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July/August 2002 School of Natural Resources and Environment Vol. 19 No. 4 THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN pages 65-204 An Interdisciplinary Approach to Endangered Species Recovery:

Concepts

Applications

Cases

Special Issue Wild bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus ferus) by Richard P. Reading

Cover photos. (Clockwise from top): green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) by G. McFall, OAR/National Undersea Research Program, University of North Carolina at Wilmington; black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) by Charlene Bessken, BLM; red wolf (Canis rufus) by John and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS; bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) courtesy of USFWS; Florida manatee (Trichechus manatus) by Paul Dayton; furbish lousewort (Pedicularis furbishiae) by Irene Storks, USFWS. (Center): thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) courtesy of the South Australian Museum, Adelaide. Endangered Species UPDATE Volume 19, Issue 4

Special Issue: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Endangered Species Recovery: Concepts, Applications, Cases

Edited by:

Richard L. Wallace Ursinus College

Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative

Richard P. Reading Denver Zoological Foundation

Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative Table of Contents

Introduction: Interdisciplinary Endangered Species Conservation: A New Approach For A New Century Richard L. Wallace, Tim W. Clark, and Richard P. Reading...... 70

I. Concepts

1. Making Partnerships Work in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to the Decision Process Tim W. Clark and Ronald D. Brunner...... 74

2. Solving Problems in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to Problem Orientation Richard L. Wallace and Tim W. Clark...... 81

3. Understanding the Human Factor in Endangered Species Recovery: An Introduction to Human Social Process Tim W. Clark and Richard L. Wallace...... 87

4. The Dynamics of Value Interactions in Endangered Species Conservation Tim W. Clark and Richard L. Wallace...... 95

5. The Professional in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to Standpoint Clarification Tim W. Clark and Richard L. Wallace...... 101

6. Research in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to Multiple Methods Tim W. Clark, Richard P. Reading, and Richard L. Wallace...... 106

II. Applications

7. Organization and Management of Endangered Species Programs Tim W. Clark and John R. Cragun...... 114

8. Learning as a Strategy for Improving Endangered Species Conservation Tim W. Clark...... 119

9. Prototyping for Successful Conservation: The Eastern Barred Bandicoot Program Tim W. Clark, Richard P. Reading, and Gary N. Backhouse...... 125

10. Improving Group Problem Solving in Endangered Species Recovery: Using the "Decision Seminar" Method Richard L. Wallace and Tim W. Clark...... 130

68 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 11. The Population Viability Assessment Workshop: A Tool for Threatened Species Management Tim W. Clark, Gary N. Backhouse, and Robert C. Lacy...... 136

12. Towards an Endangered Species Reintroduction Paradigm Richard P. Reading, Tim W. Clark, and Stephen R. Kellert...... 142

13. Implementing Endangered Species Recovery Policy: Learning as We Go? Tim W. Clark and Ann H. Harvey...... 147

14. Conserving Biodiversity in the Real World: Professional Practice Using a Policy Orientation Tim W. Clark, Peter Schuyler, Tim Donnay, Peyton Curlee, Timothy Sullivan, Margaret Cymerys, Lili Sheeline, Richard P. Reading, Richard L. Wallace, Ted Kennedy, Jr., Arnald Marcer-Batlle, and Yance De Fretes...... 156

III. Cases

15. Black-Tailed Prairie Dog Conservation: A New Approach for a 21st Century Challenge Richard P. Reading, Tim W. Clark, Lauren McCain, and Brian J. Miller...... 162

16. Great Ape Conservation in Central Africa: Addressing the Bushmeat Crisis Heather E. Eves, Elizabeth A. Gordon, Julie T. Stein, and Tim W. Clark...... 171

17. Projeto Abraço Verde: A Practice-based Approach to Brazilian Atlantic Forest Conservation Scott C. Fenimore and Laury Cullen, Jr...... 179

18. Path of the Tapir: Integrating Biological Corridors, Ecosystem Management, and Socio- economic Development in Costa Rica Quint Newcomer...... 186

19. If the Tasmanian Tiger Were Found, What Should We Do? An Interdisciplinary Guide to Endangered Species Recovery Tim W. Clark, Richard P. Reading, Richard L. Wallace, and Barbara Wilson...... 194

Conclusion: Becoming a More Effective Professional: The Next Steps in Learning and Applying an Interdisciplinary Approach to the Conservation of Biological Diversity Richard L. Wallace, Tim W. Clark, and Richard P. Reading...... 201

News from Zoos...... 203

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 69 Introduction Interdisciplinary Endangered Species Conservation: A New Approach For A New Century

Richard L. Wallace Environmental Studies Program, Ursinus College, P.O. Box 1000, Collegeville, PA 19426 [email protected] Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Richard P. Reading Denver Zoological Foundation, 2900 East 23rd Avenue, Denver, CO 80205 [email protected]

Endangered species conservation — from a disconnect and imbalance in Species UPDATE is the culmination encompassing research, policy, man- knowledge and skills concerning of an extended program of research, agement, and all its many facets — natural science research (on the one education, and practice in interdisci- is a management process that requires hand) and social, organizational, and plinary endangered species conserva- integrative and interdisciplinary values-related concerns (on the tion. In addition to authoring a num- methods to be most successful. This other). This leads directly to many ber of the following articles, we are process is sometimes also called the complex and sometimes glaring prob- practitioners of interdisciplinary "decision or policy process," but the lems in recovery efforts. It is gener- problem solving methods in endan- labels can be used interchangeably. ally accepted now that social factors gered species conservation. We have In the three decades since passage of — such as leadership, organization, studied, taught, and practiced these the Endangered Species Act of 1973 communication/cooperation, and methods in endangered species recov- (ESA), endangered species programs many others — play a critical role in ery programs in the United States and have faced serious challenges that the success or failure of endangered abroad for more than 25 years. We have often impeded the ability of species conservation efforts (Clark et present this special issue for practi- people involved to succeed. These al. 1994, 2000, 2001; Reading and tioners, teachers, and students of en- include a preponderance of programs Miller 2000). Nonetheless, omissions dangered species conservation in the strong in natural sciences research and oversights in the management hopes that it will help inspire more and methods, but weak in the social process continue to plague many on- innovative, practical, and effective science knowledge and individual going efforts. As a result, perhaps the conservation. In this light, the articles skills necessary to effectively partici- greatest problem facing these efforts presented herein reflect the efforts of pate in and influence the management is the inability or unwillingness of their authors to clarify, promote, and process (i.e. the series of decisions some government and non-govern- practice endangered species conser- and actions that occur within a pro- mental participants to adopt new vation by scrupulously integrating the gram from its inception through its knowledge and skills, use them effec- many variables falling under the ae- design, implementation, evaluation tively, and address the clear conser- gis of endangered species "research," and, if called for, termination). While vation challenges in a smooth and "management," and "policy." the level of knowledge about the ultimately successful manner. De- This special issue is the latest in a management process has increased spite this lingering problem, there are series of publications in Endangered markedly in the past decade, the level a growing number of examples Species UPDATE that we began in of skill necessary for managing and wherein people are picking up the 1988. The purpose of this series is to operating within it has lagged far be- new tools and applying them in the introduce practitioners and students of hind the ecological scientific abilities field with good effect. These inno- endangered species conservation to of endangered species program par- vative practice-based programs are ideas and professional tools useful for ticipants. Consequently, endangered paying off. increasing their effectiveness and effi- species conservation efforts suffer This special issue of Endangered ciency. This issue is divided into three

70 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 sections, entitled "Concepts," "Appli- cations," and "Cases," totaling 19 articles. We have reprinted all previously published papers in this series and added eight new ones featuring additional work on conceptual approaches, ways to apply innovative methods in practice, and case applications illustrating the use of these methods. The first section, Concepts, introduces the reader to the theories that underlie interdisciplinary conservation. These theories are based in a discipline known as the policy sciences (Lasswell 1971; Lasswell and McDougal 1992). The policy sciences are "simultaneously a theory Wild Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus ferus) by Richard P. Reading. about society and a method of inquiry into problems and associated social can promote greater efficiency, and management of endangered spe- and decision processes" (Clark equitability, and effectiveness in con- cies programs; 2002:ix). They are immediately prac- serving species and improving the out- l promoting on-the-job learn- tical when applied to improving en- comes of species protection programs. ing as a means of improving recov- dangered species recovery efforts. Papers in the Concepts section ery programs; The Concepts section contains six that appeared previously in Endan- l designing and undertaking papers that describe specific theories gered Species UPDATE include those "prototype" program designs to ex- and their utility to endangered spe- on decision processes (1996), the plore different strategies for species cies conservation. These include: human social process (1998), prob- recovery; l improving partnerships by lem orientation (1999), standpoint l experimenting with innova- better understanding the interests and clarification (1999), and integrating tive team-building strategies; activities of participants in decision mak- multiple methods (1999). l promoting the use of popu- ing in endangered species programs; The Applications section of this lation viability analysis (PVA); l clarifying what constitutes a issue features eight papers illustrat- l pursuing inventive designs problem in endangered species conser- ing ways of applying the policy sci- for species and population reintro- vation and how to address problems ences' concepts in practice. The duction programs; practically while bringing in all relevant policy sciences are a branch of knowl- l reviewing experience imple- areas of expertise and perspective; edge separate from either the physical/ menting recovery policy under the l emphasizing the importance natural or the social sciences, and are Endangered Species Act; and of social variables in endangered spe- sometimes referred as the "science of l seeking a general understand- cies programs; integration." The purpose of these pa- ing of the benefits of professional prac- l elucidating the role of human pers is to create a bridge between the tice using a policy sciences, or policy values in the recovery process, includ- concepts and cases and to provide in- orientation, approach. ing programmatic decision making and sight into how practitioners may use the Papers in the Applications section outcomes; policy sciences' integrative tools to that have appeared previously in En- l promoting the importance of improve decision-making and program dangered Species UPDATE include clarifying and sharing personal per- implementation processes. These pa- the chapters on implementing recov- spectives on problem solving; and pers include practical examples of ery policy (1988), PVA (1990), orga- l integrating methods from the policy sciences concepts being used by nization and management (1991), re- natural and social sciences in the con- professionals in governmental natural introduction (1991), professional text of endangered species conservation. resource agencies, non-governmental practice using a policy orientation Taken together, these concepts pro- organizations, and academia. Among (1992), prototyping (1995), and vide a foundation for understanding the the topics covered are: learning (1996). policy sciences and showing how they l improving the organization The third section, Cases, features

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 71 five new analyses of efforts to pro- ideas and direction for practitioners Foundation and Northern Rockies tect species or ecosystems of special and analysts. Each article represents Conservation Cooperative, including concern. These case studies illustrate efforts by its author(s) to share their Catherine Patrick, Gilman Ordway, ways in which the policy sciences experiences using the policy sciences. Hope and Bob Stevens and the may be used by analysts and practi- Accepting new and in some cases Fanwood Foundation, the Wiancko tioners to evaluate and improve com- radically different approaches to en- Charitable Foundation, Kathe Henry plex programs. Each case features dangered species program design, and the Scott Opler Foundation, and one or more of the policy sciences implementation, and evaluation is a Stephen and Amy Unfried. We also concepts introduced in the first sec- daunting challenge. We hope that the want to recognize the many people tion of this issue. They are also in- information in this issue will help re- we have worked with us as co-work- tended to complement the policy sci- veal the utility in the approaches we ers in the field and in the classroom. ences applications presented in the espouse. In the concluding paper we issue's second section. In the Appli- describe how you might begin to ap- Literature cited cations section, the respective authors ply these approaches and invite you Clark, T.W. 2002. The policy process: a prac- demonstrate how to use policy sci- to share with us your experiences us- tical guide for natural resource professionals. Yale University Press, New Haven, ences concepts in practice. In the ing them. Finally, the literature cited Connecticut. cases that follow, the authors use the throughout this issue can guide you Clark, T.W., R.P. Reading, and A.L. Clarke, analytical tools of the policy sciences to more complete descriptions and eds. 1994. Endangered species recovery: to evaluate various programs and many other case applications. finding the lessons, improving the process. make recommendations for improve- This special issue would not have Island Press, Washington, D.C. Clark, T.W., A.R. Willard, and C.M. Cromley, ment. The cases address far-ranging been possible without the guidance, eds. 2000. Foundations of natural resources conservation topics, including: assistance, and support of the staff of policy and management. Yale University l black-tailed prairie dogs in Endangered Species UPDATE: Beth Press, New Haven, Connecticut. the American west; Hahn, Jennifer Jacobus MacKay, and Clark, T.W., M. Stevenson, K. Ziegelmayer, and M. Rutherford, eds. 2001. Species and l great apes and the bush meat Misty McPhee. Other people assisted ecosystem conservation: an interdiscipli- crisis in Central Africa; us with various aspects of this en- nary approach. Yale School Of Forestry & l the Atlantic forest in eastern deavor, including Denise Casey and Environmental Studies Bulletin 105:1-276. Brazil; Brian Miller. Funding was provided www.yale.edu/environment/publications biological corridors in Costa by the Denver Zoological Founda- Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view of the policy l sciences. American Elsevier Publishing Rica; and tion, Northern Rockies Conservation Company, New York. l the thylacine, or Tasmanian Cooperative, Ursinus College, and Lasswell, H.D. and M.S. McDougal. Jurispru- tiger, in Australia. Yale University's School of Forestry dence for a free society. New Haven Press, This special issue of Endangered and Environmental Studies. Many New Haven, Connecticut. Reading, R.P. and B. Miller, eds. 2000. En- Species UPDATE was created to pro- individuals and charitable organiza- dangered species: A reference guide to con- vide guidance, where possible, for tions aided publication of this special flicting issues. Greenwood Press, Westport, endangered species and ecosystem issue, including those that provided Connecticut. conservation efforts by providing support to the Denver Zoological

72 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 concepts

Red-legged frog (Rana aurora) by Ryan Haggerty, USFWS.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 73 Making Partnerships Work in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to the Decision Process

Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Ronald D. Brunner Center for Public Policy Studies and Department of Political Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0333 [email protected]

Abstract Partnerships are being used in endangered species conservation to improve effectiveness. The partnership goal is to increase cooperation, maximize resources available, and improve chances of species' recovery. Ideally, partnerships are unified by a common interest — recovery. However, in practice this is not necessarily the case as participants are differentially motivated and some carry out narrow self-serving actions within partnerships. As a result, "goal-substitution" weakens partnerships and increases the likelihood of failure. Endangered species case examples highlight that dysfunctionality is common to recovery programs and support our view that a better understanding of the decision process involved can improve recovery. Effectiveness of partnerships can be improved by teaching participants how to recognize and avert common problems, and how to build, lead, and participate in a better decision making process. The decision process is a means of reconciling or at least managing conflicts (i.e. rational, political, and moral conflicts) among policies through politics, and is comprised of seven functions: intelligence, promotion, prescription, invocation, application, appraisal, and termination. These activities are described, examples given, standards recommended, and questions to ask about each are given. The existence of a recovery program does not necessarily mean that partners are using a good decision process. However, a high quality decision process will make endangered species conservation most effective and efficient, and minimize failure.

Introduction gram, in other words, is a human en- Fischer 1995). Despite differences, Those committed to restoring endan- deavor. It represents a noble human every partnerships entails a decision gered species can recognize years of concern for other species, but it is process through which the partner- heroic effort (e.g., Yaffee 1982, 1994; vulnerable to goal substitutions and ships attempt to clarify and secure Alvarez 1993; Clark et al. 1994; other human traits, including aggres- their common interest. Every deci- Bennett et al. 1995; Miller et al. 1996; siveness, dogmatism, and worse. sion process must perform certain Clark 1997). At the same time, they The increasing number and scale functions well in order to succeed, can acknowledge significant short- of partnerships augments both the whatever the common interest may falls in the overall effort. The ten- possibilities for successful recovery be. An improved understanding of dency to subordinate the goal of re- and the vulnerabilities. Many types the decision process — and how to covery to other interests represented of partnerships exist, focusing on dif- evaluate and improve its critical func- in a recovery program is one reason, ferent species in different locations tions — can maximize the possibili- among many, for these shortfalls. facing different biological challenges ties for successful recovery and mini- "Cooperation among scientists is not with different people involved. Some mize the vulnerabilities. always a simple matter" (Mares partnerships work better than others This article discusses the prob- 1991:59). The scientists, however, for species recovery (e.g., National lems and possibilities in the decision are not alone; bureaucrats, advocates, Fish and Wildlife Foundation 1993; processes of partnerships formed to and others involved in a recovery pro- Beatley 1994; Clark and Cragun recover listed species. It illustrates gram also have interests in addition 1994; Jentoft and McCay 1995; these using the Australian eastern to species recovery. A recovery pro- Hutcheson et al. 1995; Roy and barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii)

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1996, 13(9):1-5.

74 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 and the American black-footed ferret secretive, suspicious, and vindictive (Mustela nigripes) recovery pro- can easily dominate the partnership. grams. Components of the decision Participants who are excessively process itself are then identified. timid, compromising, open, trusting, and forgiving may unwittingly Partnerships collude in the destruction of coopera- A forum for information exchange on The trend in endangered species pro- tion; they reinforce dominating and endangered species issues grams is toward more and larger part- destructive behavior by letting the July/August 2002 Vol. 19 No. 4 nerships. Habitat Conservation Plans others get away with it. Without part- Beth Hahn...... Managing Editor (HCPs), called for under the Endan- ners of good will and good sense, Jennifer Jacobus MacKay...... Publication Editor Richard Wallace...... Guest Editor gered Species Act (ESA), are just one there is little that can be done to cope Tim W. Clark...... Guest Editor form of partnership. About 50 HCPs with such patterns of behavior. A Richard Reading...... Guest Editor are underway and hundreds more are better understanding of decision pro- Christine L. Biela...... Subscription Coordinator Saul Alarcon...... Web Page Coordinator under discussion (Bob Baum 1996, cess can go a long way toward mini- Steve Brechin ...... Faculty Advisor personal communication). More- mizing these potentially damaging Bobbi Low...... Faculty Advisor over, partnerships are no longer lim- patterns and maximizing the possi- Emily Silverman...... Faculty Advisor ited to government agencies as con- bilities for successful recovery. Advisory Board servation groups, universities, and Two cases illustrate the importance Richard Block Santa Barbara Zoological Gardens businesses are becoming more of the decision process for successful Susan Haig prominent and, under some circum- partnerships and recovery programs. Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem stances, even taking the lead in new Science Center, USGS Oregon State University partnerships. Ideally, a partnership is Eastern barred bandicoot program Patrick O'Brien motivated by the partners' common in- The Australian eastern barred bandi- Chevron Ecological Services Hal Salwasser terest in recovery of an endangered coot program, composed of a single U.S. Forest Service, species. The expectation is that the goal governmental agency for over ten Boone and Crockett Club of recovery is beyond the reach of any years and later joined by non-govern- Subscription Information: The Endangered one agency or organization; none of mental organizations (NGOs) and Species UPDATE is published six times per year by them, working alone, has the resources, universities, was unable to obtain key the School of Natural Resources and Environment such as expertise, funds, and authority, information needed to plan and carry at The University of Michigan. Annual rates are: $78 institutions, $33 regular, $25 students/senior, necessary or sufficient to get the job out recovery. Intelligence gathering, and $20 electronic. Add $5 for postage outside the done. By cooperatively using pooled planning, and open debate about what US, and send check or money order (payable to The University of Michigan) to: resources, partnerships can maximize to do and when to do it were limited. Endangered Species UPDATE possibilities for species recovery. The partnership never clarified rules School of Natural Resources and Environment In practice, however, recovery is or guidelines for its own operation or The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1115 not always the primary (or even a pri- for species recovery. After a few (734) 763-3243; fax (734) 936-2195 ority) goal for everyone in the part- years, individual and organizational E-mail: [email protected] nership. For some participants, the partners pursued separate goals and http://www.umich.edu/~esupdate partnership may be a chance to main- actions without adequate consider- tain funding for an existing agency ation of the consequences to overall The views expressed in the Endangered Species UPDATE may not necessarily reflect those of or organization that has priorities species recovery or to the develop- the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or The other than recovery. For others, the ing partnerships. As a result, the University of Michigan. partnership may be an opportunity to implementation — both technically The Endangered Species UPDATE was made perform basic scientific research that and organizationally — was inad- possible in part by the David and Lucile Packard may or may not contribute to recov- equate, and the species continued to Foundation, Turner Foundation, Boone and ery. These types of "goal substitu- decline. Essential data were lacking, Crockett Club, Chevron Corporation, and the U.S. FWS Division of Endangered Species Region 3. tions" make the partnerships more especially feedback about the efficacy vulnerable to failure and the species of management actions as well as the more vulnerable to extinction. The quality of the program itself. No style or approach that participants use comprehensive program appraisal to pursue their own goals can further was conducted, thus, there was little jeopardize the partnership. Partici- learning, and improvements were not pants who are aggressive, dogmatic, possible. In short, despite activity in

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 75 meeting rooms and in the field, the ferret recovery or the partnership; and ciling or at least managing conflicts wild population continued to decline a lack of appraisal, to mention a few among policies through politics. Poli- and the captive population grew little. problems (Reading and Miller 1994; tics are inevitable because people A "crisis intervention" appraisal Clark and Harvey 1998). According develop and pursue different policies of the entire program was eventually to Miller et al. (1996) the decision that reflect their own interests. Yet, undertaken by several participants. process functioned poorly relative to in many instances, like endangered The appraisal — systematic, compre- the overall goal because of goal sub- species restoration, people must rec- hensive, and professional — resulted stitution, narrow ideologies about oncile policy differences to secure a in a reorganization to streamline and power, and the use of coercive strat- common interest. In the decision pro- upgrade all decision functions. In- egies on the part of the lead govern- cess, a working specification of the telligence was improved by setting up ment bureaucracy. Decision func- common interest takes the form of working groups to gather scientific tions were concentrated in the hands rules, both substantive and procedural and social information, including a of a few and activities were channeled (e.g., what is to be achieved and computerized captive breeding man- in ways that were congenial to the how?). There are many kinds of rules agement plan. Open debate about the most powerful individuals and for many kinds of partnerships and program and its future were encour- agency. Although the powerful role communities, including informal aged. Implementation was improved of government bureaucracies in de- guidelines and social norms that are by giving the working groups "the cision functions is widely recognized, accepted in a group (e.g., norms of authority, guidance, and resources to concentrating power over these func- discussion in meetings), requirements develop and meet their own targets tions seemed to be an end in itself in established by experts (e.g., popula- using their professional expertise," by the ferret case, and the goals of spe- tion viability analyses), laws by rep- appointing a strategic planner, and by cies recovery and a successful part- resentatives of the people for a local, developing the first true recovery plan nership faded into the background. state, or national community (e.g., the for the species (Backhouse et al. These problems have not been ESA), and rules about rule making 1994:263). Appraisal systems were addressed by federal or state authori- (e.g., the U.S. Constitution). Rules improved by having the working ties, despite widespread publicity. are necessary for any group of people groups meet with and report to core Due to a lack of progress and fund- to coordinate, albeit imperfectly, the decisions makers at frequent, regular ing difficulties, however, the U.S. expectations and actions of its mem- intervals, by giving working group Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) bers. An action by a member is ap- members better access to decision asked the American Zoo and propriate to the extent that it complies makers, and by having the partner- Aquarium Association (AZA) to con- with applicable rules already pre- ship conduct regular assessments of duct a program analysis and action scribed by the relevant community; the program. Ongoing evaluation has planning process. While the appraisal it is inappropriate when it does not led to several refinements in the focused primarily on technical issues comply. Fortunately, there is a large structure and operations of the pro- and fell short of looking comprehen- body of experience and theory about gram. All in all, these efforts resulted sively or systematically at the deci- decision processes that can be applied in significant improvements in part- sion process, it did address parts of directly and practically to species nerships interactions and the species' the decision functions and found them conservation (Lasswell 1971). status in a very short time (Backhouse lacking. The appraisal's final report The decision process of a species et al. 1994; Clark et al. 1995), al- is forthcoming. Regardless of the conservation partnership should be an though it is premature to declare the AZA's recommendations, the FWS is open, flexible, and fair means to pro- species recovered. ultimately responsible for making the duce operational rules for all partners partnership's decision process serve to follow in meeting the partners' Black-footed ferret program the overriding goal of ferret recovery. common goal. Recovery plans, man- Over the past fifteen years, the Ameri- agement plans, proposals, coopera- can black-footed ferret program has Decision process tive agreements, and the like are the shown similar dysfunctional features: By knowing how the decision process basis for rules. Yet, the existence of limited debate among partners about works, or does not work, partners in a recovery plan does not necessarily how to proceed, inability to obtain endangered species recovery can indicate a good decision process or consensus on rules for progress; un- maintain good practices or correct a adequate rules for cooperation and productive conflict; individual behav- poorly functioning process. The de- recovery. Partnerships can not work ior contrary to the best interests of cision process is a means of recon- if some members seek rules that ben-

76 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 efit their own special interests at the some extent. It is apparent, too, that Whether part of the formal part- expense of common interest. Once most functions are performed outside nership or not, people committed to rules are specified and agreed upon, the the organizations involved in species species recovery should demand excel- rules must be enforced against chal- conservation. For example, as di- lence in each decision function and in lengers. The rules can be evaluated by rected by ESA, the FWS carries out the overall process. The decision func- the partnership and changed if neces- all seven functions, but many other tions described in Table 1 can be used sary — provided, of course, that the organizations are involved as well. to ask hard questions and to develop rules are clear enough to be evaluated. The National Biological Service standards to be applied, continuously Although many people think of [now the Biological Resources Divi- and independently, by all concerned. decisions as a precise point in time sion] and university researchers are Partnerships in endangered species re- when commitments are made, in fact, primarily involved in gathering intel- covery would be much more effective many related decisions proceed that ligence, planning, and estimating the and efficient when they develop high- moment and many follow. Decision conservation threat (e.g., pollution, quality decision processes, which will making is better described as a pro- habitat loss) and what to do about it. depend on members learning explicitly cess than an event. Seven functions Conservation groups and businesses about how the decision process works, can be distinguished in every com- are often highly visible in promoting how they can monitor the process, and plete decision process (Lasswell one course of action over others, al- how to intervene to improve decisions. 1971). The best way to introduce though it should be acknowledged With a relatively complete picture of them is to ask seven general ques- that all groups (and often subgroups the decision process, based on good tions: (1) How is information about and individuals), despite claims of intelligence and appraisal, participants a problematic situation gathered, pro- objectivity and neutrality, take posi- can realistically and functionally de- cessed, and brought to the attention tions and promote decisions that will scribe their interactions with other of decision makers? (2) Based on this serve their own interests. Rules are members and explain the actual pro- information, how are recommenda- set not only by legislative bodies, but cess and outcomes in their specific tions promoted and made? (3) How also by agencies which have enor- cases. A detailed analysis of the deci- are general rules prescribed? (4) How mous influence in the design and ac- sion-making behavior of partnerships are the rules invoked against chal- tual operation of recovery programs, can reveal which values are at stake for lengers in specific cases? (5) How including field team activities. The individual members and the overall are disputes in specific cases decided FWS is usually joined by other agen- partnership. There must be fair trad- or resolved? (6) How are the rules cies and organizations in implementing and mutual exchange among mem- and the decision process appraised? ing programs. The agencies are again bers for a partnership to work well. In (7) How are the rules and the process involved in dispute resolution, as are some (perhaps many) programs, how- terminated or modified? Table 1 lists the courts, while the media are in- ever, partners do not share similar val- and describes these seven functions, volved through reporting on con- ues, and little group effort is spent in gives some examples, as well as stan- flicts. The agencies, NGOs (e.g., clarifying and developing common dards they should meet, and suggests AZA in the ferret case), and the pub- ground. For example, while power, some basic questions that decision lic are involved in review and evalu- wealth, or special knowledge are often makers, other participants, and ob- ation of conservation efforts. The fi- necessary for effective partnerships, servers need to ask. In any ongoing nal decision to terminate is usually these resources can distort the decision decision process it is usually quite made by government, but many other process. Power can be used to central- easy to identify these seven functions organizations are involved or affected ize, concentrate, or legalize certain de- and the groups that are carrying them by decisions to stop or significantly cision functions, to the detriment of out, and to judge how well they are alter programs (e.g., see the dynam- other involved or concerned people. working. Consequently, it is also ics of grizzly bear delisting in the The consequences may be catastrophic; possible to intervene and improve one Yellowstone region; Mattson and if the partnership becomes embroiled or more decision functions so that Craighead 1994; Greater Yellowstone in destructive conflict and disintegrates, species recovery is enhanced and the Coalition 1995; Interagency Grizzly the species may go extinct. partnership runs more smoothly. Bear Committee 1996). In the deci- Decision making must be Although it is possible to point sion process of any organized partner- grounded in real-world contexts. It to agencies and organizations that ship we may expect to find several of- must be comprehensive yet manage- specialize in a given function, all ficial and unofficial participants in- able. The decision model presented partners perform all functions to volved in one or all decision functions. here is a tool for building a map of each

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 77 particular process. And the map can nerships to be effective, considerable Environmental Studies critically re- be used by partners to guide the recov- attention must be given to the deci- viewed the manuscript. ery effort, ensuring, for example, ad- sion making process. Modern con- equate intelligence and appraisal func- servation practice demands a work- Literature cited tions. Decision making requires a suc- ing knowledge of the seven decision Alvarez, K. 1993. Twilight of the panther: cessful pattern of thought and action, functions; this knowledge is neces- Biology, bureaucracy, and failure in an endangered species program. Myakka River and it is this crafting and maintaining sary for learning how to recognize Publishing, Sarasota, Florida. 501 pp. of a good decision process that is the and avert problems and how to build Beatley, T. 1994. Habitat conservation plan- central challenge to partnerships in en- and maintain rational, participatory ning: Endangered species and urban dangered species conservation. and equitable decision making pro- growth. University of Texas, Austin. 234 cesses to achieve species recovery. pp. Backhouse, G.N., T.W. Clark, and R.P. Read- Conclusions ing. 1994. The Australian eastern barred Partnerships are being used with Acknowledgements bandicoot program: Evaluation and reor- growing frequency to tackle many Denise Casey, Northern Rockies ganization. Pp 251-274 in T.W. Clark, R.P. natural resource problems. The com- Conservation Cooperative, Pam Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. Endangered species recovery: Finding the lessons, im- bined assets of government, conser- Lichtman, Jackson Hole Alliance for proving the process. Island Press, Wash- vation groups, business, and public Responsible Planning, Peter ington. involvement are a powerful tool to Wilshusen and David Gaillard, Yale Bennett, A., G.N. Backhouse, and T.W. Clark, address these challenges. For part- University's School of Forestry and eds. 1995. People and nature conservation:

Table 1. The seven decision functions essential to all endangered species conservation efforts (after Lasswell 1971).

Function (1) Activities Examples Standards Questions to Ask

Intelligence Information relevant to decision Field work, social Reliable, Is intelligence being collected on all Planning making is gathered, processed, and surveys, models, comprehensive relevant components of the problem distributed. Planning and prediction pluralistic yet selective, and its context and from all affected take place. Goals are clarified. discussion creative, open people? To whom is intelligence communicated?

Promotion Active advocacy debate about what Forums, pluralistic Rational, Which groups (official or unofficial) Open debate to do takes place. Different alterna- discussion, integrated, urge which courses of action? What tives are promoted. Resources, data, recommendation comprehensive, values are promoted or dismissed and opinion are mobilized to secure effective by each alternative and what groups preferred outcomes. Expectations are served by each? begin to crystallize and demands are clarified.

Prescription Policies or guidelines for action are Recovery plans Comprehensive, Will the new prescriptions harmonize Setting rules formulated and enacted. Demands are and other written rational, open with rules by which the agencies or guidelines crystallized. Facts and their contexts and verbal agree- already operate, or will they conflict? must be examined, rules clarified, and ments for species/ What rules does the partnership set for implications of the rules examined. habitat conserva- itself? What prescriptions are binding Rules must be specified, communication. (these are easier to determine if they ted, and approved by the partnership, are written down)? government officials, and others concerned, i.e. those with authority (full support of officials and people involved) and control (a means to encourage compliance with rules).

Invocation General rules are put into practice. Programs are Timely (prompt), Is implementation consistent with pre- Implementation They begin to be applied in actual organized, teams open, dependable scription? Who should be held account- cases. set up, and work in characterizing able to follow the rules? Who will (research, man- facts, rational, not enforce the rules? agement, public open to abuse by relations, analysis, individual mem- etc.) begins in bers, effective field, lab, and office.

78 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Perspectives in private lands and endan- tion and management of endangered spe- onciling science and policy in setting fed- gered species. Transactions of the Royal cies programs. Pp 9-33 in M.L. Bowles eral drinking water standards—four state Zoological Society of New South Wales, and C.J. Whelan, eds. Restoration of en- perspectives. Regulatory Toxicology and Australia. 228 pp. dangered species. Cambridge University Pharmacology 22:11-23. Brewer, G.D. and T.W. Clark. 1994. A policy Press, New York. Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee. 1996. sciences perspective: Improving implemen- Clark, T.W., R.P. Reading, and A.L. Clarke, IGBC, Forestry Sciences Lab., Missoula, tation. Pp 392-416 in T.W. Clark, R.P. eds. 1994. Endangered species recovery: Montana. 8 pp. Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. Endangered Finding lessons, improving the process. Jentoft, S. and B. McCay. 1995. User partici- species recovery: Finding the lessons, im- Island Press, Washington. 450 pp. pation in fisheries management. Marine proving the process. Island Press, Wash- Clark, T.W., G.N. Backhouse, and R.P. Read- Policy 19:227-246. ington. ing. 1995. Prototyping in endangered spe- Lasswell, H.D. 1956. The decision process: Clark, T.W. 1997. Averting extinction: Recon- cies progams: The eastern barred bandicoot Seven categories of functional analysis. structing the endangered species recovery experience. Pp 50-63 in A. Bennett, G.N. Bureau of Government Research, College process. Yale University Press, New Ha- Backhouse, and T.W. Clark, eds. People and of Business and Public Administration, ven. nature conservation: Perspectives in private University of Maryland, College Park. 23 Clark, T.W. and R. Westrum. 1987. Paradigms lands and endangered species. Transactions pp. and ferrets. Social Studies in Sciences 3:3- of Royal Zoological Society of New South Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view of the policy 33. Wales, Australia. sciences. American Elsever, New York. 173 Clark, T.W. and A.H. Harvey. 1988. Imple- Greater Yellowstone Coalition. 1995. Court pp. menting endangered species recovery ruling a victory for the threatened grizzly Lasswell, H.D. and A. Kaplan. 1950. Power policy: Learning as we go? Endangered bear. Greater Yellowstone Report 11(4):14. and society. Yale University Press, New Species UPDATE 5:35-42. Hutcheson, M.S., D.J. Dupuy, B. Maryas, L. Haven. 295 pp. Clark, T.W. and J. Cragun. 1994. Organiza- McGeorge, and R. Vanderslice. 1995. Rec- Mares, M.A. 1991. How scientists can impede

Function (1) Activities Examples Standards Questions to Ask

Application Differences or deviations from the Open, pluralistic Rational (conform- Will disputes be resolved by people Dispute rules — based on peer review, forums, internal ing to common with authority and control? How do resolution authority, or other mechanisms — are and external interest prescrip- participants interact and affect one resolved and implementation pro- means. The courts tions), uniform another as they resolve disputes? ceeds. Participants must interpret may figure prom- (independent of rules (prescriptions), supplement them inently, but many special interests), if needed, and integrate old and new resolutions take effective (must prescriptions into a working program. place formally or work in practice), There must be enforcement as well informally inside and constructive as continuous review and approval or the program. (mobilizing con- disapproval of behavior. sensus and cooperation).

Appraisal Efforts are evaluated and continuous Formal and infor- Dependably Who is served by the program and who Review assessment is made of success and mal, internal and realistic, on-going, is not? Is the program evaluated fully failure, in terms of goal achievement external evalua- independent of and regularly? Who is responsible and and responsibility and accountability tions special interests, accountable for success or failure? By for what happened. This requires fully contextual whom are one's own activities gathering information on how well (taking many appraised? past decision functions worked, factors into assessing the quality of performance, account, including and disseminating findings and matters of ration- recommendations to appropriate ality, politics, and people and publics. morality)

Termination This is the cancellation of past pre- Stopping prac- Prompt, respectful Who should stop or change the rules? Termination scriptions and frameworks for their tices that are not and consistent Who is served, and who is harmed by implementation and the compensa- working as well as with human dignity, ending a program? tion of people who are adversely those that have comprehensive, affected by termination. This function accomplished their balanced, and is most often overlooked or under- goals, moving to a ameliorative appreciated. new beginning.

1. The terms intelligence, promotion, prescription, invocation, application, appraisal, and termination are described in detail by Lasswell (1971).

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 79 the development of their discipline: Ego- Finding the lessons, improving the process. Willard, A.R. and C.H. Norchi. 1993. The centrism, small pool size, and evolution of Island Press, Washington. decision seminar as an instrument of en- sapismo. Pp 57-75 in M.A. Mares, and D.J. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. 1993. lightenment and power. Political Psychol- Schmidley, eds. Latin American Conservation partnerships: A field guide to ogy 14:575-606. Mammology: History, biodiversity, and public-private partnering for natural re- Wondolleck, J.M., S.L. Yaffee, and J.E. Crow- conservation. Oklahoma Museum of Natu- source conservation. National Fish and foot. 1994. A conflict management perspec- ral History, Norman. Wildlife Foundation, Washington. 39 pp. tive: Applying the principles of alternative Mattson. D.J. and J.J. Craighead. 1994. The Reading, R.P. and B.J. Miller. 1994. The dispute resolution. Pp 305-326 in T.W. Yellowstone grizzly bear program: Uncer- black-footed ferret recovery program: Un- Clark, R.P. Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. tain information, uncertain policy. Pp 101- masking professional and organizational Endangered species recovery: Finding the 130 in T.W. Clark, R.P. Reading, and A.L. weaknesses. Pp 73-100 in T.W. Clark, R.P. lessons, improving the process. Island Clarke, eds. Endangered species recovery: Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. Endangered Press, Washington. Finding the lessons, improving the process. species recovery: Finding the lessons, im- Yaffee, S.L. 1982. Prohibitive policy: Imple- Island Press, Washington. proving the process. Island Press, Wash- menting the federal Endangered Species Minta, S.C. and P.M. Karieva. 1994. A con- ington. Act. MIT Press, Cambridge. 239 pp. servation science perspective: Conceptual Roy, M. and H. Fischer. 1995. Bitterroot griz- Yaffee, S.L. 1994. The wisdom of the spotted and experimental improvements. Pp 275- zly recovery: A community-based alterna- owl: Policy lessons for a new century. Is- 304 in T.W. Clark, R.P. Reading, and A.L. tive. Endangered Species UPDATE land Press, Washington. 430 pp. Clarke, eds. Endangered species recovery: 12(12):1-4.

Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) by James and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS.

80 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Solving Problems in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to Problem Orientation

Abstract Addressing endangered species problems successfully is a complex task that involves knowledge of the problem itself and its context. Problem-solving decisions and on-the-ground management are complicated and affected by numerous considerations. We illustrate complexities of problem solving in endangered species programs, using the Florida manatee recovery program as an example, and describe a practical approach for orienting to conservation problems that can help decision makers, other professionals, and interested people to better understand and develop recovery alternatives that are in the best interests of endangered species conservation.

Introduction We call this sort of decision mak- covery, and especially those in posi- Endangered species conservation is ing "solution oriented." It occurs tions of decision-making authority. crisis-oriented. Often, a field season when an individual or group is con- Decision makers in endangered that is too short, an interagency confronted with a problem and first de- species programs are no different than flict threatens to stall efforts, or a pro- cides which outcome is preferable decision makers elsewhere — they gram is held back by a puzzling tech- and then makes a decision that will commonly choose to pursue solutions nical problem, an impending budget- best achieve their preferred outcome. to problems that benefit them person- ary shortfall, or a public outcry. These Often this approach is based on a lim- ally or professionally. As Janis and and many other problems must be ited view of the problem at hand. In- Mann (1977:9) note, "self-approval is overcome in recovery efforts. View- stead of being genuinely "problem ori- an essential requirement for being sat- ing recovery as a series of interrelated ented," the effort is focused and "solu- isfied with a decision." However, this problems that must be successfully tion oriented," and decisions are made is not always the best way to address addressed requires professionals and for purposes other than efficient spe- endangered species problems. By re- other people involved to be "problem cies recovery. In this paper, we exam- lying too strongly on personal fulfill- oriented" in their outlook and actions. ine the problem oriented approach in ment criteria, alternatives that better Because of the crisis atmosphere that general terms, describe its features and address the recovery problem are of- accompanies recovery efforts, a par- benefits, and illustrate its practical util- ten overlooked or ignored. What is best ticular kind of decision making in ity to endangered species conservation. for the decision maker is often not best both the field and office can occur that for addressing the conservation prob- is often not problem oriented. Deci- What are "problems?" lem. Some decision makers fail to rec- sion makers, for example, may There are many ways to define a ognize this point, and as a result deci- choose the one "conservation" alter- problem — all related to who devel- sion making is less effective than it oth- native that is most appealing or ex- ops the definitions (Weiss 1989). erwise could be. When this kind of pedient at the moment. This may be Analysts, legislators, lobbyists, advo- problem includes decisions critical to the alternative that casts them in the cates, scientists, managers, and the the conservation of endangered species, best possible light, produces the least general public all may have different the difference can be substantial and number of conflicts, or otherwise al- views of an endangered species prob- have significant long-term, and per- lows them to feel best about them- lem. In this article we focus mainly haps even catastrophic, effects on the selves or their work (Ascher and on the behavior of federal and state recovery of the species. Healy 1990). agency staff involved in species re- Generally speaking, what is a prob-

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1999, 16(2):28-34.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 81 lem? Problems result from the discrep- We believe that a better approach oriented approach to the species' re- ancy between a desired outcome — to conservation is to be problem ori- covery. In fact, the research decision what a decision maker wants to have ented. We recommend adopting a might be made on the basis of the in- happen — and what actually occurs strategy of understanding the prob- terests and skills of the lead re- (Merton 1961; Kilmann and Mitroff lem, including its context, rather than searcher. The management decision 1979; Dery 1984). For example, con- focusing on the most desirable tech- might be made on the basis of a deci- sider a federal or state agency that re- nical solution. This approach offers sion maker's desire to avoid consult- introduces an endangered species into a range of practical alternatives for ing with a disliked person or agency, currently unoccupied habitat to estab- addressing conservation problems in and the policy decision might be lish a new and eventually viable popu- clearer and more realistic terms, and made on the basis of how hard a de- lation. Once the species is reintroduced can result in more effective decision cision maker is willing to battle su- into the unoccupied habitat, however, making for endangered species con- periors for increased funding. In each it suffers nearly 100 percent mortality servation. It is also an approach in case it is as likely, if not more likely, due to various factors. The discrepancy which action can take place despite that a decision will be made on the between the desired outcome (estab- underlying and potentially substantial basis of a desired outcome such as lishing a new viable population) and scientific uncertainty. avoiding a consultation with a dis- the actual outcome (near 100% mor- In endangered species conserva- liked individual or a confrontation tality of the introduced species) is the tion, science, management, and with a superior. Decisions made on problem. To address this problem, the policy decision making is often dis- this basis are solution oriented and agency's staff have a number of ap- connected and in some cases even rarely benefit species conservation. proaches they can take. If they are polarized. That is, different partici- Unfortunately, the opportunity to be solution oriented, they may revert to pants are often responsible for each genuinely problem oriented may not their original goal to reintroduce the of these three areas, and the strate- exist or be possible in such settings. species and choose a solution that ad- gies used to make decisions in each dresses it as quickly as possible, such area are often different and in some The five tasks of problem orientation as attempting another reintroduction. cases may be in direct conflict with To carry out sound integrated re- Using a solution oriented frame of one another. For example, consider search, management, and policy and reference to endangered species con- a hypothetical endangered species. to avoid a solution oriented approach, servation tends to recycle a miscon- For our purposes, the problem at hand Harold Lasswell (1971) proposed a ceived conservation problem over is the species' decline. The species' strategy for problem solving that con- and over in ways that consistently fail. needs include further research, man- sists of five tasks: clarifying goals, For example, this is what actually agement actions to protect it and its describing trends, analyzing condi- happened in the endangered black- habitat, and policy decisions to pro- tions, projecting developments, and footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) case mote the continuation of its recovery inventing, evaluating, and selecting in Wyoming (Miller et al. 1996; Clark program. For this species at a given alternatives (Table 1). We recom- 1997). If participants' desire to carry point in time, a research decision may mend that this approach be used in out reintroduction is strong enough be made on the basis of what data is endangered species conservation, and they wish to save face, to not be needed for its recovery, whereas a though it is applicable to any kind of considered a failure, or to accomplish management decision might be made problem, conservation or otherwise. an important scientific success, they on the basis of who will need to be The five tasks direct individuals may collect selected data that indi- consulted before an action can be to ask questions and seek out infor- cates that the near 100 percent mor- taken, and a policy decision such as mation in a fashion conducive to tality rate was caused by factors that which aspects of the program to cut learning as much as possible about a are not likely to be repeated again, or continue might be made on the conservation problem before making and thus rationalize attempting an- basis of how large a budget can real- a decision to address it. This ap- other reintroduction. The focus is on istically be hoped for in the next fund- proach has been described and used a single alternative, not on understanding cycle. A specific outcome of each on large carnivore conservation in the ing the actual problem at hand, includ- of these three decisions might be nec- northern Rocky Mountains of the ing the possibility that their own solu- essary to further the recovery of the United States and Canada (Clark et tion-oriented approach may be a real species, but there is often no common al. 1996), in appraising threatened problem as well. This is being solu- basis to tie these decisions together species conservation in Australia tion oriented. — no unifying, integrative problem (Clark 1996), and in selected endan-

82 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 gered species cases in the United Table 1. One of several different ways to use problem orientation to address States (e.g., Clark 1997). Most re- problems (after Brunner, personal communication; Clark 1997). covery efforts attend to several of Problem Oriented Exercise these five tasks in varying degrees 1. Goals. What outcomes do we prefer (what are our goals)? What are the and with varying levels of success. problems with respect to these goals? We describe each of the tasks briefly. 2. Alternatives. What alternatives are available to the participants and others to solve the problems? Clarifying goals "The goal-clarifying task is indicated 3. Evaluation of alternatives. Would each contribute toward solution of the by the blunt question, 'What ought I problems? to prefer?'" (Lasswell 1971:40). Be- a. Trends: did it work or not work when tried in the past on relevant cases? cause the endangered species prob- b. Conditions: Why, or under what conditions, does it work or not work? lem occurs in a context (e.g., the c. Projections: would it work satisfactorily under these conditions? structure of a recovery program or the dynamics of interagency or interof- Repeat the procedure to refine and supplement considerations of goals, alterna- fice relations), it is vital to always tives, and evaluation so far. focus on both the problem and its context. This goal question is best perspectives in the species conserva- This task focuses on scientific in- answered for a given endangered spe- tion effort have met or fallen short of quiry, not only of endangered species cies problem after considering the goals in the actions they have taken biology, but also of human and orga- problem's context or social process (Lasswell and McDougal 1992). nizational behavior and policy pref- (Clark and Wallace 1998). Consid- "The immediate aim is to suggest that erences in the social process. ering the social process means ana- much can be accomplished in a prob- lyzing a particular problem or situa- lem-solving strategy that gives full Making projections tion using several indicators. These weight to asking and answering the The fourth task involves making pro- include: (1) the actual or desired par- questions, 'Where are we? How far jections about what will likely hap- ticipants involved, (2) their various have we come in achieving what we pen given past trends and conditions. perspectives on the issue, (3) in what are aiming at? Where are the posi- In part, this task demands that we sus- situations they interact or might in- tive and negative instances of success pend our beliefs and conventional teract, (4) what values (or assets or or failure?'" (Lasswell 1971:48). views of what actions participants resources) they use in their efforts to Answering these questions further might take in the future. Instead it asks achieve their goals, (5) what actions clarifies the reasons that actions are that we take a current situation and or strategies they use to achieve their taken and that certain outcomes re- project it, free of the effects of possible goals, (6) what outcomes they will or sult. However, it is important to do future actions, to its likely outcome. might achieve, and (7) what the real so for each technical component as For example, if current legislation se- and potential effects of their actions well as each participant in the recov- verely reduces an agency budget for are (Clark and Wallace 1998 after ery effort. It is also important to un- species recovery, the projected outcome Lasswell 1971; Willard and Norchi derstand how the other facets of the is likely to be bleak. This example il- 1993). Once these factors have been social process outlined above pertain lustrates simply that by projecting cur- considered, it becomes much easier to how well the overall program is rent circumstances into future out- to determine the costs and benefits of meeting goals. comes, we gain better insight into how desired goals while aiming to reduce those circumstances will affect the con- uncertainty and the potential to intro- Analyzing conditions servation problems at hand. Such produce further problems into the deci- For each of the trends identified about jections also indicate where interven- sion making process. Social process the species and its habitat and its hu- tions or other alternatives are needed mapping should continue over the life man context there is a set of condi- to address the problem and produce of the recovery effort. tions influencing it. In order to un- acceptable future outcomes. In our derstand trends in the species' num- budget example, given that the spe- Describing (historical) trends bers or habitat quality or whether par- cies will decline without adequate Describing trends means finding out ticipants have met or fallen short of funds, two alternatives include in- how the species and its habitat are goals it is necessary to analyze the creasing the budget of the hamstrung doing and also which participants and factors that account for those trends. agency or transferring authority for

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 83 species recovery to an agency with Florida manatee recovery program it. FWS agreed, but got no farther better funding. The other part of under the Endangered Species Act. than preparing an outline, which was making projections is to try to fore- The Florida manatee was listed subsequently shelved when other is- see the consequences of choosing as endangered under the Endangered sues that FWS considered more press- certain alternatives. Species Act upon its passage in 1973, ing took precedence. As a result, and is also protected under the Ma- when another red tide-related die-off Inventing, evaluating, and rine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. occurred in 1996, there was no con- selecting alternatives The first recovery plan for the spe- tingency plan, and the response, in This task calls for creating, review- cies was adopted in 1980 along with terms of coordination and cooperation ing, and choosing objectives and a comprehensive work plan to coor- among key participants, was chaotic. strategies for achieving them. In dinate interagency implementation of The 1996 die-off lasted approxi- other words, what approaches do we the recovery plan (U.S. Fish and mately two months, from early March use to realize the goals we set for en- Wildlife Service 1980; Rose et al. into May, and resulted in the deaths dangered species conservation? 1981). The original plans did not of 149 manatees (Florida Marine Re- What are the alternatives we will un- specify measures to be taken in prepa- search Institute 1996; Marine Mam- dertake to change conditions so that ration for a die-off. Following the mal Commission 1998). Early in the future trends will be favorable for the 1982 die-off, calls were made for the die-off, multiple manatee carcasses species and the human system in- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) were being recovered every day, cre- volved? On the basis of all that we and the Florida Department of Natu- ating an unprecedented workload for have learned about a given problem ral Resources (FDNR, now the an extraordinarily experienced team in the four previous tasks, what deci- Florida Department of Environmen- of scientists schooled in manatee car- sions should we make to reach our tal Protection [FDEP]) to develop a cass salvage, pathology and epidemi- preferred goal? contingency plan to address prepara- ology, contaminants, and other areas In endangered species conserva- tions for and actions necessary to re- necessary to respond to a die-off. The tion these five tasks must be carried out spond to another die off. At the time, response illustrated both the excep- to some extent over and over again over FWS and FDNR represented the lead tional technical capabilities of partici- the lifetime of the program. For ex- federal and state research and man- pants in the manatee recovery pro- ample, a detailed look at historical agement authorities in the manatee gram and the inability of those par- trends might force some endangered recovery program. ticipants to address a die-off of such species program participants to return In 1988 FWS convened a new magnitude unprepared. Problems that to and reformulate their goals. At ev- Florida manatee recovery team and may have been minor during times of ery point in carrying out the five prob- charged it with revising the recovery low manatee mortality were substan- lem orientation tasks, problem solvers plan, which it did in 1989 (FWS tially magnified by the frenzied atmo- may be required to return to earlier 1989). By 1988, no contingency plan sphere of the die-off response. Issues tasks. The following case illustrates the had been developed. As a result, the concerning personality conflicts, the importance of problem orientation in recovery team considered developing chain of command, communication endangered species decision making. a contingency plan for responding to among participants (particularly be- future die-offs to be among the high- tween agencies) and with the media, Mass mortality, contingency est priorities in manatee recovery. coordination of response tasks, tak- planning, and the Florida Subsequently, the revised recovery ing and handling of tissue samples, manatee plan specified that FWS and FDNR and distribution of data, among oth- Early in 1982, 39 Florida manatees should complete the contingency plan ers, became major stumbling blocks (Trichechus manatus latirostris) died by January of 1990. When that date to a smooth response. due to what is believed to have been passed, researchers involved in the Virtually all of the problems ex- the effects of a toxin caused by a di- 1982 event reiterated the need for a perienced by participants in the re- noflagellate commonly associated contingency plan (O'Shea et al. 1991). sponse were attributable either di- with red tide in Florida (O'Shea et al. According to FWS staff, after the rectly or indirectly to the lack of a 1991). Although it was not the first release of the revised recovery plan, contingency plan (Marine Mammal time red tide was suspected as a cause FDNR staff were given initial respon- Commission 1997). This was noted of manatee mortality (Layne 1965), sibility for drafting the contingency by many participants in the response, it was the first such die-off to occur plan. Not having prepared anything as well as independent reviewers after the development of a formal by 1992, they asked FWS to prepare (Marine Mammal Commission 1996,

84 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 1997; Work 1996). By April 1997, cally from these projections. In this deal in Florida). The recovery FWS answered its critics by complet- case, the one obvious alternative to program's bureaucratic complexity ing a contingency plan (FWS 1997). be pursued was to ensure that a con- combined with the exacting demands This plan, however, did not suffi- tingency plan was produced. Every- of mitigating manatee mortality and ciently address FDEP's involvement one involved in the die-off response habitat loss leads to a "brush fire" or the steps necessary to convene and recognized this, and many pressured mentality in which long-range planning coordinate an interagency team to FWS to undertake the job in a timely in the regulatory agencies takes a back respond to future die-offs. As a re- fashion, which it did. FDEP, inde- seat to a crisis-a-day atmosphere. sult, FDEP contracted to have its own pendent of FWS, then developed its Excessive workload is not an ex- contingency plan developed by the own plan to address deficiencies in cuse for the agencies' failure to de- end of the year (Geraci and the FWS plan. velop a contingency plan prior to the Lounsbery 1997). Soon after, FDEP Obviously, neither FWS nor 1996 die-off. Rather, it is an illustra- suggested to FWS that it combine the FDEP completed a contingency plan tion of the difficulties encountered in two plans, and FWS agreed to do so prior to the 1996 die-off. It took a problem orientation. For any given (FDEP 1997; FWS 1998). crisis, and its associated wake-up call, problem, it is necessary to undertake to provoke them into action. After the five problem orientation tasks. Problem orientation in the the 1982 manatee die-off, analysis of When confronted with multiple prob- Florida manatee case the trends and conditions surround- lems every day in which trends, con- Mass mortality of manatees is a cri- ing the die-off and the response to it ditions, goals, projections, and alter- sis which triggers the need to mobi- by recovery program participants and natives must be weighed, it can be lize and organize in a very short pe- observers led to the formation of a difficult to keep up with the intellec- riod of time (ranging from hours to goal. That goal was to develop a con- tual and practical demands. It is in days) numerous experts located in tingency plan, and it was even for- these instances when practitioners different cities, responsible for differ- malized in the Florida manatee recov- may become "solution oriented" and ent tasks, and answerable to differ- ery plan. The fact that it did not hap- skip certain tasks, particularly mak- ent mandates, superiors, and budget- pen until after a second, more severe ing projections and considering alter- ary constraints. The initial and over- die-off occurred illustrates how dif- natives, to make decisions based on riding goal of a manatee die-off re- ficult it can be to successfully perform personal interest. sponse is to efficiently and effectively the five tasks of problem orientation In the case of the manatee die- coordinate and carry out the response, given real contexts, even when ad- off contingency plan, the decision including determining the cause and dressing a well-defined problem with not to prepare such a plan even af- doing whatever is possible to mitigate potentially catastrophic results. ter it was mandated in the 1989 re- it. In 1996 the discrepancy between As in many other endangered covery plan was not malicious. that goal and what actually occurred species programs, in the manatee re- Rather, it was the result of a solution created the problem — the response covery program FWS and FDEP are orientation in which it was easier to was poorly coordinated and, as a re- constantly challenged to assess trends bypass the problem orientation tasks sult, aspects of it were poorly carried and conditions, set goals, make pro- than to undertake them in a hypotheti- out. Therefore, participants and ob- jections, and evaluate alternatives to cal situation (the possible occurrence servers noted trends and conditions: address numerous problems. The of another manatee die-off). It can a technically proficient but organiza- Florida manatee recovery program is be very difficult to project potential tionally poor response to the 1996 complex - there are more than 20 state consequences of a given decision. die-off. In response to these trends and federal agencies and non-govern- However, following the 1982 die-off, and conditions, participants and ob- mental organizations given formal by considering the complexities of servers projected possible scenarios responsibility for implementing re- die-off response, the possibility of based on whether the goal (an effi- covery tasks in the most recent recov- contending with a much larger die- cient and effectively implemented ery plan revision (FWS 1996). Ad- off in the future, and the many people response) would be met in the future. ditionally, manatees' principal threats and actions that would need to be co- That is, what would happen in the include collisions with motor boats ordinated, the organizational short- event of another die-off if there (1) (of which there are more than 750,000 comings of the 1996 die-off could still was no contingency plan, or (2) registered in Florida) and loss or deg- have been projected. Had FWS staff was a comprehensive contingency radation of their habitat due to coastal taken a little time to conduct the prob- plan in place. Alternatives flow logi- development (of which there is a great lem orientation tasks, they might

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 85 have recognized the benefits of de- Literature cited Layne, J.N. 1965. Observations of marine veloping a contingency plan and Ascher, W. and R. Healy. 1990. Natural re- mammals in Florida waters. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum 9:131-181. taken action sooner. source policymaking in developing countries. Duke University Press, Durham, Marine Mammal Commission. 1996. Letter North Carolina. from John R. Twiss, Jr., Executive Direc- Conclusions Clark, T.W. 1996. Appraising threatened spe- tor, to The Honorable John G. Rogers, Act- In endangered species conservation, cies recovery efforts: Practical recommen- ing Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- it is critically important to address each dations. Pp. 1-22 in Back from the brink: vice, December 31, 1996. Marine Mammal Commission. 1997. Annual of the five problem orientation tasks in Refining the threatened species recovery process. Australian Nature Conservation report to Congress, 1996. Marine Mammal every practicable situation. The ben- Agency in Transactions of the Royal Zoo- Commission, Bethesda, Maryland. efit of problem orientation, regardless logical Society of New South Wales, Aus- Marine Mammal Commission. 1998. Annual of who undertakes it, is to better un- tralia. report to Congress, 1997. Marine Mammal Commission, Bethesda, Maryland. derstand the problem or decision and Clark, T.W. 1997. Averting extinction: Recon- structing endangered species recovery. Yale Merton, R.K. 1961. Social problems and so- its context. This may sound like a call University Press, New Haven. ciological theory. In R.K. Merton and R.A. for a lot of time-consuming academic Clark, T.W., A.P. Curlee, and R.P. Reading. Nisbet, eds. Contemporary social problems. effort for a crisis-oriented field in which 1996. Crafting effective solutions to the Harcourt, Brace, & World, New York. time is always at a premium. How- large carnivore conservation problem. Con- Miller, B.J., R.P. Reading, and S.C. Forrest. 1996. Prairie night: Black-footed ferrets and ever, the problem orientation tasks can servation Biology 10:1036-1045. Clark, T.W. and R.D. Brunner. 1996. Making the recovery of endangered species. be conducted quickly; they do not have partnerships work: Introduction to decision Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, to be time-consuming, merely an hon- process. Endangered Species UPDATE D.C. est attempt to place in context facts, 13(9):1-5. O'Shea, T.J., G.B. Rathbun, R.K. Bonde, C.D. Buergelt, and D.K. Odell. 1991. An epi- options, and potential consequences of Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1998. Under- standing the human factor in endangered zootic of Florida manatees associated with a decision. It makes sense to gain as species recovery: An introduction to human a dinoflagellate bloom. Marine Mammal broad an understanding as possible of social process. Endangered Species UP- Science 7(2):165-179. the context of a problem before ad- DATE 15(1):2-9. Rose, P., J. Baker, and D. Peterson. 1981. dressing it. Problem orientation helps Dery, D. 1984. Problem definition in policy Comprehensive work plan for the West In- dian manatee. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- this process, and in so doing improves analysis. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas. vice, Washington, D.C. the scope of knowledge available to the Florida Department of Environmental Protec- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1980. West decision maker, and thus clarifies tion. 1997. Letter from Kenneth D. Haddad, Indian manatee recovery plan. U.S. Fish which alternatives will best achieve the Chief, Florida Marine Research Institute, and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1989. Florida goals of conservation. We have illus- to Mr. Sam Hamilton, Southeast Regional Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, manatee (Trichechus manatus latirostris) trated how problem orientation can be December 26, 1997. recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- used to improve decision making and Florida Marine Research Institute. 1996. A vice, Atlanta, Georgia. actions for endangered species conser- draft summary of selected FMRI activities U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Florida vation. Using the approach we propose during the 1996 manatee epizootic. Florida manatee recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service, Atlanta, Georgia. will help anyone interested in practical Marine Research Institute, Florida Depart- ment of Environmental Protection, St. Pe- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Con- endangered species conservation to tersburg. tingency plan for catastrophic manatee res- gain a better understanding of the is- Geraci, J. and V. Lounsbery. 1997. Draft con- cue and mortality events. U.S. Fish and sues they wish to address. tingency plan for manatee die-offs. Florida Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. Department of Environmental Protection, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1998. Letter Tallahassee, Florida. from Sam D. Hamilton, Regional Director, Acknowledgments Janis, I.L. and L. Mann. 1977. Decision mak- to Mr. Kenneth D. Haddad, Chief, Florida This work was supported by the Mor- ing: A psychological analysis of conflict, Marine Research Institute, January 23, ris K. Udall Foundation, Teresa and choice, and commitment. The Free Press, 1998. H. John Heinz III Foundation, Inter- New York. Weiss, J.A. 1989. The powers of problem definition: The case of government paperwork. national Fund for Animal Welfare, Kilmann, R.H. and I.I. Mitroff. 1979. Prob- lem defining and the consulting/interven- Policy Sciences 22:97-121. the Richard Lounsbery Foundation, tion process. California Management Re- Willard, A.R. and C.H. Norchi. 1993. The Save the Manatee Club, Yale view 21(3):26-33 decision seminar as an instrument of power University's School of Forestry and Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view of the policy and enlightenment. Political Psychology 14(4):575-606. Environmental Studies, and grants to sciences. American Elsevier Publishing Company, New York. Work, T.M. 1996. Evaluation report on the the Northern Rockies Conservation Lasswell, H.D. and M.S. McDougal. 1992. 1996 Florida manatee die-off. National Cooperative. The authors are grate- Jurisprudence for a free society. Kluwer Wildlife Health Center, National Biologi- ful to Galen B. Rathbun for his com- Law International, The Hague, Nether- cal Service, Honolulu. ments on the manuscript. lands.

86 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Understanding the Human Factor in Endangered Species Recovery: An Introduction to Human Social Process

Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Richard L. Wallace Environmental Studies Program, Ursinus College, P.O. Box 1000, Collegeville, PA 19426 [email protected]

Abstract Biologists often take a technical biological view of species recovery, overlooking the necessity of attending to the human factor. The Hawaiian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) and Yellowstone grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) cases illustrate negative consequences to a recovery program when social process is overlooked, under-attended to, or ignored. Understanding human social process in practical terms is essential as species will be recovered only if human social process can be made to effectively support restoration. A practical model of social process (i.e. participants, their perspectives, situations, values, strategies, outcomes, and effects) is described and a method to realistically "map" the social process is introduced. Seven kinds of public participation in species recovery are described. It is recommended that greater attention be given to social process dimensions of species recovery at the same time that biological issues are addressed and the public be involved actively in support of species conservation.

Introduction tween managers and biologist, between of mapping, understanding, and par- Most biologists have been trained to non-governmental organizations and ticipating in social process during the understand the species loss problem government agencies, or between con- recovery process. Ignoring the social and the recovery solution primarily in servationists and the public. Social pro- dimensions of management can result technical terms. The importance of the cess mapping also describes the inter- in overlooking allies and support for human factor can be overlooked, ig- action between people and the problem conservation, it can lead to intractable nored, or viewed as a constraint to the itself, for example, the effect that re- negative public perceptions, and it central biological task of species recov- covery actions such as habitat protec- can draw down trust in government ery. From this standpoint human in- tion have on people's lives and values. officials and professional biologists. teractions are often labeled as "politics" These two types of social interactions In some cases, under-appreciating and and dismissed as outside of recovery are both the ultimate cause of the en- not working with social process can professionals' immediate concerns (see dangered species crisis and the site of lead to failure to conserve species! Kellert 1985). We all know that its ultimate solution. Endangered spe- people's interactions affect the environ- cies recovery professionals must under- Hawaiian monk seals in Hawaii ment; some interactions may lead to stand social process in species recov- In 1994 National Marine Fisheries protection of biodiversity and some ery work and learn to participate in it Service (NMFS) biologists attempted may lead to species endangerment, de- productively if they want to be maxi- to solve a long-standing problem fac- pending on the type and its outcomes. mally effective. This article examines ing Hawaiian monk seals (Monachus Understanding human social process in human social process in general terms, schauinslandi) in the northwest Ha- practical terms is important because offers an approach to understanding it, waiian Islands. The seals, number- endangered species will be saved only and surveys the kinds of social partici- ing fewer than 1,500 and listed as if social process can be made to effec- pation possible in recovery. endangered under the federal Endan- tively support that goal. Social process gered Species Act (ESA), suffered "mapping" describes the interaction Endangered species case from an aberrant behavior displayed among people in the context of a re- examples by selected mature males. This be- covery challenge, for example, be- Two cases illustrate the importance havior, called "mobbing," occurs

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1998, 15(1):2-9.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 87 when a male monk seal attacks a fe- upset local fishermen and particularly horribilis) is a threatened species un- male in an attempt to mate, injuring the WPFMC, NMFS's strongest and der the ESA and afforded special pro- or even killing her. In the summer of most influential constituent in Ha- tection. Grizzly bears, which num- 1994 NMFS biologists moved 21 waii. Fishermen perceived the move- ber about 300 in the Yellowstone re- male monk seals known to exhibit ment of seals to be a threat to their gion, are large predators that can and mobbing behavior from Laysan Is- operations in the main Hawaiian Is- do kill livestock. Because GTNP per- land in the northwest Hawaiian Is- lands. NMFS began to field com- mits livestock grazing, this brings lands to areas throughout the main plaints from fishermen that monk bears into direct conflict with rancher Hawaiian Islands, where there were seals were taking their catch. Some special interests in the Park. The no known resident monk seals and fishermen even accused NMFS of agencies try to accommodate both thus where threats to females would covertly attempting to establish a bears and cattle, but there are situa- be minimized. NMFS's view of the population of monk seals in the main tions where bears are trapped and re- relocation was specific: it was a Hawaiian island in order to justify regu- located (or in this case killed) to pro- monk seal protection measure, an latory limits on fishing in areas where tect private cattle on public lands. action that needed to be taken in or- there had previously been no seals and Bear #209 was previously implicated der to safeguard the health and well- therefore no conflicts with fisheries. in killing cattle inside GTNP and out- being of female seals crucial to the NMFS underestimated the level of frus- side the park on a nearby FS allot- breeding success of the population. tration and the strength of public reac- ment. When #209 moved back into The relocation was technically suc- tion. As a result, the agency had to GTNP near cattle grazing under a cessful. The animals were moved and undertake damage control, including special grazing arrangement and into the integrity of the original popula- pacifying angry fishermen and bring- a management zone which permitted tions was safeguarded. ing in high level officials to address the killing the bear, agency officials de- NMFS perceived the relocation issues before the WPFMC. cided to act. The decision was influ- as a management action that had For an agency in charge of over- enced by the agencies' aggregate view physical affects limited to the seals seeing the nation's fisheries, this epi- that bears are recovered in the themselves. When NMFS decided to sode was unfortunate. While it pro- Yellowstone region, or very nearly so, relocate the seals, it had a small win- tected monk seals, it reflected a lower and that the loss of one or a few bears dow of opportunity to implement the priority for the agency's main con- would not jeopardize the population's decision because of the limited avail- stituency, the fishing industry, thus status and might diffuse rancher op- ability of ships and equipment needed creating conflict for the agency's lo- position to bears. to capture, relocation, and release of cal and regional leadership. Although Many people were upset that a the seals. NMFS considered contact- conflicts between marine mammals threatened species was killed in a ing the fishing industry, specifically and fisheries occur frequently in the national park set aside to conserve the Western Pacific Fishery Manage- management of both, rarely are ma- wildlife to aid ranchers who were ment Council (WPFMC), before cap- rine mammal interests put before grazing cattle under a special permit, turing and releasing the seals to ex- those of fisheries when a management the legality of which was openly be- plain the plan. However, doing so action affects both, especially when ing questioned at the time. One long- would have created the need for po- the fishing interests are considered time area resident organized a peti- tentially lengthy discussions between before the action is taken. tion — signed by over 800 people the agencies concerning the possible within a few days — and gave it to impacts on fishermen of the seal re- Grizzly bears in the Yellowstone region officials in GTNP, the FS, and the location. Beginning such discussions In 1996, grizzly bear #209 was inten- Secretary of Interior to protest the so close to the time of the proposed tionally trapped in Grand Teton Na- killing. Newspapers printed letters seal relocation would likely have tional Park (GTNP), Wyoming, and criticizing the killing and covered the caused NMFS to miss its window of later killed under the auspices of the issue prominently. Local, regional, opportunity to move the seals. There- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and national conservation groups fore, NMFS chose not to alert the coun- (USFWS, chief administrator of were taken aback by the incident and cil or local fishermen on the main Ha- ESA) in cooperation with the Na- made their disapproval widely waiian Islands about its intentions. tional Park Service, the Forest Service known. Among the concerns ex- Once the seals were moved, (FS), and the Wyoming Game and Fish pressed were questions about the NMFS issued a press release explain- Department (WGFD)(Cromley 2000). competence and trustworthiness of ing what it had done and why. This The grizzly bear (Ursus arctos the agencies, government employees,

88 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 and their bear management policy. ests of cattle ranchers. This episode gies? With what outcomes? And with This episode added to the grow- created a conflict that has yet to be what longer effects? ing public distrust of officials and the satisfactorily resolved in some This model is well documented sense that public lands and wildlife people's minds. These two cases in the social sciences literature and are being chronically mismanaged. show that social process is a key vari- has been widely used internationally. Other events in preceding years fu- able in endangered species recovery. It is applicable to any context in eled this public view (e.g., Primm which people interact (Lasswell and 1994), including a court ruling the A practical model of social process McDougal 1992). Indeed, it func- year before that showed the USFWS Social process is the interaction of tions as more than a model. Its inte- grizzly bear recovery plan was flawed people as they influence the actions, grated concepts constitute a "stable and needed to be revamped. The plans, or policies of other people, frame of reference" that allows users, judge declared that the USFWS and even if they are unaware of each both participants and analysts, to look others "have acted in a manner that other. It is the process by which we not just at the particulars of recovery is arbitrary and capricious and con- create and sustain the human commu- efforts, but, more importantly, at the trary to law by issuing a Recovery nity. In trying to understand social functional relationships that propels Plan that fails to establish objective, process in general or in endangered them and all human activity. This measurable criteria in a determination species cases, most people merely model and mapping method is not . . . that the grizzly bear be removed impose conventional classification simply a cookbook approach to add- from the threatened species list" systems extrapolated from everyday ing social science data to biological (Thuermer 1995a:13A, 1995b). life. The terms used in these schemes data in analyzing endangered species In response to the public outcry and the scope permitted by them are problems or in finding solutions to over the #209 incident, officials of- often wanting in analytic strength and them. The power of this analytical, fered more complete explanations. insight. For example, how many highly flexible framework is its si- Officials of the WGFD, which admin- times have you heard someone use multaneous comprehensiveness and istered the lethal injection, said it was terms like "politics" or "personality" selectivity in mapping human dynam- done because the bear "would not to "explain" away troublesome social ics and their implications. It offers stop eating cows grazing in the Park" dynamics and outcomes? insights into social process simply not (Thuermer 1996a:14A). Other offi- A much more useful model of available from using conventional cials defended their actions by say- social process has been devised based views and terms. By using this model ing that #209 was a known cattle on functional anthropology and the and method, data, both hard and soft, killer on an adjacent FS grazing lease policy sciences that enhance under- that might otherwise be overlooked (where bears were nonetheless pro- standing of complex policy problems or misconstrued can be appreciated tected) and that cattle grazing was (Lasswell and Kaplan 1950). The and incorporated more fully and ac- legal in this national park. GTNP model focuses on participants with curately into a view of any endan- Superintendent noted he allowed perspectives interacting in particular gered species conservation task. grazing because ranching helps keep situations. Drawing on whatever In all interactions, people tend to open space which supports the tour- base (power) values they have, they act in ways they perceive will leave ist-based economy of Jackson Hole adopt strategies to pursue particular them better off than if they had com- (Thuermer 1996b). These explana- value outcomes, which have effects pleted them differently. Because of tions did not satisfy protesters, but on future interactions (Table 1). the subjective character of percep- after some weeks the issue seemed to These terms are described in detail in tions, people perceive themselves, die down in the press. However, it theoretical and applied works by their environments, other partici- persists in many people's minds. Lasswell and Kaplan (1950) and pants, and, in this case, endangered Like the monk seal case, this was Lasswell (1971) and discussed in the species recovery efforts differently. another distressing episode for fed- context of conservation biology by The differences among people — in eral (and state) agencies in charge of Clark (1997a) and others. Another identities, expectations, demands, overseeing endangered species resto- way to highlight these categories is values, strategies, and other variables ration. While the agencies in the to ask seven questions: Who partici- — may be vast and irreconcilable. Yellowstone region generally protect pates in the recovery process? With No amount of "cold, hard fact," col- grizzly bears and work for their re- what perspectives? In which situa- lected by "objective, neutral" scien- covery, this incident reflected a lower tions? Using which power bases? tists and "equally accessible" to all priority for bears than for the inter- Manipulating them in which strate- participants, and no amount of "edu-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 89 Table 1. Some questions to ask in order to map the social process of a specific greatly improve the effective practice endangered species recovery problem (modified from Lasswell 1971; Willard of endangered species professionals. and Norchi 1993). One of the central concepts in the social process model is the interplay 1. Participants. Who is participating? Identify both individuals and groups. of human values. People's values Who would you like to see participate? Who is demanding to participate? underlie their perspectives on the world. They are the medium of ex- 2. Perspectives. What are the perspectives of those who are participating? Of those you would like to see participate? Of those making demands to change in all human interactions. participate? What would you like their perspectives to be? Perspectives Values constitute the goals that people include: strive for, an education, skill in per- A. Demands, or what participants or potential participants want, in terms forming their jobs, good health, good of values and organization. B. Expectations, or the matter-of-fact assumptions of participants about government, healthy environments, past and future. security, among many others. But C. Identifications, or on whose behalf are demands made? values also constitute the assets or resources on which people draw to 3. Situations. In what situation do participants interact? In what situations achieve these goals. Wealth is used, would like to see them participate? for instance, to buy the necessaries 4. Base Values. What assets or resources do participants use in their efforts of life, although it may also be used to achieve their goals? All values, including authority, can be used as to "buy" power. People use the re- bases of power. What assets or resources would you like to see partici- spect of their peers or the power of pants use to achieve their goals? their status to build support for a A. Power is to make and carry out decisions. cause they believe is right. Or they B. Enlightenment is to have knowledge. draw on the well-being they feel from C. Wealth is to have money or its equivalent. knowing that other life forms are se- D. Well-being is to have health, physical and psychic. cure and healthy to build strong com- E. Skill is to have special abilities. F. Affection is to have family, friends, and warm community relation- munities or political alliances. Val- ships. ues are also manifest in the outcomes G. Respect is to show and receive deference. of social interactions, not only in the H. Rectitude is to have ethical standards. achievement of individual goals, but 5. Strategies. What strategies do participants employ in their efforts to also in changes in institutional prac- achieve their goals? Strategies can be considered in terms of diplomatic, tices. For instance, a new law rolling ideological, economic, and military instruments. What strategies would back environmental protection may you like to see used by participants in pursuit of their goals? advance the power or wealth of a special interest group while diminishing 6. Outcomes. What outcomes are achieved in the ongoing, continuous flow of interaction among participants? Outcomes can be considered in terms public health. Similarly, the decisions of changes in the distribution of values. Who is indulged in terms of which to translocate monk seals or kill griz- values? Who is deprived in terms of which values? Outcomes also refer to zly bears are value outcomes that re- the ways in which values are shaped and shared. The particular ways in flect institutional practices. which values are shaped and shared are called practices or institutions. How are practices changing? How would you like to see practices Policy scientists have classed all change? What is your preferred distribution of values? human values — everything that people in all cultures in all times at 7. Effects. What are the new value/institutions, if any? Are new practices put all ages at all levels have strived for into place? Are old practices maintained? What forces promote new — into eight functional categories: practices? What forces restrict new practices? power, wealth, enlightenment, well- being, affection, skill, respect, and cation" and "exchange of ideas" can cal method of accounting for these rectitude (Lasswell and Kaplan completely eradicate the inherent dif- myriad differences, (2) a vehicle for 1950). These are functional catego- ferences among people. However, explaining their dynamics, and (3) ries in that these terms can be used to this fact does not disaffirm our com- insights for preventing or correcting describe how people's actions actu- mon interests or obviate the need to weaknesses to clarify and secure ally function in society despite how strive for common goals. The social common interests. This kind of so- they may be conventionally de- process model provides (1) a practi- cial process knowledge and skill would scribed, understood, or promoted by

