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Online Publication Date: 1st July 2012 Publisher: Asian Economic and Social Society

The Contribution of Languages of Muslim-Majority Speakers to English Vocabulary

Haja Mohideen, Bin Mohamed (International Islamic University Malaysia . Malaysia)

Shamimah Binti, Haja Mohideen (International Islamic University Malaysia)

Citation: Haja Mohideen, Bin Mohamed Ali, Shamimah Binti, Haja Mohideen (2012) “The Contribution of Languages of Muslim-Majority Speakers to English Vocabulary”, International Journal of Asian Social Science, Vol. 2, No. 7, pp. 1018-1025.

International Journal of Asian Social Science, 2(7), pp. 1018-1025.

The Contribution of Languages of Muslim-Majority Speakers to English Vocabulary

Abstract

The English language owes a debt of gratitude to numerous languages, those with whom the British colonizers came into contact through colonization and trade, and also with those Author (s) whose languages are spoken by a large number of people. Examples of the former are Bengali, Hindi, Hausa, Malay and Haja Mohideen Bin Mohamed Urdu. The examples of the latter are , Mandarin, Persian Ali International Islamic University and Turkish. When we think of the Muslim contribution to the Malaysia Kuala Lumpur. vocabulary of English, it is mostly Arabic, Persian and Turkish Malaysia that comes to one‟s mind. Not much is known about the lexical E-mail: [email protected] items from Swahili, Fulani, Wolof and Tatar, for instance. This

Shamimah Binti Haja study is an attempt to discover the various vocabulary items Mohideen from languages of Muslim-majority speakers that have found International Islamic University their way into the international lingua franca and thus used Malaysia internationally and regionally. Their use is authenticated E-mail: [email protected] through influential dictionaries and online content. A sizeable

number of such words have indeed become part of English and are used in the print and electronic media. These words, though from the sources of Muslim-majority languages are used by both speakers who use English as their primary and secondary language. These words fill a lexical gap experienced in the English language which has only become richer, not poorer, by lexical borrowing of the languages in question.

Key words: Lexical Borrowing, Muslim-Majority Languages, Loan Words, Lexical Gap

Introduction contribution of speakers of Muslim-majority languages, with the exception of Arabic, has not English has always been an international been well-researched, to the present language of sorts ever since the speakers of old researchers‟ knowledge. English came into contact with people from outside England who came to colonize them, Palumbo and Gaik (1992: 213) state that and later when England herself went on to foreign words which enter the English language conquer other territories and established an “are classified according to their degree of empire on which the sun never set. Trading in foreigness…..four categories: natural, denizen, products, involvement in the local affairs of alien and casual”. Naturals are those foreign administration and exposure to new ideas and words which have become fully naturalized in way of life have mutually enriched English and pronunciation and use, for example, imam. the languages the English colonizers, Denizens keep their form and foreign missionaries and traders came into contact with. pronunciations, but are used like native words, The French influence on English has been for example, „kebab‟ in The kebabs sold there substantial (see American Heritage Dictionary, are delicious and filling. Aliens refer to foreign 1996). titles, names of items and other words that speakers of English may find themselves having While many are aware that English has to use, for example, „sultan‟ in The sultan of benefited enormously from Latin, Greek and Oman visited Omani students in Cardiff. Latinate modern languages such as Spanish and Casuals are similar to aliens, but they are less Italian (Palumbo and Gaik, 1992), the commonly used, for example, iftar as in The

Muslim members of parliament attended the

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The Contribution Of Languages…..

iftar gathering hosted by the Indian premier. some countries in Southeast Asia, English has Another example is niqab as in The wearing of also been introduced to languages used by niqab has been banned in France. from other parts of the world. The primary objective is to show to the world the The entries in this study may be considered as numerous words in the languages of Muslims vocabulary for an international cross-cultural which have found their way into English as well English language. They are for a new world and help to build bridges between Muslim and where multicultural English is increasingly English users of the language. becoming popular as these are used by a vast population in both Muslim and non-Muslim Methodology majority countries. Those who have newly converted to Islam find themselves using those The methodology pursued here follows that of expressions related to their new religion and Cannon (1994), whereby books, dictionaries, culture to express their new identity. CD-ROM and the internet were used to trace the Arabic words in English for his study.. For The vocabulary identified here has enriched the the present study, the books used were The English language immeasurably, a truly global Arabic Contributions to the English Language lingua franca. Users of the language from by Cannon (1994) and Word Origins Second to Zimbabwe use these expressions in Edition by John Ayto (2005). The dictionaries various domains, including arts, sciences, were The American Heritage Dictionary of the history, politics, business, economics, law, etc. English Language Third Edition (printed They are needed for cross- cultural version, 1996) together with the fourth edition understanding, and to better understand cultural of the electronic version of the dictionary of and linguistic diversity. 2007,

