is an outcome of the capitalist what ends. For Marx, human cooperation system. Many East German historians can assume many forms: voluntary strongly argues that Nazism - that promoted and coerced, egalitarian and class- the practice of eugenics and forcibly antagonistic, solidaristic and exploitative" sterilized and killed hundreds of thousands (20). This definition shifts the attention of people - was “one manifestation of a from the Natural (i.e. the objective relation general crisis of capitalism” and “Hitler of color to color/body to body) and the was above all the tool of big business” conscious Activity (i.e. the subjective (Lee 2010:5). It is critical to note that relation of people to color/people to body) researchers have documented a strong to a social relation of people to people. relationship between the appearance of Thus, "white" racism is not originated in “white” racism in “Europe and the Americas the color of people as a natural trait, and and the expansion of capitalism as an eugenics is not a problem of the physical economic system” (A.G. 2006; Cole 2009; constitution of individuals as "unfit." The Leiman 2010).In addition, it is noteworthy problem of racism is a reflection of the that the Great Depression in the 1930s ontology of the capitalist system, which increased racism against the blacks in the marks the relation of people to people United States (Cohen 2002:196). Cohen by prejudice and distortion. To address emphasizes that “blacks” lost their jobs the problem of racism, according to this three to four times faster than “whites” in argument, the nature of the capitalist the Great Depression and was not able system and the social relations of to regain employment like “whites” did production and reproduction within the (196). Most importantly, however, is the system should be recognized. fact that the Great Depression was an The capitalist system in the U.S. and invetiable “result of capitalism’s structural the Nazi regime in Germany have been weaknesses, which produced a myriad of

KUFA REVIEW: No.9 / 2015 61 KUFA REVIEW: Academic Journal antagonisms” (Navarro 2012:15), among which was "white" racism. Conclusion The theoretical framework adopted In this paper, I have argued that in order in this paper supports these historical for social scientists to understand racism, foundations for the connection between it is necessary to apply the dialectical capitalism and "white" racism/eugenics. triads system on the interwoven issue of "White racism" and eugenics are caused “race” and racism. The argument of this by a system that tends to exclude wide paper moved from dualistic ontological segments of the population in moments assumptions which emphasized the role of crisis. Therefore, racism is an attitude of the Natural and the conscious Activity adopted by people who are motivated by respectively to a Marxist ontological- their social interests toward other people monistic triad in which the Social occupies who represent minorities and working the center as a leading element in the classes. The natural aspect of variation totality. It has become clear that the in color is marginalized in comparison epistemological and ethical approaches to the social existence of the people of to the problem of racism are insufficient different colors, and the conscious Activity to explicate the reality behind racism. As which many researchers emphasized illustrated, the social relations of production (Arvey, Feagin, Kevles, Paul, Reiss) could and reproduction in the capitalist system not gain efficacy without foregrounding are the source of the phenomenon of the Social A‹–S–›N as the center of the racism, and any attempt to address the theoretical framework to approach the problem should consider the capitalist problem of racism. Their approach, without system as the starting point. taking the Social into consideration, is reduced to an ethical prescriptive call to people which could not yield any tangible REFERENCES results. Conscious Activity becomes, * Author’s Bi when it is connected to a central social Hayder Alkilabi is an Iraqi-Canadian scholar. He consideration, an emancipatory not ethical obtained his BA hon. degree in Criminology and activity. Contemporary Studies from Wilfrid Laurier University

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