90 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 participants or observers. For in- selves about how we will deal with social setting. With a contextually- stance, the Hawaiian monk seal and each other, with other species, and relevant, functional map of social pro- Yellowstone grizzly bear cases could with ecosystems in certain contexts. cess, people involved in recovery pro- be analyzed functionally in terms of In functional terms, all eight values grams can more easily see how their these values. All eight values were are always involved in the ESA and decisions and actions would be per- involved in the social transactions that species conservation. For instance, ceived by other participants and they took place. How were these values such a statement of national intent or could better understand others' actions. "traded," and how did they influence policy is based on power and requires To illustrate the value of social each other in the social transactions a commitment of collective national process analysis, in the monk seal and that took place? Who was indulged wealth to implement it. Enlighten- grizzly bear cases ask yourself who and who was deprived in value terms? ment and skill are also required to are the participants, what is their per- In other words, how were values implement it. Achieving the national spective in terms of identities, expec- shaped and shared through these two goal of biodiversity conservation pro- tations, and demands. Also discern recovery efforts? It is beyond the duces outcomes involving respect what the situation is in terms of ge- space here to answer these questions. (both self-respect and the regard of ography/ecology, time, institutions, But, both cases involved all eight val- the international community), affec- and whether a crises exists or not. ues interacting in a complex manner. tion, and well-being. The ESA is also Further determine what base values Clearly power figured into both cases, a statement of our rectitude standards. are involved, what strategies are be- as did respect, wealth, and rectitude. It is clear that restoration efforts af- ing used, whether they are coercive A value analysis of these two cases fect people's lives in many ways. In- or persuasive. Finally assay what based on empirical study can provide deed, all eight values are always at outcomes are sought and what out- insight and improved understanding play at some level in all human inter- comes actually resulted in terms of of the actual social dynamics at play. actions. Understanding which values values and institutional practices and An ongoing mapping of the social are predominantly at play and how what their effects are. To answer process of any recovery program can they are exchanged functionally — these questions in realistic detail you reveal trends and why trends are tak- figuring out who is indulged and who need to do research on the endangered ing place that may not be evident oth- is deprived in specific recovery cases species recovery effort in question. erwise. In turn, future developments — is the key to understanding social Remember the purpose of social pro- might be anticipated and any foresee- process practically. The social process mapping is to understand a given able problems averted. This knowl- cess method, as an analytic and com- case so that practical improvements edge about value trends, conditions, parative approach, produces insight might be made. and projections can be used to man- and reveals ways to learn, intervene, Both the monk seal and grizzly age social process and all the values, and improve recovery efforts far be- bear cases are complex and it is im- especially power, respect, wealth, yond conventional, ordinary, and par- possible to fully illustrate how the skill, rectitude. In these two cases, ticularized understanding. social process model can be used to this kind of knowledge was poten- practically map these cases for im- tially available to mangers and could Mapping social process proved management in this paper. have been skillfully used to advance Professionals confronted with com- But, in part, for the monk seal case, social process in favor of endangered plex policy-relevant problems, such for example, moving seals was per- species recovery. as biologists working on endangered ceived by agency officials as the re- In endangered species recovery, species recovery, need a practical sponsible and ethical thing (rectitude the American public has declared via guide to map and understand the so- value) to do to aid species recovery the ESA that it is the goal of the cial process dimensions of their work based on their knowledge (enlighten- United States to "provide a means (Table 1). The model described here ment value) of the situation. They whereby the ecosystems upon which and the categories and questions in had the power, wealth, and skill val- endangered species and threatened Table 1 can guide professionals in ues to make and carry out decisions. species depend may be conserved, building a map to orient to any social But to the fishing industry, the situa- and to provide a program for the con- context. Because every detail of a tion and other aspects of social pro- servation of such endangered species problematic situation is affected by cess looked quite different. These and threatened species" (USFWS interaction with the entire context, people perceived that they would be 1988:1). This means that we have set problem solvers must use a method deprived of wealth (wealth value) by national rules or guidelines for our- that places the problem within the having seals moved into new areas.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 91 They may also have feared a loss of and results evaluated). Remember prior to exploration of solutions. power, respect, and well-being val- that the social process model and Public participation must also be ues. The remaining values were func- mapping procedure is not a simple done in a deliberative and democratic tionally involved as well. The issue cookbook method (Clark 1977b). way (Dryzek 1990). Local involve- is whether the agencies' knowledge Mapping and understanding social ment for its own sake will not lead to was adequately contextual and their process in practical terms requires species recovery or improved social use of power, skill, and wealth were study, skill, and judgment. Neverthe- process: what is needed is respon- appropriate in this context. Moving less, it is vital for professionals to in- sible, constructively critical, political seals was a functional value clash tegrate social process knowledge into participation (Forester 1980). Re- wherein participants were differen- problem solving for endangered spe- member also that regional or national tially indulged or deprived of values. cies recovery. The framework de- involvement is also vital and may Being fully cognizant of the direct vised by Lasswell (1971) is a means even be more important in some values clash in moving the seals ar- to meet this challenge integrative cases than local involvement. gues for having positive social rela- challenge. Like any method, this one Pimbert and Pretty (1995) have tionships firmly in place in advance can be learned through study and ap- identified a continuum of participa- so that when rapid decisions and ac- plication, and skill in its use can de- tion types in conservation, ranging tions are necessary public or special velop through practice over time. from passive to active (Table 2). It is interest backlash can be avoided or believed that lasting conservation minimized. Thinking and acting con- Effective public participation in measures will result from the more textually in terms of social process recovery efforts active "functional," "interactive," and permits professionals to better appre- Recovery personnel can interact with "self-mobilized" participation modes. ciate and manage recovery efforts. each other, the public, or in social It only makes sense in a democracy Again, in the grizzly bear inci- process in a variety of ways. They that long-term success will come dent, killing #209 was consistent with can make decisions and take actions when people's ideas and knowledge agency officials' values of rectitude, based on acontextual professional are valued and power is given to them respect, well-being, affection, power, assessments — thus largely ignoring to make key decisions in close coop- wealth, enlightenment, and skill. But the public and social process. Or they eration with experts and govern- many outsiders perceived that offi- can involve the public directly and ments. In fact, without the real com- cials were misusing their power, meaningfully in problem solving. mitment of local people, conservation knowledge, skill, and public funds, The two cases above detail how the is probably impossible. and they felt that the community's public was involved or not in recov- There are existing theories on rectitude standards were violated in ery and what the consequences were. how social process should be carried failing to protect the bear. Cromley Organizing effective public in- out in a democracy and these are di- (2000) analyzed this case in detail volvement is not always easy, and rectly relevant to setting up and run- relying in large part on the social pro- endangered species recovery has had ning recovery and other conservation cess model introduced in this paper. a mixed history of public participa- programs. Dryzek (1990) notes, for She focused on how differing expec- tion. Participation has too often been example, that "discursive democracy" tations of participants making up the construed simply as "getting more can overcome many of the common social process came into direct con- citizen input." But there is growing weakness in public policy and deci- flict. Numerous practical manage- recognition that conserving wildlife sion making. And Barber (1984) de- ment recommendations were made as and restoring species require local scribes a "strong democracy" domi- a result of her analysis to avoid this involvement in more substantive nated by "communicative rationality" kind of problem in the future and to ways. Contemporary recovery ef- (the reflective understanding of com- better manage the social process di- forts are beginning to see more di- petent participants), which he feels mension of grizzly bear recovery. verse people as important problem is urgently needed today. Both Because social process is not solvers and nature conservers Dryzek and Barber's ideas can lead static, it must be continuously (Pimbert and Pretty 1995). Regard- to coordination of community actions mapped over the life of any conser- less of how the public is viewed, lo- through discussion (see Habermas vation "decision process" (see Clark cal involvement can be very helpful, 1984). In short, the quality of public and Brunner 1996) and as the nature so social process must be part of a or social participation is what counts. of the problem changes over time (i.e. comprehensive and rigorous under- According to Dryzek (1990:23) as problems are defined, acted upon, standing of the conservation problem "communicatively rational policy

92 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Table 2. The seven types of public participation possible in endangered spe- Conclusions cies recovery (modified from Pimbert and Pretty 1995). As the two examples illustrate, recovering species involves human social Participation Type Descriptions process. Effective problem solving ______in conservation must account for the social dimension. This can best be 1. Passive participation People are told what is going to done by employing a practical model happen or what has happened. Communication is unidirectional. to help you map the social process of Information being transmitted the case you are interested in. The belongs to outside experts. social process categories — participants, perspectives, situation, base 2. Participation in People answer questions put them information giving by experts in questionnaires or values, strategies, outcomes, and ef- other surveys. People do not fects — can guide conservationists in influence the process otherwise. systematically examining whatever situation they are concerned about. A 3. Participation by consultation People are consulted and outside challenging task in social process is experts listen. Outside experts define problems and solutions. to involve the public in genuine prob- No concession to public. lem solving that maximizes chances of successful species recovery. The 4. Participation for material People provide resources such as social process model and mapping incentives labor for food, cash, or information. method offered in this paper can aid 5. Functional participation People form groups and meet species recovery and conservation in objectives. This may happen once practical and substantial ways. a recovery effort has been set up by experts. Acknowledgments 6. Interactive participation People involved in joint analysis, Denise Casey and Steve Primm criti- production of action plans, and cally reviewed the manuscript. Our enhanced organized participation. work was supported by the Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative 7. Self-mobilization People take independent initiatives apart from experts and govern- and Yale University. ment. This may or may not challenge existing experts and Literature cited government. Barber, B. 1984. Strong democracy: Partici- patory politics of a new age. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. science of participatory democracy, tion, regulatory negotiation, policy Clark, T.W. 1992. Practicing natural resource oriented to the public sphere rather dialogue, principled negotiation, and management with a policy orientation. En- than the state, is well placed to rec- problem-solving workshops. None vironmental Management 16:423-433. Clark, T.W. 1996a. Learning as a strategy for oncile the twin demands of effective of them fully acknowledges the improving endangered species conserva- social problem solving and demo- need to understand and map social tion. Endangered Species UPDATE cratic principles." There are many process. A rational problem-solv- 13(1&2):5-6, 22-24. theories besides these two about how ing approach to conservation prob- Clark, T.W. 1996b. Appraising threatened species recovery efforts: Practical recom- to reconcile rationality and democracy. lems, including appreciation of so- mendations. Pp. 1-22 in Back for the brink: Knowing about these theories and prac- cial process involved, and practi- Refining the threatened species recovery tically applying them in species con- cally finding consensus are ideals process. Australian Nature Conservation servation is indeed challenging. to strive for. Being knowledgeable Agency in Transactions of the Royal Zoo- There are several incipient de- of the social process dimension of logical Society of New South Wales, Aus- tralia. signs in currency today that attempt recovery as well as being skilled in Clark, T.W. 1997a. Conservation biologists in to resolve conflictual social prob- mapping it practically can signifi- the policy process: Learning how to be lems, that improve rationality and cantly aid professionals achieve practical and effective. Pp. 575-598 in G.K. democracy — among them are me- their goals. Meffe and C.R. Carroll, eds. Principles of conservation biology, 2nd edition, Sinauer diation, alternative dispute resolu- Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachu-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 93 setts. Forester, J. 1980. Critical theory and planning pation" into protected area management. Clark, T.W. 1997b. Averting extinction: Re- practice. American Planning Association United Nations Research Institute for So- constructing endangered species recovery. Journal 46(3):275-286. cial Development. Discussion Paper DP Yale University Press, New Haven, Con- Habermas, J. 1984. The theory of communi- 57:1-60. necticut. cative action I: Reason and the rationaliza- Primm, S.A. 1994. Grizzly-livestock conflicts Clark, T.W., A.P. Curlee, and R.P. Reading. tion of society. Beacon Press, Boston, Mas- on Togwotee Pass: Using policy research 1996. Crafting effective solutions to the sachusetts. to find solutions. Northern Rockies Con- large carnivore conservation problem. Con- Kellert, S.R. 1985. Social and perceptual fac- servation Cooperative News, Jackson, servation Biology 10:1036-1045. tors in endangered species management. Wyoming. 1994:1-17. Clark, T.W. and R.D. Brunner. 1996. Making Journal of Wildlife Management 49:528- Thuermer, A.N., Jr. 1995a. Judge rules against partnerships work in endangered species 536. federal grizzly plan. Jackson Hole News, conservation. Endangered Species UP- Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view to the policy Jackson, Wyoming. October 11, 1995:13A. DATE 13:1-4. sciences. American Elsevier, New York. Thuermer, A.N., Jr. 1995b. Greens battle plan Cromley, C.M. 2000. The killing of grizzly Lasswell, H.D. and A. Kaplan. 1950. Power to more raiding griz. Jackson Hole News, bear 209: Identifying norms for grizzly bear and society: A framework for political in- Jackson, Wyoming. October 11, 1995:13A. management. Pp. 173-220 in T.W. Clark, quiry. Yale University Press, New Haven, Thuermer, A.N., Jr. 1996a. Teton grizzly is A.R. Willard, and C.M. Cromley, eds. The Connecticut. killed to end its cow-eating. Jackson Hole Foundations of Natural Resource Manage- Lasswell, H.D. and M. McDougal. 1992. Ju- News, Jackson, Wyoming. August 17, ment. Yale University Press, New Haven, risprudence for a free society: Studies in 1996:14A. Connecticut. law, science, and policy. New Haven Press, Thuermer, A.N., Jr. 1996b. Traps laid in park Dryzek, J. 1990. Discursive democracy: Poli- New Haven, Connecticut. for cow-eating griz. Jackson Hole News, tics, policy, and political science. Cam- Pimbert, M.P. and J.N. Pretty. 1995. Parks, Jackson, Wyoming. July 24, 1996:A1, A23. bridge University Press, New York. people, and professionals: Putting "partici-

Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) by LuRay Parker, USFWS.

94 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 The Dynamics of Value Interactions in Endangered Species Conservation Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Richard L. Wallace Environmental Studies Program, Ursinus College, P.O. Box 1000, Collegeville, PA 19426 [email protected]

Abstract Conserving endangered species is a technical task, but it is also highly value laden. Yet the value dimension of conservation is often overlooked or ignored by most participants. Values — the things and events in life that people desire, aim at, wish for, or demand — figure into all aspects of conservation, including the science component; in fact, values are the basic medium of exchange in all human interactions. Values may be functionally categorized as power, wealth, skill, enlightenment, affection, well-being, respect, and rectitude, all of which are needed for people to live with dignity in a healthy environment. A 2000 paper by Scott Johnson describing the Hawaiian crow (Corvus hawaiiensis) case is used as an example of the importance of values to endangered species recovery efforts. Participants in this recovery effort at first were unable to appreciate and manage the value- based dynamics to promote conservation, but later were able to make some improvements. Attend- ing to value dynamics in a conscious, systematic way can enhance species conservation in all cases.

Introduction tions and their people deal with others abstract, some more conventional, As professionals dedicated to protect- and, as a result, how successful recov- some short, some long. But as Bell's ing and restoring biological diversity, ery programs are. This is well docu- (1997:179) survey of the literature we focus our attention on the popu- mented in the literature (e.g., Miller et shows, there are "some core human lations and habitats of imperiled spe- al. 1996, Flores and Clark 2001). values about which there is wide cies. Our ethical standards tell us that Disciplinary biases and organiza- agreement both over geographic this work is important, and our views tional cultures are just two of the space and time — from well before are justified by society through the many expressions of human values the birth of Christ up to the present." Endangered Species Act and other that are present not only in recovery We believe that it would be ben- mandates. We have been trained in programs but in every facet of life. eficial to those who work in endan- the technical knowledge (e.g., ecol- People pursue values constantly. Val- gered species recovery programs to ogy) and skills (e.g., field measure- ues are the things and events in life become more aware of the value dy- ments) necessary to restore species or that people desire, aim at, wish for, namics at play in their work and to prevent their endangerment. Focus- or demand (Lasswell 1971). Accord- develop a broader and more theo- ing strictly on the biological tasks, ing to Taylor and Douglas retical conception of values. This however, may mean the neglect of the (1999:315), "values are cognitive rep- would help professionals to see "human dimensions" of conservation, resentations of human needs." They similarities in the problems that which are often dismissed as "indicate preferences people share for plague different cases and to adapt "biopolitics" and avoided or left to certain types of outcomes in their the solutions, lessons, knowledge, others to deal with. In addition, most lives and for certain types of conduct" and skills from successful cases to conservation professionals work for (Ball-Rokeach and Loges 1992:222). others. To that end, we examine organizations — state or federal agen- In all our interactions, at all levels of value interactions in endangered species, advocacy groups, universities, or society, we exchange or transfer val- cies restoration, drawing initially on businesses — that exhibit particular ues of one kind or another. The vast a paper by Johnson (2000) that de- mandates, cultures, and ways of op- literature on values contains numer- scribes the Hawaiian crow (Corvus erating that affect how the organiza- ous lists of what people value, some hawaiiensis) conservation case.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 95 An account of Hawaiian crow For conservation advocacy organiza- the program who did. This individual conservation tions, which also commonly play the convened all parties. "The sessions Scott Johnson's article, "Building a we-need-to-educate-the-public game, were simply aimed at each species recovery program on trust," knowledge refers to population vi- individual's personal development which appeared in Conservation Bi- ability, factors responsible for habi- and experiences and what each brought ology in Practice in 2000, offered his tat loss, and effectiveness of govern- to the group" (p. 36). As a result, the perspective as a professional biolo- ment in solving conservation prob- group found many shared experiences, gist and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- lems. Although we do not know what which led to a greater "sense of com- vice (USFWS) employee on the Ha- knowledge Johnson and his col- munity" (p. 37). Good will was built waiian crow ('alala) case. He re- leagues imparted about the crow situ- where it had been absent. counted that the USFWS had origi- ation or how the educational program nally been denied access to the crow was carried out, the people who op- Understanding human values population, which was largely on pri- posed the government program, ac- One of the most universal systems of vate land, and that the agency was cording to his own account, did not take value analysis is Harold D. Lasswell's sued by environmental groups for kindly to this approach or its underly- (1971) "functional value categories," failing to recover the species. He ing assumption. The knowledge-shar- which stem from his belief that hu- described the persistent interpersonal ing strategy did not improve the work- man dignity is the overriding goal of tension, the preconceived negative ing relations or the status of the crow. all people (Lasswell and McDougal views that each group seemed to hold But then, as Johnson put it, "Af- 1992). In short, everyone wants to about the others, the name calling (he ter a couple years of pounding our live with dignity, which means hav- was labeled a "bureaucratic biolo- heads against the wall, the group fi- ing adequate amounts of eight catego- gist"), and the suspicion that kept the nally concluded that our basic flaw ries of values — power, enlighten- various groups apart. The program was . . . a lack of trust" (p. 36). The ment, wealth, well-being, skill, affec- was not cooperative and lacked trust. USFWS team saw that "mutual trust tion, respect, and rectitude (Table 1) Believing that the problem was must be developed by specific actions — and being able to shape (give) and that the public lacked "information," that have nothing to do with actual share (receive and use) all eight to the he and his colleagues' initial response work being conducted" (p. 36). They fullest extent possible. This list is to this messy situation was to try to concluded that trust would come general enough to encompass most solve the problems by providing as about by interaction outside the 'alala other "lists" of values, including those much information as possible. They arena — through social interaction spelled out in the Declaration of In- expected that sharing information not focused on crows. At the same dependence, the Constitution of the with ranchers and The Peregrine time, Johnson admitted, recognition United States, other national consti- Fund, both central players, would that they would now have to focus tutions, the Universal Declaration of make the program run smoothly. This on "relationship-building" produced Human Rights of the United Nations, is a common assumption among bi- "rolled . . . eyes" and cringes from and similar conventions (see ologists, managers, and other techni- team members. Realizing that they McDougal et al. 1980; Clark 2002). cally oriented professionals. Their were in a dysfunctional social rela- In advancing his comprehensive, education, training, and often their tionship and that facilitated meetings, if not exhaustive, list of values, entire professional lives have incul- conflict resolution, surveys, emails, Lasswell recognized that the eight cated the belief that scientific truth is and faxes would not fix the situation value categories are both diverse yet the touchstone against which all (as is often thought), Johnson and his culturally specific. For example, things are measured. So they are con- team decided to change patterns of sharing and shaping information, i.e., vinced that if the participants in a re- interaction with the ranchers and enlightenment, means something en- covery program all shared the same other participants. They focused on tirely different for a scholar in En- knowledge, they would all come to "specific actions that fundamentally gland than it does for an orphaned the same understanding of the prob- changed our behavior toward each child living in poverty in India. We lem, its solution, and the means of other before we even sat at the meet- may not think that the child epito- achieving the solution. For agency ing table or called each other on the mizes "enlightenment," but he is managers this knowledge often phone" (p. 36). They acknowledged savvy in his own way and knows means the population dynamics, habi- that they did not have the knowledge about those things that are worth tat relations, and management steps or skills to bring about such changes, knowing in his life. In both cases, necessary to meet legal mandates. so they consulted someone outside enlightenment is essential to their

96 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Table 1. List of values or "bases of power" for participants to use to influence endangered species conservation outcomes. Participants in endangered species should ask the questions listed below. The end of a species conservation process leaves some participants better or worse off in terms of these values (ask: Who gains and who loses from a given conservation program in terms of the eight values?)(see Lasswell 1971; Clark 2002). These values are not ranked or ordered by importance. Seeing and understanding that endangered species conservation is at heart a task of bringing people's value dynamics into harmony with one another and with the Endangered Species Act is tantamount to overcoming a major part of the conservation challenge.

Power means to give and receive support in making decisions in specific contexts. For example, power is needed to access goods and services (e.g., enlightenment, well-being, wealth).

Ask: How is power given and received in interpersonal and decision process and what are the outcomes?

Enlightenment means to give and receive information. Enlightenment is the finding and spreading of knowledge. For example, researchers, teachers, and professors are specialists in enlightenment.

Ask: How is information given and received? What are the outcomes?

Wealth means to give or receive opportunity to control resources, such as money, natural resources, and other people. For example, financiers, business leaders, and economists manage wealth.

Ask: How is wealth affected (given and received) by the process? What are the outcomes?

Well-being means to give or receive opportunity for personal safety, health, and comfort. Well-being is a value that expresses a sense of bodily and mental integrity and vitality. For example, doctors, nurses, and social workers provide well-being to people.

Ask: How is well-being, both physical and mental, affected by the decision process?

Skill means to give or receive opportunity to develop inherent talent into operations of all kinds, including professional, vocational, and artistic skills. Skill is the acquisition and use of mental and physical abilities. For example, scientific and analytic associations, labor unions, and artistic cooperatives promote skills.

Ask: What kind of skills are used (or not) in problem orientation and in decision process, how, and with what outcomes?

Affection means to give and receive friendship, loyalty, love, and intimacy in interpersonal situations. Affection includes friendship and community relations. Rectitude is the value of morality. For example, professional, friendship, family, and community circles are representative.

Ask: How are professional, friendship, and loyalty values used in decision process and with what outcomes?

Respect means to give and receive recognition in a profession or community. Respect refers to what is often called "place in society"—it is a pattern of deference. Less experienced people defer to more experienced people in most professional situations, for example. For example, the Nobel Prize committee and many other types of awards are available to recognize accomplished people, friends, and colleagues.

Ask: How is respect or deference used (or not) in decision process and what are the outcomes?

Rectitude means to give and receive appraisal about responsible or ethical conduct. For example, ethical and religious systems exist in all communities and may be taught in homes, classrooms, and churches.

Ask: What are the ethics at play in interpersonal relations and embodied in decision process outcomes? welfare. In our culture, shaking hands, all the other value categories: each ex- where people interact (Table 1). For nodding recognition, and tipping one's ists in every kind and level of interac- example, we can accept that people hat are all ways to express respect or tion, though its content and form vary in every society (and in every recov- deference. Although the same gestures from one context to another. ery program) want power, which is are not universal, other societies have Thus, the eight values are func- necessary to participate in decision their own ways to convey respect in tional categories that can be used to making (Lasswell 1948). This does specific contexts. The same is true for describe and understand any situation not mean that every person wants

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 97 power with equal intensity, or that the iled because of the unintended con- "systematic inquiry" is an example of quest for power is innate or acquired, sequences of people's value-based how highly they rank enlightenment.) but, clearly, people's striving for activities and complex value dynam- This task requires skill in interdisci- power and use of power are elements ics. As we seek to satisfy our indi- plinary, "procedural rationality" for that should be assessed in any social vidual needs — to establish families, analyzing problems and evaluating process. The value demands vary from build communities, participate in potential solutions (Clark et al. 2001). person to person, group to group, and governance, work for money and ac- from time to time in the history of any cess to material goods, express our The crow story in terms of values one person, group, or culture. beliefs, exercise our skills and knowl- It will be instructive to reexamine the Values are central to endangered edge, and so on — we create institu- experience of Johnson and his team species conservation as they are in tions and carry out operations that in terms of a systematic understand- every other kind of human activity, affect the environment and other plant ing of values. After two years, they whether the people involved under- and animal species. In some situa- realized that the key to success was stand this fact or not. When profes- tions these effects (some of which are not dispensing more scientific and sionals from the USFWS meet and deliberate whereas others are un- management information, but devel- talk with ranchers or environmental- planned or involuntary) are minimal, oping "trust" among the people in- ists, for instance, they are participat- but in others they are more damag- volved. This was an acknowledging in a process of shaping and sharing. It is people (in ever increasing ment that, even though he and his ing values. As staff members of a lead numbers) seeking values that cause colleagues had put the highest value agency in carrying out federal ESA species endangerment. Species con- on enlightenment, it was not what was policy, they expect to wield a certain servation, then, is a job for those who needed in that situation and it did not amount of power, and they expect to fully understand not only the biologi- solve the problem. Johnson failed to be paid adequately for the work they cal dimension, but also the value di- appreciate that while he was focus- do (wealth). Through their work they mension. Although value-based prac- ing his efforts on educating others, he exhibit their knowledge (enlighten- tices are largely responsible for spe- was simultaneously and perhaps un- ment) and skill, and they hope thus cies losses, they are also the means consciously shaping and sharing to earn the respect of the people they to turn this pressing problem around. other values in his exchanges with do business with and maintain As Dery (1984) notes, however, ranchers, environmentalists, and oth- friendly relations with their cowork- people's behavior cannot be changed ers in ways that were counterproduc- ers (affection). They believe that the merely by bringing "new informa- tive to his own goals. His way of con- work they are doing is right and jus- tion" to their attention. This runs fronting the problem (combined, of tified (rectitude). They trust that their counter to the tendency among endan- course, with the ways in which other well-being will not be threatened in gered species professionals to assume people confronted the problem) pro- any way as they carry out their du- a technical, biological standpoint in duced a poorly performing program. ties. Similarly, the values sought by which collecting scientific informa- In fact, it is likely that the educa- the ranchers with whom the USFWS tion about the species and its habitat tion strategy inhibited participants deals could be described to explain is the most important (and sometimes from sharing power, respect, and rec- their behavior in their specific cir- the only) job they need to perform. titude. The relationships among par- cumstances, or those of the environ- A policy-oriented professional, on the ticipants were based on power with- mentalists or any other group with an other hand, fully appreciates the value out communication or cooperation. interest or stake in the issue. Some dimension of conservation and works The landowners exerted power over recovery programs show a deeply for better value outcomes, that is, the government agency staff, to the rooted pattern of those in a superior "win-win" solutions accomplished detriment of the latter's desires (to value position — for example, those through a process that offers dignity meet their needs for rectitude) for with more power, more money, or to everyone involved (Clark and crow conservation. What the land- more knowledge — treating other Wallace 1999). The policy-oriented owners sought was respect, recogni- participants in politicized and disre- approach permits professionals not tion of their own rectitude standards, spectful ways that do not offer them only to understand the conservation and formally shared power. The dignity. Needless to say, those who task primarily in terms of value in- USFWS thrusting information on are the objects of this kind of behav- teractions, but also to carry out sys- them did not satisfy their value de- ior stop cooperating. tematic inquiry into those dynamics. mands, and so the program was un- Typically, species become imper- (The value that scientists place on able to advance. When a program is

98 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 thus "politicized," it is transformed into a power relationship, often at the expense of other values that must be recognized and satisfied in order for the program to succeed. Thus, a well meaning USFWS crow conservation effort was likely undercut inadvert- ently by the very people who wanted its success. Johnson deserves recognition for his willingness and ability to "re- think" the problem and change direction. Too many recovery programs never get to this point and persist in tinkering with technical/biological details, giving lip service to "human dimensions," or giving in to powerful anti-ESA forces. Few are able to conduct the genuine self-analysis that would lead them to reconceptualize the problems and the solutions. It became clear to the crow recovery team that other values were at play. Johnson referred to several value categories in his article, although he did not use the terms we've introduced here. "We were wrong," Hawaiian crow by David Ledig, USFWS. he finally concluded, a statement about rectitude. He wrote about the species recovery effort can lead to cannot be built easily among new need for more useful skills to save the mistrust, misguided professionalism, people at each meeting; it takes time crow. His team was denied access, a and a weak or failed program. The to establish dependable patterns of sign of landowners' power over crow crow case is not unique, however. mutually respectful, honest interac- biologists. He invoked the word trust Many other case studies of endan- tions. Johnson (p. 37) notes that "the as the key to his new solution; trust gered species conservation show little key lesson is that partnerships and develops in the giving of respect and appreciation of the value dynamics mutual trust cannot be taken for in the sharing of all the other values. involved (e.g., Clark et al. 1994; granted; nor can they be expected to He remarked on the ranching family Reading and Miller 2000; Wallace continue as members come and go." and loyalty — the value of affection 2000; Wallace in press) Hopefully, recent events in this case as shown in family, friendship, and As of 2000, interactions in the have brought about improved coop- community. His discussion of how crow case had not always been eration and prospects for eventual all the participants used financial re- smooth nor had the 'alala fared well, crow recovery. sources and sought to make a living according to Johnson. The wild was a reference to the wealth cat- population now consists of only a few Conclusion egory. Although the value dynamics individuals. Captive breeding and Although endangered species conser- in the crow case were real and very reintroduction plans are in place. As vation is clearly about restoring im- much affected how the program un- new members joined the new inter- periled species and their habitats, it folded, they were not visible to most active group, they have not fully un- is also overwhelmingly about the participants. So the people involved derstood the need to give and receive value "transactions" among people were unable to understand and man- values in a productive way. Some who have an interest or a stake in the age the problems they faced in a way people tried to re-politicize interac- issue. Recognizing this fact is a ma- that promoted conservation. Ignor- tions, and changes in agency person- jor step toward meeting the conser- ing the full range of values in any nel have both helped and hurt. Trust vation challenge. Lasswell's concept

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 99 of meeting human dignity through the conservation remains a challenge that Dery, D. 1984. Problem definition in policy adequate shaping and sharing of eight requires knowledge and skills far be- analysis. University of Kansas Press, Lawrence, Kansas. categories of values is a relatively yond technical considerations. For- Flores, A. and T.W. Clark. 2001. Finding com- simple, but highly useful, scheme for tunately, we have concepts, tools, and mon ground in biological conservation: organizing and analyzing what would much experience to draw upon to Beyond the anthropocentric vs. biocentric otherwise be a morass of individual improve our own awareness of what controversy. Pp. 241-252 in T.W. Clark, M. and group perspectives in endangered is at stake value-wise and what we Stevenson, K. Ziegelmayer, and M. Ruth- erford, eds., Species and ecosystem con- species recovery. It provides a frame- can do to aid the value shaping and servation: An interdisciplinary approach. work for professionals to use to seek sharing process that is endangered Yale School of Forestry and Environmen- information about each participant's species conservation. tal Studies, Bulletin Series 105. demands, expectations, and strate- Johnson, S. 2000. Building a species recovery program on trust. Conservation Biol- gies. "What do people want from this Acknowledgements ogy in Practice 1(1):35-37. situation?" "What power, money, re- We want to thank the Northern Lasswell, H.D. 1948. Power and personality. spect, skills, or information, for in- Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Yale Viking, New York. stance, do people have and how might University, and Eckerd College for their Lasswell, H.D. 1971. Pre-view of the policy they use these assets to get what they support of our work. Denise Casey criti- sciences. American Elsevier, New York. Lasswell, H.D. and M.S. McDougal. 1992. want?" Careful analysis should in- cally reviewed the manuscript. Jurisprudence for a free society: Studies in clude comparing participants' actions law, science and politics. 2 vols. New Ha- against their words. If some people Literature cited ven Press, New Haven, CT. complain about their financial losses, Ball-Rokeach, S.J., and W.E. Loges. 1992. McDougal, M.S., H.D. Lasswell, and L. Chen. 1980. Human rights and world public or- yet continue to complain after they Value theory and research. Pp. 222-228 in E. F. Borgatta, and M. L. Borgatta, eds., der: Basic policies of an international law are offered compensation, then per- Encyclopedia of Sociology Vol. 4, of human dignity. Yale University Press, haps what they really seek is respect, Macmillan, NY. New Haven, Connecticut. or sharing in decision making, or per- Bell, W. 1997. Foundations of future studies: Miller, B.J., R.P. Reading, and S.C. Forrest. haps recognition of the "rightness" of Values, objectivity, and the good society. 1996. Prairie night: Black-footed ferrets and the recovery of endangered species. their point of view or a chance to ex- Vol. 2. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, ercise their skill. Understanding how Clark, T.W. 2002. The policy process: A prac- D.C. all eight values — respect, skill, tical guide for natural resource profession- Reading, R.P. and B.J. Miller, eds. 2000. En- wealth, affection, power, rectitude, als. Yale University Press, New Haven, dangered animals. Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut. well-being, enlightenment — are Connecticut. Clark, T.W., R.P. Reading, and A.L. Clarke, Taylor, J.G. and A.J. Douglas. 1999. Diversi- shaped and shared in an endangered eds. 1994. Endangered species recovery: fying natural resources value measure- species program is essential to find Finding the lessons, improving the process. ments: The Trinity River Study. Society and ways to bring people together in a Island Press, Washington, D.C. Natural Resources 12:315-336. cooperative endeavor in which trust Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1999. The pro- Wallace, R.L. 2000. Marine mammal recovery: The human dimensions. Ph.D. disser- and dignity are available to all. Bring- fessional in endangered species conservation: An introduction to standpoint clarifi- tation. Yale University School of Forestry ing USFWS personnel, ranchers, and cation. Endangered Species UPDATE and Environmental Studies, New Haven, other people with diverse value out- 16(1):9-13. Connecticut. looks, interests, and demands, to- Clark, T.W., M. Stevenson, K. Ziegelmayer, Wallace, R.L. In press. Social influences on conservation: Lessons from U.S. recovery gether in a cooperative program is and M. Rutherford, eds. 2001. Species and ecosystem conservation: An interdiscipli- programs for marine mammals. Conserva- challenging. Leading and managing nary approach. Yale School of Forestry and tion Biology. the value-rich process of species Environmental Studies, Bulletin Series 105.

100 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 The Professional in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to Standpoint Clarification

Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Richard L. Wallace Environmental Studies Program, Ursinus College, P.O. Box 1000, Collegeville, PA 19426 [email protected]

Abstract The work and role of professionals who carry out endangered species conservation is changing, as society itself changes. Knowing about the range of standpoints a professional can assume in conservation is one way to enhance effectiveness. Professionals may assume a variety of standpoints depending on how he or she sees the recovery process and their own role in it. Recovery may be viewed as a biological-technical task or a multifaceted task with both biological-technical and social dimensions. An endangered species case illustrates how one professional changed her standpoint from a "conventional" one to "policy-oriented" professionalism." These two forms of professionalism are compared.