Background The Oxford Reference Dictionary (1986), Cambridge International Dictionary of English Students and language educators are all too (1995), which was primarily used to help familiar with the substantial contribution made construct sample sentences with the target by Arabic to English vocabulary. What many entries. Collins English Dictionary (2000), and laypeople may not be aware of is the Webster‟s New Explorer Encyclopedic significant contribution made by Persian, Dictionary (2006). Turkish, Malay, Urdu and a number of languages of Muslim-majority speakers. These The electronic dictionaries were The American have been used in various ways by users of Heritage Dictionary (2007), Webster‟s English. These words are also employed in a Unabridged Dictionary (1913), The Concise non- religious and non-cultural sense. For Grove Dictionary of Art (2002), Oxford Grove example, jihad is often used in a restricted way. Music Encyclopedia (1994), McGraw Hill But, it can also be used in the sense of a Science & Technology Dictionary (2003), campaign as in The mayor declared a jihad Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology (2003), against corruption. There are English language Oxford Food and Fitness Dictionary (2003), users who use borrowed or loan words Oxford Food and Nutrition Dictionary (2005), creatively. For example: Encyclopedia Britannica (2011), Columbia When are you going to get out of your self- Encyclopedia 6th edition (2011), Gale imposed purdah? These add color and Encyclopedia of Russian History (2004), Gale universality to the language. Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World (2004), New World Encyclopedia (2011) and Objectives Merriam- Webster (2011). Answers.com proved The primary objective of this paper is to reveal a very big help to locate used to help to locate the contribution of Muslim-majority languages the target words and vital information to English vocabulary. Although one may know pertaining to them. Wikipedia, the free there are many English words in other Muslim- encyclopedia proved a valuable resource

majority languages such as Malay as used in providing lists of English words whose origin

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could be traced to Muslim- majority languages. Findings and Discussion The words, however, were cross checked with print and online sources for their veracity and Arabic authenticity. The CD-ROM used for the study was that of the Longman Dictionary of The Arabic language is the language of Contemporary English (2003). Muslim-majority speakers which has contributed the most number of words to the The criteria for considering the target words as English language in comparison to other contribution are: 1. They are entries in major languages spoken by Muslims. The Arabic dictionaries used worldwide, 2. Their language is very closely associated with etymology includes Muslim-majority languages Muslims all over the world. It is the language of and 3. They have entered English vocabulary the Holy Quran. It is a rich language which has directly or indirectly. Only words which are enriched many languages of Muslim- majority used in a wider region have been included here. and minority speakers. These include Berber, Those which are used in limited national Hausa, Swahili, Somali, Hindi, Gujarati, contexts and purely used by Muslims in a Bengali, Malay (Beg, 1979). religious context are not considered a target contribution to the English lexicon, for It has also supplied words in a big way to example, Id-ul-fitr, Hashemite, rial, Hubshee, European languages such as Italian, Spanish, Omani, Shawwal, afernan, dhikir, sahib, aga, French and Portuguese (Cannon, 1994). Muslim ban and durgah. The words selected for our communities worldwide use Arabic expressions purpose are common nouns. frequently in the domains of religion and culture. Watt Taylor (1933, cited in Beg, 1979) Proper nouns, especially those referring to had claimed that Arabic loan words in English names of specific countries, cities or locations were about a thousand in number, not including will not be considered a contribution. Only derivatives. The contribution of about a words which are regarded as having a role to thousand words, albeit through other sources, is play in general international English have been a very significant contribution. Some of these identified and dealt with. They are part of the words, however, may have now become dated, active and passive vocabulary of educated obsolete or hardly used. The present work has English speakers. Words which specifically included only those which have found their way belong to and are restricted to non-native into current, contemporary and authoritative varieties of English have been excluded. The dictionaries. target word is treated in quite a number of sources used for the study, but only those The Arabic loanwords identified here are words, whose contribution was substantial, mostly on the basis of entries found in Garland have been listed. Some of these words may be Cannon (1994), The Arabic Contributions to the used in an additional sense, besides pertaining English Language. 202 words in English have more closely to that of Muslims. been identified to have benefited from Arabic, making it the largest contributor among the For example, „jihad‟ can be used strictly as Muslim-majority languages. This is not relevant to Muslims as in The Afghan surprising as had been great seafarers, mujahideen considered it a jihad to oppose the traders, scholars and conquerors. This had Russian invasion. An example which can be enabled them to interact with other peoples, and used by more English users is The newly to pass on some of their words, probably to fill appointed police chief considered it his jihad a lexical gap in their lexicon. and responsibility to fight criminals in the city. This is the authors‟ additional contribution to Their vocabulary has remained steadfast among the field to enable as many people as possible to Muslims, mostly in the religious and cultural use these words more extensively (more in domains. The following words were identified forthcoming book). The target words are all for our purpose: , abelmosk, abutilon, found in authentic materials: online material, acequia, acerola, Achernar, admiral, adobe,

