A History of National Park Service Interpretation at Grand Canyon
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A History of National Park Service Interpretation at Grand Canyon National Park by Sarah Ruth Gerke A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved November 2010 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Paul Hirt, Chair Jannelle Warren-Findley Linda Sargent Wood ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY December 2010 ABSTRACT The Grand Canyon is one of the most well-recognized natural features in the world, but it is also a cultural landscape. The way that the interpretation of this natural and cultural landscape has changed over time reveals a great deal about what values Americans place on scenic areas (especially national parks), how they want to experience them, what stories they want to be told there, and what cultural values were important in America at the time. This dissertation traces how the interpretation of Grand Canyon has changed over time from its earliest history until the present day, particularly focusing on National Park Service (NPS) interpretation of the site. It argues that the process involved in developing NPS interpretation at Grand Canyon National Park involved give and take between the local and national levels of the NPS, but also relied heavily on public engagement and interests. It also explores two sub themes, examining the degree to which Native American perspectives have been incorporated into Grand Canyon National Park interpretation, and how important individual personalities have been in shaping interpretation at the Park. Ultimately, the dissertation reveals that interpretation was a complex act, based upon dynamic interrelationships between author and audience, between professional objectives and public and private pressures, and between what messages the NPS wanted to convey and what visitors told the NPS they wanted to hear. i To my Mom, Dad, and husband, whose love for the past sparked and sustained my own, and to my soon-to-arrive baby, who has inspired me to dream about the future ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many people who have shaped my development as a historian over the years. Dr. Richard Frucht, my advisor at Northwest Missouri State University, made history fun and alive, and convinced me that I had a future in the profession if I so desired. Dr. Phil Roberts at the University of Wyoming provided the guidance and support I needed in applying for a Ph.D. program, and has continued to be a mentor and friend. My dissertation committee members have been wonderful to work with despite the stressful nature of the job. Dr. Paul Hirt, has been a great teacher, advisor, and counselor to me throughout my time at Arizona State University. He demanded excellence and provided thoughtful, constructive criticisms for my coursework and dissertation, yet was always quick to offer encouragement in times of need. Dr. Jannelle Warren-Findley has done a great deal to expand my understanding of public history, especially by opening my eyes to more global perspectives. Dr. Linda Sargent Wood’s unfailing positive attitude has made it a pleasure to work with her on both my dissertation and grant projects. I would like to thank my fellow graduate students, who provided the intellectual climate and moral support that have challenged and expanded my own thinking and made this experience a positive one. I also must say thank you to my best friend, Misty Stortz. She has gone above and beyond the call of friendship in helping me throughout my time as a graduate student, especially as I was preparing for my comprehensive exams. iii Finally, I would like to say thank you to my family. Although he is not here to see it, I think my dad, Ed Bohl, would be proud to know that the family vacations we took when I was a child (which included numerous stops to museums and historic sites) have served some purpose. My mom, Carol Bohl, has always had a love of history, and without her enthusiasm and endless encouragement I never would have made it this far. My husband, Justin Gerke, is a history buff who has shown great patience and unfailing support in seeing me through this process. My brother Eric Bohl and my sister-in-law Sarah Bohl have always been there for me to lean on, and my nephew and niece August and Maggie have brought joy to my life that helped me make it through some rough patches. And thank you to my unborn child, whose impending arrival gave me the final impetus I needed to complete this dissertation; I am sure some day I will tell you all about it. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS...................................................................................x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................1 The Significance of Interpretation...................................................5 Outline of the Dissertation...............................................................9 2 THE ORIGINAL INTERPRETERS: NATIVE AMERICANS, MINERS, AND EARLY TOURISM OPERATORS....................11 Interpretation at Grand Canyon before the National Park Service................................................................................11 Interpretation Becomes a Business................................................19 Travel Writing: Interpreting the Canyon to the Public From a Distance...........................................................................29 The Railroad and the Rise of Corporate Influence in Local Interpretation......................................................................33 Summary........................................................................................51 3 A NEW MANDATE: THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT TAKES CONTROL.....................................................................................52 The Forest Service Steps In...........................................................52 The Canyon Becomes a Park.........................................................60 Beginnings of the Naturalist Division at Grand Canyon...............78 Yavapai Observation Station and Edwin McKee..........................88 v CHAPTER Page Summary......................................................................................111 4 THE GOLDEN AGE: THE GREAT DEPRESSION..............................113 Setting the Stage: National Events Shaping Grand Canyon Interpretation in the 1930s...............................................115 Wayside (Tusayan) Museum and the Development of Native American Interpretation...................................................120 McKee’s Early Innovations in Grand Canyon Interpretation......130 Dissonance Grows between Concessionaire and NPS Interpretation....................................................................142 The New Deal’s Impact on McKee’s Interpretive Plans.............152 Summary......................................................................................172 5 STAGNATION AND RECOVERY: THE 1940s...................................174 Louis Schellbach and Harold C. Bryant Take Charge.................175 The Influence of World War II on Park Interpretation................186 A New Normal: The Immediate Postwar Years..........................193 New Types of Visitors and New Types of Messages at GCNP after the War....................................................................196 A Growing Interest in Cultural Interpretation.............................205 Increasing Attempts at Standardization.......................................215 Summary......................................................................................226 6 NEW DIRECTIONS: PREPARING THE STAGE FOR MISSION 66................................................................................228 vi CHAPTER Page A New Interpretation Division and New Objectives Shake Things Up.........................................................................229 Wirth’s Impact (and Lack Thereof) at the Ground Level............248 Summary......................................................................................265 7 A CAUTIONARY TALE: GRAND CANYON INTERPRETATION UNDER MISSION 66.................................................................267 Wirth’s New Plan.........................................................................269 The Cutting Edge Cuts Both Ways..............................................280 Native Americans Fight to be Seen and Heard............................289 Paul Schulz’s Turbulent Tenure...................................................296 Merrill Beal Takes the Helm........................................................306 The Public’s Influence on Grand Canyon Interpretation.............316 Interpretation Evolves in the Late Mission 66 Period.................320 Summary......................................................................................330 8 WINDS OF CHANGE: THE LATE 1960s AND 1970s.........................332 Readjusting after Mission 66.......................................................334 Public Interpretive Proposals Fail to Gain Ground......................342 Social Movements Impact NPS Interpretation............................345 American Indian Movement............................................347 Environmentalist Movement............................................356 Interpretation Gets Downgraded..................................................363 The 1975 Grand Canyon Enlargement Act..................................375 vii CHAPTER Page Still on Shaky Ground at the End of the 1970s............................382 Summary......................................................................................392