Introduction mance. Being explicitly aware of the ences in standpoint amongst partici- Most endangered species conserva- standpoint a professional assumes in pants about what happened in the pro- tion work is carried out by profes- endangered species work or in other gram, why it happened, its signifi- sional biologists and managers. Pro- conservation efforts is one way to im- cance, and what should happen in the fessionals labor to meet goals as laid prove performance, and it can signifi- future. Knowing about one's own out in the Endangered Species Act cantly aid in getting the species recov- behavior and role in endangered spe- and in other public policies. For our ered. In this paper we (1) examine the cies recovery requires knowing about purposes, a professional is a person notion of standpoint clarification for a the biological challenge (e.g., the spe- with specialized education who par- professional, (2) look at two ways to cies requirements), the organizational ticipates in a community with stan- conceptualize the recovery process and environment (e.g., what the boss dards of practice and shows a com- examine models of professionalism, (3) wants and will permit), and it also mitment to public service (Clark give an example of these issues, and requires knowing about oneself. All 1997a). Both the work of a profes- (4) offer recommendations for improv- too often, professionals assume, per- sional and his or her role in society ing professional standpoint clarification haps unconsciously, that they know have changed dramatically in recent and performance. what they are doing and why, and that years and both are expected to change other people will see and appreciate even more in the foreseeable future. Standpoint clarification and the their good works. Clarifying one's Today's work settings are as diverse professional standpoint relative to both the endan- as the species and habitat conserva- Regardless of the professional work gered species recovery challenge and tion challenges a professional faces. to be done in endangered species con- other participants is important to The days when professional biolo- servation or any other conservation achieving conservation goals, just as gists could go to the field and work effort, managing oneself construc- knowing the population status of a in solitude at their own pace are long tively is important. Two dramatically threatened species is an important vari- gone. Among recent changes are different professional standpoints are able. Being clear about one's stand- partnerships of various kinds which well illustrated in companion articles point can aid successful teamwork and both aid the work of professionals and on the controversy over elk manage- successful conservation. Being unclear make it more difficult. As a result, ment in Yellowstone National Park can lead to conflict and disaster. professionals should always be on the (see Bugle 1998). Many endangered Professionals must clarify their lookout to improve their perfor- species cases show similar differ- standpoints so they can most effec-

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1999, 16(1):9-13.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 101 tively participate in recovery efforts. are many different ways to under- a problem oriented, contextual out- Professionals can be either partici- stand the endangered species recov- look, and diverse methods, including pants or observers of the recovery ery process. Depending on how the traditional biological scientific ap- process, depending on their level of process is appreciated determines proaches as well as diverse social sci- involvement and how they perceive what a professional might do as well ence methods and qualitative and in- themselves in the process. Profes- as how other people involved may tegrative methods. This view is sionals can be more or less aware of respond. Clark (1996) describes two partly described by Schön and called both themselves and others, depend- views that professionals may take of "reflective practice" and more fully ing on how self-reflective and obser- the recovery process. described by Lasswell (1971), Clark vant they are (Schön 1983). To be as The first view sees the recovery et al. (1992), and Clark (1992) and effective as possible in endangered process largely as a technical task re- labeled "policy-oriented" profession- species recovery, professionals must quiring that a professional be given a alism. This conceptualization re- be clear in their standpoint — how relatively free hand to formulate the quires a broader, genuinely interdis- they fit into the process — and seek challenge and address it. The profes- ciplinary approach and professional to avoid biases to the degree possible. sional is guided by the scientific skills that the technical rationalist does This is possible only by being self method and adheres to the view of tech- not know about or use. In this view, aware and using that knowledge of nical rationality (Schön 1983). The the major constraint is perceived to be self in professional judgment and in- major constraint is perceived as the lack lack of effective social processes that terpersonal relations. Most individu- of scientific information about the spe- would integrate values and knowledge als have at one time or another ana- cies and its habitat, lack of funding, and for successful conservation. Examples lyzed their actions and role in inter- political obstacles (e.g., public opinion, of this view are less evident in the lit- personal relationships, whether with politicians, developers), all outside the erature (e.g., Kellert 1985; Clark 1989; a spouse, partner, parent, sibling, or program. Examples of this standpoint Miller et al. 1996). From this view, the friend. We do this in order to know abound and it is perhaps the dominant way to achieve recovery is to address, where we stand with someone con- view in endangered species recovery simultaneously and explicitly, socio- cerning expectations, demands, trust, (e.g., Butler and Merton 1992; economic, organizational, and political and many other aspects of relation- McFarlane 1992). In accordance with as well as biological dimensions of re- ships. This self-analysis is at the heart this view, species recovery is achieved covery. This is both a methodological of clarifying one's standpoint, and the by carrying out appropriate studies, fill- challenge and a challenge to the ability process is no different in a profes- ing in the missing biological knowl- of professionals to integrate often dis- sional setting than in a personal rela- edge, ascertaining its management im- parate fields of knowledge. This ap- tionship. All people have biases as a plications, implementing the chosen proach explicitly requires that profes- result of experience, personality, in- management actions, and otherwise sionals develop awareness of their roles terest, education, among other things. maximizing money flows into the pro- in the social process of endangered spe- Learning about one's own standpoint gram and minimizing external politi- cies recovery. This "practice-based" and the perspectives of others is not cal interference. Professionals who approach encourages people to observe easy, but it is essential to effective subscribe to this view tend to see them- what actually works, both technically professional practice. Over time as selves as scientists carrying out "good and socially, and apply experience and professionals gain experience they science." They believe they are agents lessons successfully. improve understanding of self and of objective, value-neutral science, and We believe the second view is the others. For professionals to reach are often relatively unaware or inatten- more practical of the two. Profession- their potential for effectiveness in ei- tive of the social matrix within which als, other participants, and observers ther technical work or in leadership, they work. Despite their skills in sci- may use one or the other without being they must be able to look at and un- entific methods, these professionals are fully aware of the assumptions and ap- derstand themselves and others in- little skilled in social processes, deci- proaches that they bring to the recov- volved in or interested in the species sion process analysis, or team partici- ery process. In turn, these lead to dif- and its conservation. pation. This view is called a "science- ferences in expectations, demands, and based" approach to species recovery. actions, which may lead to miscommu- Two views of the recovery process The second view sees recovery nication, conflict, and possibly failure One aspect of professional standpoint as a multifaceted task with both bio- if these viewpoints are not clarified and is viewing or conceptualizing just logical-technical and social dimen- differences addressed. These two what the recovery process is. There sions. The professional is guided by views of endangered species conserva-

102 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 tion are based on two very different sowary (Casuarius casuarius). This in a modest way. And as a result of models of professionalism, as con- large forest-dwelling flightless bird her experiences, she indicated that she trasted in Table 1. These show dramati- inhabits wet tropical regions of north- left "normal" biology behind and cally different assumptions, ap- ern Queensland, Australia. came to have a broad interest in ecol- proaches, and consequences. Bentrupperbaumer explains why she ogy, environmental psychology, and changed her standpoint in her Ph.D. environmental management. A case: an endangered species thesis in a section called "situating the Over several years she collected biologist "situates" herself author." She revealed her current data on the bird and its habitat. Even This case is about a professional who standpoint to herself, co-workers, and though her work began as a biologi- started off with the first view of spe- readers in this section and her story cal study it soon progressed into a cies conservation and rapidly shifted is an interesting one, but not atypical conservation and management one to the second conceptualization as a of endangered species professionals. when the bird's forest habitat began result of her direct experiences (see At the heart of her standpoint was that to be logged. She came to realize that Bentrupperbaumer 1998). This pro- she hoped to contribute to prevent- conserving this magnificent bird fessional studied the endangered cas- ing the extinction of a species even would require overcoming the "inef- fectual" way in which the recovery effort at the time was unfolding. Sev- Table 1. Two Models or Standpoints of Professional Problem Solving in Endangered Species (from Pimbert and Pretty 1995; Clark 1997a). eral incidents propelled her into a fuller appreciation of the second view Conventional Professionalism Policy Oriented Professionalism described above. She soon found that "Despite the harsh and demanding Technological rationality Reflective practice physical and climatic conditions of Scientific method is singular, Scientific method is holistic the field, the actual biological com- reductionistic, and positivistic and post-positivistic (human ponent of the field work presented the (cause and effect, prediction) freedom, empirical, systematic) least difficulties. Cassowary 'politics' inevitably came to the fore, on many Strong natural science biases Mix of natural and social sciences occasions threatening to terminate the Professional categories and Local categories or contextuality project" (p. 25). Denials of access by perceptions are central is central to problem solving private landowners half way through her study and attempts by local com- Professionals know what they Professionals do not know where munity conservation organization to want and follow a pre-specified projects will lead so work is plan or project design an open learning process terminate the 'human population study' component of the research are Information and results are Understanding and focus emerge two examples. extracted from controlled situations from interaction with context Among the many incidents were Problem solving is blueprint-like Problem solving is process-like these two. The first incident that resulted in a significant change in her Use problem-blind, acontextual Use problem-oriented, contextual standpoint was a response by the outlook, and disciplinary methods outlook, and integrative methods major landowner who became concerned about the possible implica- Assumption of single, tangible Assumption of multiple realities reality that are partially socially constructed tions her results would have on his property's future. The State Govern- Professionals control problem Professionals enable and empower ment was at the time preparing na- solving and clients people in close dialogue about ture conservation legislation. This problem solving in context private property completely land- Often works alone with single Work in groups with an locked the northern boundary of the disciplinary focus interdisciplinary focus study site, a 319 ha World Heritage area listed as a National Park. The Careers are inward and upward Careers include outward and other boundaries include the sea and downward a mangrove river. This property had High level professionals loose Professional stay in touch with been described as critical habitat for touch with changing local realities action at all levels cassowaries previously. In addition to

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 103 denying her access to the study site, the These incidents and others moti- profile. The conservation literature landowner cleared extensive areas of vated her to move on to other knowl- now contains similar descriptions of his property preempting the potential edge areas beyond biology and sur- policy-oriented professionals and restrictive status of a formal critical vey social science literature for guid- benefits (e.g., see "Conserving cassowary habitat classification. ance. As she noted, this "presented biodiversity in the real world: Profes- The second incident that resulted many challenges for an ordinary bi- sional practice using a policy orien- in a significant change in her stand- ologist like myself" (p. 25). The so- tation," (Clark et al. 1992) and "Prac- point was the response of the local cial sciences gave her important con- ticing natural resource management conservation organization to her cepts and methods to understand the with a policy orientation" (Clark when she "disengaged" herself from hard conservation experience she had 1992)). More recently, a policy-ori- them. She worked with this group at gained and how to tackle future work ented approach to conservation biol- the request of the then State Minister practically. She reported that there ogy was described by Clark (1977a). of the Environment. She left the con- were "continuous tensions between Bentrupperbaumer's professional servation organization to begin her my proceeding being fully aware of transformation is one example of the Ph.D. work. Because of this and the the limitations and dangers of simpli- kind of change needed broadly in preceding incident she decided to fication, and not proceeding thereby conservation professionalism (see expand her thesis beyond cassowary giving in to this conflict and continu- Schön 1983; Sullivan 1995). biology to include the human dimen- ing on 'as normal' with a biological sion. Issues about who dominated the perspective only" (p. 24). She ex- Conventional professionalism cassowary conservation issue arose, panded her research and gathered so- and the policy-oriented and there was a perceived loss of con- cial science data on the human com- professional trol by "locals" over a study being un- munity in the region and interrelated Bentrupperbaumer shifted her view dertaken under the auspices of a dis- it with the biological data set. She of endangered species recovery from tant university and a federal govern- said she sought to "heed the current a conventional to a more holistic one ment management agency that was call for multidisciplinary research ... (Table 1). As a result she changed perceived as a threat to the expertise and have taken courage from the from understanding her role and her- and credibility of the conservation or- knowledge that more biologists, self in a "conventional" sense towards ganization. Other human issues were ecologists, psychologists, and other a more comprehensive, policy ori- involved, such as conservation vs. environmental scientists seem willing ented understanding. Clarifying development, polarization of the lo- to cross disciplinary boundaries and standpoint means finding out which cal community with respect to rapid levels of organization in a endeavor kind of professional you are, which change underway and development to contribute to solving the extinction kind you want to be and why. The speculation, etc. One of the most crises" (p. 25). Though all of this, conceptual tools a professional pos- important was that the local conser- she sought a "coherent, holistic pic- sesses include a way of seeing one- vation organization's efforts to "un- ture relevant to endangered species self, other people, the conservation dermine the credibility of myself and recovery" (p. 25). But it was not with- challenge, and communication styles the value and relevance of the re- out difficulties. Her work evolved (see Clark and Reading 1994). search project were both instructive into a professional approach that in- To clarify standpoint, we recom- and sobering, as well as personally tegrated a number of disciplines all mend that professionals start by ask- very difficult to accept" (p. 26). This focused on understanding and aiding ing themselves questions about their history, especially with the community endangered species conservation. own professional roles, tasks, shap- conservation group, highlighted the Not only did she add to cassowary ing factors, and orientation that they complex and dynamic role of the pro- conservation, ultimately this effort take or assume (Table 2). Table 2 fessional in endangered species conser- significantly clarified her standpoint offers questions that professionals vation and the need to clarify just what to herself. should ask themselves continuously standpoint a professional like herself This professional career is devel- over a career about these variables. should take in such a situation. She oping towards a fully-mature, policy- Asking and answering these ques- concluded by noting that the "emotion- oriented standpoint. The evolution of tions leads to "reflective" practice and ally charged and politically volatile a traditional professional career into can lead to policy-oriented profes- community environment underscores a policy oriented one was first de- sionalism, when combined with the difficulties of 'field work' with hu- scribed by Lasswell (1971), and skilled use of a genuine interdiscipli- man communities" (p. 25). Bentrupperbaumer's account fits the nary problem solving method (see

104 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Clark 1997b). Restructuring profes- Table 2. Questions Professionals Should Ask Themselves to Clarify Their Stand- sionalism toward policy-oriented points (after Willard 1998, personal communication). practice requires a substantial com- (1) What roles are you and other people engaged in while working in the mitment to learning by professionals, recovery effort-scientist, technician, manager, student, teacher, advocate, universities, and other organizations advisor, reporter, decision maker, scholar, facilitator, concerned citizen, or (Clark 1997a). Training and updat- others? ing training can take place in univer- (2) What problem solving tasks do you carry out when performing your roles- sities and professional schools, clarifying goals, determining historical trends, analyzing conditions, projecting agency workshops, and at the indi- trends, and inventing and evaluating alternatives? vidual level. If organized policy-oriented education is not available, then (3) What factors shape how you carry out your tasks and roles-culture, class, interest, personality, and previous experience? the individual is left to one's own de- vices to improve problem solving. (4) What conditioning factors shape your personal and professional "approach" in general and in reference to any particular conservation case? Which ap- Conclusions proaches or roles are you predisposed toward or against, and how are you Clarifying one's standpoint is a nec- predisposed to conduct your professional work from each? essary first step toward gaining a bet- (5) How does your approach shape how you carry out the intellectual tasks ter understanding of the human so- associated with your roles? For example, what is the impact of your "reflective cial process associated with endan- approach" on the goals you clarify and how you specify them? the trends you gered species conservation (Clark and identify and describe? the conditions you analyze and how you analyze them? the projections you make and how you make them? the alternatives you invent, Wallace 1998). Understanding one's evaluate, and select? own values and interests in the context of a larger social and organizational whole, in this case endangered management with a policy orientation. recovery: Finding the lessons, improving species recovery programs, only Environmental Management 16:423-433. the process. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Clark, T.W. 1996. Appraising threatened spe- Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1998. Under- helps a professional to raise aware- cies recovery efforts: Practical recommen- standing the human factor in endangered ness and eventually master many of dations. Pp. 1-22 in Back from the brink: species recovery: An introduction to human the problems inherent in complex Refining the threatened species recovery social process. Endangered Species UP- programs that transcend social and process. Australian Nature Conservation DATE 15(1):2-9. Agency in Transactions of the Royal Zoo- Kellert, S.R., 1985. Social and perceptual technical-biological realms. logical Society of New South Wales, Aus- factors in endangered species management. tralia. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:528- Literature cited Clark, T.W. 1997a. Civic professionalism: 36. Alvarez, K. 1993. Twilight of the panther: Meeting society's needs. Pp. 208-223 in Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view to the policy Biology, bureaucracy and failure in an en- Averting extinction: Reconstructing endan- sciences. American Elsevier, New York. dangered species program. Myakka River gered species recovery. Yale University Pimbert, M.P. and J.N. Pretty. 1995. Parks, Publishing: Sarasota, Florida. Press, New Haven, Connecticut. people, and professionals: Putting "partici- Bentrupperbaumer, J.M. 1998. Reciprocal Clark, T.W. 1997b. Conservation biologists pation" into protected area management. ecosystem impact and behavioural interac- in the policy process: Learning how to be United Nations Research Institute for So- tions between cassowaries, Casuarius practical and effective. Pp. 575-598 in G.K. cial Development. Discussion Paper DP casuarius, and humans, Homo sapiens: Meffe and C.R. Carroll, eds. Principles of 57:1-60. Exploring the natural-human interface and conservation biology, 2nd edition, Sinauer McFarlane, R.W. 1992. A stillness in the its implications for endangered species re- Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachu- pines: The ecology of the Red-cockaded covery in North Queensland, Australia. setts. Woodpecker. W.W. Norton and Co., New Ph.D. Thesis. James Cook University, Clark, T.W., P. Schuyler, T. Donnay, P. Curlee, York. Queensland, Australia. T. Sullivan, M. Cymerys, L. Sheeline, R. Miller, B.J., R.P. Reading, and S.C. Forrest. Bugle. 1998. Too many elk in Yellowstone? Reading, R. Wallace, T. Kennedy, Jr., A. 1996. Prairie night: Black-footed ferrets Bugle, Winter 1998:76-89. Marcer-Batlle, and Y. DeFretes. 1992. Con- and the recovery of endangered species. Butler, D. and D. Merton. 1992. The black serving biodiversity in the real world: Pro- Smithsonian Press, Washington, D.C. robin: Saving the world's most endangered fessional practice using a policy orienta- Schön, D.A. 1983. The reflective practitio- bird. Oxford University Press, Auckland, tion. Endangered Species UPDATE ner: How professionals think in action. New Zealand. 9(5&6):5-8. Basic Books, New York. Clark, T.W. 1989. Conservation biology of the Clark, T.W. and R.P. Reading. 1994. A pro- Sullivan, W.M. 1995. Work and integrity: The black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes. Wild- fessional perspective: Improving problem crises and promise of professionalism in life Preservation Trust Special Scientific solving, communication, and effectiveness. America. Harper Business, New York. Report No. 3. Pp. 351-370 in T.W. Clark, R.P. Reading, Clark, T.W. 1992. Practicing natural resource and A.L. Clarke, eds. Endangered species

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 105 Research in Endangered Species Conservation: An Introduction to Multiple Methods

Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Richard P. Reading Denver Zoological Foundation, 2900 East 23rd Avenue, Denver, CO 80205 [email protected] Richard L. Wallace Environmental Studies Program, Ursinus College, P.O. Box 1000, Collegeville, PA 19426 [email protected]

Abstract Diverse methods may be required to understand and solve conservation problems in species recovery. These problems are usually multi-faceted. Endangered species recovery is a biological challenge, but it also requires that professionals and the public support an organized recovery effort in a timely, rational, and effective way. Biological, social, and interdisciplinary methods all lend themselves to aid the multi-dimensional task of species recovery, although social science and interdisciplinary methods are little used currently. These three kinds of methodological approaches are briefly examined. We end the paper with a call for increased interdisciplinary approaches, as we believe they promise greater effectiveness in species conservation.

Introduction vation. The established, but separate, dangered species recovery, (2) look Endangered species conservation is disciplines (e.g., wildlife biology, so- briefly at available biological and so- usually a complex, multi-dimensional ciology, policy analysis) train profes- cial science methods, and (3) introduce challenge. As such, endangered spe- sionals to be knowledgeable in dif- an interdisciplinary approach we be- cies recovery programs require the ferent methods. Despite the obvious lieve best uses and integrates knowl- use of diverse methods to determine need for professionals skilled in inte- edge obtained from the diverse biologi- which processes threaten a species grative approaches, there are few jobs cal and social methods currently em- and what to do to achieve recovery. in endangered species recovery that ployed to restore endangered species. Interdisciplinary approaches that in- explicitly utilize interdisciplinary corporate multiple methods in biol- problem solvers. Fortunately, the Multiple methods: a strategy in ogy and the social sciences promise situation is changing. Conservation species recovery to improve species restoration efforts. and related professions, university Using multiple methods in endan- Biological methods focus on the spe- training programs, and the organiza- gered species recovery is like trian- cies and its ecosystem. Social sci- tional contexts of practice are in flux gulation wherein a radio collared ence methods examine the decision today and prospects for using fully Florida panther's (Felis concolor) lo- and social processes, including how integrative methodologies in the fu- cation is located, or 'fixed,' using three the values and perspectives of partici- ture is improving. We expect that receiver readings from different pants and the situation affect recov- interdisciplinary approaches using angles. As conservationists, we can ery efforts. Interdisciplinary meth- multiple methods and inclusive par- best get a 'fix' on a conservation prob- ods systematically integrate biologi- ticipation will significantly improve lem by using different methods, ide- cal and social research into a unified success rates over more narrow ap- ally a combination of biological and recovery program. proaches that rely on a limited set of social science methods. In our case, Many universities offer programs methods, a single discipline, or domi- triangulation means using and inte- in biological and social methods, and nation by single (or just a few), self- grating data from diverse sources a few even offer interdisciplinary pro- interested people or organizations. about a problem and its context. It grams that address the full challenge In this paper, we (1) offer a brief means using different investigators, posed by endangered species conser- overview of multiple methods in en- ideally working in close collabora- Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1999, 16(5):96-102.

106 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 tion. Different theories should guide fore, methods should be developed to Species UPDATE (also see Clark work and interpret data. Multiple minimize harassment and, worse, 1989, 1997; Miller et al. 1996). In methods should be used to investigate mortality. Second, controlled experi- brief, biological methods have domi- a problem from different perspectives ments such as manipulating individu- nated ferret recovery efforts. There in order to develop the fullest possible als, populations, or habitats, may be has been very limited utilization of so- picture of the conservation problem impossible for these same reasons. cial science, and especially interdisci- and alternatives to address it. Just as Third, the human context or social plinary, methods, although there have using multiple methods to address a process that is often the root cause of been calls for greater use of both. This specific research interest increases the endangerment may be unrelated to pattern of neglecting available meth- reliability of results (e.g., independent biological or other technical consid- ods directly reflects the biological, dis- measures of population size from an erations and may require immediate ciplinary training of most profession- aerial survey, a ground survey, and attention. This means researching als in species recovery efforts. capture-resighting data), so too do human values, perspectives, and prac- multiple methods increase the reli- tices and working to understand and Biological and social science ability of problem definitions. Using perhaps alter those which adversely methods multiple methods to analyze a problem affect the species or habitat in ques- Relying on only a few methods from can improve the reliability, richness, tion. Finally, there are few chances a biological discipline can result in a and diversity of data available to rein species conservation. Usually, re- distorted picture of the conservation searchers, decision makers, and man- searchers get only a few chances (at challenge, similar to the story of the agers (Clark 1993; Janesick 1994). most) to get it right. three blind men trying to describe an Increasingly, researchers are be- Often the contexts of species en- elephant. Each blind man touched ing called upon to address complex- dangerment and recovery efforts con- only one part of the animal — the ity (and risk) — a key theme of en- tinually change in a highly compli- trunk, leg, or tail — so each had a dangered species conservation. Per- cated way. Researching conservation different notion of what it looked like, haps it is not surprising therefore that problems implies studying and inter- and all were wrong. Using a single some of the most interesting techni- preting the past to clarify current cir- discipline or limited methods can pro- cal innovations in conservation were cumstances and needs of participants duce the same result: an incomplete developed to cope with complexity and to project future trends. If meth- and possibly distorted picture of the and the long-term, exploratory, and ods are not carefully considered, the endangered species conservation creative dimensions of protecting and very effort of studying a species, its challenge. This is why a skillfully recovering endangered species (e.g., habitat, and its context may adversely used mix of biological and social sci- population viability analysis). The affect conservation efforts, especially ence and interdisciplinary methods task is not to deny or try to minimize if major variables (e.g., human social can yield the best, most realistic pic- complexity in species conservation, process [see Clark and Wallace ture of the problem and possible so- but to instead emphasize the com- 1998]) are overlooked, misconstrued, lutions (see Barrett 1978). plexity, and search for ways to under- or misunderstood. Multiple methods stand and address it. To this end, be- help ensure a more complete and ac- Biological methods ing knowledgeable and skilled in us- curate understanding of a conserva- Methods used in biological study of ing and integrating multiple methods tion problem's context. endangered species and other wild- is key to successful recovery programs. Black-footed ferret (Mustela life are detailed by Beveridge (1950), Studying endangered species us- nigripes) recovery is a good example National Research Council (1986), ing multiple methods is different from that illustrates how biological, social, Brookhout (1996), Scott et al. (1996), studying more abundant wildlife for and interdisciplinary research have Baydack et al. (1999), and others. several reasons. First, the species been carried out in a conservation These methods set the standards for under study usually persists in low effort. The general characteristics of research and management, will al- numbers (and density) and occurs in the program may be typical of how ways be essential to endangered spe- limited or shrinking habitat. As re- endangered species recovery is con- cies recovery, and require upgrading searchers, we must take great care to ducted. A ferret conservation pro- as needed. ensure that our work does not put the gram has been ongoing for almost Most readers of this article are species or even individuals at risk. two decades, and this species prob- probably better versed in biological The species' status may limit the kinds ably represents the endangered spe- research than either social or interdis- of methods that can be used; there- cies case most covered in Endangered ciplinary methods. Because our so-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 107 ciety is technologically driven, it is available to save species. Still, some unified system of knowledge or grand not necessary to detail the positivis- biological researchers use a positiv- theory. It approaches research in a tic concept of the scientific method istic approach to species conservation grounded, emergent way (i.e. induc- for constructing theories, designing that relies solely on biological meth- tion), as opposed to approaching it and carrying out experiments, and ods to the exclusion of approaches that with a preset explanatory theory (i.e. determining cause and effect (see address the human dimensions of re- the scientific method). The study's Beveridge 1950; McCain and Segal covery (e.g., social, political, organiza- boundaries emerge in the course of 1977; Ratti and Garton 1996). In tional, and policy issues). A more com- the research, rather than being pre- short, biological researchers seek ac- plete approach to conservation includes established prior to the investigation. curate predictions and strive to con- social and interdisciplinary methods. This approach often uses a case study duct experimental science using format because it better captures the quantifiable methods (such as mod- Social methods multiple realities at play in complex eling). However, naturalistic studies, Methods in the social sciences used human interactions (Yin 1989). which are largely descriptive and for endangered species conservation To analyze a human social situa- qualitative, are also used in conser- or other problems are discussed by tion means to break it down. Often vation. Overall, the positivistic ap- Dominowski (1980), Barzun and questions in social methods include proach is invaluable, but it can be Graff (1985), Miller (1991), Dey who is involved, what happened, misused when researchers or manag- (1993), Rosaldo (1993), Denzin and why, when, and where (Marius 1995). ers insist that all knowledge be ob- Lincoln (1994), Strauss and Corbin Each question can be posed in sev- tained by this method. Positivism is (1994), Isaac and Michael (1995), and eral different ways. The question of coming under increasing criticism others. As the importance of social, 'who' forces us to find out who the because of its inability to address economic, and organizational factors individuals and groups involved in highly complex, unique problems to endangered species recovery be- the social process affecting endan- (e.g., Dryzek 1990). comes clearer to wildlife and ecosys- gered species are. The question of Multiple methods were used, at tem managers, standards and ap- 'what' forces us to shift through com- least in part, in the black-footed fer- proaches to modern social science re- peting opinions, views, and misunder- ret recovery effort. For example, research should grow in importance and standings to find out what really hap- searchers determined the free rang- use in endangered species recovery. pened. Even if researchers determine ing ferret population's size from di- Social methods focus on the hu- what happened, why did it happen? rectly counting animals in spotlight man element in endangered species This is a conditioning or cause and surveys, snow tracking, litter counts, conservation, range from positivistic effect question. Things happen be- and mark-recapture methods (see approaches similar to those used in cause of precipitating causes, but Clark 1986 and Miller et al. 1996). the biophysical sciences to descrip- background causes may be important These four methods were used to "tri- tive approaches similar to naturalis- too. Causation is complex and usu- angulate" and support one another, tic methods used in ecology. Posi- ally there are multiple causes for, and increasing confidence in the esti- tivistic studies were described above. outcomes that result from, human mates. The ferret recovery effort in- Descriptive studies employ qualita- behavior. Therefore, factors must be volved methods from many fields, tive methods to "investigate human considered in their context. Under- including plant taxonomy, plant ecol- behavior in its natural and unique standing the temporal and spatial con- ogy, wildlife biology, conservation contexts and settings by avoiding the text of events is essential to answer biology, ethology, population biology, artificial constraints of control and the other questions. In thinking con- genetics, physiology, community manipulation" (Isaac and Michael textually, researchers carefully try to ecology, wildlife management, physi- 1995:218). This approach examines sort through and evaluate the relative ology, captive breeding, and zoo bi- human behavior in real situations, importance of various causes. Lastly, ology. Many good biological meth- relies on observational techniques, it is important to know when and ods were used (Clark 1986, 1997; adapts itself to multiple circum- where the situation under study came Miller et al. 1996; Reading et al. 1996; stances, and recognizes both intuitive about or the event happened. Lockhart et al. 1998), as well as some and explicit knowledge (Scott 1998). Qualitative methods are used to that were suspect (see Reading and Because this kind of research studies describe, classify, and analyze social Miller 1994; Miller et al. 1996). human perception and multiple reali- phenomena and their interconnec- Biological methods constitute ties, often for applied purposes, it is tions. In carrying out data manipula- only part of the full set of methods little concerned with creating a final, tions, information may "lose its origi-

108 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 nal shape, but we gain by organizing Cragun 1991; Reading 1993; Read- understand the complex factors af- it in ways which are more useful" for ing and Kellert 1993; Reading and fecting social process and decision generating insight about human be- Miller 1994). Efforts were made on making in endangered species recov- havior (Dey 1993:42). Making infer- the part of some researchers to inte- ery. Interdisciplinary problem-solv- ences from data is an important func- grate the diverse biological and so- ing will hopefully grow in importance tion of research. The aim of infer- cial science data into a comprehen- as the requirements of actual species ence is coherence. Most people as- sive picture of the whole conserva- conservation become more fully ap- sume an ability to make correct in- tion challenge and what to do about preciated. The response calls for ferences. In our daily, lives we make it practically (Clark 1989, 1997; contextuality and problem orienta- many inferences by recollecting past Reading 1993; Miller et al. 1996). tion. Interdisciplinary problem solv- experiences and using them to inter- Overall though, there was little inter- ing does just that, tending "toward pret a present situation or event est in social science or support for it contextuality in place of fragmentation (Marius 1995). Without inference, in the ferret program, and the results and toward problem-oriented not prob- we would have to reinvent life anew of most social science analyses had lem-blind perspectives" (Lasswell each day. Social scientists, as well little influence on program direction. 1971a:8, italics in original). This in turn as biological scientists, infer some This remains the case today. requires using multiple methods. In answers to scientific questions. In The use of social science meth- very general terms, interdisciplinary doing so we strive to make sense of a ods in endangered species recovery problem solving involves four ele- behavior or situation, trying to decide is increasing, but they have yet to be ments: problem orientation, social pro- what it is and whether our interpreta- applied in ways that demonstrate their cess mapping, decision process map- tion is reliable. Researchers use in- potential. The next major leap in re- ping, and standpoint clarification. ference to fill in gaps to round out or search for endangered species recov- These elements must be integrated. complete a picture of a situation or ery should be to apply multiple social Problem orientation is a strategy event. Statistics can be a valuable science methods to the full context of to analyze problems and invent solu- quantitative method in this regard. But recovery, including by researchers, de- tions in a rational manner (Wallace statistics require interpretation. By cision-makers, and managers. and Clark 1999). To permit more themselves, statistics tell us little, but complete identification and definition what we infer from them can tell us a Interdisciplinary methods of problems, goals that people seek great deal. Inferring correctly is key. The most comprehensive approach to should be laid out relative to the prob- The black-footed ferret case em- problem solving utilizes interdiscipli- lems under study. Historic trends ployed some social science methods. nary methods. Interdisciplinary prob- must be described to see if events are Initially these focused on socioeco- lem solving draws on all methods typi- moving toward or away from goals, nomic and organizational dimensions cally used in the biological and social and the factors or conditions that have (Clark 1989), and consisted of formal sciences. It differs from multi-disci- influenced trends must be deter- and informal interviews with many plinary approaches in that diverse mined. Projections of future trends residents in ferret habitat and an eco- methods are integrated, rather than con- are possible if past trends and condi- nomic trade-off analysis (Clark ducted in isolation. The first require- tions are known adequately. Lastly, 1989). Increasingly, researchers rec- ment of interdisciplinary problem solv- potential solutions must be invented, ognized that many human factors ing is a conceptual and practical frame- evaluated, and selected (assuming were critical determinants of both work that can accommodate diverse projections are viewed as harmful). short and long-term success in the data, epistemologies, and disciplines If these five tasks are carried out com- ferret program and additional social (Clark 1998). The analytic framework prehensively, yet selectively and re- science work was undertaken. Other of Lasswell (1971a) is comprehensive alistically, a practical solution will social science methods included the and helps users find, analyze, store, re- likely be found. use of decision analyses, interviews call, and relate important information Social process mapping is an ef- with local people and key stakehold- for use in creating realistic problem fort to understand the social context ers, a formal survey of values and at- solving alternatives. A complete de- in which all problems are embedded titudes, organizational and profes- scription of interdisciplinary problem (Clark and Wallace 1998). Social sional analyses, and policy assess- solving methods is provided by process focuses on the political and ments (see Clark and Harvey 1988; Lasswell and McDougal (1992). moral components of problem solv- Clark and Westrum 1989; Clark et al. Conservationists must take mul- ing. Every problem setting, regard- 1989; Maguire 1989; Clark and tiple vantage points to best see and less of its subject matter, is comprised

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 109 of participants with interacting per- entations and biases, and stem from researchers can minimize blind spots spectives. Participants employ what- personality, disciplinary training, pa- and avoid the fragmented views, ever values, or assets, they have rochial/universal experiences, episte- knowledge, and actions that rise from through different strategies to obtain mological assumptions, organiza- single methods. Integrating multiple desired outcomes. The outcomes tional allegiances, reference groups, methods requires that professionals have additional effects (e.g., power, and other sources. All people have use an interdisciplinary framework well-being, respect, affection). Val- standpoints, including those who en- for understanding the problem. ues are both the things for which gage in endangered species conser- Two types of information are rec- people strive (outcomes) and the as- vation (Clark and Wallace 1999). ognized in endangered species recov- sets they use to get them (e.g., wealth, People should seek to clarify their ery: ideological and technical. Ideo- enlightenment, skill, rectitude). They own standpoints and understand the logical information includes "facts are the medium of exchange; values perspectives of other people involved about the thoughts, feelings, and con- are used, exchanged, shaped, or or concerned. Often practitioners are duct of human beings. Other facts shared to gain more values. In any not explicit about or do not recognize are technical" (Lasswell 1966:123). social and decision process, participants their own standpoints, risking incom- Because ideological information is both indulge in and are deprived of plete and biased analyses. about words and deeds (actions), values. Eight value categories are rec- Empirical study can yield data on which may be contradictory in a ognized by Lasswell (1971a): power, problem orientation, social and deci- single person or group, both forms of wealth, enlightenment, skill, well-be- sion process variables, and stand- information should be studied using ing, affection, respect, and rectitude. point. These categories must be con- multiple methods to gain insight. Decision process mapping is an sidered repeatedly in interdisciplinary Qualitative methods are often used to analysis of the decision-making pro- problem solving because information triangulate on problems because cess involved in problem solving is cumulative. Multiple methods — people often are not capable of ratio- (Clark and Brunner 1996). Decision qualitative and quantitative, observa- nally explaining their intentions (Dey process involves the rational (i.e. is tional and experimental, intensive and 1993). So, training programs are nec- it reasonable?), political (i.e. is it pos- extensive, contemplative and ma- essary to expose students to contex- sible?), and moral (i.e. is it justifi- nipulative — are required to obtain tual concepts, problem orientation, able?) dimensions of problem solv- empirical data. This overall process and methods of obtaining, processing, ing. Decision processes consist of six should function as a disciplined, self- and utilizing data. interrelated functions, or activities. corrective framework, the utility of Little interdisciplinary problem (1) Intelligence must be gathered which can best be appreciated by ap- solving has been carried out to date about a problem and its context. (2) plying it to actual problems. in black-footed ferret recovery, al- In turn, information obtained through In species recovery, reasonable though it has been called for, as well intelligence must be debated and dis- explanations of the causes and con- as described repeatedly, by a few par- cussed, and solutions must be recom- sequences of endangerment are ticipants (Clark 1989, 1997; Reading mended, advanced, and promoted. needed as the basis for practical ac- 1993; Miller et al. 1996). The offi- (3) Rules or guidelines must then be tion and cooperation. And multiple cial ferret program as carried out by established to address the problem. methods provide the only reliable government agencies has begun to (4) Subsequently, the rules must be approach for obtaining comprehen- consider social science consider- specified and enforced, and resulting sive answers to key questions about ations (Hutchins et al. 1996), but disputes must be resolved. (5) All of a recovery challenge. Multiple meth- these remain under-appreciated, the functions of the decision process ods are required to address biologi- poorly addressed, and little integrated must be appraised. (6) Finally, the cal and social problems and fully map with the biological aspects of the re- process must be terminated, often as the context of the problems. Endan- covery challenge (Reading et al. a result of the problem being rede- gered species professionals should 1997). As such, the official recovery fined. Lasswell (1971a) recommends therefore use appropriate disciplines program has made little progress to- performance standards and preferred and methods to understand problems ward utilizing interdisciplinary ap- outcomes for each function. In ac- and find solutions. All methods have proaches (see Clark et al. 2000). By tual practice, not all of these functions both strengths and limitations. By addressing the biological and social are always carried out. focusing attention on certain areas of science aspects of the recovery chal- Observational/participant stand- inquiry, single methods create blind lenge separately (i.e. a multi-disci- points consist of a person's value ori- spots. By using multiple methods, plinary approach), practitioners risk