newspapers, books and dictionaries. afreet, albacore, albatross, alchemy, alcohol,

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alcove, Aldebaran, alembic, alfalfa, alfilaria, was formerly known as East . The vast alforja, algarobba, algebra, Algol, algorithm, majority of Bangladeshis are ethnic Bengalis. alidale, alkali, almanac, Altair, amalgam, Nearly all of them speak Bangla as their first amber, aniline, apricot, arsenal, arsenic, language. The minority Bihari population, artichoke, assassin, assegai, average, ayatollah, originally from the Indian state of Bihar speaks azan, azimuth, azoth, balm, barbican, barrio, Urdu. The major religion of the inhabitants is , ben, benzoin, berseem, brinjal, , Islam (nearly 90%), while in neighbouring bulbul, calabash, caliber, caliph, camel, West Bengal, the people are mostly Hindu. The camphor, candy, cane, carafe, carat, caraway, majority are Sunni Muslims (Wikipedia). Two carboy, carmine, carob, casbah, caterach, , words can be traced to Bengali- bungalow and checkmate, cipher, civet, coffee, coral, cork, jute. , couscous, crimson, cumin, , damson, date, Deneb, dragoman, drub, elemi, Chechen elixir, emir, , falafel, fedayeen, gala, The Chechens live in Chechnya, whose capital garble, gazelle, genie, gerbil, ghoul, giraffe, is Grozny, in the Caucasus mountainous region guitar, gum, gypsum, haj/j, haji, halal, hashish, of the Russian Federation. They are staunch hazard, hegira, henna, , houri, hummus, Muslims who have a long history of conflict imam, intifada, jacket, jar, jasmine, javelin, with the Russians. Only 1 word- aul, may be jerboa, jihad, jubbah, , khat, kismet, from Chechen language. kohl, lacquer, lapis lazuli, lemon, lilac, lime, loofa, lute, macramé, magazine, marzipan, Fulani / Fula massage, mate, mattress, mecca, , The Fula or Fulani language is one of the mocha, mohair, monkey, monsoon, mortise, languages of West . The majority of the mosque, muezzin, mufti, mujahideen, mullah, Fulani people are Muslim. They were the first mummy, muslin, myrrh, nabob, nadir, nuchal, group of West Africans to embrace Islam and oasis, orange, popinjay, qadi, racket, realgar, played a pivotal role in the spread and influence ream, saffron, saker, salaam, saluki, , Islam throughout West Africa (New World sarsaparilla, , satin, senna, sequin, shahin, Encyclopedia, 2011). They had even sharia, sheikh, simoon, sirocco, soda, sofa, established an Islamic empire. They are spread souk, Sufi, sugar, sultan, syrup, tabby, tabla, over many West African countries, for example, talisman, tamarind, tangerine, tariff, tarragon, Nigeria, Senegal, Guinea, Cameroon, Mali and tuna, typhoon, , ummah, vizier, xebec, Niger (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2011). Fulani zakat, zareba, zarf, zedoary, zenith and zero. has contributed 2 words, namely, mojo and yam. Bambara Hausa Bambara is a language spoken in Mali in West The Hausa people are the largest ethnic group Africa. It is used by about 6 million people, in West Africa and are significantly found in including those who use it as a second Nigeria, Niger, Ghana, Chad, Togo, Benin, language. It is the native language of the Burkino Faso, Cameroon, Cote d‟Ivoire and Bamabara ethnic group which is estimated to be Sudan. Hausa often serves as a lingua franca around 4 million. It is the national language and among Muslims in non-Hausa regions. An lingua franca of Mali. Most of the people are estimated 22 million people are native speakers Muslim, although many still do observe their of Hausa. They are mostly Muslim (Wikipedia). ancestral practice of honouring their ancestors, Despite British colonization in a large part of a practice which does not observe Islamic Africa, Hausa seems to have only contributed 1 traditions. The country had been colonized by word- juju. the French (Wikipedia). Only 1 word, i.e. juke has been borrowed. Kazakh Also known as Kazak language, it is spoken Bengali largely in Kazakhstan and the Uighur Bengali or Bangla is native to Bangladesh and Autonomous Region of Sinkiang in China.