110 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 devising fragmented, possibly con- species policy and management in edge for species and ecosystem conserva- tradictory solutions. terms of realizable objectives and tion: Science, organizations, and policy. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine Perhaps the best interdisciplinary strategies. At the least, this should 36:497-525. approach to endangered species re- be the aspiration. Clark, T.W. 1997. Averting extinction: Recon- covery is the decision seminar (see structing endangered species recovery. Yale Clark 1997). This group effort ex- Acknowledgments University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. plicitly calls for problem-solving by This work was supported by the Den- Clark, T.W. 1998. Interdisciplinary problem- solving: Next steps in the Greater addressing all of the dimensions of ver Zoological Society, Yale Yellowstone Ecosystem. Paper presented at species conservation — problem ori- University's School of Forestry and a Conference on the Theory and Practice entation, social process mapping, de- Environmental Studies, and grants to of Interdisciplinary Work, June, 1998. The cision process mapping, and stand- the Northern Rockies Conservation Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environ- mental Research and The Council for Plan- point clarification. It further requires Cooperative (Cathy Patrick, Gil ning and Coordination of Research, that multiple methods be used, includ- Ordway, Sybil and Tom Wiancko, Stockholm, Sweden. Policy Sciences: In ing both biological and social re- Garry Brewer, H.P. Kendall Founda- Press. search. The entire effort is guided by tion, Fanwood Foundation, New- Clark, T.W., A.R. Willard, and C.M. Cromley, an integrated analytic framework de- Land Foundation). eds. 2000. Foundations of natural resources policy and management. Yale University scribed by Lasswell (1971b), Brewer Press, New Haven, Connecticut. (1974, 1986), Burgess and Slonaker Literature cited Clark, T.W. and R.D. Brunner. 1996. Making (1978), Willard and Norchi (1993), and Barrett, W. 1978. The illusion of technique: partnerships work: Introduction to decision Clark (1997). We recommend using A search for meaning in a technological process. Endangered Species UPDATE civilization. Anchor Books, Garden City, 13(9):1-5. this approach in species recovery. New York. Clark, T.W. and J.R. Cragun. 1991. Organi- Barzun, J. and H.F. Graff. 1985. The modern zation and management of endangered spe- Conclusions researchers. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, cies programs. Endangered Species UP- Endangered species conservation is Publishers, New York. DATE 8(8):1-4. a complex and diverse undertaking. Baydack, R.K., H. Campa III, J.B. Haufler, Clark, T.W., R. Crete, and J. Cada. 1989. De- eds. 1999. Practical approaches to the con- signing and managing successful endan- The scope of species recovery is vari- servation of biological diversity. Island gered species recovery programs. Environ- ously interpreted. Often it is viewed Press, Washington, D.C. mental Management 13:159-170. as largely or solely a biological task, Beveridge, W.I.B. 1950. The art of scientific Clark, T.W. and A.H. Harvey. 1988. Imple- but when analyzed more comprehen- investigation. Vintage Book, New York. menting endangered species recovery Bookhout, T.A., ed. 1996. Research and man- policy: Learning as we go? Endangered sively, species recovery is seen to agement techniques for wildlife and habi- Species UPDATE 5(10):35-42 encompass social science and inter- tats. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, Mary- Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1998. Under- disciplinary considerations as well. land. standing the human factor in endangered As a result, multiple methods are in- Brewer, G.D. 1974. Dealing with complex species recovery: An introduction to human creasingly being used and additional social problems: The potential of the "de- social process. Endangered Species UP- cision seminar." Pp. 439-461 in G.D. DATE 15(1):2-9. methods will be invented and adapted Brewer and R.D. Brunner, eds. Political de- Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1999. The pro- to meet the multi-faceted challenges velopment and change: a policy approach. fessional in endangered species conserva- of species recovery. Over time, the Free Press, New Jersey. tion: An introduction to standpoint clarifi- self-correcting impact of experience Brewer, G.D. 1986. Methods for synthesis: cation. Endangered Species UPDATE Policy exercise. Pp. 455-475 in W.C. Clark 16(1):9-13. will hopefully modify and integrate and R.E. Munn, eds. Sustainable develop- Clark, T.W. and R. Westrum. 1989. High-per- these diverse methods and move en- ment of the biosphere. Cambridge Univer- formance teams in wildlife conservation: dangered species recovery towards an sity Press, Massachusetts. A species reintroduction and recovery ex- explicit interdisciplinary approach. Burgess, P.M. and L.L. Slonaker. 1978. The ample. Environmental Management An interdisciplinary approach; that is, decision seminar: A strategy for problem- 13:663-670. solving. Merschon Center of the Ohio State Denzin, N.K. and Y.S. Lincoln, eds. 1994. a contextual, problem-oriented, and University, Columbus, Ohio. Paper No. Handbook of qualitative research. Sage a multi-method approach to endan- 1:1-22. Publications, Thousand Oaks, California. gered species conservation, can be Clark, T.W., ed. 1986. The black-footed fer- Dey, I. 1993. Qualitative data analysis: A user- expected to improve our knowledge ret. Great Basin Naturalist. Memoirs. 8:1- friendly guide for social scientists. 208. Routledge, New York. both of and in decision processes and Clark, T.W. 1989. Conservation biology of the Dominowski, R.L. 1980. Research methods. thus make us more effective. Inter- black-footed ferret Mustela nigripes. Wild- Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New disciplinary approaches can also con- life Preservation Trust Special Scientific Jersey. tribute to the development of exper- Report No. 3. Dryzek, J. 1990. Discursive democracy: Poli- tise in the formulation of endangered Clark. T.W. 1993. Creating and using knowl- tics, policy, and political science. Cam-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 111 bridge University Press, New York. Conservation Biology of the Black-footed Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. Endangered Hutchins, M., R. J. Wiese, and J. Bowdoin. Ferret, Edited by U. S. Seal, E. T. Thorne, species recovery: Finding the lessons, im- 1996. Black-footed ferret recovery program M. A. Bogan, and S. H. Anderson. Yale proving the process. Island Press, Wash- analysis and action plan. American Zoo and University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. ington, D.C. Aquarium Association, Bethesda, Mary- Marius, R. 1995. A short guide to writing Rosaldo, R. 1993. Culture and truth: The re- land. about history. HarperCollins, New York. making of social analysis. Beacon Press, Isaac, S. and W.B. Michael. 1995. Handbook McCain, G., and E.M. Segal. 1977. The game Boston, Massachusetts. in research and evaluation: A collection of of science. Brooks/Cole Publishing, Com- Ratti, J.T. and E.O. Garaton. 1996. Research principles, methods, and strategies useful pany, Monterey, California. and experimental design. Pp. 1-23 in T.A. in the planning, design, and evaluation of Miller, B.J., R.P. Reading, and S.C. Forrest. Bookhout, ed. 1996. Research and manage- studies in education and behavioral sci- 1996. Prairie night: Black-footed ferrets ment techniques for wildlife and habitats. ences. EdITS/Educational and Industrial and the recovery of endangered species. The Wildlife Society, Bethesda, Maryland. Testing Services, San Diego, California. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, Scott, J. 1998. Seeing like a state. Yale Uni- Janesick, V.J. 1994. The dance of qualitative D.C. versity Press, New Haven, Connecticut. research design: Metaphor, methodology, Miller, D.C. 1991. Handbook of research de- Scott, J.M., S.A. Temple, D.L. Harlow, and and meaning. Pp. 209-219 in N.K. Denzin sign and social measurement. Sage Publi- M.L. Shaffer. 1996. Restoration and man- and Y.S. Lincoln, eds. Handbook of quali- cations, Thousand Oaks, California. agement of endangered species. Pp. 531- tative research, Sage Publications, Thou- National Research Council. 1986. Ecological 539 in T.A. Bookhout, ed. 1996. Research sand Oaks, California. knowledge for environmental problem and management techniques for wildlife Lasswell, H.D. 1966. The analysis of politi- solving. National Academy Press, Wash- and habitats. The Wildlife Society, cal behavior: An empirical approach. Ar- ington. Bethesda, Maryland. chon Books, Hamden, Connecticut. Reading, R.P. 1993. Toward an endangered Strauss, A. and J. Corbin. 1994. Grounded Lasswell, H.D. 1971a. A pre-view of the species reintroduction paradigm: A case theory. Pp. 273-285 in N.K. Denzin and policy sciences. American Elsevier Pub- study of the black-footed ferret. Ph.D. Dis- Y.S. Lincoln, eds. 1994. Handbook of quali- lishing Company, New York. sertation. Yale University, New Haven, tative research. Sage Publications, Thou- Lasswell, H.D. 1971b. The continuing deci- Connecticut. sand Oaks, California. sion seminar as a technique of instruction. Reading, R.P., T.W. Clark, A. Vargus, L.R. Wallace, R. L. and T. W. Clark. 1999. Solv- Policy Sciences 2:43-57. Hanebury, B.J. Miller, and D. Biggins. ing problems in endangered species con- Lasswell, H.D. and M.S. McDougal. 1992. 1996. Recent directions in black-footed servation: An introduction to problem ori- Jurisprudence for a free society. Kluwer ferret recovery. Endangered Species UP- entation. Endangered Species UPDATE Law International, The Hague, Nether- DATE 13(10&11):1-6. 16(2):28-34. lands. Reading, R.P. and S.R. Kellert. 1993. Atti- Willard, A.R. and C.H. Norchi. 1993. The Lockhart, M., A. Vargas, P. Marinari, and P. tudes toward a proposed black-footed fer- decision seminar as an instrument of power Gober. 1998. Black-footed ferret (Mustela ret (Mustela nigripes) reintroduction. Con- and enlightenment. Political Psychology nigripes) recovery update. Endangered servation Biology 7:569-580. 14(4):575-606. Species UPDATE 15:92-93. Reading, R.P. and B.J. Miller. 1994. The Yin, R.K. 1989. Case study research: Design Maguire, L. A. 1989. Managing black-footed black-footed ferret recovery program: Un- and methods. Applied Social Research ferret populations under uncertainty: Cap- masking professional and organizational Methods, v. 5. Sage Publications, London. ture and release decisions. Pp. 268-292, in weaknesses. Pp. 73-100 in T.W. Clark, R.P.

112 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 applications

Photos by Richard L. Wallace (L to R): Galapagos fur seal (Arctocephalus galapagoensis) and Galapagos sea lion (Zalophus californianus wollebaeki); Galapagos sea lions; California sea lion (Z. californianus).

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 113 Organization and Management of Endangered Species Programs Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] John R. Cragun Utah State University, 2810 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322 [email protected]

Abstract Biologists involved in endangered species conservation are skilled in the scientific and technical aspects of their work. However, it is equally important that they understand how to organize and manage an effective endangered species recovery program, as well as participate in it. Organiza- tions are commonplace in society, but attention to their structure and function are often taken for granted, especially so in species conservation efforts. People involved in recovery programs would benefit from a clear understanding of how different organizational approaches can either hinder or facilitate their work. Just as species live in environments, recovery programs exist within "task environments" showing the properties of uncertainty, complexity, diversity and instability. Models with significant uncertainty require a structure that allows for proper generation and management of information throughout the life of the project. Bureaucracies are ill suited to this task, for example. Therefore, the management process must include effective teams that are flexible, quick, and based on a task-oriented and communicative approach. Planning within an effective team will require continual reevaluation, analysis, and adjustment. Teams should not be formed using hierarchy, reliance on rules, or many regulations. Therefore, it is important to have a leader who can create a "team environment." A leader who is skilled in conflict management and can separate the rationality, politics, and ethics involved in all efforts. Finally, teams must rely on explicit frameworks for analyzing organizational problems, and making changes. Paying attention to the managerial and organizational aspects of a recovery program can greatly improve the recovery record of endangered species programs.

Introduction factors may result in inefficiency and restoration includes many organiza- Endangered species recovery is nearly ineffectiveness, and ultimately, the spe- tion and management issues (Clark always difficult, and as a result, con- cies may not be recovered. 1989), although this fact often goes servation biologists need to use the best In this paper, we introduce organi- unrecognized (Clark 1986). It is ob- tools, skills, and experience available. zation and management concepts and vious that good science is needed in It is not always easy to determine the recommendations that can help the restoration work. It is less obvious precise causes for dwindling, small work of conservation biologists and to many people that good organiza- populations and habitats and to devise managers. We offer only a brief intro- tion and management are also needed. timely, efficient means to restore them duction to the complex organizational Our study of the organizational di- to evolutionary health. While the use dimension of restoration work. We also mensions of conservation work and of good biology is absolutely essential direct you to the extensive literature of our participation in various species to species recovery, other factors of an this field and to several checklists and restoration efforts have led us to con- organizational nature are also indis- self-tests that allow you to diagnosis clude that an explicit understanding pensable, such as problem analysis and your present situation. of how organizations arc structured problem-solving strategies, organiza- and how they function is essential to tional design, work group effectiveness, The organizational dimension successful conservation. By study- and clarity and specificity of goals and of restoration work ing the activities and structures of objectives. Inadequacy in any of these The challenge of successful species programs and teams, for example, we

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1991, 8(8):1-4.

114 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 can learn which ones best support the Species Act, including: slow deci- complex relationships between en- demands of conservation work (Clark sion-making; rewards for incompe- dangered species and their biological et al. 1989). Understanding organiza- tence and penalties for aggressive, and physical environments often tions and knowing how to make them effective action; overly rigid bureau- showing thresholds and indirect and work for species recovery can make the cratic controls; long hierarchies of nonlinear relationships. Such rela- difference between a program that suc- authority; and importantly, scientific tionships possess much natural vari- ceeds and one that fails (Argyris and and bureaucratic conservatism. These ability. Uncertainty and complexity Schön 1978; Clark 1985). problems are probably more prevalent lead to unpredictability. Unfortunately, it is common for than is currently recognized in recov- There is uncertainty not only in professionals in many disciplines to ery efforts. People are surrounded by ecological systems themselves but ignore or depreciate the value of these organizations all their lives. They take also in the organizations involved. organizational factors. They see only them so much for granted that their There are often differences in percep- the biological, technical aspects of the pervasiveness and influence are taken tion and expectations among the in- problem and under appreciate orga- as a matter of fact. This has led organi- dividuals and organizations involved nization and management dimen- zational designers to observe that: (Hrebiniak 1978). Many differences sions. Because of this, their job may "People who live their entire lives in exist between field level agency man- be harder than it should be. They may organizations and are surrounded by agers, top level bureaucrats, univer- unconsciously create impediments or them have only the vaguest knowledge sity researchers, conservation organi- barriers as a direct consequence of of their workings — or underlying log- zations, and others. For example, how they organize and manage them- ics" (Jelinck et al. 1981:4). even though all these individuals may selves, how they structure their think- agree on the goal or end - to save the ing and actions, beginning with how Task environments and species - they frequently disagree on they identify problems, how they de- information processing models the means. When you figure these fine solutions, and especially how Restoring species, of course, requires differences into the hundreds of de- they design and implement jobs and that we take their environments into cisions or clearances that must take working relationships. Because of consideration. Plants and animals place in a typical recovery effort, it this failure and because of the ur- evolve in dynamic environmental can be seen that it is virtually impos- gency and the risks in recovery ef- contexts. Indeed, the reason many sible to create an effective, efficient, forts, conservation professionals species are now endangered is be- and equitable program without a good would do well to incorporate knowl- cause these contexts have been dras- working knowledge of organization edge of organizations into their rep- tically altered by humans. Just as management principles. ertoire of skills and to learn how dif- species live and act in environmental Organizational designers offer ferent organizational designs and contexts, the restoration task is rec- what they call "information process- management modes can either facili- ognized by organization designers to ing models" for programs confronted tate or hinder their work. Extensive have an "environment." The sum to- with much uncertainty, such as recov- research on many different kinds of tal of all the forces and factors — ery programs (Daft 1983). These organizations has revealed common technical, organizational, and policy models view the task basically as one problems, patterns, and concerns. For — that affect the work of species re- of proper information generation and example, it is estimated that 50 to covery is the task environment. There management. They generally illus- 75% of organizational behavior, pat- are internal and external aspects of the trate that programs confronted with terns, and problems is common to task environment (Clark 1985; Clark much uncertainty (e.g., little informa- most organizations (Galbraith 1977). and Westrum 1989). tion and how to solve a problem ini- A little of this kind of knowledge can The systems properties of many tially) need to be structured and op- go a long way in saving species. endangered species task environ- erated in special ways. Every pro- Embarrassingly little attention is ments are uncertainty, complexity, gram should have the capacity to gel paid to designing and managing or- diversity, and instability (Clark et al. and process information matched to ganizations and decision-making pro- 1989). Uncertainty is the difference the demands of the task environment. cesses in conservation despite evi- between what conservationists know To the extent that a program 's infor- dence of chronic and obvious prob- when they start a recovery effort and mation processing requirements lems. Yaffee (1982) described many what they must eventually know to change over time, the task of struc- of these problems in his classic study be successful. In the beginning, un- turing and managing the program is of implementation of the Endangered certainty is often great. There are a continuous job in itself. In the be-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 115 ginning, programs should be highly, may provide. Both agency and non- or may not be well matched to the flexible. As the problem gets re- government participation is necessary. conservation work to be done. If it solved, eventually more fixed, stan- A team set up and operated this way is, it will aid task completion; if not, dardized procedures can be used. stands a much better chance of being it will hinder the work. Both the successful than one which is not. program's culture and the team's cul- Task forces and project teams ture should be predominantly task- Task forces and project teams can be Understanding the character of oriented to be most matched to the one of the most useful program ele- your organization work of species restoration. In task- ments for endangered species recov- The previous descriptions of task en- oriented conservation teams, mem- ery (Clark and Westrum 1989). vironments and task forces and bers should have no ideological com- Small, flexible teams are useful be- project teams are all characteristics mitment to authority and order per se cause, with the unpredictability of the of task oriented organizations. Not in such programs (Clark and task environment, problems arise all organizations are task-oriented, Westrum 1989). Authority should be which do not respond to traditional however. There are also power, role, seen as legitimate if it is based on rules, roles, and regulations of bu- and people orientations (Harrison knowledge and competence and is reaucratic management. The work 1972, 1975). These four orientations used to meet the recovery task. Au- team, once it has adequate resources, are defined and accompanied by a thority is illegitimate if it is based on can move quickly to stay ahead of questionnaire about them which you power or position and is not used to problems. A good team can generate can take to learn about your own meet task objectives. and process needed information rap- organization's culture (Harrison idly offering up solutions to the re- 1972, 1975).1 If the wrong culture Managerial processes covery task. We all know of so-called or orientation is used by the team or How should task forces and project teams, for example, that are just rigid the overall program, it is unlikely that teams be managed in a complex and extensions of standard bureaucratic the restoration job will be success- uncertain task environment? Special structures and operating principles. fully met. So it is essential to under- attention must be given to manage- These are teams in name only and stand the type of culture your orga- ment processes. Whether recovering they often perform poorly in endan- nization has, and if it is not a task species or conducting other complex gered species conservation. orientation, it needs to be changed to tasks, organization and management The team needed for restoration, one that is. concepts have wide application in by contrast, should be task and ac- Let's look briefly at the concept problem-solving situations. Manage- tion oriented, focused on getting the of organizational cultures. At the ment is the use of people and other task completed successfully. It must core of every organization is a cul- resources to accomplish objectives. be willing to accept the uncertainty ture or system of thought that is the This very brief overview of terminol- and risk inherent in endangered spe- central determinant of its character ogy, theory, and perspectives has cies challenges. Considerable em- (Harrison 1972, 1975). The culture practical value you can apply phasis must be given to quality in- is a set of values and cognitive per- (Mintzberg 1971; Brickloe and formation flow and continuous evalu- spectives that are largely shared by Coughlin 1977; Kanter 1983; Boone ations. The amount of administrative members. Some people become and Kurtz 1984; Steersetal 1985). We control over the team will vary from highly socialized to organizational will describe briefly four of the pri- case to case, but fundamentally, ad- cultures, whereas other people are less mary functions that take place in or- ministrators must be committed to the well socialized. "An organization's ganizations, focusing on how these task and provide the latitude neces- culture affects the behavior of its functions should be carried out in the sary for professionals to do the work. people, its ability to effectively meet high performance teams that could be To be effective, individual team their needs and demands, and the way useful in conservation. members must be perceptive, ener- it copes with the external environ- getic, willing to work without close ment" (Harrison 1975: 169). Much Organizing teams supervision or extensive rules and of the conflict between and within or- The way a team is set up and run pro- regulations, and able to learn well. ganizations is the result of cultural dif- vides a map of tasks to be performed, Team membership should be based ferences between organizations or sub- responsibilities, and reporting rela- on an individual's political contribu- units within the same organization. tionships. Obviously, a marine com- tion to solving problems and less on From an operational point of bat team should be organized differ- the political representation he or she view, an organization's culture may ently from a day-care center or a pro-

116 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Planning in team be evaluated on the overall perfor- The kind of planning that mance of the team and not solely on an effective restoration their individual performance or on team uses may be quite dif- the basis of their employing agency's ferent from that typically incentives. Team leaders can find used by bureaucracies. In themselves in a dual role. One role teams, planning requires is task-oriented and the other repre- continual reevaluation, sentation of their employing agency. analysis, and adjustments - The two roles can be incompatible, all directed toward the res- so team leaders should possess an toration goal. Plans need to ability to separate scientific fact from respond quickly to changes inference or judgments that reflect suggested by field opera- policy and politics. tions. Extensive preplanning and rigid overplanning Controlling teams should be avoided. Controlling teams is necessary to Establishing and put- maintain working relationships and ting a plan in place involves to insure that performance standards decision-making. Both the are met. In restoration teams consist- team and supervisors in the ing of professionals, the control func- overall program must un- tion will largely be self- imposed by derstand the overall system the members themselves, assuming of decisions being made. a commitment to the task, an envi- The people and the deci- ronment that provides feedback on Musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) by Richard sion-making process team performance, an evaluation sys- P. Reading. should collectively focus tem, and appropriate recognition and on the task. Team members rewards for performance. gram to save an endangered species. are usually highly skilled in conser- All team members should partici- Getting the organization right for vation science and management, and pate in defining the problem they are a restoration team should be a major they should be included in all deci- working on, in designing appropri- concern. Given the task environment sion-making and planning. ate strategies, and in agreeing upon of restoration work, the overall pro- Decision analysis has been used the standards on which their perfor- gram should have little formalization successfully in several endangered spe- mance will be judged. Once all mem- and few hierarchical levels, rules and cies recovery plans (Maguire 1986). In bers have accepted the legitimacy of regulation. Elsewhere, we have de- short, decision analysis is a form of risk the task and the performance stan- scribed many organizational con- assessment wherein the problem is dards, then controlling the task be- cerns in conservation (e.g., Clark et outlined in a "decision tree." It is comes less formidable. Feedback on al. 1989). The bureaucratic central- extremely valuable in unpredictable individual and team performance ization of decision making and man- technical and socio-political task en- should come regularly as the team agement functions should be mini- vironments; endangered species res- conducts its activities. mal. For example, referring prob- toration is a prime example. lems upward within bureaucratic hi- Analyzing organizational erarchies may destroy team cohesion Leading teams problems and developing and will frequently result in critical Leadership of the team and the over- action plans time lags if decisions by top manage- all program should be task-oriented. Endangered species recovery re- ment are delayed too long, if lines of The team leader should be a team quires a framework for analyzing or- communication become too long, if builder and a skilled manager of con- ganizational problems and for imple- too many people are involved, or if flict. Differences of perception and menting change. For example, a the relevancy of the issue becomes interests will arise in any joint task, team may recognize that their day- distorted by the time it takes for the but coupled with emotionalism, dif- to-day effectiveness is hampered by administration to make a decision. ferences can be magnified to unpro- a lack of freedom to confront one ductive levels. Team leaders should another on relevant task issues. Hav-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 117 ing agreed that they need to talk more programs. The task of restoring spe- black-footed ferret. Wildlife Preservation openly, each team member waits for cies and their habitats to a healthy sta- Trust International Species Scientific Re- port No. 3. someone close to begin. After con- tus is difficult enough without being Clark, T.W. and R. Westrum. 1989. High per- siderable frustration, they may ask, hampered by poorly designed and formance teams in wildlife conservation: a "Why can't we change the way we managed organizations, especially species reintroduction and recovery ex- work together?" when researchers in these fields al- ample. Environmental Management In this example, there may be ready have valuable concepts and 13:363-370. Clark, T.W., and R. Crete, and J. Cada. 1989. many reasons to be more open. An techniques which arc directly appli- Designing and managing successful endan- important one is that team members cable to conservation programs. It gered species recovery programs. Environ- must perform effectively for their seems clear that conservation biolo- mental Management 13:159-170. own sakes, for the good of the team, gists must become knowledgeable Draft, R.L. 1983. Organization theory and design. West Publ., St. Paul, Minnesota. and for their employing organizations. about what makes for a good recov- Galbraith, J.R. 1977. Organizational design. Accomplishing needed changes, even ery program and how to achieve it. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts. if they are well recognized, is not al- Harrison, R. 1972. Understanding your ways an easy task. Often forces hid- Acknowledgements organization's character. Harvard Bus. Rev. den in the sociology of the team Denise Casey critically reviewed the May-June:119-128. Harrison, R. 1975. Diagnosing organizational hinder change and may require a pro- manuscript. The Catherine Patrick ideology. Pp. 169-176 in J.W. Pfeiffer and fessional organizational consultant. Foundation, the Fanwood Founda- J.E. Jones, eds. Handbook for group facili- By the same token, other problems, tion, and the Lost Arrow Foundation tators. Univ. Associates, Inc., San Diego, both organizational and technical can supported this project. California. Hrebiniak, L.G. 1978. Complex organiza- be effectively addressed by the team tions. West Publ., New York, New York. directly if they follow a systematic Footnote Jelinek, J., J.A. Litterer, and R.E. Miles, eds. process of problem-solving and ac- 1. Additional information is available from 1981. Organizations by design: theory and tion-planning.1 This procedure is the senior author. practice. Business Publ., Inc., Plano, Texas. self-explanatory and could be used by Kanter, R. 1983. The change masters. Simon and Schuster, New York, New York. teams, agencies, and organizations Literature cited Argyris, D. and D. Schön. 1978. Organiza- Kohm, K.A. 1990. Balancing on the brink of experiencing technical, organizational learning: A theory or action perspec- extinction: the Endangered Species Act and tional, or other problems. tive. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachu- lessons for the future. Island Press, Wash- setts. ington, D.C. Boone, L E. and D. L Kurtz. 1984. Principles Maguire, L.A. 1986. Using decisions analy- Conclusions sis to manage endangered species popula- There is evidence of poor perfor- of management. Random House, New York, New York. tions. J. Envir. Manage. 22:345-360. mance in endangered species pro- Brickloe, W. D. and M. T. Cougnlin. 1977. Mintzberg, H. 1971. Managerial work: analy- grams in this country (Kohm 1990). Managing organizations. Glencoe Press, sis from observation. Manage. Sci. 18:B97- Many of these problems can be traced Encino, California. B110. Steers, R. M., G. R. Ungson, and R. T. to poor design and mismanagement Clark, T.W. 1985. Organizing for endangered species recovery. Presented 2-5 April, Mowday. 1985. Managing effective orga- of organizations. Once biologists 1985, at Wildlife Management Directions nizations. Kent Publ. Boston, Massachu- understand this, they will be able to in the NW through 1990. NW Section, The setts. apply the concepts, terms, and de- Wildlife Society, Sheraton Hotel, Missoula, Yaffee, S.L. 1982. Prohibitive policy: imple- Montana. menting the Endangered Species Act. MIT scriptions used in this introductory Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. paper and the extensive literature Clark, T.W. 1986. Professional excellence in wildlife and natural resource organizations. cited to identify, analyze, and begin Renewable Resource. J. Summer 4:8-13. to rectify the problems in their own Clark, T.W. 1989. Conservation biology of the

118 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Learning as a Strategy for Improving Endangered Species Conservation Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected]

Abstract Many people believe that the endangered species conservation process is not working very well. Extinction rates remain high, and few species have recovered to healthy, viable populations in secure habitats. Improving the professionals' and organizations' learning abilities that are involved in species recovery may upgrade conservation, perhaps significantly. Learning, however, involves more than changing or fine tuning experimental scientific methods. It requires a commitment to focus systematically and explicitly on learning capabilities from the individual, professional, organizational, and policy levels. Effective, proactive learning improves performance by looking critically, but constructively, at past performance, current problems, and the context of the problem(s), and applying the lessons to new situations. Though organizations involved in endangered species conservation need to learn, the way that individuals and organizations do learn is still unclear. This paper reviews current learning theory which offers ideas and suggestions, reviews current barriers to learning, and suggests ways to facilitate improved learning to upgrade our conservation efforts. If individuals and organizations involved in biological conservation can learn and apply lessons of hindsight, and then translate them into foresight for future efforts, species recovery and protection can greatly improve. The very health of the entire ecosphere is at stake.

Introduction detecting and correcting "errors," i.e. sponsibility for outcomes shared. Justification for the Endangered Spe- mismatches between expectations and There has been considerable ex- cies Act of 1973 (ESA) is largely outcomes (Argyris and Schön 1978). perience with endangered species con- based on recognition that if the biotic Learning to meet practical conserva- servation since passage of the ESA, but enterprise is damaged by the extinction goals successfully involves more it is debatable how much of this has tion of too many species, the current than refining scientific methods. We been explicitly and systematically con- functioning of ecosystems will be lost must focus on learning capabilities verted to organizational or societal or diminished, and the consequences and processes at both individual and learning or how much improvement for humans will be unpredictable, but societal levels in pragmatic ways. has actually occurred in species sur- most definitely harmful. Its is vital Fundamentally, we must learn to how vival (see Yaffee 1982, 1994; Tobin that the ESA policy be refined, admin- to learn more effectively — an ap- 1990; Kohm 1991; Alvarez 1993). The istered, and applied well to conserve proach that improves performance by sad fact is that, as Argyris and Schön species and their habitats. Improving explicitly seeking information about (1978:9) noted, "there are too many the learning capability of profession- our own past performance, the dy- cases in which organizations know less als and organizations is the strategy namic status of the problems we face, than their members." Organizational most likely to be successful in this re- and the context of these problems learning capability, in government, gard. This paper examines learning at (Clark 1993). This focus on learning business, and NGOs, has been shown multiple levels to improve species and brings four targets to attention — in- to affect important organizational out- ecosystem recovery and conservation. dividual, professional, organizational, comes and policy implementation and policy. Learning in any one of (Glynn et al. 1992). In this case, the Learning at individual and these four may affect learning in all level of performance in restoring en- organizational levels the others. An explicit learning strat- dangered species is largely a function Learning is the process of using in- egy requires that inquiry and redirec- of the ability of organizations to learn formation to adjust one's responses to tion are common, new ideas wel- form past experience and apply the les- the environment, or the process of comed, bridging rewarded, and re- sons to new situations. Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1996, 13(1/2):5-6,22-24.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 119 Learning theory Schön 1978). Recent interest in or- other in thought; (3) growth of reflec- Exactly how individuals, profession- ganizational learning (see Senge tive perspective about the conduct of als, organizations, and policy systems 1990) stems from the fact that it has the first two processes, the concep- learn is not known. Parson and Clark a vast array of practical implications. tion of the problem, and the results (1995) provide a good overview, in But despite its potential uses in im- which the decision maker desires to the context of sustainable develop- proving endangered species conser- achieve" (emphasis in original). ment, of numerous theories that ex- vation, these ideas and techniques are Similarly, Argyris and Schön plain the phenomenon of individual little known in species restoration (1978) emphasize the change in "re- learning. Some theories focus on circles. Organizational learning de- flective perspective" in their distinc- people's behavior and what factors pends on individual learning, prob- tion between "single-loop learning" (e.g., social, cognitive, symbolic) ably in one of two ways. It has been and "double-loop learning." In motivate it. Others emphasize theorized that organizational learning single-loop learning, organizations people's rationality, and its "bound- is the sum of its individual members' develop skills to scan their environ- lessness," as they make decisions, learning, which is not as simple as it ment, set goals, gather better infor- learn, or solve problems. Other theo- sounds. According to Parson and mation, use it in planning, and moni- ries look at information processing, Clark (1995:439) "What each indi- tor their own performance in relation i.e. the need to filter and structure vast vidual learns may be complexly con- to their goals. The entire process is amounts of incoming information. tingent on the choices and learning conducted within the context of the Parson and Clark (1995:436) also of other group members (e.g., in pur- organization's central cultural norms summarized the cognitive sciences' suit of high level coordinated perfor- and traditions, i.e. its understanding of definition of learning: "Learning is an mance by a group such as a basket- how to do business and the adequacy experience-driven change in the in- ball team, a string quartet, or a recov- and reasonableness of its strategies. ternal cognitive structure used to rep- ery team). Or the means of individual Many organizations become good at resent information. People respond learning might be through activities that changing organizational strategies to to disparity between their cognitive depend on the participation of other meet unchanging norms. structures and feedback from their group members, such as discourse, But some "errors" are not easily behavior by revising their cogni- imitation, or shared activity." Alterna- corrected within the framework tions." There is also a body of learn- tively, group learning may be analo- (Argyris 1992). Sometimes the error ing theory dealing with the joint de- gous to individual learning except that or conflict challenges the norms velopment, or "codetermination," of it takes place at a more complex level themselves. A program selected to individual thought/learning and so- of society, i.e. it may be "autonomous, achieve certain goals may be imple- cial/cultural contexts. Learning by determined by group-level causal pro- mented successfully, for instance, yet individuals is prerequisite to organi- cesses that correspond to the processes not be adequate to achieve the goals. zational or policy learning. shaping individual learning" (p. 439). It may be that, in the words of Leeuw, For significant improvements to Thus, one could speak of organizational et al. (1994:9) "evaluations precipi- occur in endangered species conser- perception, memory, or changes in be- tate debate on core organizational is- vation, organizations must learn. havior and beliefs. sues when they not only ask the ques- Such a statement seems obvious, but Etheredge and Short (1983:42), tion 'how well are we doing,' but also, few organizations set explicit learn- in their study of learning in govern- 'does it make sense to do it, even if it ing goals or track their learning per- ment agencies, proposed that learn- is being done well?'" Organizational formance. No recovery or manage- ing ought to result in "increased in- learning in these cases requires more ment plan that I am aware of specifi- telligence and sophistication of than a single feedback loop of chang- cally lists learning as a goal. Leeuw thought and, linked to it, increased ing strategies: it requires a double et al. (1994:2) point out that "organi- effectiveness of behavior." Etheredge feedback loop that also reexamines zational learning is usually not a de- (1985:66) drew on three criteria to the standards by which the organiza- liberate enterprise, but an ad hoc en- measure increase in intelligence: "(1) tion operates. The process must start deavor used for problem solving." In growth of 'realism', recognizing the with recognizing the unexpected out- part, the concept of organizational different elements and processes ac- comes, acknowledging that they can- learning is relatively new; many key tually operating in the world; (2) not be "corrected" by doing the same advances were made beginning in the growth of 'intellectual integration' in thing better, and developing a new 1970s building on theories about in- which these different elements and and different perspective on the prob- dividual learning (e.g., Argyris and processes are integrated with one an- lem. Double-loop learning must insti-

120 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 tutionalize systems that "review and there are cognitive constraints on how all circumstances. Second, decision challenge basic norms, policies, and our minds perceive, collect, under- processes in agencies tend to be operating procedures in relation to stand, and analyze information, as- closed, relying primarily on informa- changes occurring in the environment" sess its reliability, and comprehend its tion sources that confirm agency ten- (Morgan 1986:89). massive quantities and complexity. dencies. Third, government agencies Many of the people and organi- "Learning to perceive and to evaluate commonly demonstrate errors in zations engaged in endangered spe- the 'facts' differently, including experi- judgment and perception: they cies conservation could benefit from encing them from the 'rationality' of underappreciate valuable data, dis- these concepts and criteria. Appraisal other interests, and then learning to act miss outsiders' suggestions, and base of restoration efforts, for instance, differently with regard to them" (p. 473) judgements on wishful thinking. would be improved by willingness to may be an overwhelming task. Fourth, early appointments of people examine both personal and organiza- A number of intrinsic limitations to important positions tend to deter- tional norms as well as the success of on learning have been recognized mine later outcomes. Fifth, there is a particular programmatic elements. within organizations, too, particularly tendency within bureaucracies for no As Senge (1990) suggests, organiza- bureaucratic ones. Morgan (1986) one to accept complete responsibil- tional learning depends on develop- cites three such barriers. First, orga- ity. Sixth, policy meetings are usu- ing new values and assumptions, new nizations impose fragmented struc- ally highly ritualized, which rein- "action rules," new capacities in both tures of thought on their employees forces patterns of collective decision cognition and language, and new and discourage them from thinking making and bypasses "intellectual practices. Many of the supposedly for themselves. Organizationally-set integrity" (p. 98). Seventh, group de- intractable and recurring problems of goals, structures, roles, and routines cision processes are generally "de- recovery programs could be over- sharply define patterns of attention signed to affect choices rather than to come by adopting new approaches to and responsibility for people within clarify them" (p. 99). Finally, organi- learning. The practical benefits in the group. Even successful single-loop zational learning is inhibited when de- terms of improving efficiency, devel- learning may inhibit asking deeper cision makers underuse or penalize in- oping operational process and saving questions about the organization's un- formation form subordinates. species would be enormous. derlying assumptions, norms, and Many of these "self-blocked learning capabilities (Argyris 1992). learning" patterns appear over and Barriers to learning Second is the system of bureaucratic over again within organizations, and There are inherent limitations on accountability that fosters defensive- the same strategies for organized be- learning both by individuals and ness. The organization and its em- havior are repeated — despite continu- groups. These limitations are at play ployees may make excuses, deflect ing incongruities between people's ex- in endangered species conservation as responsibility, or obscure issues and pectations of how their actions and in many other settings. Michael problems that might make them look decisions will affect matters and the (1995) notes that three barriers to bad. This may be manifest as "cover actual outcomes and effects. learning may be largely unconscious ups," manipulation of images and at the individual level, but nonethe- impressions, or telling superiors or Improving conservation by less real. First, sociocultural con- the public what employees think they improving learning straints against learning are part of want to hear. Third is the difference The constraints on achieving a more every human myth system and its between what people say and what learning-based approach to endan- "shared set of tacit assumptions" they actually do. Employees "de- gered species conservation are fun- (p.469). "Our belief that we are in- velop espoused theories that effec- damental cultural, biological, and or- dependent agents deters us from rec- tively prevent them from understand- ganizational factors. Yet, the neces- ognizing how very much our beliefs ing and dealing with their problems" sity of change is widely recognized. and behavior, our way of evaluating (Morgan 1986:90). "Groupthink" To put it simply, we need to learn how persons and events are shaped by our pressures may reinforce these tenden- to learn explicitly and systematically myths and our habits" (p. 469). Sec- cies (Janis 1972). at all levels-individual, professional, ond, emotional factors also weigh Etheredge (1985) identified sev- organizational, and policy. A num- against learning. New ways of un- eral barriers to governmental learn- ber of suggestions have been put for- derstanding the world may create ing (see also Osborne and Gaebler ward to implement and facilitate im- uncertainty, risk, threat, a sense of 1993). First, agencies tend to adopt proved learning and reorientation of vulnerability, and anxiety. Third, similar policies and programs across our approach to conservation.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 121 Michael (1995:475-484) offers besides 'the facts,' including indi- complex problems that recognizes the nine recommendations for improving vidual fears and "protecting organi- importance of exploring different learning in the context of the renewal zational turf or political expediency." viewpoints… This is best facilitated of ecosystems: (1) "Use the meta- (5) "Use facilitators rather than chair- by managerial philosophies that rec- phoric power of language." Michael persons." Training in the skills of ognize the importance of probing the points out that war (and its deriva- group facilitation can be extremely various dimensions of a situation, and tive sports) is a pervasive metaphor beneficial to a group's learning. (6) allow constructive conflict and debate used to describe many of our society's "Introducing training of group pro- between advocates of competing per- activities: "These metaphors tacitly cess skills." Special training can also spectives. In this way issues can be emphasize we/they, before/after, win- help group members overcome fully explored, and perhaps redefined ner/loser, beginning/ending, fixed predisposition's toward poor listen- so that they can be approached and boundaries in time and space, and re- ing, interrupting, "withdrawal from resolved in new ways. This kind of lationships that map poorly onto the active participation, resistance to ev- inquiry helps an organization absorb amorphous information world…and ery suggestion, long-windedness, and deal with the uncertainty of its onto the fluid ecological putting down other participants, and environment rather than trying to environment...[And] it is usually by scapegoating" (p. 481). (7) "Provide avoid or eliminate it." (3) "Avoid im- these metaphors (data never read short-term reinforcements/rewards." posing structures of action upon or- alone) that activists and policy mak- To help counteract the inherently ganized settings…When goals and ers present their proposals" (p. 476). long time frames of environmental objectives have a predetermined char- He suggests building an alternative management, Michael calls for the acter they tend to provide a frame- vocabulary of metaphors that more invention of rituals that regularly rec- work for single-loop learning… accurately reflect the realities of "an ognize and reward learning and ac- More double-loop learning can be amorphous, problematic, informa- knowledge the many risks taken. (8) generated by encouraging a "bottom- tion-rich world of multiple myths "Reinforce the learning mode by be- up" approach to the planning pro- described by such words as recipro- coming educators." Educators at all cess." And finally, (4) "Make inter- cal, resilient, circular, emergent, de- levels can practice modeling this new ventions and create organizational velopment, ebb and flow, cultivate, kind of learning, including using structures and processes that help seed, harvest, potential, fittingness, more appropriate metaphors and thus implement the above principles." both/and" (p. 477). Such metaphors changing the social context. (9) "Use Westrum (1986) provided seven might come from the fields of biol- disasters and crises as learning occa- principles for developing "genera- ogy, ecology, music, storytelling, and sions." Sudden, even violent, disrup- tive" rationality within organizations, learning itself. (2) "Use myth rein- tions in the world provide a potent i.e. a strategy of creating problem forcement to encourage learning." and unique opportunity for learning solving: (1) "Encourage system-wide Traditions that esteem learning have that could be anticipated and capital- awareness for all members of the sys- long existed within Western culture- ized through scenario construction or tem. No one can be expected to help science, exploration, art, athletics, gaming simulation. These nine can solve the system's problems if they "American ingenuity" — and these be applied to endangered species re- do not understand what those prob- should be highlighted and strength- covery, as can the following sugges- lems are. An empowered periphery ened. (3) "Acknowledge uncertainty tions. must be one aware of overall goals and embrace errors." Learning re- Other authors have offered use- and approaches." (2) "Encouraging quires recognition of many future ful suggestions for upgrading the creative and critical thought for all uncertainties: "When uncertainties in learning performance of organiza- organization members. Although the outcomes of proposed policy and tions, although they have not specifi- some members of the organization action are acknowledged, perceived cally addressed the conservation will contribute disproportionately, it risks and vulnerabilities increase. arena. Morgan (1986:91-95) summa- is vital to realize that some important However, options and the opportuni- rized four general principles: (1) "En- ideas may come form unlikely ties for resilience also increase." (p. courage and value an openness and sources." (3) "Link the parts of the 479). (4) "Minimize the learner's reflectivity that accepts error and un- system whose work is independent. sense of vulnerability." Michael certainty as an inevitable feature of The members of a task system must notes that learning groups are more life in complex and changing envi- understand each other's work if they successful when they acknowledge ronments." (2) "Encourage an ap- are to co-operate in solving the that there are other significant issues proach to the analysis and solution of system's problem — not just their

122 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 own. It is not enough to identify with single notion, best expressed by Mor- protecting more species and habitats the system as a whole. Without see- gan (1986:91): "In essence, a new than previously, and it is hoped, pre- ing integration as an important task, philosophy of management is re- venting species decline. Comprehen- organization members will perform quired, to root the process of orga- sive regional planning has always their contributions often in blissful nizing in a process of open-ended been suggested as a way to integrate ignorance of what the rest of the or- inquiry…The whole process of learn- planning and management for wild- ganization requires." (4) "Scan the ing to learn hinges on an ability to life (including endangered species), system's parts for relevant solutions remain open to changes occurring in natural resource use, land use, air and or contributions. Use the best solu- the environment, and on an ability to water quality, development, and trans- tions regardless of their origins. Ev- challenge operating assumptions in a portation at local, regional, state, and ery organization should examine the most fundamental way." Institutions federal levels (e.g., California Gover- ability of its intratelligence system that deal with the conservation of nor Wilson's "Strategic Growth Plan"). [what an organization knows about endangered species in America, in- These two initiatives to "scale up" con- itself] to do this. It may be useful to cluding the professions, science, gov- servation efforts contain the seeds of a develop formal exercises to generate ernment management agencies, and learning approach to multiple levels, alternatives. The fruits of these ex- non-profit sector, are currently not but neither one embodies a fully-rec- ercises should be formally transmit- organized this way. ognized focus on learning as a signifi- ted and acknowledged." (5) "Reward cant tool to improve conservation. communications and activities that Conclusions Michael (1995) concludes that show a desire to contribute to the en- It is widely perceived that current "there are two kinds of learning: one tire system's thought process. Al- endangered species conservation is for a stable world and one for a world though today's contribution may not not working as expected. Extinction of uncertainty. Learning appropriate be the answer sought, tomorrow's rates are high and accelerating; few for the former world has to do with contribution will never come unless endangered species have been re- learning the right answers and learn- today's is recognized. 'Good try' is turned to healthy, viable populations. ing how to adapt and settle into an- always superior to 'No good.'" (6) ESA reauthorization efforts provide other mode of being and doing. "Avoid over-structuring. Most of the an opportunity to improve conserva- Learning appropriate for our world organization's resources should be tion significantly at the legislative has to do with learning what are the used in coping with problems, not in level. Numerous other practical op- useful questions to ask and learning building up the private domain of its portunities for improvement exist at how to keep on learning since the leaders. It is a natural tendency for the individual and organizational lev- questions keep changing." (p. 484). parts of systems to entrench them- els in many field efforts (Clark et al. The future health of the nation and selves. It is equally certain that re- 1994). Learning is an approach that the planet is directly linked to main- sisting this tendency is necessary to could be widely applied. Active, ex- tenance of the biotic enterprise on maintain generativity." (7) "Examine plicit, and systematic learning about which all human activity ultimately mistakes honestly. Generative sys- human systems (organizations, pro- depends. The opportunity for signifi- tems characteristically deal with mis- fessions, policy making, etc.), as well cant improvements in biological con- takes as system problems rather than as endangered species and ecologi- servation exists in the cultivation and as person problems. While genuine cal systems, would ground conserva- expansion of our learning abilities, negligence should be punished, over- tion efforts in realism and enlarge i.e. in learning how to learn and ap- sights and inadequacies are human. their scope significantly. plying the lessons of our experience. The important issue is to identify the In recent years, new responses to source of the mistake, not punish the biodiversity conservation have come Literature cited person who made it. The ability of forward. Ecosystem management Alvarez, K. 1993. Twilight of the panther: the system to repair its problems is proposes to conserve biodiversity in Biology, bureaucracy, and failure in an endangered species program. Myakka River strongly related to the willingness of large regional biotic systems with Publishing, Sarasota, Florida. people in it to open themselves to protected core areas, buffer zones, Arygris, C. 1992. On organizational learn- criticism. This willingness is great- and interlinking corridors. This ing. Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, est when criticism is dispassionate would be accomplished by coordinat- Massachusetts. and impersonal." ing management on large spatial and Arygris, C., and D. Schön. 1978. Organiza- tional learning. Addison-Wesley. Reading, The myriad ideas and approaches temporal scales based on watersheds Massachusetts. covered here can be boiled down to a and natural biotic communities, thus Clark, T.W. 1993. Creating and using knowl-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 123 edge for species and ecosystem conserva- Boston. Parson, E.A. and W.C. Clark. 1995. Sustain- tion: Science, organizations and policy. Kirlin, J.J., P. Asmus, and R. Thompson. 1983. able development as social learning: Theo- Perspectives in Biology and Medicine Conservation and cooperation: Strategies retical perspectives and practical challenges 36(3):497-525 + appendices. for making endangered species laws work: for the design of a research program. Pp. Clark, T.W. and R. Westrum. 1987. Paradigms Report prepared for the California Depart- 428-460 in L.H. Gunderson, C.S. Holling, and ferrets. Journal of Social Studies in ment of Fish and Game, Kirlin and Asso- and S.S. Light, eds. Barriers and bridges to Science 17:3-34. ciates, 2456 Third Ave., Napa, California. the renewals of ecosystems and institutions. Clark, T.W., R. P. Reading, and A.L. Clarke. Kohm, K.A. 1991. Balancing on the brink of Columbia University Press, New York. 1994. Endangered species recovery: Find- extinction: The Endangered Species Act Senge, P.M. 1990. The fifth discipline: The ing the lessons, improving the process. Is- and lessons for the future. Island Press, art and practice of the learning organiza- land Press, Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. tion. Doubleday Books, New York. Etheredge, L.S. 1985. Can governments Leeuw, P.R., R.C. Rist, and R.C. Sonnichsen. Tobin, R.J. 1990. The expendable future: U.S. learn? Pergamon Press, New York. 1994. Can governments learn? Compara- politics and the protection of biological di- Etheredge, L.S. and J. Short. 1983. Thinking tive perspectives on evaluation and orga- versity. Duke University Press, Durham, about government learning. Journal of nizational learning. Transaction Publish- North Carolina. Management Studies 20:41-58. ers, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Westrum, R. 1986. Management strategies Glynn, M.A., R.J. Miliken, and T.K. Lant. Michael, D.N. 1995. Barriers and bridges to and information failures. NATO Advanced 1992. Learning about organizational learn- learning in a turbulent human ecology. Pp. Research Workshop on "Failure Analysis ing theory: An umbrella of organization 461-488 in L.H. Gunderson, C.S. Holling, of Information Systems." Bad Winsheim, processes. Presented at Academy of Man- and S.S. Light, eds. Barriers and bridges to Germany agement Meeting, Las Vegas, Nevada. the renewal of ecosystems and institutions. Yaffee, S.L. 1982. Prohibitive policy: Imple- Gunderson, L.H., C.S., Holling, and S.S. Columbia University Press, New York. menting the Endangered Species Act. MIT Light, eds. 1995. Barriers and bridges to Morgan, G. 1986. Images of organization. Press, Cambridge. the renewal of ecosystems and institutions. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills. Yaffee, S.L. 1994. The wisdom of the spotted Columbia University Press, New York. Osborne, D. and T. Gaebler. 1993. Reinvent- owl: Policy Lessons for a new century. Is- Janis, I.L. 1972. Victims of groupthink: A ing government: How the entrepreneurial land Press, Washington, D.C. psychological study of foreign-policy de- spirit is transforming the public sector. Pen- cisions and fiascoes. Houghton Mifflin, guin Books, New York.

Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa) by James and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS.

124 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Prototyping for Successful Conservation: the Eastern Barred Bandicoot Program Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Richard P. Reading Denver Zoological Foundation, 2900 East 23rd Avenue, Denver, CO 80205 [email protected] Gary Backhouse Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria, Australia.

Abstract Prototyping is a practical response to the need for innovation, creativity, and new initiatives in endangered species conservation. Though prototyping is an inventive approach to diverse problems that strives to develop a model on which to base future programs, it has not been utilized fully in species conservation programs despite its growing record of positive benefits. Prototypes are flexible, creative processes and designs for detecting and correcting errors that cannot be otherwise detected in uncertain, original, and spontaneous systems, such as in recovery programs. Endan- gered species conservation is an ideal instance where prototyping may well significantly upgrade recovery efforts. Successful prototyping requires that all participants agree to participate, that the leadership is cooperative, that the process is open and creative, and that participants' primary objective is improving performance, not power or some other personal or organizational goal. A prototyping exercise, carried out in Victoria, Australia, beginning in 1988, to facilitate the conservation and recovery of the endangered eastern barred bandicoots (Perameles gunnii), met with success as the population increased from 150 individuals at one site to over 700 individuals at seven sites over the next few years. Lessons learned in this prototyping exercise are easily transferable to other endangered species recovery efforts, including: (1) explicitly using a prototyping strategy to guide recovery efforts; (2) embracing an interdisciplinary, problem-oriented approach; (3) using small, knowledgeable teams; (4) clarifying goals and establishing open, accountable decision-making mechanisms; and (5) evaluating all aspects of the recovery exercise systematically and regularly.

Introduction later pilot projects. Prototyping thus is believe are transferable to other en- Prototyping is a proven strategy to a means of upgrading professional and dangered species programs. solve complex, challenging tasks like organizational practice and knowledge those posed by endangered species in general (Lasswell 1963, 1971a). Our Prototyping: Theory and use recovery efforts. Prototypes are experience on three continents shows in endangered species con- small scale, exploratory interventions that the prototyping strategy has not servation in social or policy systems to imple- been employed explicitly or systemati- Prototypes are innovative approaches ment a trial change, such as chang- cally in endangered species conserva- to problems that are geared toward ing people's assumptions about how tion to date, despite the significant im- development of a model on which to they should interact or who should provements it offers to our collective base future actions or programs. The share what kinds of power. With the conservation efforts. underlying philosophy was presented primary goal being to gain informa- In this paper we introduce the by Lasswell (1971b: 192): "The ap- tion, prototypes are structured as in- prototyping strategy using the Aus- proach described here is especially novative, interactive processes for tralian eastern barred bandicoot pertinent to the aspiration of all who active learning. They are the creative, (Perameles gunnii) management pro- would innovate fundamental corrigible initiatives that, if successful, gram as an example. We offer five changes. The aspiration towards rel- can provide the basis for structuring prototypical considerations that we evance implies the will to grasp and

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1995, 12(10/11):5-7,10.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 125 change reality. Programs of this kind remain more flexible and creative. ond, leadership should agree to the can be expedited by the spread of a The self-correcting element is key. general principals and approach of technique that builds self-correction Prototyping efforts are usually man- prototyping. Third, the process must into its every application." aged by a small group of research- be open and creative. Fourth, top pro- Prototypes are used as a learning ers/initiators who are "deeply con- fessionals should be included and technique and as a template for fu- cerned with contributing to knowl- their opinions respected. Finally, ture action; as such, they serve as edge and professional skill" and fun- people involved should be interested exemplars or archetypes. Successful damentally committed to the success in improving performance rather than prototypes encourage other programs of the project (Lasswell 1963: 95). gaining power — i.e., keeping poli- to adopt their fundamental features or Because of the uncertainty, original- tics at a minimum (Lasswell 1971b). key elements, thus providing a model ity, and spontaneity in social systems Prototyping efforts may be strongly for replication and continual revision the can not predict at the outset which opposed by some interests that pre- (Lasswell 1963). Prototypes can be strategies will be most effective. fer the status quo (Lasswell 1963), official or unofficial, and are com- Thus, "part of the challenge of the and for the effort to be effective, par- monly employed in the business approach is to discard and adapt ticipants must neutralize such oppo- world. For example, auto manufac- throughout the course of the project" sition. Prototyping is only possible turers set up prototypes of varying (Lasswell and McDougal 1992: 896). in supportive contexts not dominated kinds, ranging from special problem However, they should not modify the by issues of power and control. solving teams to experimental car project too quickly or too often. It designs (Westrum 1994). The must be granted an adequate trial pe- The Australian bandicoot prototyping idea is achieving a stan- riod to develop some support, legiti- prototyping effort: A test case dard of operation that represents a macy, and "power" before being re- A prototyping exercise was initiated new model. Once this is done, pilot evaluated. Even though the goals of in 1988 to facilitate the conservation projects can be carried out on a large a project may be clear, as in the clear and recovery of endangered eastern scale. The aim of prototyping is to goal of recover the bandicoot species, barred bandicoots in Victoria, Austra- discover and lay "the foundation for numerous ambiguities may persist: lia. While few of the programs par- orderly replication of the revised pro- "hence an aim of prototypic study is ticipants were formally familiar with totype model" (Lasswell 1963:112). to devise a better strategic prototyping as such, most were com- Trial changes are made in pro- programme" (Lasswell 1971a: 190). mitted implicitly to the idea and prac- grams or policies as a way to facili- Prototypes thus establish a process for tices of prototyping and agreed to tate self-observation, build insight, detecting and correcting errors, a pro- participate. We believe several com- and enhance prospects for success. cedure for accumulating successes ponents of our prototyping effort are Such changes thus can not be tightly and weeding out failures (Brunner transferable to other endangered spe- controlled like scientific experiments, 1995, personal communication). In cies conservation programs. although the existence of some repli- their emphasis on continual learning Eastern barred bandicoots are cable features makes them similar to and creativity, prototypes require relatively small (500 to 900g) noctur- experiments. Nor can they be left clear, detailed, and comprehensive nal marsupials with thin snouts, solely to political manipulation and explanations of all aspects of the pro- strong curved claws, and pale bars on control. Their uniqueness makes totype including all actions under- their hind corners. They feed prima- them similar to case studies as a way taken (Lasswell 1971b). rily on soil invertebrates and are of learning about a system. Because Work settings characterized by highly fecund, with the shortest ges- conservation programs lie some- high complexity, uncertainty, and tation of any mammal (12.5 days) and where between science and politics conflict — which certainly describes the ability to give birth every three to — their conditions can not be totally endangered species recovery pro- four months. P. gunnii once inhab- controlled in a scientific sense, nor grams — benefit most from ited the grasslands and grassy wood- should they be managed only by bu- prototyping (Brunner and deLeon lands of Victoria and Tasmania, but reaucratic officials and politicians — 1983). Several conditions increase after a 99+% decline in range and prototypes are particularly useful as the probability of successful abundance, the species is threatened a means of initiating changes and prototyping. First, all participants in with extinction on mainland Austra- gaining insights about such programs. the program should agree to partici- lia. Bandicoots suffer from extensive Prototypes differ from pate, although not everyone need habitat alteration and degradation, preplanned pilot studies in that they fully understand the exercise. Sec- predation by introduced red foxes

126 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 (Vulpes vulpes) and feral and domes- sible for bandicoot decline; population and reintroduction, eco- tic cats (Felis catus), motor vehicle (2) under appreciation of the nomic and sociological issues, and collisions, disease, and possibly pes- urgency of the situation; public relations. New work arrange- ticides (Seebeck et al. 1990). By the (3) insufficient strategic plan- ments better communication flows end of 1991, only 109 bandicoots ning with specific recovery targets, and improved decisions making in- were known to survive on the main- timelines, and responsibilities; vigorate the conservation effort. land in four populations: one in the (4) little information on impor- Mandatory written evaluations were wild, two in small nature reserves tant sociological and organizational discussed in monthly meetings as a with anti-predator fencing, and one variables; basis for modifying actions. in captivity. (5) no regular, systematic pro- The eastern barred bandicoot's Throughout the 1970s intermit- gram evaluation as a basis for learn- status improved dramatically under tent research on the species, status and ing and improvement. the program reorganization and new distribution took place, and in the This evaluation, a key part of the operations. Goals were clarified and early 1980s, active but limited man- prototyping strategy, was crucial. In attention was focussed on a much agement commenced. Initially the a cooperative, trustful, and support- wider array of organizational issues, recovery program was loosely orga- ive problem-solving setting, it permit- for example. This resulted in a dra- nized, although a variety of conser- ted all participants to identify prob- matic increase in both captive and vation activities were initiated, in- lems and their likely consequences. reintroduced populations and in im- cluding habitat protection and en- Participants examined and evaluated proved wild and captive manage- hancement, predator control, motor- various alternatives to alleviate the ment. Also, standardized monitoring ist warning signs, community educa- problems. The overall prototyping was put into place, new reintroduction, and formation of recovery teams philosophy provides the flexibility to tion sites were located and evaluated, (Arnold et al. 1990). Success was adapt conservation initiatives to the and more regular ongoing formal and limited. In 1988, a prototyping ef- actual conservation challenges informal evaluations were under- fort was begun, including rigorous quickly and successfully. taken. The net result was the growth research (e.g., Clark and Seebeck The context of the bandicoot case of the dwindling population to over 1990). A population viability analy- made prototyping possible at that 700 individuals by late 1993 sis estimated a 100% chance of ex- time because of the relatively low (Backhouse et al. 1994b). While re- tinction of the wild population in 25 profile of the program, the limited cent success bodes well for the spe- years and a much shorter mean time number of participants, and loose or- cies, the eastern barred bandicoot re- to extinction (Lacy and Clark 1990). ganization, the willingness of partici- mains far from recovered (Humphries Concurrently, results from annual pants to examine a variety of options and Seebeck 1995). field surveys indicated a strongly de- for the future of the program, the lack A continuing commitment to the creasing population trend. Although of debilitating conflict, the support or prototyping strategy encourages captive breeding and reintroduction neutrality of key actors towards adaptability of conservation efforts were initiated in 1988, these popula- prototyping and the concept of devel- and eventual bandicoot recovery. But tions were not self-sustaining. This oping a model program, and the pri- as the status of the bandicoot im- combination of factors accelerated mary interest of most participants in proves, government budgets shrink, conservation efforts. program success (i.e. bandicoot re- and public support oscillates. Main- The continuing downward trends covery). Both internal and external taining commitment will not be easy. also lead participants in late 1991 to support for the program was high. call for an in-depth programmatic re- Additional support for prototyping Prototypic elements transferable view of all recovery efforts up to that developed as the program began to other endangered species time (Reading et al. 1992). They meeting success. efforts looked at all factors and forces affect- The bandicoot recovery program The following lessons learned from ing the program, both external and was reorganized in early 1992 as a the bandicoot prototyping effort are internal: biological/technical, organi- result of the group's evaluation transferable to other endangered spe- zational, socioeconomic, and power/ (Backhouse 1992; Backhouse et al. cies programs (Clark et al. 1995). authority. The evaluation identified 1994a). The restructuring set up a (1) Explicitly use a prototyping the following weaknesses: central decision-making authority strategy to guide the recovery effort. (1) incomplete knowledge about and four expert teams or working Participants should agree to use a many factors that were likely respon- groups in captive management, wild flexible, adaptive approach to their

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 127 thinking, organization, research, and the same time, goals should remain practices. Every recovery program management. It is likely that some open and be revisited frequently to can develop its own systematic ap- conservationists have already used a see if they are still relevant to progress proach to learning and improvement prototyping approach, but have not and changing circumstances. The through prototyping and report its used the term to describe their method complexity and uncertainty character- results to all those concerned with or recognized that the theory exists. istic of conservation programs should conserving biological diversity. Theory on prototyping should explic- not preclude or rigidify conservation itly guide each application, and as actions. Decision-making should be Acknowledgements theory is more widely and success- a transparent, open, participative pro- We want to thank all of the people fully applied, it will gain prominence cess, based on the most reliable, avail- from the Department of Conservation and acceptance. able knowledge and collective judge- and Natural Resources of Victoria (2) An interdisciplinary, pro- ment. However, clear lines of ac- (and its precursors), Friends of the gram-oriented approach is essential. countability must be maintained. Eastern Barred Bandicoot, Friends of Numerous disciplines offer useful, (5) Evaluate all aspects of the Gellibrand Hill Park, Hamilton Insti- even necessary, knowledge and ap- prototyping exercise systematically tute of Rural Learning, National Trust proaches for species recovery; com- and regularly. Frequent formal and of Australia (Victoria), Chicago Zoo- bining them all in an effort to under- informal evaluations provide partici- logical Society, Northern Rockies stand problems is essential. This will pants with the opportunity to reflect Conservation Cooperative, Yale Uni- not happen on its own. Prototyping on their situations, their actions, and versity, and others committed to demands an interactive, flexible ef- the outcomes and effects. The group bandicoot recovery for their help over fort that can integrate disciplines should constantly assess how its ac- the past several years. Special thanks pragmatically. Participants need to tions are helping to achieve the over- go to Andrew Arnold, Robert Begg, have the skills and leadership to make all goals and whether there are better Denise Casey, John Fischer, Peter this approach function successfully. means to reach goals. It is also im- Myroniuk, Kathy Patrick, John (3) Use small, flexible teams portant to assess how discrete actions Seebeck, and Pam and Ted Thomas knowledgeable and skilled in the full complement each other to reduce re- for their especially hard work and range of concepts and methods avail- dundancies and increase integration. commitment to this project. Our able. Dynamic teams can address the work was supported by all the orga- highly complex, uncertain, and urgent Conclusions nizations listed above, and by private challenges facing conservation pro- Prototyping is an answer to the need donations to the Northern Rockies grams, including things like captive for innovation, creativity, and new Conservation Cooperative. propagation, reintroduction, commu- initiatives in endangered species con- nity relations, and decision making. servation. The recent success in the Literature cited For the most part, teams functions eastern barred bandicoot program in Arnold, A.H., P.W. Goldstraw, A.G. Hayes, effectively in the bandicoot program Australia demonstrates the benefits of and B.F. Wright. 1990. Recovery management of the eastern barred bandicoot in as they concentrated reliable informa- bringing together a small group of Victoria: Hamilton conservation strategy. tion, facilitated communication and committed people, developing a core Pp. 179-192 in T.W. Clark and J.H. collaboration, provided support of trust and openness, attempting to Seebeck, eds. Management and conserva- among members, and increased per- initiate small, well-deliberated tion of small populations. Chicago Zoologi- formance and innovation. changes in a program, and embrac- cal Society, Brookfield, Illinois. Backhouse, G.N. 1992. Recovery plan for the (4) Clarify goals of the ing the flexibility to adapt to feed- eastern barred bandicoot Perameles gunnii. prototyping exercise and establish back. The emphasis is on learning Department of Conservation and Natural open, accountable decision making and the process is self-correcting. Resources, Melbourne, Australia. mechanisms. Goals should be for- Small-scale innovations like this Backhouse, G.N., T.W. Clark, and R.P. Read- ing. 1994a. The Australian eastern barred mally and clearly articulated. They could be initiated at any level in any bandicoot recovery program: Evaluation should be set up collectively by all of the hundreds of endangered spe- and reorganization. Pp. 251-271 in T.W. participants, should remain task-ori- cies recovery programs now under- Clark, R.P. Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. ented (e.g., species recovery), and way. Again, it is a way of accumu- Endangered species recovery: Finding the should be easily measured (e.g., num- lating success and weeding out fail- lessons, improving the process. Island Press, Washington, D.C. ber of animals or populations, dates ures, and it provides exemplars to be Backhouse, G.N., T.W. Clark, and R.P. Read- of task completion, area of habitat copied, improved, and incorporated ing. 1994b. Reintroduction for recovery of protected) to the extent possible. At into existing policy and institutional the eastern barred bandicoot Perameles

128 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 gunii in Victoria, Australia. Pp. 209-218 in Backhouse, and T. Clark, eds. People and ven Press. New Haven, Connecticut. M. Serena, ed. Reintroduction biology of nature conservation: Perspectives on pri- Reading, R.P., T.W. Clark, A. Arnold, J. Australian and New Zealand fauna. Surrey vate land use and endangered species re- Fisher, P. Myroniuk, and J.H. Seebeck. Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, New covery. Transactions of the Royal Zoologi- 1992. Analysis of a threatened species re- South Wales. cal Society of New South Wales. covery program: The eastern barred bandi- Brewer, G.D. and P. deLeon. 1983. The foun- Lacy, R.C. and T.W. Clark. 1990. Population coot (Perameles gunnii) in Victoria. De- dations of policy analysis. The Dorsey viability assessment of the eastern barred partment of Conservation and Natural Re- Press. Homewood, Illinois. bandicoot in Victoria. Pp. 131-146 in T.W. sources, Melbourne, Australia. Clark, T.W. and J.H. Seebeck 1990. Manage- Clark and J.H. Seebeck, eds. Management Seebeck, J.H., A.F. Bennett, and A.C. Duffy. ment and conservation of small popula- and conservation of small populations. 1990. Status, distribution, and biogeogra- tions. Chicago Zoological Society. Chicago Zoological Society. Brookfield, Il- phy of the eastern barred bandicoot, Brookfield, Illinois. linois. Perameles gunnii in Victoria. Pp. 21-32 in Clark, T.W., G.N. Backhouse, and R.P. Read- Lasswell, H.D. 1963. The future of political T.W. Clark and J.H. Seebeck, eds. Manage- ing. 1995. Prototyping in endangered spe- science. Prentice-Hall, New York. ment and conservation of small popula- cies recovery programs: The eastern barred Lasswell, H.D. 1971a. Pre-view of the policy tions. Chicago Zoological Society. bandicoot experience. Pp. 50-62 in A. sciences. American Elsevier, New York. Brookfield, Illinois. Bennett, B. Backhouse, and T. Clark, eds. Lasswell, H.D. 1971b. Transferability of Westrum, R. 1994. An organizational perspec- People and nature conservation: Perspec- Vicos strategy. Pp. 167-193 in H.R. tive: Designing recovery teams from the tives on private land use and endangered Dobyns, P.L. Doughty, and H.D. Lasswell, inside out. Pp. 327-350 in T.W. Clark, R.P. species recovery. Transactions of the Royal eds. Peasants, power, and applied social Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. Endangered Zoological Society of New South Wales. change: Vicos as a model. Sage Publica- species recovery: Finding the lessons, and Humphries, R.K. and J.H. Seebeck. 1995. tions. Beverly Hills. improving the process. Island Press, Wash- Conservation of the eastern barred bandi- Lasswell, H.D. and M.S. McDougal. 1992. ington, D.C. coot Perameles gunnii on private land in Jurisprudence for a free society: Studies in Victoria. Pp. 156-162 in A. Bennett, G. law, science and policy. 2 vols. New Ha-

Eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii) by Richard P. Reading.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 129 Improving Group Problem Solving in Endangered Species Recovery: Using the "Decision Seminar" Method

Abstract Endangered species recovery requires the confluence of technical skills, most often represented by biology and ecology and their many adjuncts, and social and organizational skills. Over the history of endangered species protection, the social and organizational skills necessary for successful species recovery have often been lacking in recovery programs. As a result, these programs often exhibit weaknesses involving coordination and cooperation among program participants. We discuss and propose the use of methods to improve recovery programs by focussing on and augmenting social and organizational aspects of program implementation and evaluation. The methods we promote fall under the rubric of the "decision seminar," developed by Harold Lasswell and used successfully in many contexts over the past half century. We discuss two examples of endangered species programs which utilized aspects of the decision seminar — one unsuccessfully, in the United States, and one successfully, in Australia. Using these examples, we illustrate the benefits and utility of adopting the decision seminar in endangered species recovery programs.

Introduction ments aimed at directing biological re- Here, we describe, illustrate, and Endangered species recovery programs search and management. They are not call for the widespread use of a proven require collaboration and effective designed to take a complete, problem method — "decision seminar" — to problem solving among participants — oriented look at the recovery challenge improve success of recovery efforts. government agencies, landowners, or address its full context in any single Burgess and Slonaker (1976) give a conservation organizations, industry case. Rarely do recovery plans offer clear and thorough description of groups, resource users, and others. The guidance on how to effectively man- how to carry out a decision seminar. best way to achieve this is by partici- age the organizational complexity in- To date the decision seminar method pants agreeing on what the recovery volved in recovery efforts, for example. has been little used in species recov- problem is, its context, and how to solve In reality, diverse participants with ery, but it promises to significantly it. Optimizing recovery means using competing values and perspectives can improve conservation. old methods better and adopting new and do impede recovery, unintention- ones as needed. In fact, the Endangered ally or otherwise. This makes solving I. The Hawaiian monk seal case Species Act of 1973 (ESA), Marine recovery problems that much harder. This case, although it did not use the Mammal Protection Act of 1972 As a result, collaboration in recovery decision seminar method, illustrates its (MMPA), and other laws and adminis- programs is often ad hoc or haphazard, benefits, in part by counter (negative) trative rules for protecting species and even in cases where a plan clearly de- example. The Marine Mammal Pro- habitats all seek to enhance coordina- lineates the roles and responsibilities of tection Act created the federal Marine tion and collaboration as one means to program participants and where lead Mammal Commission (MMC), a small improve recovery. However, in the 30- agency staff make deliberate efforts to independent agency of the executive year history of the ESA and MMPA no bring participants together. Clark and branch charged with overseeing and formal approach has been adopted in Westrum (1989) have written on the providing recommendations on federal this regard, other than use of recovery need for guidance in the formation and and state marine mammal programs plans as mandated by the ESA. Re- operation of high-performance teams under the ESA and MMPA. Over its covery plans are often technical docu- in endangered species recovery. history, MMC has undertaken a num-

130 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 ber of meetings fashioned after the de- Wallace 2000; Wallace in press). The conference room overlooking the Pa- cision seminar method, with varying MMC was responding to these prob- cific Ocean, where participants could levels of success. In 1989, while on lems in calling its meeting. Problems stretch their legs while taking in a view the MMC staff, one of the authors included NMFS's refusal to convene of the beach, ocean, or sunset. Food (RLW) helped to organize a meeting the monk seal recovery team between and drinks were provided. In all, an of participants in the Hawaiian monk 1984 and 1989 despite alarm over the effort was made to make the meeting a seal recovery program to address prob- declining monk seal population and comfortable occasion in which partici- lems in program implementation and problems of inefficiency. The program pants could focus on the agenda — evaluation. The Hawaiian monk seal showed problems in data collection, monk seal recovery. The agenda, is among the world's most endangered analysis, peer review, and publication which was drafted by MMC and shared seals, with a current population num- during the 1980s (Marine Mammal and revised with the input of the par- bering fewer than 1,500 individuals that Commission 1990). Among the goals ticipants prior to the meeting, indicated has declined about 60% since the late of the MMC-sponsored meeting was that the two days would be devoted to 1950s (National Marine Fisheries Ser- to promote a collaborative and coordi- strategic planning to address specific vice 2001). It is found in the Hawaiian nated approach to the many complex, shortcomings in the monk seal pro- Archipelago, predominately in the interrelated issues challenging NMFS's gram. This meant that participants atolls and islets to the northwest of the efforts to protect and recover the monk would be expected to critically evalu- main Hawaiian Islands. Pressures fac- seal and its habitat. ate their past actions, develop shared ing the monk seal population include The meeting took place in La Jolla, goals for addressing existing problems, predation by sharks, mauling of California, at NMFS's southwest re- brainstorm alternatives to address iden- young and female monk seals by gional research laboratory, the parent tified problems, and then commit to adult males, starvation of young office to the NMFS laboratory in Ho- actions necessary to achieve the goals. seals, disease, environmental con- nolulu where the monk seal program taminants, human disturbance, injury is housed. While it was not modeled Meeting results or entrapment in marine debris, and explicitly on the decision seminar, it The meeting was a failure. MMC made both operational and biological inter- initially shared both structure and goals a strong attempt to run the meeting such actions with commercial fisheries with the decision seminar method de- that it would have a lasting effect on (Ragen and Lavigne 1999). scribed below. The meeting involved the monk seal program through the a core group of agency personnel and work and commitments of its partici- Recovery efforts non-agency scientists who were then pants. However, a commitment by key The lead agency for monk seal recov- either responsible for making decisions agency participants to changing the sta- ery under the ESA and MMPA is the concerning the monk seal research and tus quo operation of the monk seal pro- National Marine Fisheries Service of management programs or were expe- gram never materialized. This was due the U.S. Department of Commerce rienced monk seal researchers. Among to several circumstances. First, agency (NMFS), which manages both research the concerns they addressed were the staff approached the meeting with some and management activities in the pro- effects of various human activities on trepidation due to the perception that gram. Other agencies and organiza- monk seals and their habitat they would be subjected to criticism for tions have been involved in monk seal Non-governmental advocacy past and current problems. Second, recovery due to their ownership of groups were not invited to attend. The MMC, despite having sought the input monk seal habitat, operations in monk participants were selected solely for of participants prior to the meeting, set seal habitat, advocacy of monk seal is- their knowledge, skill, and experience and controlled the agenda, which meant sues, or the relevance of their expertise in monk-seal related research and man- that other participants did not feel the in addressing problems with monk seal agement and their status as authorita- same level of commitment to the meet- recovery. They include the U.S. Fish tive decision-makers in the monk seal ing as did MMC. Third, as the meet- and Wildlife Service, Hawaii Depart- program. The meeting was convened ing wore on it became clear that much ment of Land and Natural Resources, and moderated by MMC staff who of the onus of improving the program's Western Pacific Fishery Management were skilled in group dynamics and operation was being placed on NMFS. Council, U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard, strategic planning, knowledgeable While this was appropriate given Sea Life Park of Hawaii, and Earthtrust. about monk seal recovery issues, but NMFS's responsibilities as lead federal The monk seal program, as di- were not directly involved in monk seal agency under the law, at the meeting rected by NMFS, has a history of orga- decision making. The meeting was key NMFS staff began to feel put-upon, nizational dysfunction (Lavigne 1999; held over the course of two days in a and thus less open to the process that

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 131 was occurring. Fourth, participants and NMFS to establish a meeting for- Decision seminars are a structured other than NMFS staff tended to either mat that would be mutually support- method for integrating the many dif- side with MMC in pursuing its agenda ive, the outcome would likely have ferent approaches to group meetings for the meeting and monk seal program been different. Given the resistance of that are necessary to develop solutions or to be noncommittal. NMFS to MMC's and other partici- to complex problems. Lasswell As a result, NMFS staff became pants' recommendations for NMFS (1971a, 1971b) and Burgess and increasingly defensive and thus less action, a truly collaborative format Slonaker (1975) describe the basic interested in a collaborative effort to might have resulted in fewer changes functions and components of a decision secure program goals, which in any to the monk seal program than were seminar. First is a dedicated core group case appeared not to be shared goals, originally sought by MMC. The ben- of individuals committed to meeting but rather MMC's. All of these factors efits, however, might have been an regularly and for as long as is neces- conspired to reduce the commitment by improvement in participants' willing- sary to address the problem (maybe NMFS staff to MMC's goals for the ness to evaluate the program through a years). This is necessary for the group's meeting and thus to making the meet- critical, constructive discussion, thus knowledge and experience to grow as ing a productive one. Instead, as the opening the door to improving imple- a unit and to avoid the need to repeat- meeting wore on discussion devolved mentation in the future. As it turned edly return to basic foundational issues into a series of proposals for program- out, the meeting failed to improve with the addition of new members in matic changes, which, due to other par- implementation, evaluation, or the the later stages of the seminar. This ticipants' lack of buy-in, appeared as level of discourse that occurred among requirement underscores the impor- MMC attempting to micro-manage the program participants. tance of participants agreeing to join monk seal program. The failure of the the group because they have a primary meeting was caused by NMFS's resis- II. The decision seminar interest in solving the problem at hand. tance to improving its programmatic One promising method for achieving Lasswell (1971a) suggests a self-se- actions under the ESA and MMC's lack a more successful collaboration and lected membership, but in the context of skill in managing the meeting to re- coordination is the decision seminar of endangered species recovery, partici- duce the conflicts that undermined it. (Clark 2002). Decision seminars are pants in a decision seminar must rep- For example, as the meeting progressed a continuing series of moderated, resent all the participants whose in- and it became clear that participants structured sessions involving selected volvement is necessary to achieve re- were not achieving the goals they de- participants in the recovery process. covery goals for the species or popula- sired, closed-door meetings among They are designed to promote identi- tion in question. Changes in core group sub-groups began to occur during fication of problems realistically and membership will likely occur (e.g., dis- meals and at night which de-empha- agreement on strategies for solving ruptive group members should be asked sized the importance of the primary them practically. to leave). Nevertheless, the core group meeting. Following the meeting, must remain stable enough over the life NMFS's staff and program returned to Method and features of the seminar so that the goals can be the status quo — relations between The idea and structure of the decision accomplished in a timely fashion (par- NMFS and other program participants seminar was developed by Harold ticularly where increasing species was unchanged with the exception that Lasswell as a means for carrying out mortality or habitat loss is occurring). NMFS finally convened the recovery problem solving and decision making Sub-groups may be formed to address team, which has meet regularly ever that stabilizes people's expectations and individual aspects of the overall prob- since. Nonetheless, little changed to goals in a management policy process lem and outside experts may be asked improve the shortcomings in the pro- (Lasswell 1960, 1971a, 1971b). Speak- to join the group temporarily as the gram that MMC had identified. ing generally, Lasswell (1960:216) need arises. Comparing the decision seminar noted that "it is increasingly perceived Second is commitment of group model as described below to this meet- that modes of group problem solving members to carrying out an agreed- ing illuminates its shortcomings: the are needed that improve the probabil- upon and specific agenda. This is nec- meeting was not based on a shared ity of realistic, comprehensive and essary to avoid diffusion or misappro- commitment to goals and the meeting timely solutions," an observation which priation of the goals of the group and was not run such that tension among applies directly to endangered species to keep the group operating with the participants would be reduced and col- recovery today and underscores the overriding recovery goal in mind. The laboration could occur. Had efforts importance and potential of the deci- more specific the tasks and the clearer been made at the outset by both MMC sion seminar method. the understanding of each member's