the Indian state of West Bengal. Bangladesh They were a traditionally pastoral people who

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now practice settled agriculture (Encyclopedia Maldivian/ Dhivehi LANGUAGE Britannica, 2011). The 2 words from this source Maldives is an island state near Sri Lanka and are saxaul and barchan. the south of . It is very popular with holiday makers for its numerous coral islands. Malay The people of Maldives are predominantly The Malay language is a general term to include Muslim. The local name for their language is the languages spoken by the Malay people in Dhivehi. This language has provided atoll. , Malaysia, and . There are varieties of Malay, however. In Persian Malaysia it is known as Bahasa Malaysia, in The which is also known as Brunei, Bahasa Brunei and in Indonesia, it is Farsi is the official language of . There are Bahasa Indonesia. These show variation in three historical varieties of Persian- Old, orthography and vocabulary. There are Middle and Modern. Farsi is spoken in Iran and standardized forms as well as creole and pidgin by the Iranian diaspora. Persian has had a forms. Most in the Malay regions are substantial influence on Turkic languages, and Muslim. Some languages and the people in has also been used in some Indian languages. Indonesia have their own distinctiveness, for For example, tahsildar refers to a senior Indian example, the Javanese. Malay is spoken as the official at sub-district level. The word is derived primary language by more than 33 million from tahsil meaning revenue. Bakshheesh is people in the Malay world (Encyclopedia used in Indian English to indicate gratuity Britannica, 2011). offered to public officials to expedite and get Javanese work done. It is from Persian bakshish meaning „present‟. „Tandoor‟ is tandur in Urdu which in The Javanese are an ethnic group of people who turn came from Middle Persian tannur which is originate from , the most populous and an oven (AHD, 2007). influential island in Indonesia. They are the largest ethnic group in the country. Most The influence of Persian on other languages Javanese are Muslim. They have also migrated spoken by Muslim-majority speakers is to neighbouring countries, for example, significant. The Arab invasion of Persia Malaysia. The Javanese language, although witnessed a mutual exchange of vocabulary closely related to other Indonesian languages, is items. There are many items which are also distinct from them. Java has had a long identical, for example, fatwah is used in both history of Hindu and Buddhist influences before Arabic and Persian. Islam is the dominant the advent of Islam. religion of the Iranians. The majority of Iranians in the Islamic Republic of Iran are Shia There is a significant contribution from the Muslims. The Persian language has made its Malay language, probably 60 words. They are: way into English, contributing 60 words. The agar (agar-agar), amok (amuck), angklung, words accounted for are as follows: arsenic, antimacassar, babirusa, bamboo, bantam, asafetida, aubergine, azure, babul, baksheesh, banteng, , binturong, cajeput, caladium, bazaar, bedeguar, borax, caravan, casuarina, catechu, cockatoo, compound, caravansary, cassock, caviar, , check, cooties, dammar, dugong, durian, gaharu, checkmate, chillum, china, dervish, divan, gambier, , gecko, , godown, gizzard, gul, jackal, jasmine, jasper, kenaf, gong, gutta-percha, , junk, kampong, kapok, kismet, lemon, magus, manticore, markhor, ketchup, komodo dragon, kris (keris), lahar, mezereon, mogul, musk, narghile, paradise, launch, mandarin, mangosteen, orang utan, peach, peri, perse, pistachio, purdah, , paddy, palanquin, pandanus, pangolin, scarlet, scimitar, seersucker, serendipity, pantoum, parang, rambutan, ramie, rattan, sesban, shawl, sherbet (sorbet), sitar, spinach, - sago, salak, sambal, , satay, seladang, stan, taffeta, tambour, tapestry, Tigris, trehala, siamang, silat, , tempeh and trepang, zenana, zircon and zurna.