132 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 responsibilities the better, even if cer- each other to promote a sound deci- and conditions of the recovery effort. tain tasks are abstract (e.g., conceptual sion making process. This visual material can be constantly brainstorming, so often necessary to Sixth is clear agreement on the updated and it can be used to orient the address complex problems). For recov- overall operational and task-oriented group from meeting to meeting. ery programs, "goal inversion or sub- goals and to stay focused on them when What sets a decision seminar apart stitution" occurs and the recommenda- presenting and using information in from other methods of group work in tion helps avoid that and other prob- recovery. Without consensus on endangered species recovery is its em- lems (see Clark 1997). goals, the group risks becoming di- phasis on building skills and knowledge Third are frequent meetings. Meet- vided over research and management on problem solving that will improve ing frequency will be influenced by the methods, data, and the process and decision making in the future. Most logistical complexity of bringing group outcome of evaluations. For recov- group work in endangered species re- members together. For recovery pro- ery programs, this can be divisive and covery is focused on one or more spe- grams where research and management impair the process and interpersonal cific recovery tasks (e.g., reducing actions are being taken at a rapid pace, working relationships. mortality) and lacks a self-reflective frequent — perhaps weekly or bi- Seventh is an understanding of the emphasis on learning how to use group weekly — meetings may be necessary. role and utility of multiple methods in methods in the most effective manner. The more frequently the group meets, recovery programs and group decision With a set of guidelines such as those the greater the likelihood that the goals making processes. When discussing given above, foundational training (ei- of the seminar and recovery program recovery actions, the group must wel- ther self-administered or sought from will remain clear and current, and the come consideration of strategies from outside experts with experience in de- tasks taken will support goals. all disciplines that might help reach cision seminars), and open minds, a Fourth is an emphasis within the recovery goals. Similarly, group mem- group may convene even without a group on being actively and systemati- bers must be open-minded about di- member experienced in professional cally self-reflective. One of the ben- verse methods of achieving group group dynamics and still accomplish efits of the decision seminar is that goals. This will be the harder task the goals of a decision seminar. group members become familiar with because it is unlikely that all group each other to the point that each may members will have experience with A critique assess the other's contributions in a the practical, intellectual exercises Decision seminars have been used purely constructive (i.e. not threaten- (e.g., role-playing, simulation, gam- successfully since the 1950s in fields ing) fashion. This promotes an atmo- ing) that may be used to encourage outside of endangered species recov- sphere of discussion and insight rather sound decision making. ery. These have produced benefits to than formal administrative appraisal Eight is a focus on innovation and education policy in the United States and ritualized interaction. As well, re- creativity. Group members must agree (Bolland and Muth 1984, 1987), covery group members gain the ability on the appropriateness of taking intel- community development in Peru to critically evaluate their individual lectual risks when discussing and plan- (Dobyns et al. 1971; Holmberg 1958), and collective decision making ability, ning tasks for the recovery program. and the re-establishment of democratic an action that if successfully undertaken Put another way, they must leave room governance in Afghanistan following improves group operations over time. for brainstorming sessions in which the end of the Soviet occupation in the Fifth is a contextual approach to idiosyncratic ideas are welcomed 1980s (Willard and Norchi 1993), too problem solving in which boundaries alongside conservative ones and all are mention only a few instances. are put around the topic at hand in or- explored for their utility in achieving Based on this and other experi- der to establish a common understand- the goals. ence, decision seminars are particu- ing of the limits of the group's man- Ninth is an agreed-upon location larly well suited for addressing com- date. In the case of a recovery program, where the group can receive the sup- plex and often highly technical policy there will be two contexts to delineate. port it needs to function productively processes that involve diverse knowl- One concerns the recovery program it- during its meetings. For recovery pro- edge, skills, and innovative problem self, so the group must identify where grams, this means a setting that is func- solving strategies (Brewer 1975). the boundaries of their authority and tional and comfortable. The group They can reduce conflict, improve abilities fall with regard to research, needs adequate space and support to communication, shift the focus of management, and enforcement actions. carry out its deliberations. For ex- decision making from reactive to pro- The other context concerns the group ample, it may need plenty of wall space active, promote leadership skills and its members' responsibility to to permanently display data on trends among members, and decrease prob-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 133 lems associated with hierarchy and can far outweigh and overcome weak- to achieve species recovery and de- competition between stakeholders nesses in ordinary endangered species velop a model program. A key ele- (Cunningham 1981). recovery in the United States and ment in this was a decision seminar The issue of group leadership is elsewhere. Because endangered spe- mode of organization and operation. critical, and in this regard decision cies recovery is a crisis-oriented dis- It was not declared formally that the seminars may take many forms. cipline, most practitioners are too new partnership would use a decision Seminars can be led by a person out- busy working in the moment to con- seminar format. Instead, the partner- side the management process under sider approaches to learning and de- ship used a decision seminar modus scrutiny by the seminar. In this case, cision making that might benefit them operandi in an informal way to guide the outsider must be someone who is both today and in the long run (Clark interpersonal and inter-organizational well respected by all group members et al. 1994). However, by becoming interactions, data gathering and analy- and who they are willing to welcome skilled and experienced in the meth- sis, and decisions about how to proceed. into the group in a leadership capac- ods of the decision seminar, people It was put in place without calling at- ity to help the group achieve its goals. will increase both the effectiveness tention to it so that recovery team mem- Optimally, an external leader would and efficiency of decision making and bers and interested parties could stay be someone experienced with group improved species conservation. As focused on bandicoot conservation, dynamics who can assist in refining with all new approaches to profes- better interact with one another, and do the approach to learning and operat- sional practice, there is a learning so in an active learning mode. ing as a cohesive unit. As well, a de- curve that must be passed before the The effort conformed to all nine cision seminar can be led by a person full benefits of the method can be features of a decision seminar listed within the group, chosen by group reaped and become fully evident. above. First, a dedicated core group members. In this case, the leader of individuals met in the field, office, should have direct involvement and III. The eastern barred bandicoot and decision room often for about five expertise in the issue at hand. They case years. Second, committed members should be respected and willing to Perhaps one of the most successful eventually came to carry out an cede certain authority in achieve applications of the decision seminar agreed-upon and specific agenda. group goals. Also, they must be able method in endangered species recov- Third, members met in various com- to help the group focus on both group ery occurred under the direction of binations frequently. Many meetings processes and outcome goals. Fi- one of the authors (TWC) in Austra- were informal and no decisions were nally, a decision seminar may be lead- lia. This effort was focused on the made. Fourth, certain group mem- erless or led by consensus of group eastern barred bandicoot in Victoria bers encouraged others to be actively, members rather than a single person. (see Clark and Seebeck 1990 and the and systematically self-reflective. This is the most challenging leader- 10 papers therein; Backhouse et al. Fifth, members were contextual and ship model because it requires an un- 1994; Clark et al. 1995). bounded the problem practically. ambiguous shared commitment to Sixth, the group was goal oriented. goals and responsibilities and willing- The problem Seventh, the team used multiple ness by all group members to partici- The bandicoot is one of the most criti- methods. Eight, some members fo- pate vigorously in every aspect of cally endangered species in Victoria, cused on innovation and creativity. every group activity. showing a 99+% loss of abundance Ninth, the group acquired the mini- In their review of past decision and range by 1998. At that time it mal support needed for productive seminars, Bolland and Muth (1984) was nearing extinction with less than meetings. It took time and work to identify the most prevalent shortcom- 150 animals in the wild at a single achieve these features, and even in the ing of the decision seminar method location and few individuals in cap- end, not all members were fully or of problem solving: that group mem- tivity. Key data about the species and productively engaged. Achieving bers will default to a standard day- its plight were absent and the organi- these operational features allowed the to-day or "brush fire" mentality and zation and commitment needed to ef- bandicoot recovery group to be prob- lose the seminar's emphasis on learn- fectively recovery the species was lack- lem-oriented, contextual, and use ing, reflection, and insight. These ing. Later research showed the species multiple methods in its work. factors are all directed at how to most was declining about 25% per year. By the mid- to late 1990s, the effectively operate as a group to species' status had improved dramati- achieve common goals. The solution cally. Bandicoot numbers increased The benefits of decision seminars In 1988 a new partnership was set up to 1,000+ individuals at six reintro-

134 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 duction sites, plus the original wild porting a reduced need for recovery gered species recovery. Transactions of the population, and a captive program. actions and a group of highly trained Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney. Prospects looked good for eventual problem solvers ready and able to Cunningham, L.L. 1981. Applying Lasswell's recovery of the species. The decision contribute much-needed skills and concepts in field situations: Diagnostic and seminar method deserves much credit knowledge to other group recovery prescriptive values. Educational Adminis- for these accomplishments. How- activities. Decision seminars, if used tration Quarterly 17:21-43. ever, it was impossible to perma- widely and with skill, hold promise of Dobyns, H.F., P.L. Doughty, and H.D. Lasswell. 1971. Peasants, power, and ap- nently institutionalize the decision greatly improved endangered species plied social change. Sage Publications, seminar method into the bandicoot recovery. They also offer a way to grow Beverly Hills, California. program or the parent agencies in- a population of professionals whose Holmberg, A.R. 1958. The research and devolved. The causes of this were elec- skills, knowledge, and experience raise velopment approach to the study of change. Human Organization 17:12-16. tions and changes in government the old standards for problem solving Lasswell, H.D. 1960. Technique of decision policy and agencies. The agencies and set new ones for the entire field of seminars. Midwest Journal of Political Sci- were dramatically reoriented to very endangered species recovery. ence 4(3):213-236. conservative agendas and clients, in- Lasswell, H.D. 1971a. A pre-view of the cluding reorganizing them to mimic Literature cited policy sciences. American Elsevier Pub- lishing Company, New York. Bolland, J.M. and R. Muth. 1984. The deci- for-profit organizations. This in- Lasswell, H.D. 1971b. The continuing decision seminar: A new approach to urban cluded downsizing, transfers, and loss sion seminar as a technique of instruction. problem solving. Knowledge: Creation, Policy Sciences 2:43-57. of staff in the bandicoot program. Diffusion, Utilization 6(1):75-88. Lavigne, D.M. 1999. The Hawaiian monk Budgets were also drastically cut. Brewer, G.D. 1975. Dealing with complex seal: Management of an endangered spe- social problems: The potential of the "de- These changes prevented the benefits cies. Pp. 246-266 in J.R. Twiss, Jr. and R.R. cision seminar." In G.D. Brewer, and R.D. of the decision seminar from being Reeves, eds. Conservation and manage- Brunner, eds. Political development and fully capitalized on beyond the first ment of marine mammals. Smithsonian change: A policy approach. The Free Press, Institution Press, Washington, D.C. 5+ years of the recovery program. New York. Marine Mammal Commission. 1990. Annual Burgess, P.M. and L.L. Slonaker. 1975. The report to Congress, calendar year 1989. decision seminar: A strategy for problem- Conclusions Marine Mammal Commission, Washing- solving. The Mershon Center of The Ohio Decision seminars are a means to ton, D.C. State University, Columbus, Ohio. Muth, R. 1987. The decision seminar: A prob- improve endangered species recov- Clark, T.W. 1997. Averting extinction: Recon- lem-solving technique for school adminis- ery. The two cases described here — structing endangered species recovery. Yale trators. Planning and Changing 18:45-60 University Press, New Haven. the Hawaiian monk seal and the east- National Marine Fisheries Service. 2001. Clark, T.W. 2002. The policy process: A prac- ern barred bandicoot — illustrate Hawaiian monk seal stock assessment. tical guide for natural resources profession- variables that contribute to the fail- National Marine Fisheries Service, La Jolla, als. Yale University Press, New Haven. California. ure or success of group work in re- Clark, T.W. and R. Westrum. 1989. High per- Ragen, T.J. and D.M. Lavigne. 1999. The covery. Successful recovery often formance teams in wildlife conservation: Hawaiian monk seal: Biology of an endan- A species reintroduction and recovery ex- hinges on relationships among par- gered species. Pp. 224-245 in J.R. Twiss, ample. Environmental Management ticipants and their ability to work Jr. and R.R. Reeves, eds. Conservation and 13(6):663-670. management of marine mammals. collaboratively; to identify problems Clark, T.W. and J.H. Seebeck, eds. 1990. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, realistically in a timely fashion; and Management and conservation of small D.C. populations. Proceedings of a conference, to follow though with solutions. Wallace, R.L. 2000. Marine mammal recov- Sept. 26-27, 1989, Melbourne. Chicago Identifying problems means giving ery: The human dimensions. Ph.D. disser- Zoological Society, Brookfield, Illinois. full attention to the social process or tation. Yale University School of Forestry Clark, T.W., R.P. Reading, and A. Clarke, eds. and Environmental Studies, New Haven, context involved. For a decision 1994. Endangered species recovery: Find- Connecticut. seminar to succeed, its members must ing the lessons, improving the process. Is- Wallace, R.L. In press. Social influences on land Press, Washington, D.C. achieve and maintain a focus on the conservation: Lessons from U.S. recovery Clark, T.W., G.N. Backhouse, and R.P. Read- process of group work and the out- programs for marine mammals. Conserva- ing. 1995. Prototyping in endangered spe- tion Biology. comes of the seminar, both in terms cies recovery programmes: The eastern Willard, A.R. and C.H. Norchi. 1993. The of recovery actions and the group barred bandicoot experience. Pp. 50-62 in decision seminar as an instrument of power A. Bennett, G. Backhouse, and T.W. Clark, learning process. Ideally, when a de- and enlightenment. Political Psychology eds. People and nature conservation: Per- cision seminar is complete, the out- 14:575-606. comes include: biological trends sup- spectives on private land use and endan-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 135 The Population Viability Assessment Workshop: A Tool for Threatened Species Management

Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Gary N. Backhouse Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Victoria, Australia. Robert C. Lacy University of Chicago Division of Biological Sciences and Department of Conservation Biology, Chicago Zoological Park, Chicago, IL [email protected]

Abstract Population viability assessment (PVA) is a powerful tool in assessing the viability (i.e. likely persis- tence) of small populations, and in setting target numbers and area requirements for species recovery. By using computer models, four types of extinction processes can be simulated, and the effects of both deterministic and stochastic forces can be explored. PVA's also explore the outcome of management options. The utility of PVA was demonstrated at a workshop in Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia. Using the computer program, VORTEX, to simulate genetic, demographic, environmental, and random events, workshop participants: (1) examined the status of data on six threatened species (mountain pygmy-possum, Burramys parvus; leadbeater's possum, Gymnobelideus leadbeateri; eastern barred bandicoot, Perameles gunnii; long-footed potorroo, Potorous longipes; orange-bellied parrot, Neophema chrysogaster, and helmeted honeyeater, Lichenostomus melanops cassidix); (2) simulated their vulnerability to extinction; (3) examined outcomes of management options to restore the species; (4) estimated population targets needed for recovery planning; and (5) evaluated the potential of PVA as a teaching aid to illustrate extinction processes and management options. Workshop results showed that the majority of the species were highly susceptible to local extinction, though more field data would have been helpful. Simulation of management options demonstrated that early action in conservation management could have significantly reduced the current predicament of these species and that use of PVA's could greatly improve conservation management for all six species. PVA's are therefore highly useful in the planning and carrying out of species recovery programs.

Introduction explored. In turn, the outcome of policy tool when vying for limited Population viability assessment various management options, such as financial resources. This paper de- (PVA) is a procedure that allows man- reducing mortality, supplementing scribes a PVA workshop that used a agers to simulate, using computer the population, and increasing carry- stochastic computer simulation to models, extinction processes that act ing capacity can also be simulated. model small populations of, and ex- on small populations and therefore Thus, PVA provides managers with a plore management option for, six assess their long-term viability. In powerful tool to aid in assessing the threatened/endangered wildlife spe- both real and simulated populations, viability of small populations and in cies in Victoria, Australia. a number of interacting demographic, setting target numbers for species re- genetic, environmental, and cata- covery as a basis for planning and The workshop strophic processes determine the vul- carrying out recovery programs. In The workshop was co-sponsored by nerability of population extinction. addition, having performance-based the Department of Conservation and These four types of extinction pro- management programs enables Environment (DCE), Victoria, and cesses can be simulated in computer progress to be quantified and as- the Zoological Board of Victoria models and the effects of both deter- sessed. PVA also offers managers a (ZBV), in cooperation with the Chi- ministic and stochastic forces can be powerful strategic planning and cago Zoological Society (CZS) and Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1990, 8(2):1-5.

136 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 was held at the Arthur Rylah Insti- Population viability analysis: VORTEX models population tute for Environmental Research the VORTEX model processes as discrete, sequential (DCE), Heidelberg, Victoria, from The workshop used a computer pro- events, with probabilistic outcomes May 28 through June 1, 1990. gram, VORTEX, to simulate demo- determined by a pseudo-random The objectives of the workshop graphic and genetic events in the his- number generator. VORTEX simu- were to: (1) examine the adequacy of tory of a small population (<500 in- lates birth and death processes and data on the six threatened species; (2) dividuals). VORTEX was written in transmission of genes through the simulate the vulnerability to extinc- the C programming language by Rob- generations by generating random tion by using PVA; (3) examine out- ert Lacy for use on MS-DOS micro- numbers to determine whether each comes of various management op- computers. Many of the algorithms animal lives or dies, whether each tions to restore the species; (4) esti- in the VORTEX were taken from a adult female produces broods of size mate population targets needed for simulation program, SPGPC, written 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 during each year, recovery planning; (5) evaluate the in BASIC by James Grier (Grier and which of the two alleles at a ge- potential of PVA as a teaching aid to 1980a, 1980b; Grier and Barclay netic locus are transmitted from each illustrate extinction processes and 1988). (See Lacy et al. (1989), Seal parent to each offspring. Mortality management options. and Lacy (1989), and Lacy and Clark and reproduction probabilities are The six species were: moun- (1990) for earlier uses of VORTEX.) sex-specific. Mortality rates are tain pygmy-possum (Burramys Life tables analysis yield average specified for each pre-reproductive parvus); leadbeater's possum long-term projections of population age class and for reproductive ani- (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri); east- growth (or decline), but do not reveal mals. Fecundity is assumed to be in- ern barred bandicoot (Perameles the fluctuations in population size that dependent of age after an animal gunnii); long-footed potoroo would result from variability in de- reaches reproductive age. The mat- (Potorous longipes); orange-bellied mographic processes. When a popu- ing system can be specified to be ei- parrot (Neophema chrysogaster); and lation is small and isolated from other ther monogamous or polygamous. In helmeted honeyeater (Lichenostomus populations of conspecifics, these either case, the user can specify that melanops cassidix). random fluctuations can lead to ex- only a subset of the adult male popu- The 32 people attending the tinction, even in populations that have lation is in the breeding pool (the re- workshop represented experienced positive population growth on aver- mainder being excluded perhaps by field biologists and wildlife manag- age. Fluctuations in population size social factors). The males in the ers with detailed knowledge of these can result from several levels of sto- breeding pool all have equal probabil- and other threatened species. A chastic effects. Demographic varia- ity of siring offspring. month prior to the workshop all par- tion results from the probabilistic na- Each simulation is started with a ticipants were provided with back- ture of birth and death processes. specified number of males and fe- ground reading material (e.g., Therefore, even if the probability of males in each pre-reproductive age Shaffer 1981; Brussard 1985; an animal reproducing or dying is al- class and the breeding age class. Each Samson 1985; Gilpin 1989; Lacy ways constant, the actual number re- animal in the initial population is as- and Clark 1990). A questionnaire on producing or dying within any time signed two unique alleles at some life-history parameters to be com- interval would vary according to the hypothetical genetic locus. The user pleted on each species as a basis for binomial distribution with mean specifies the severity of inbreeding entering values into the computer was equal to the probability of the event depression, which is expressed in the also provided. Following an intro- (p), and variance given by Vp = P*(1- model as a loss of viability in inbred duction and overview of PVA, the P)/N. Demographic variation is thus animals. The computer program participants formed teams and com- intrinsic to the population and occurs simulates and tracks the fate of each menced work. Simulations, analysis, in the simulation because birth and population and then produces sum- and discussions were ongoing over death events are determined by a ran- mary statistics on: the probability of the next five days. The first week dom process (with appropriate prob- population extinction over specified concluded with a report and review of abilities). Environmental variation time intervals; the mean time to ex- each team's progress. During the fol- (EV) is the variation in the probabili- tinction of those simulated popula- lowing week, teams further refined ties of reproduction and mortality that tions that went extinct; the mean size their simulations and commenced occur because of changes in the en- of populations not yet extinct; and the preparation of a final report with man- vironment on an annual basis (or levels of genetic variation remaining agement recommendations. other timescales). in any extant populations.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 137 A population carrying capacity the severity specified by the user. projection of a computer display via specified by the user is imposed by a Similarly, the probability of survival an overhead projector onto a large probabilistic truncation of each age for each age class is estimated in a screen so that all participants could class if, after breeding, the population similar manner. observe demonstrations of VORTEX size exceeds the specified carrying VORTEX also allows the user to during initial training. capacity. The program allows users supplement or harvest the population Computers were used during the to model trends in the carrying capac- for any number of years in each simu- daily sessions primarily for explanatory ity, as linear increases or decreases lation. The numbers of immigrants analysis with relatively few run (100 across a specified number of years. and removals are specified by age and or fewer) of a simulation; more exten- VORTEX models environmental sex. VORTEX outputs the observed sive analysis were run overnight. A test variation simplistically (which is both rate of population growth (mean of with 100 runs would take from 15 min- an advantage and disadvantage of N[t]/N[t-1]) separately for the years utes to three hours, depending on the simulation modeling), by selecting at of supplementation/harvest and for machine used and the size of the popu- the beginning of each year the popu- the years without such management, lation being simulated. lation age-specific birth rates, age- and allows for reporting of extinction specific death rates, and carrying ca- probabilities and population sizes at The workshop results pacity from distributions with means whatever time interval is desired (e.g., Each team documented its activities equal to the overall averages speci- summary statistics can be given at and provided a preliminary report of fied by the user, and with variances five-year intervals in a 100-year the simulations completed, conclu- also specified by the user. Unfortu- simulation). Overall, the computer sions, and assessment of the conduct nately, rarely do we have sufficient program simulates many of the com- of the workshop, and the usefulness field data to estimate the fluctuations plex levels of stochasticity that can of the PVA process. Results will be in birth and death rates, and in carry- affect a population. Because it is a published in peer-reviewed scientific ing capacity, for a wild population. detailed model of population dynam- journals by each term. The population would have to be ics, often it is not practical to exam- All cases show similar results. monitored long enough to separate ine all possible factors and all inter- First, most species and populations sampling error statistically from de- actions that may affect a population. were highly susceptible to local ex- mographic variation in the number of The user, therefore, must specify tinction. Any further habitat loss or births and deaths, from annual varia- those parameters that can be esti- fragmentation or reduction in popu- tion in the probabilities of these mated reasonably, leave out of the lation size and density would result events. Such variation can be very model those that are thought not to in rapid extinction. Second, in all important in determining the probabil- have a substantial impact on the popu- cases, more field data would have ity of extinction, yet we rarely have lation of interest, and explore a range been helpful. Third, management reasonable estimates for most popula- of possible values for parameters that options to stave off extinction were tions of conservation concern. If data are potentially important but very identified and results were simulated. on annual variation are lacking, a user imprecisely known. A companion Options included strict habitat protec- can try various values, or model the fate program, VORPLOTS, was used at tion, enhancement of existing habi- of the population in the absence of any the workshop to produce plots of tat or restoration of lost habitat, cap- environmental variation. mean population size, time to extinc- tive breeding, and reintroduction of VORTEX can model catastro- tion, and loss of gene diversity form animals to existing habitat patches in phes as events that occur with some simulation results. which the species has become extinct specified probability and which rein recent decades or to newly created duce survival and reproduction for Equipment required habitat. Various combinations of one year. A catastrophe is determined VORTEX requires an MS-DOS mi- management strategies were recom- to occur if a randomly generated num- crocomputer with at least 640K of mended for future management. ber between zero and one is less than memory. A math co-processor speeds Fourth, the simulations demonstrated the probability of occurrence (i.e. a up the program substantially. The that if proactive conservation manage- binomial process is simulated). If a VORPLOTS plotting program pro- ment had been undertaken even five to catastrophe occurs, the probability of duces files in the Hewlett Packard 10 years ago when populations and breeding is multiplied by a severity Graphics Language (HPGL), for use habitats were considerably larger, the factor that is drawn from a binomial on a HP plotter or equivalent. task of present day managers would be distribution with a mean equation to A Kodak Dataview EGA enable much more tractable. And fifth, im-

138 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 proved conservation management for range. The large populations had a leaving mortality unchanged had neg- all six species is expected to result from decreased likelihood of extinction. ligible impact on the probability of the PVA exercises, enhanced research, When modeled with a small but extinction and increased the mean and subsequent on-the-ground manage- steady decrease in carrying capacity time to extinction by only two years. ment. Three cases illustrate these con- (1% per annum) such as could occur Doubling the carrying capacity, re- clusions: the mountain pygmy-possum through climatic change with global ducing mortality by 30% and supple- (Mansergh et al. in prep.), eastern warming, the probability of extinction menting the wild populations with the barred bandicoot (Myroniuk and increased greatly (to 45% in the case liberation of captive-bred animals Patrick in prep.), and orange-bellied of the largest Victorian population of greatly enhanced prospects for sur- parrot (Brown et al. in prep). 850 individuals, over 50 years). Dis- vival of the wild population. Under turbance to habitat and further frag- this scenario the probability of extinc- Mountain pygmy-possum mentation of populations would in- tion was reduced to 0% over 25 years The mountain pygmy-possum is a crease the likelihood of extinction. with a mean final population size of small marsupial restricted to alpine close to the carrying capacity of 300 and subalpine (> 1500 m altitude) Eastern barred bandicoot animals. Modeling the existing and rock screes and boulderfields with The mainland population of this mar- proposed captive populations allowed heathlands. The species has been well supial species was formerly distrib- investigation of a variety of scenarios. studied and much information is uted over about 23,000 sq km of vol- The existing captive population of 16 available on its ecology (Mansergh canic grassland in western Victoria. pairs has an extinction probability of 1989). Diet consists of invertebrates, This population has now declined to 83% over 25 years with a mean time seeds, and fruits. Breeding occurs 200 or fewer individuals restricted to to extinction of 21.5 years. Doubling from September to December, with remnant habitat near Hamilton (Clark the number of adult pairs decreased litter size of three to four. The young and Seebeck 1990). The species is the extinction probability to 0% but become independent by mid-January. polygynous, with females capable of the surviving population had very low Females can breed in their first year, breeding from three months of age genetic variability, and there is little and can live up to nine years. An un- and males from four months of age. potential to harvest juveniles for re- usual feature of the life history of Gestation lasts about 12 days, with lease into the wild. Increasing the Burramys is the fact that sexes are seg- litters comprised of one to five off- captive population to 62 adult pairs regated during the non-breeding sea- spring (usually two to three); young increased genetic variability and the son. The adult population is heavily remain in the pouch about 55 days. potential to harvest juveniles without biased towards females (6F:1M) be- Females are capable of producing jeopardizing the captive population. cause of the very high mortality expe- several broods per year. In spite of Maintaining a captive population of rienced by males post-dispersal. the very high reproductive potential, 62 adult pairs (in two groups at sepa- The current total population is the population is believed to be de- rate locations to avoid catastrophe but estimated to be 2,300 breeding adults clining at about 25% per annum. Ju- managed as one population) and estab- of which 80% are females. The spe- venile mortality at dispersal from the lishing two semi-captive populations cies is regarded as vulnerable in nest is very high (>90% within the with a capacity for 400 animals gave Victoria and rare in New South Wales. first year). The decline of the spe- the best prospects for long term sur- The species is also susceptible to cli- cies is attributed to habitat modifica- vival, maintenance of genetic variabil- matic changes associated with global tion from pastoral activities and pre- ity, and production of sufficient off- warming. The mountain pygmy-pos- dation from introduced predators, in- spring to consider reintroduction to sum exists as a number of discrete cluding the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) suitable habitat within their former populations isolated from each other and the cat (Felis catus). range. The exercise highlighted the on mountaintops. A total of seven Wild and captive populations of need for a combination of management populations, ranging from 20 to 850 the eastern barred bandicoot were actions, rather than any single action, individuals (representing the situation simulated. Modeling the wild popu- to prevent the almost certain extinction in the wild) was modeled. High prob- lation using available data without of the wild population under the exist- abilities of extinction were observed any change to current management ing management regime. Reduction of in small (<150 animals) populations indicated 100% probability of extinc- mortality by predator control and traf- at 25 and 50 years; this could account tion within 25 years, with a mean time fic management is essential for the sur- for the absence of the species from to extinction of 7.2 years (+ 2.1). vival of the eastern barred bandicoot. apparently suitable habitat within its Doubling the carrying capacity and Captive management will be an im-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 139 portant part of the recovery program, carrying capacity to 50 under current any prior experience with PVA. Or- but with a more intensive program conditions somewhat surprisingly did ganization was rated as very good to than that currently underway. not increase the probability of extinc- excellent by participants. The key to tion over 50 years, although genetic success was the large number of mi- Orange-bellied parrot variability was greatly diminished. crocomputers available so that two to The biology and ecology of the or- As would be expected, increasing the three people per computer was pos- ange-bellied parrot is comparatively carrying capacity to 500 birds further sible. Presentations were rated as well known (Loyn et al. 1986). The reduced the prospects of extinction very good to excellent. species is one of the rarest and most and greatly increased the genetic vari- The workshop format was con- threatened birds in Australia, with a ability of the population. When mod- sidered to be a highly successful way total population of 150 to 200 indi- eled with an increased juvenile mor- of presenting PVA. PVA was consid- viduals. The orange-bellied parrot tality rate (75% of 50%), the popula- ered to be a useful tool to aid threat- breeds in coastal southwest Tasma- tion with the reduced carrying capac- ened species management, providing nia in woodlands adjoining extensive ity showed a 70% probability of ex- its application and limitations were sedgelands. After breeding, it mi- tinction within 50 years, while the understood. PVA can focus attention grates across Bass Strait to overwin- current and increased carrying capac- on questions that should be addressed ter in coastal regions of southern ity populations showed extinction through additional research. PVA can mainland Australia. The birds feed probabilities of 20% within that time. be applied to well-studied taxa, and the in a variety of coastal habitats includ- Imposing a capture and release cap- general principles can be applied more ing grassland, saltmarsh, and dune tive breeding program on the popu- widely to other taxa providing program systems, showing strong preferences lations only slightly decreased the characteristics are kept in perspective. for particular habitats and food types extinction probability of the reduced All participants would recommend in different parts of their winter range carrying capacity, high mortality PVA as a management tool. and at different times of the year. An population, but greatly improved the estimated 40 breeding pairs annually heterozygosity in the reduced carry- Conclusions produce a total of 50 to 70 juveniles. ing capacity, current mortality popu- The PVA workshop proved a very The orange-bellied parrot is consid- lation. No extinctions occurred in the useful way of quickly learning a new ered endangered. Loss of coastal current and increased carrying capac- technique for threatened species man- habitat for development and trapping ity populations even at the high mor- agement and conservation. PVA was for the aviculture trade are considered tality levels, when simulated with applied to six species allowing a criti- to be the primary causes of the spe- supplementation from a captive cal, quantitative analysis of extinction cies' past decline. Pressures for de- breeding program. The simulations probabilities, as well as exploring velopment on or adjacent to its main indicate several points. Juvenile management options to prevent spe- wintering areas and habitat alteration mortality is of great significance to cies loss. PVA results will be used in are now the main threat to its survival. the health of the population. Any in- forthcoming management plans and A captive breeding program is now crease above the present rate of 50% actions directed towards restoring underway to ensure the future sur- greatly increases the probability of these species to a status from which vival of the species. extinction, even with an enhanced they will be relatively immune to ex- Populations were modeled using habitat carrying capacity. The cap- tinction form random processes. In the current carrying capacity (150), a tive breeding program is an impor- the future, it can be expected that reduced carrying capacity (50), and tant back-up to the wild population, PVAs will be carried out on additional an increased carrying capacity (500). and will be extremely valuable if the endangered species to help manage Simulations, which involved varying wild population declines. their recovery. mortality, capture, and supplementation rates of the wild population, were Evaluation of the workshop Acknowledgements run for all carrying capacities. Simu- An evaluation was considered to be Several people and organizations lating the existing population using an important part of the workshop. made this workshop a success. Rod current data and management regimes All participants rated the background Gowans, DCE; Gerry Griffin, ZBV; indicated that the species would re- material supplied prior to the work- Pam Parker and George Rabb, CZS, main extant over the next 50 years at shop as good to very good. Provi- supported the idea and supplied re- least, and stood a good chance of sur- sion of background material was es- sources and staff time to permit its viving for 100 years. Reducing the sential as very few participants had realization. Gary Backhouse, DCE,

140 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 and Amanda Embury, ZBV organized sis. Endangered Species UPDATE tions. Chicago Zoological Society, the workshop. The Wildlife Informa- 6(10):15-18. Brookfield, Illinois. Grier, J.W. 1980a. Ecology: A simulation Loyn, R.H., B.A. Lane, C. Chandler, and G.W. tion Management Unit of DCE ac- model for small populations of animals. Carr. 1986. Ecology of Orange-bellied Par- quired and set up the equipment. Creative Computing 6:116-121. rots Neophema chrysogaster at their main Each of the species teams contributed Grier, J.W. 1980b. Modeling approaches to remnant wintering site. Emu 86(4):195- information for this paper, and Simon bald eagle population dynamics. Wildlife 206. Bennett, DCE, contributed the equip- Society Bulletin 8:316-322. Mansergh, I.M. 1989. The ecology and con- Grier, J.W. and J.H. Barclay. 1988. Dynam- servation of the Mountain Pygmy-possum ment section. David Baker-Gabb and ics of founder populations established by (Burramys parvus) in Victoria with com- Andrew Bennett, DCE, reviewed an reintroduction. Pp. 689-701. in T.J. Cade, parisons to populations in New South earlier draft and Denise Casey and J.H. Enderson, C.G. Thelander, and C.M. Wales. PhD thesis, LaTrobe University, Cathy Patrick, Northern Rockies Con- White, eds. Peregrine Falcon Populations: Victoria. Their Management and Recovery. The Per- Samson, F.B. 1985. Minimum viable popula- servation Cooperative, USA, critically egrine Fund, Boise, Idaho. tions — a review. Natural Areas Journal reviewed the final manuscript. Lacy, R.C., N.R. Flesness, and U.S. Seal. 1989 3(3):15-23. Puerto Rican Parrot Population Viability Seal, U.S. and R.C. Lacy. 1989. Florida Pan- Literature cited Analysis. Report to the U.S. Fish and Wild- ther Population Viability Analysis. Report Brussard, P.F. 1985. Minimum viable popu- life Service. Captive Breeding Specialist to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Cap- lations: How many are too few? Restora- Group, Species Survival Commission, tive Breeding Specialist Group, Species tion and Management Notes 3(1):21-25. IUCN, Apple Valley, Minnesota. Survival Commission, IUCN, Apple Val- Clark, T.W. and J.H. Seebeck, eds. 1990. Lacy, R.C. and T.W. Clark. 1990. Population ley, Minnesota. Management and Conservation of Small viability assessment of the Eastern Barred Shaffer, M.L. 1981. Minimum population Populations. Chicago Zoological Society, Bandicoot in Victoria. Pp. 131-146 in T.W. sizes for species conservation. Bioscience Brookfield, Illinois. Clark and J.H. Seebeck, eds. The Manage- 31(2):131-134. Gilpin, M. 1989. Population viability analy- ment and Conservation of Small Popula-

Red hills salamander (Pseudotriton ruber) by C.K. Dodd, Jr., USFWS.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 141 Towards an Endangered Species Reintroduction Paradigm

Richard P. Reading Denver Zoological Foundation, 2900 East 23rd Avenue, Denver, CO 80205 [email protected] Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Stephen R. Kellert Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 [email protected]

Abstract Reintroduction programs are becoming increasingly more common, but most fail. We suggest that one reason for this lack of success is a narrow focus on biological and technical aspects of the reintroduction challenge to the exclusion of other important elements. We provide a more holistic paradigm for approaching reintroductions that centers on key actors who influence, and are influenced by a continuum of variables. Our model includes four classes of interacting variables: (1) biological considerations (ecology, genetic concerns, reintroduction techniques, etc.); (2) issues of authority and power (control of resources, laws and regulations, relations between actors, etc.); (3) organizational aspects (program structure, bureaucratic behavior, organizational cultures, etc.); and (4) socioeconomic considerations (people's values, attitudes, and perceptions, economics concerns, etc.). This model can aid people interested in reintroductions become more successful. More comprehensive approaches to reintroduction promise to improve success rates.