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Somali (Wikipedia, 2011), but also because it was used Somali is the dominant language of the Somali in the once powerful which people in Somalia. Ethnic Somalis are straddled across Africa, Asia and Eastern estimated to be around 15-17 million people. . 45 words from Turkish may have Besides Somalia, they are also found in large enriched English. numbers in Ethiopia. The principal religion of the Somalis who are today scattered in different The words which have been identified are: parts of the world is Islam (Wikipedia). Somali baklava, Balkan (balkanize), begum, bosh, has provided the lone item-gerenuk. bouzouki, café, caftan, coffee, dolma, dolman, doner kebab, horde, Hun, kebab (kebob), kefir, Swahili khan, khanate, kiosk, kismet, koumiss, lavash, The word „Swahili‟ itself comes from the macramé, martagon, minaret, odalisque, Arabic word sawahil which means „coastal Ottoman, pasha, pilaf, sabot, saiga, saker, dwellers‟. Kiswahili is also another name for samiel, sherbet (sorbet), shish kebab, taffeta, the language. It is the most important language young Turks, tulip, turquoise, , vizier, of East Africa which is also spoken in the yaourt, , yoghurt (yogurt), yurt and zill. central and southern regions. Regions with a significant Swahili population are Tanzania, Urdu Kenya, Mozambique and Comoros. The Urdu is the language of the majority Muslim majority of the Swahili people are Muslim population in Pakistan and north India. It is a (Wikipedia). The vocabulary of Swahili is language “allied to Hindi, which it resembles in largely influenced by Arabic (Oxford Reference grammar and structure, but with a large Dictionary, 1986). Due to its important admixture of Arabic and Persian words, having function, it serves as the lingua franca for been built up from the language of the early business activities. It is one of the most Muslim invaders, and usually written in Persian influential and well-known languages in Africa, script” (Oxford Reference Dictionary, 1986: used by a very large population. Swahili can 901). There are some differences between take the credit for 3 words-bwana, dengue and Hindi and Urdu in vocabulary, usage and safari. cultural context, the reason being the latter is associated more with that of Muslims. Urdu has Tatar done its part for English vocabulary with 12 The Tatars have a very rich history of words: hookah, chador, cummerbund, cushy, assimilation and disintegration. They were a khaki, , mullah, pajamas, samosa, powerful nomadic group of people who caused tabasheer, tandoor and tandoori. panic among Europeans. These people who have settled in various parts of the Russian Federation and Eastern Europe are mostly Wolof Sunni Muslim. They are a fusion of Mongol The Wolof language is the native language of and Turkic people and thus the Mongol the Wolof people who are largely found in invaders of and Hungary became known Senegal, The Gambia and Mauritania. The to Europeans as Tatars or Tartars (Encyclopedia language is spoken by more than 10 million Britannica, 2011). The Tatar language may be people and the vast majority of them are credited with 4 words: balalaika, buran, followers of Islam. The single entry from Wolof sevruga and uhlan. is banana.

Turkish The is a widely spoken Conclusion Muslim-majority language. It is spoken across It is beyond doubt the major Muslim peoples many countries outside where many have enriched the English language. The Arabs, people of Turkish origin have settled. These Persian, Turkish and Malays have made a include Asian and European countries besides sizeable impact on the English lexicon. They USA. It is influential not only because an are followed by many other Muslim-majority

estimated 91 million people speak the language

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languages, though their contribution may have Our languages can serve as bridges to been minimal. Together they have added understand each other. Some major English numerous words to the language. The semantic language dictionaries already have included fields they encompass include agriculture (e.g. words from Muslim-majority languages (Haja noria- a water wheel used to transfer water to Mohideen, 2007). The speakers may have an irrigation canal, AHD 1996), anatomy (e.g. animosities towards one another, but languages nucha- the nape of the neck, AHD 1996: 1240), do not disunite us. That is because the astronomy (e.g. almanac- an annual publication languages we use have each other‟s vocabulary, of weather forecasts), biochemistry (e.g. amber- without us being aware of it. Communication yellowish- brown substance), botany (e.g. between different individuals and nations is pandanus- screw pine), birds (e.g. bulbul- a presently compounded by the fact that more songbird synonymous with a nightingale, AHD than one language is involved in our interaction 2007), fish (e.g. albacore), reptiles (e.g. (El-dali, 2012). Therefore it has also become Varanus), zoology (e.g. orang utan), chemistry necessary to know what some vocabulary items and alchemy(e.g. elixir), geography (e,g. atoll) of other languages in English mean, and the geology (e.g. gypsum), mathematics (e.g. cultural references. algebra), archaeology (e.g. Ubaid culture in Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology, 2003), References ethnology (e.g. Bedouin) law (e.g. khadi), linguistics (e.g. zero), politics (e.g. khanate), Answers.com. sociology (e,g. harem), architecture (e.g. aul), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answers.com. dance (e.g. zill), music (e.g. balalaika), Ayto, J. 2005. Word Origins, Second Edition. literature (e.g. Sufi literature), rugs (e.g. London: A & C Black. abrash), boats (e.g. junk), calendar(e.g. hegira), Bender, A.E and Bender, D.A. 2003. Oxford climate (e.g. monsoon), clothing (e.g. batik), Food & Nutrition Dictionary. Oxford colour (e.g. orange), transportation (e.g. University Press. palanquin), food (e.g. yam), drink (e.g. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 2011. sherbet), games (e.g. chess), household (e.g. http://www.britannica.com. mattress), religion (e.g. halal), military (e.g. Cambridge International Dictionary of mujahideen), money (e.g. shroff), mythology English. 1995. University of Cambridge: (e.g. manticore), taxes (e.g. zakat), titles (e.g. Cambridge University Press. pasha), weights (e.g. carat) and measures (e.g. Cannon, G. 1994. The Arabic Contributions to ream). the English Language. Wiesbaden: Harrassowig Verlag. English has not been shy to borrow words from Collins English Dictionary. 2000. Glasgow: the many language speakers it has come into Harper Collins Publishers. contact. English and indeed many European Columbia Encyclopedia 6th edition. 2011. languages have benefited linguistically from Columbia University Press. their colonial expansionism and adventures. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2011. The benefit was mutual, however. The peoples http://www.britannica.com. of the countries they had colonized also gained Gale Encyclopedia of Russian History. 2004. too, linguistically. Lexical borrowing has also The Gale Group, Inc. come about due to trade and missionary Gale. Encyclopedia of the Early Modern activities. Borrowing from Arabic into the World. 2004. The Gale Group, Inc. Malay language is very well known (see Haja Mohideen, Bin Mohamed Ali 2007. Abdul Jabbar Beg, 1979). There “Islamic Terms in Contemporary English” are even Arabic loan words in Tagalog and English Today Volume 23 Number2,pp.32-38. Thai. The Malay language has borrowed Hosni M.El-dali. 2012. “Translation Studies: considerably from English too as a result of Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow” International British colonization and globalization (see Journal of Asian Social Science, Vol. 2, No.6, Shamimah Mohideen, 2006). pp. 756-781. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary

English. 2003. Harlow: Pearson.

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McGraw-Hill Science &Technology Shamimah Mohideen. 2006. A Study of Dictionary. 2003. McGraw- Hill Companies, English Loan Words in Selected Bahasa Inc. Melayu Newspaper Articles. Unpublished Merriam-Webster. 2011. www.merriam- Master‟s thesis, International Islamic University webster.com. Malaysia. Muhammad Abdul Jabbar Beg. 1979. Arabic The American Heritage Dictionary of the Loan-words in Malay. Kuala Lumpur: M.A.J. English Language, Third Edition. 1996. Beg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. New World Encyclopedia. 2011. Fourth Edition. 2007. Houghton Mifflin www.newworldencyclopedia.org. Company. Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. 2003. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press. Sixth Edition. 2011. Columbia University Oxford Food and Fitness Dictionary. 2003. Press. Oxford University Press. The Oxford Reference Dictionary. 1986. Oxford Food and Nutrition Dictionary. 2005. (London: Guild Publishing. Oxford University Press. Walt Taylor. 1933. Arabic words in English. Oxford Grove Art. The Concise Grove (S.P.E. Tract No. xxxviii). Oxford. Dictionary of Art. 2002. Oxford University Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary. Webster Press. 1913 Dictionary edited by Patrick, J. Casidy. Oxford Grove Music Encyclopedia. The Webster’s New Explorer Encyclopedic Concise Grove Dictionary of Music 1994. Dictionary. 2006. Springfield, Mass: Federal Oxford University Press, Inc. Street Press. Oxford Reference Dictionary. 1986. London: Wikipedia. www.wikipedia.org. Guild Publishing. Palumbo, L.J. and Gaik, F.J. 1992. (The authors would like to gratefully Vocabulary for a New World New York: acknowledge a research grant made available Macmillan. by the International Islamic University Malaysia for this study)

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