Introduction In fact, numerous non-biological fac- nomic, organizational, and political In response to the current extinction tors and forces have direct, immediate (power/authority) aspects, as well as crisis, managers and conservationists and paramount significance to endan- biological sciences and technical as- are searching for innovative, more gered species recovery, and if the con- pects. A broadly applicable paradigm effective methods of species conser- servation movement is to be effective, for the reintroduction of endangered vation. One such method is the trans- it must explicitly recognize the com- species promises to enhance success location or reintroduction of species plexly interactive impacts and contri- rates greatly by providing managers into formerly occupied habitat. As butions of all the various dimensions." and conservationists with a frame- the list of threatened and endangered Kellert (1985:528) also noted: work for guiding future species' re- species lengthens, the need for em- "A compelling rationale and an effec- introductions. The paradigm can both ploying reintroduction as a conservative strategy for protecting endan- expedite the restoration process and tion tool increases (Jones 1990). gered species will require recognition render it more comprehensive, sys- Most reintroductions, however, that contemporary extinction prob- tematic, and rational. fail (Griffith et al. 1989). One rea- lems are the result of socioeconomic son for this, we suggest, is that the and political forces." It has been our Reintroduction paradigm programs suffer from a narrow con- experience that these important ele- Key actors are the focus, or center, of centration on biological and ecologi- ments often go unrecognized by most the model (Figure 1). The key actors cal considerations and exclude a host individuals working on endangered influence, and are influenced by, sev- of other equally important elements. species reintroduction efforts. eral variables associated with reintro- As Clark (1989:3) stated: "Most de- To increase awareness and under- ductions. Key actors are usually easy scriptions of endangered species re- standing of the importance of these to identify in specific programs. Al- covery focus only on the biology of elements, we are developing a sys- though the variables form a continuum species, thus creating the unrealistic tematic, more holistic approach to of influencing factors that affect each view that conservation and recovery endangered species reintroduction other in complex ways, we distinguish are strictly technical biological tasks. which explicitly includes socioeco- four variable classes: (1) biological/

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1991, 8(11):1-4.

142 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 technical; (2) authority/power; (3) so- area given the characteristics of the duction techniques. Kleiman (1989) cioeconomic; and (4) organizational organism and the ecosystem with and Griffith et al. (1989) identify sev- (Figure 1). These are briefly described which it is associated (Griffith et eral important aspects of reintroduc- below. Several variables important to al.1989). Important considerations tion techniques, including a well man- species recovery were previously iden- include autecology (e.g., life history aged, self-sustaining source popula- tified and discussed by Clark and characteristics, habitat requirements, tion, release site preparation, prepara- Kellert (1988), Clark (1989), and scarcity), population ecology (e.g., tion and training of animals to be re- Kellert and Clark (1991). demographics, genetics, dispersal), leased, and demographic and genetic and community ecology (e.g., preda- considerations in animal selection. Biological/technical aspects tor/prey relations, competition, biotic Getting the biology and technical Booth (1988:241) summed up part of and abiotic interactions; Stanley-Price considerations right is, in itself, a diffi- the difficulty of restoring endangered 1989; Kleiman 1989). Because of the cult and demanding job. Obtaining and species: "[A] continuing problem rarity of most endangered species, using this information at the right time with reintroductions is that biologists pertinent information is often absent and in the right way only compounds must often contend with manipulat- and not easily obtained (i.e. techni- the species restoration challenge. ing a dwindling species they do not cal uncertainty). However, time is at fully understand. Wild animals in a premium and conservationists must Authority/power aspects wild settings have a way of upsetting proceed in the face of uncertainty In any situation where multiple ac- the best laid plans." using the best available data. tors are working toward a common Reintroduction is often an uncer- In addition to ecological consid- goal, issues of authority and power tain, risky venture. Indeed, Griffith erations, plans must address reintro- arise and can potentially dominate the et al. (1989) found that most past reintroduction attempts failed, Figure 1. Universe of Reintroduction Paradigm Considerations. and Kleiman (1989:152) suggested that "high costs, logistical difficulties, and BIOLOGICAL/TECHNICAL ASPECTS the shortage of suitable Autecology habitats make reintro- Population Ecology duction unfeasible as a Community Ecology conservation strategy Habitat Considerations Reintroduction Techniques for most rare and en- Etc. dangered species held in captivity." Never- AUTHORITY/ ORGANIZATIONAL theless, several reintro- POWER ASPECTS KEY ACTORS ASPECTS ductions occur each Legal Authority Federal Agencies Organizational Context year and many more Charismatic Authority State Agencies Bureaucratic Behavior are planned. Of all the Traditional Authority Local Agencies Intra-Agency Relations factors influencing en- Power Universities Interagency Relations Resource Distribution Public Personnel dangered species rein- Etc. NGOs Etc. troduction success, the biological and technical aspects are the most ob- SOCIOECONOMIC ASPECTS vious and most often Values & Attitudes stressed (see almost any Norms & Customs U.S. Fish and Wildlife Demographic & Geographic Variation Service Recovery Plan). Economic Considerations Moral/Ethical Issues Plans must care- Etc. fully consider prospects for the species' survival in the release

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 143 interactive process. Endangered spe- kinds of authority, and their interactions equacy (see Clark et al. 1989). cies recovery programs are no differ- can lead to unproductive conflict. Since several organizations often ent. For example, in the California Resource distribution and power participate in endangered species re- condor (Gymnogyps californianus) regimes are closely related to con- covery efforts, organizational consid- case, Snyder and Snyder (1989:176) cepts of authority, and to each other. erations should be given explicit pro- observed that: "The process of at- Resources include money, personnel, fessional attention because they can tempting to preserve this species has knowledge or expertise, land tenure, affect the success of these programs. been as much a political as a biologi- and, importantly, control of the ani- Understanding organizations permits cal endeavor and has involved end- mals to be reintroduced. In some pro- description, diagnosis, and prescrip- less polemics, confrontations, and grams, conflict centers on who has tion of situations and problems en- debates, as well as endlessly shifting authority over the animals and the countered within them (Gordon alliances, as old controversies have decision-making process surrounding 1983). Even apparently technical been resolved and new issues have the animals. Power both determines problems may have unrecognized arisen." Endangered species pro- and is determined by the control of organizational biases because of the grams tend to be characterized by these resources and by authority high uncertainty and wide decision- broad participation, high visibility, (Lindblom 1980). Power maintained making latitude characteristic of en- and large financial resources. In ad- in the absence of legal authority of- dangered species recovery programs dition, the restrictive nature of the ten results in charismatic or tradi- (Yaffee 1982; Clark 1989). The in- Endangered Species Act (ESA) often tional authority dominating a pro- ability of the black-footed ferret mobilizes libertarians, agricultural gram, which, in turn, often evolves (Mustela nigripes) recovery program interests, natural resource extractors, into legal authority. to maintain a wild population of fer- and others fearful of losing traditional For these and other reasons, lo- rets was at least partially attributable power or authority (Yaffee 1982; cal people, organizations and indi- to organizational failures (see Clark Reading and Kellert 1993). The in- viduals staffing many restoration pro- and Westrum 1987; Clark et al.1989). terplay of organizations, laws, tradi- grams are constantly vying for power An organization, especially a tional roles, and power differentials and authority. Factors influencing the government-dominated bureaucracy can result in power struggles and power structure and power relations has several dimensions. First, there ideological conflicts, which can signifi- of local communities and organiza- is the context of the organization, in- cantly limit the effectiveness of the tions include the land tenure patterns, cluding its internal and external en- overall program and in some instances access to, and control over, resources, vironments, its structure, its culture, potentially cripple the entire reintroduc- property relations, social stratification, its goal orientation, and the charac- tion effort (e.g., see Kohm 1990). and traditional authority (Clarke and teristics of its personnel. The inter- Authority relationships and McCool 1985; Kellert and Clark 1991). nal environment is shaped by several power dynamics among key actors factors, including specialization and evolve as programs are carried out, Organizational aspects interdependence, competition and although in many instances, tradi- A major variable in the success or conflict, status equalization, and over tional inter-organizational relations failure of a restoration effort is the staffing (Warwick 1975). Factors and preexisting laws, regulations, and kind of organizational system used. shaping an organization's external mandates are set and strongly influ- As Clark and Cragun (1991:1) con- environment include complexity, un- ence the development of inter-actor cluded: "Understanding your organi- certainty, threat, dispersion, diversity, relations. Weber (1968) recognizes zation and knowing how to make it and change (Warwick 1975; Gordon three types of authority: (1) legal work for species recovery can make 1983). An organization's culture and authority, in which legitimacy is the difference between a program that its goal orientation are derived from based on formal laws rules and regu- succeeds and one that fails." The or- philosophies, legislation, policies, lations; (2) traditional authority, ganizational dimension is perhaps the and the kind of professionals it has wherein legitimacy rests with tradi- least explicitly perceived and under- as staff (Byars 1984). tion, custom, or loyalty; and (3) char- stood of the four variable classes by Second, and closely related to ismatic authority, which finds legiti- people involved in species restora- organization context, are variables macy in devotion based on perceptions tion. This fact has profound implica- associated with bureaucratic behav- of exceptional qualities of leaders by tions for the kind of organizational ior. These include policy formation their followers or subjects. Any resto- system used to restore a species and and implementation, managerial or- ration program can contain all three its effectiveness efficiency, and ad- thodoxy or obedience, standard op-

144 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 erating procedures (SOPs), degree of important to a wolf lover or a darter cal, ecological, biological, recre- organizational conservativeness, and supporter. But if the general percep- ational, cultural, utilitarian, genetic, constituency/public relations (Yaffee tion runs against an animal or plant's and unknown or undiscovered values 1982; Gordon 1983). Within agen- continued survival, all the biological (Ehrenfeld 1976; Ehrlich et al. 1977; cies, formal policies are often signifi- data in the world will be useless Rolston 1981; Kellert 1987). The cantly altered by substantial discre- against the perception." perceived worth of a species is, in tion in implementation and adminis- A systematic examination of so- turn, often based on knowledge of the tration, which exists because cioeconomic aspects is necessary to species, moral and ethical issues (i.e. policymakers lack the technical understand the values, attitudes, and animal rights), and traditional mar- knowledge to specify implementation perceptions held by people involved ket values (i.e. pelt values). Local policies (Lindblom 1980; Yaffee with, and potentially influenced by, norms and customs can also play a 1982). Finally, organizations are sen- endangered species reintroductions. strong role in shaping attitudes and sitive to external pressures from con- Such considerations are usually lack- values, especially in the absence of trollers, clientele groups, constituen- ing or insufficient in endangered spe- accurate knowledge. Variations in cies, allies, and adversaries (Yaffee cies management efforts (Kellert 1985). norms and customs often follow de- 1982; Warwick 1975). This is why Local support is crucial. The ex- mographic and geographic patterns. restoration programs rapidly bureau- perimental reintroduction of eastern Values and attitudes towards en- cratize even to the point of stifling timber wolves (Canis lupes lycaen) dangered species in general, the ESA, creativity and problem solving (see into the Upper Peninsula of Michi- and endangered species recovery pro- Clark and Westrum 1987). gan during the mid-1970s illustrates grams are also important. Threatened The last category of organiza- this. All four wolves were killed or endangered status elicits fear and tional variables is inter- and intra- within eight months of being released. hostility among certain sectors of so- agency relations. Agency relations Hook and Robinson (1982:382) ex- ciety (e.g., agricultural interests) and often deal with the authority and amined local attitudes following the compassion support among others power issues discussed above, but release and suggested that "the wolf's (e.g., members of conservation orga- difficulties may arise from differences future in Michigan depends upon the nizations; Reading and Kellert 1993). in the organization characteristics men- attitudes of Michigan residents to- Negative attitudes are often based on tioned above. In addition, organiza- ward this animal." Assessing public real and perceived fears of the restrictions often struggle for control of com- views and knowledge of wildlife per- tive components of the ESA, which munication (Weinstein 1984). mits program managers to design per- many people view as a threat to their The kind of organization that tinent and effective public relations livelihoods and lifestyles, on nega- dominates nearly all endangered spe- campaigns to develop support and to tive attitudes toward wildlife, and on cies restoration efforts is conserva- enable people to make more rational the effects of past recovery programs tive, government bureaucracies with and intelligent decisions (Kellert and (Reading and Kellert 1993). Positive fixed SOPs. In some cases, power Berry 1980; Reading and Kellert 1993). attitudes are often rooted in recogni- differentials and states' rights versus A number of factors influence tion of, and concern for, the loss of federalism ideology can come to people's attitudes and values towards biodiversity and positive attitudes to- dominate the kinds and frequency of wildlife, including many character- ward wildlife (Kellert 1985). interactions among the program's or- istics of the species (e.g., phylogeny, Finally, there are economic as- ganizational actors (Ernst 1990). In morphology, size, sentient capacity), pects. In spite of their importance, turn, this has major implications for the perceived worth of the animal, most of the values of species conser- the actual work of restoring the en- and its symbolic nature (Kellert and vation are difficult to quantify and dangered species. Berry 1980). It is far easier to gain therefore often ignored. Costs asso- support for species with high public ciated with reintroduction, however, Socioeconomic aspects appeal (i.e. the 'charismatic are more easily ascertained and more The socioeconomic context of the megafauna') than for lesser-known often stressed. Bishop (1978) endangered species reintroduction and so-called 'lower' life forms stresses the irreversibility of extinc- effort is critical to the performance (Westman 1990). Values of wildlife tion and its implications in terms of of the program. For example, Tilt and attitudes toward wildlife are unknown future losses. He suggests (1989:38) observed that: "The gen- strongly influenced by the perceived that society should avoid extinction eral public's perception of an endan- economic or material worth of the unless the costs of maintaining viable gered species issue may not seem animal. These include aesthetic, ethi- populations are unacceptably large.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 145 Conclusions Clark, T.W. 1989. Conservation biology of the Westview Press Inc., Boulder, Colorado. As reintroductions become more im- black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). Kellert, S.R. and J.K. Berry. 1980. Knowl- Wildlife Preservation Trust International edge, affection and basic attitudes toward portant in endangered species conser- Special Scientific Report 3:1-175. animals in American society. Supt. Docu- vation and management, the need for Clark, T.W. and J.R. Cragun. 1991. Organi- ments, U.S. Government Printing Office, more systematic, holistic reintroduc- zation and management of endangered spe- Washington, D.C. tion efforts grows. Such efforts cies programs. Endangered Species UP- Kellert, S.R. and T.W. Clark. 1991. The theory should address the socioeconomic, DATE 8(8):1-4. and application of a wildlife policy frame- Clark, T.W., R. Crete, and J. Cada. 1989. De- work. Pp. 17-36 in W.R. Mangun and S.S. political, and organizational aspects signing and managing successful endan- Nagel, eds. Public policy and wildlife con- of species reintroductions more com- gered species recovery programs. Environ. servation. Greenwood Press, New York. prehensively, rather than focusing Manage. 13:159-170. Kleiman, D.G. 1989. Reintroduction of cap- strictly on biology, as is currently the Clark, T.W. and S.R. Kellert. 1988. Toward a tive mammals for conservation: Guidelines policy paradigm of the wildlife sciences. for reintroducing endangered species into case. All the variables discussed Renewable Resources Journal 6:7-16. the wild. BioScience 39:152-161. above affect the success of reintro- Clark, T.W. and R. Westrum. 1987. Paradigms Kohm, K.A. 1990. Balancing on the brink of duction programs. Incorporation of and ferrets. Social Studies Science 3:3-33. extinction: The Endangered Species Act these variables into reintroduction Clarke, J.N. and D. McCool. 1985. Staking and lessons for the future. Island Press, efforts promises to minimize prob- out the terrain: Power differentials among Washington, D.C. natural resource management agencies. Lindblom, C.E. 1980. The policy-making pro- lems, barriers, and conflicts, and en- Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, cess. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, ables the program to draw upon the Maryland. New Jersey. constructive expertise of each key Ehrenfeld, D. 1976. The conservation of Reading, R.P. and S.R. Kellert. 1993. Atti- actor involved. It is crucial that rein- non-resources. American Scientist 64:648- tudes toward a proposed black-footed fer- 656. ret (Mustela nigripes) reintroduction. Con- troduction plans address these as- Ehrlich, P.R., A.H. Ehrlich, and J.P. Holdren. servation Biology 7:569-580. pects to ensure orientation of all the 1977. Ecoscience: Population, resources, Rolston, H. 1981. Values in nature. Environ- actors toward successful reintroduc- environment. W .H. Freeman and Co., San mental Ethics 3:113-128. tion and rapid, efficient movement Francisco. Snyder, N.F.R. and H.A. Snyder. 1989. Biol- toward that goal. Ernst, J.P. 1990. Federalism and the Act. Pp ogy and conservation of the California con- 98-113 in K.A. Kohm, ed. Balancing on the dor. Current Ornithological Research brink of extinction: The Endangered Spe- 6:175-267. Acknowledgments cies Act and lessons for the future. Island Stanley-Price, M.R. 1989. Animal re-intro- Support of this work comes from Press, Washington, D.C. ductions: The Arabian oryx in Oman. Cam- World Wildlife Fund-U.S., the Gordon, J.R. 1983. A diagnostic approach to bridge University Press, New York. organizational behavior. Allyn and Bacon, Tilt, W. 1989. The biopolitics of endangered Fanwood Foundation, Lost Arrow Inc., Boston. species. Endangered Species UPDATE Corporation, Catherine Patrick Foun- Griffith, B., J.M. Scott, J.W. Carpenter, and 6:35-39. dation (all to the Northern Rockies C. Reed. 1989. Translocation as a species Wargo, J. 1984. Ecosystem preservation Conservation Cooperative), the Na- conservation tool: Status and strategy. Sci- policy. Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, tional Fish and Wildlife Foundation, ence 345:447-480. New Haven, Connecticut. Hook, R.A. and W.L. Robinson. 1982. Atti- Warwick, D. 1975. A theory of public bureau- the Chicago Zoological Society, The tudes of Michigan citizens toward preda- cracy: Politics, personality, and organiza- World Society for the Preservation of tors. Pp. 382-394 in F.H. Harrington and tions. Harvard University Press, Cam- Animals, the Montana Bureau of Land P.C. Paquet, eds. Wolves of the world: Per- bridge, Massachusetts. Management, and the Montana Depart- spectives of behavior, ecology, and conser- Weber, M. 1968. Economy and society: An vation. Park Ridge, New Jersey. outline of interpretive sociology. Vol. I. ment of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks. Jones, S.R. 1990. Captive propagation and Bedminster Press, New York. Denise Casey reviewed the manuscript. reintroduction: A strategy for preserving en- Weinstein, D. 1984. Bureaucratic opposition: dangered species? Endangered Species Whistle-blowing and other tactics. Pp. 254- Literature cited UPDATE Special Issue, University of 268 in R. Westrum and K. Samaha, eds. Bishop, R.C. 1978. Endangered species and Michigan School of Natural Resources, Complex organizations: Growth, struggle, uncertainty: The economics of a safe mini- Ann Arbor, MI. 88 pp. and change. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood mum standard. Journal of Agricultural Eco- Kellert, S.R. 1985. Social and perceptual fac- Cliffs, New Jersey. nomics 60:10-18. tors in endangered species management. Westman, W.E. 1990. Managing for Booth, W. 1988. Reintroducing a political Journal of Wildlife Management 49:528- biodiversity: Unresolved science and policy animal. Science 241:156-158. 536. questions. BioScience 38:778-785. Byars, L.L. 1984. Strategic management: Kellert, S.R. 1987. The contributions of wild- Yaffee, S.L. 1982. Prohibitive policy: Imple- Planning and implementation (cases and life to human quality of life. Pp. 222-229 menting the federal Endangered Species concepts). Harper and Row Publ., Inc., in D.J. Decker and G.R. Goff, eds. Valuing Act. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachu- New York. wildlife: Economic and social perspectives. setts.

146 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Implementing Endangered Species Recovery Policy: Learning As We Go?

Abstract Endangered species recovery programs face many challenges; chief among them is the implementation challenge. Implementation is a complex, dynamic, and multifaceted task requiring skilled leadership, an effective problem solving heuristic, and the capacity to learn and change course as feedback suggests. In contrast, too often technically-oriented participants often assume that endangered species recovery is a purely biological problem and thus overlook the many extra-biological dimensions. For example, these participants and the overall recovery programs may not pay attention to critical policy and organizational variables that ultimately determine if the program succeeds or fails. Examples from the endangered black-footed ferret recovery program identify and describe four aspects of recovery programs that directly complicate implementation challenges. First is the inherent "complexity of cooperation" among multiple participants involved. They often have distinct, different perspectives and use contradictory criteria by which success is measured. Second is "goal displacement" wherein the species conservation task is replaced by bureaucratic imperatives such as control and power goals. Third is the use of "inappropriate organizational structures" to interrelate the work, workers, and the species/environment. And fourth is "intelligence failures and delays" wherein key information is overlooked, underappreciated, or not obtained and used at all. This and other factors lead to costly delays. Learning from these four kinds of problems and avoiding them requires professionals and leaders to use knowledge from policy process and organizational design fields, subjects typically not taught in conventional conservation biology programs. A commitment to learning and problem solving can help recovery programs avoid common implementation mistakes and achieve a successful species conservation outcome.

Introduction recovery primarily as a biological prob- Participants in recovery pro- Those involved in endangered species lem. They have generally given much grams often view the problems they recovery programs often face ex- less explicit attention to policy and or- encounter as unique to their species tremely complex situations as they ganizational variables in recovery pro- and their program. But problems tackle the nuts-and-bolts work of sav- grams, instead attributing problems stemming from inappropriate organi- ing species. Recovery programs that simply to bad luck, lack of resources, zational and decision-making ar- have developed over the last 15 years "politics," or uncommitted individuals rangements may be more generic and have had to deal with technically de- in other organizations. Yet the organi- prevalent than is currently recognized manding biological tasks and uncer- zational arrangements, decision-mak- in recovery efforts. By looking at tainties, limited resources, numerous ing processes, and other policy vari- these programs through a policy and participants, and intense public scru- ables affecting recovery programs can organizational framework, common tiny and involvement, among many be as critical to success as technical and patterns may be detected which would other difficulties. These factors com- biological tools. A better understand- otherwise remain underappreciated or bine to make species recovery a coming of the policy and organizational invisible. Lack of attention to these plicated, interactive, technical, and ad- dimensions of endangered species aspects of recovery can result in in- ministrative challenge. Professionals work could greatly enhance the effec- effective and inefficient programs, working in these programs often view tiveness of many recovery programs. and ultimately in species extinction.

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1988, 5(10):35-42.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 147 With so much at stake, it is impera- paper were apparent throughout the life Service's (FWS) Redbook of En- tive to develop a framework for past 15 years. Our use of the ferret dangered Species in 1964, and it was analysis and to learn from past and case history could be misunderstood placed in the FWS endangered spe- ongoing recovery efforts in order to as blame finding and negative, and cies priorities list in 1976. It is a soli- improve future programs. in fact, we have been urged to forget tary, nocturnal carnivore preying al- Notable successes have been past, acknowledged implementation most exclusively on prairie dogs achieved in many recovery programs. mistakes. We feel strongly, however, (Cynomys sp.). The ferret spends al- For example, the American alligator that unless these persistent features most all of its time below ground in (A11igator mississippiensis) recov- of implementation are scrutinized and prairie dog burrows where it hunts ered rapidly in many parts of its range given some meaning through a policy and finds shelter. In the 137 years as a result of federal and state protec- and organizational framework, they since the ferret's scientific discovery, tion under the Endangered Species will never be recognized for what only two small populations have ever Act (ESA) (Endangered Species they are and managed effectively. By been studied — one in South Dakota Technical Bulletin 1985). Yet many using the ferret example as illustra- (1964-1974) and the second near accounts of endangered species re- tion, we are not implying that it is an Meeteetse, Wyoming (1981-1987). covery programs refer to implemen- especially good or bad program. Both wild populations are now extinct. tation difficulties encountered by par- Rather, we suggest that the examples In 1920, an estimated one mil- ticipants (e.g., Duff 1976; Carr 1986; may be representative of the implemen- lion ferrets existed in 40 million hect- Askins 1987). In this paper, we dis- tation problems found in many recov- ares of habitat (prairie dog colonies) cuss four common features of recovery programs, and that the lessons to over 12 states and two Canadian ery programs that have led to imple- be learned from examining them can provinces (Anderson et al. 1986). mentation problems. First, species be useful in many other cases. Widespread and long-lasting prairie recovery is a tremendously compli- In the second section of the pa- dog poisoning programs, with the cated task, often involving numerous per we suggest ways to improve the goal of rangeland improvement, de- participants who must somehow in- policy, organizational, and individual stroyed ferret habitat. This loss, com- tegrate their diverse perspectives into dimensions of recovery program bined with other factors, such as dis- a workable program. Second, these implementation. Recovery programs eases, pushed ferrets to the edge of participants often have conflicting are an implementation device in the extinction by 1980. In fact, many goals, some of which have more to larger policy process, and participants people and agencies considered the do with controlling the recovery coa- must have knowledge of this process. ferret extinct by that time. lition than saving the species. Third, The organizational dimension in- The Meeteetse ferrets were dis- explicit consideration of organiza- volves the structure and management covered serendipitously: a ranch dog tional structure appropriate to the task of the recovery program itself, includ- killed a dispersing male. The source of saving species is rare; recovery ing such factors as who is permitted population of ferrets was found programs tend to develop into tradi- to participate, how information is nearby occupying 37 prairie dog colo- tional hierarchical bureaucracies. gathered and used, how authority and nies (about 3,000 ha) scattered over Fourth, intelligence failures and pro- control over the program are allo- about 260 square kilometers on nine gram delays often occur because of cated, how decisions are made, and ranches in a mix of private and pub- preconceptions held by decision mak- how disagreements within the recov- lic lands. The presence of this ferret ers and the large number of "clear- ery coalition are resolved. The indi- population surprised everyone. A few ances" required in programs with viduals who make up recovery teams months after the discovery, the FWS multiple participants. are part of these policy and organiza- transferred authority for the ferret re- To illustrate our points, we draw tional dynamics and can have roles covery program to the Wyoming on examples from the ongoing black- of influence. Careful attention to all Game and Fish Department. Ferret footed ferret recovery effort, which these overlapping and interactive el- ecology and behavior were exten- has much public and professional at- ements is essential. sively studied, as ferrets were ob- tention. Even though we focus on the served directly, tracked in snow, and recovery effort in the years 1981 The black-footed ferret story radio-collared. Spotlight surveys through 1986, from the discovery of The black-footed ferret (Mustela each summer revealed peak annual the Meeteetse population until its ex- nigripes) is the most critically endan- numbers (1984, 129 ferrets including tinction in the wild, the four imple- gered mammal in North America. It 25 litters). Annual ferret losses were mentation themes addressed in this was listed in the U.S. Fish and Wild- high, about 50-90+ % (Forrest et al.

148 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 1988). By early July 1985, counts Union for the showed a much lower population than Conservation of in all previous years (58, including Nature and 13 litters). By early September, mark/ Natural Re- recapture population estimates sources' (IUCN) showed that the population had de- Captive Breed- clined to 31±8 ferrets. By early Oc- ing Specialist tober, the population had declined to Group entered 16±5. And by November, only about the ferret recov- six ferrets were thought to remain in ery program in the wild. The catastrophic loss of an advisory role, about 150 ferrets between fall 1984 bringing consid- and fall 1985 was documented. Dur- erable technical ing July to September 1985, ferrets information and Black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) by Richard P. Reading. were lost at the rate of one every two expertise to the to three days. The decline was captive breeding program. The cap- already difficult biological task thought to be caused by canine dis- tive population is presently held in a (Harvey 1987). This is not to argue temper, a disease 100% fatal to fer- single location in Wyoming. The that participation should be limited to rets. Techniques were developed to agencies responsible for the ferrets only a few. To the contrary, a multi- locate ferrets and extensive searches are planning to divide the population plicity of participants provides an es- were conducted over several states. in order to minimize the chances of sential diversity of knowledge, skills, No ferrets or recent sign were found. the entire population being elimi- and perspectives as well as a useful During the fall of 1985, six nated by a disease epidemic or other system of checks and balances that Meeteetse ferrets were captured to catastrophe (Oakleaf 1988). The par- contribute significantly to recovery. prevent loss of the species. These ticipants in the ferret program hope But to capture these needed interests ferrets were housed in close proxim- to use captive-bred ferrets to establish and skills and meld them into produc- ity, and two ferrets infected with ca- a second or third captive breeding tive, coordinated action requires a nine distemper transmitted it to the colony in other states in late 1988, and carefully constructed and managed other four. A1l six died shortly there- an Interstate Coordinating Committee program and an explicit and effective after. Another six were hastily cap- has been formed to identify potential decision and policy process. tured and housed individually; all reintroduction sites (Thorne 1988). Each participating organization survived. These six, added to the six in a recovery program possesses a thought to exist in the wild, consti- Implementation problems in distinct perspective from which it tuted the world's known population recovery programs sees the program, its operation, and — about 12 individuals in early 1986. 1. Complexity of cooperation: other actors. Each organization may In 1986, the six captive ferrets did not multiple participants and perspectives differ from the others in its sense of reproduce, but the six wild ferrets Like most endangered species pro- urgency about recovery of a species produced 10 young in two litters, and grams, the ferret program includes a and in its thoughts about the best lo- most were added to the captive popu- number of governmental and nongov- cation and means for recovery. For lation. This brought the world's ernmental participants, who became example, conflict arose between par- known population to 18, all in cap- involved — formally and informa1ly ticipants in the ferret case over the tivity. The captive ferrets produced — for a variety of reasons. More than question of when and where to ini- seven surviving young in two litters 20 organizations and 100 individuals tiate a captive breeding program. in 1987. No more wild ferrets were have participated in the ferret pro- Because perspectives vary so found. Breeding success was better gram since 1981. The primary par- much, the participating organizations in 1988, with 44 young in 13 litters ticipant groups are the FWS, the may have contradictory criteria by being produced. Ten of the 44 young Wyoming Game and Fish Depart- which each measures program suc- born in 1988 died. The fate of the ment, ranchers, and the conservation cess. For example, some agencies species now depends on the captive community. The management com- gauge success primarily by increases ferrets and any wild ferrets that may plexities involved in coordinating the in a species' numbers, successful cap- exist (Maguire et al. 1988). actions of multiple participants in tive breeding, or gains in data collec- In late 1985, the International wildlife programs can compound an tion leading to letter understanding of

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 149 the species' ecological requirements. from the bottom up, by those indi- found effects on task divisions, re- For others, the major criterion of suc- viduals most directly in contact with source allocations, distribution of in- cess is the degree to which they can the species, task goals tend to domi- formation, and controls, and hence on prevent public controversy or effec- nate (Daft 1983). the overall effectiveness of the pro- tively control key aspects of the pro- A conflict between task and con- gram. If task goals cannot be met or gram. Disagreement over these cri- trol goals was evident over all the are stifled because of structural con- teria has led to conflicts in recovery years of the Wyoming ferret recov- straints, then the program will falter programs, as technicians, scientists, ery program. The Wyoming Game or fail. Bureaucratization is impli- managers, and administrators seek to and Fish Department, which had been cated as a root cause of implementa- impose their readings of the "facts" given lead agency status by the FWS, tion problems (War 1975). Those and their values on other participants wanted to keep the ferrets within the who implement recovery programs (see Latour 1987). state and carry out captive breeding should give explicit consideration to only after the state had developed fa- other organizational structures, such 2. Goal displacement: task goals cilities to do so. Weinberg (1986: 65) as horizontally-coordinated task versus control goals wrote, "As [Wyoming] officials ac- forces and project teams (Clark and All participants in endangered species knowledge, they never seriously con- Cragun 1994). programs genuinely seek species re- sidered allowing ferrets to leave the Program structure is both a det- covery. Despite this common goal, site [for captive breeding]. 'We'd have riment and an outcome of organiza- however, program participants often no control over them.'" Analysis in- tional power. A structure that con- disagree about the means to achieve dicates that Wyoming's insistence on centrates decision-making authority it, for a variety of reasons: profes- controlling the program created un- and control in the hands of one sional disagreements; legal and pro- productive conflict and caused delays agency makes it easy for that agency cedural differences; differences of (Carr 1986; May 1986). to reduce or eliminate the role of other opinion on leadership and proper organizations, and to control informa- organizationa1 roles; and direct in- 3. Organizational structures tion for its own benefit. The lead compatibility of the suggested actions One major cause of a program's fail- agency in the ferret program used with other goals held by their organi- ure to meet its goals is the use of in- several widely recognized bureau- zation (or simply a preference for appropriate organizational structures cratic mechanisms (Salancik and these other goals) (see Pressman and (Hall 1987). Most recovery chal- Pfeffer 1977) to consolidate its power. Wildavsky 1973). Participants may lenges go well beyond the boundaries For example, it filled positions of try administratively to redefine the re- of any single organization. Coalitions power in its "advisory" team with its covery program to fit their own agen- are formed which must integrate di- own personnel (e.g., "chairman and cies' perspectives and priorities, which verse structures, ideologies, and stan- secretary"). By restricting permits can be quite inflexible (Yaffee 1982). dard operating procedures to meet the and limiting contact with the press, it In some cases, a very obvious common task goal. But agencies set- also controlled data generation and conflict arises between the "task goal" ting up a new recovery program rarely public access to that data. The bu- (i.e. saving the species) and the give explicit thought to how the re- reaucratic structure chosen by Wyo- "power/control goal" of some agen- covery coalition should be structured. ming helped to solidify its top-down cies (i.e. gaining and maintaining Programs are often set up along stan- control over decision making, alloca- control of the recovery program). dard bureaucratic lines, not because tion of resources, definition of par- "Goal displacement" occurs when an such an arrangement has proven to be ticipant roles, and the timing and lo- agency becomes more focused on the most effective, but because no cation of recovery activities. Unfor- power/control goals than on substan- other structure is considered. This tunately, this structure also closed the tive biological task goals. A program limits the set of ideas that seem plau- decision-making process to signifi- driven by power/control goals is sible, and that are tried. In the first cant available information and sug- likely to compromise the biological 15 months of the ferret recovery pro- gestions for solutions from both inside task goals when the two come into gram, the recovery coalition's orga- and outside participants, and reduced conflict, as they invariably will. If nizational structure evolved from a the program's ability to be creative and the organization relies on a bureau- simple matrix to a traditional bureau- responsive (see Etheredge 1985). cratic top-down style of decision cratic arrangement, where remained making, control and power goals tend (See Figure 1). 4. Intelligence failures and delays to dominate, whereas if goals are set Organizational structure has pro- Intelligence failures and delays have

150 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Figure 1. Organizational arrangements for recovery of the black-footed ferrets: (A) simple matrix; (B) complex matrix; (C) bureaucracy; (D) heightened bureaucracy (Clark and Harvey 1988).

been common problems in recovery ods and data were in error, or that the action are to be expected. When dealt programs, resulting in part from con- ferrets had migrated elsewhere with constructively, such disagree- flicts among participants, goal dis- (Weinberg 1986; Randall 1986; ments and conflicts have been valu- placement, and use of inappropriate Zimmennan 1986). able to recovery programs by provid- organizational structures. Quality A root cause of intelligence failing alternative ideas and solutions for decision making depends on intelli- ures, according to Betts (1978), is that the group to consider. But the need gence (i.e. the use of information or decision and policy makers operate to reach agreement on these points of the "acquisition, analysis, and appre- under policy premises that constrict contention has often caused delays. ciation of relevant data." (Betts perceptions and lead to "selective in- In some cases a participant who was 1978:61, emphasis in original)). attention" to facts and outright "blind- intensely opposed to a program, and Even when information is available ness" in some instances (Lasswell who had adequate resources to block to decision makers, a variety of fac- 1971; Schon 1983). These precon- it, has held up recovery actions until tors may lead them to dismiss it as ceptions can block learning, change, major concessions were made. erroneous, inaccurate, or misleading. and adaptation (Etheredge 1985). There is evidence that this oc- In the ferret program, agency officials Organizational arrangements that curred in the ferret case. Because at first discounted 1985 field data in- stifle legitimate dissenting views ex- Wyoming initially had no captive dicating that the ferret population was acerbate intelligence failures. breeding facility, resources to build in a rapid decline. Officials took the In such a difficult and uncertain one, or staff to man one, and because most sanguine view of the situation, task as recovering species, where of their agency's strong opposition to arguing that it was just a normal popu- numerous participants are involved, sending ferrets to other facilities out- lation fluctuation, that the field meth- disagreements over the best course of side Wyoming, captive breeding

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 151 could not move forward when first versity disciplines and reinforced in which can fundamentally affect the called for. Extensive bargaining over certain agency cultures and loyalties decision and policy processes and several years between Wyoming and (Brewer 1988). ultimately the outcome of a recovery other participants and the dramatic Improvements in recovery pro- program. Many of these variables collapse of the wild population en- grams are possible in three areas: involve participants' values. The sued before Wyoming initiated cap- policies, organizations, and individu- policy sciences offer analytical tools tive breeding in 1985 (Weinberg als — in addition to the constant striv- that can minimize the subjective dis- 1986; Randall 1986). ing to improve technical biological tortions and simplifications that cause Not all delays are intentional. work. The ideas presented below are many implementation problems Some delays result from the time re- a brief look at some analytical and (Lasswell 1971). The policy sciences' quired to formulate and approve plans problem solving techniques and ap- problem-solving tools are specifically and funding requests or from compet- proaches that could help to broaden designed to address both technical and ing demands on participants' time. participants' perspectives and im- value-laden issues. Policy scientists Regardless of the source, program prove their ability to adapt quickly to look at how knowledge is used in the delays are often difficult to separate the demands of species recovery. We decision and policy processes, and si- from program failures (Pressman and are aware that many recovery pro- multaneously, at how well these pro- Wildavsky 1973). Does Wyoming's grams face extreme resource short- cesses are working. By contrast, tech- move to breed ferrets in captivity, ages, and that participants may view nical experts tend to generate basic which occurred a year or two later some of these suggestions as being knowledge and pay little attention to than recommended by field teams and too time consuming and expensive to complex decision processes. conservationists (Weinberg 1986) and be practicable. We argue that these One model that could be very after the wild population had sharply ideas and techniques can help recov- useful for recovery programs is the declined, count as failure or as suc- ery programs anticipate and avoid "decision seminar," a technique de- cess? In view of the captive breed- common pitfalls that have hindered signed to allow a group of specialists ing program's results in 1988, some efficient and effective action in the and decision makers to integrate their observers may reasonably argue, past. Since we can give only the knowledge to solve complex prob- "better late than never." Although the briefest introductions to these ideas lems (Lasswell 1960; Brewer 1975). outcome of the captive breeding pro- and techniques, we urge readers to A core group of l0 to 15 participants gram to-date gives cause for opti- delve into the literature cited for more must be willing to commit the time mism, we should not assume that the thorough explanations. needed to understand the problem program's delays were of no signifi- (over months or years, if necessary), cance. If we can learn from past mis- 1. Improvements in the policy process although the seminar is also open to takes, we collectively can be more re- By policy, we mean the complex set outsiders. An explicit problem-solv- sponsive to such crises in the future. of interactive decisions and actions ing orientation is used. The group by which societies and governments maps the context of the problem and Improvements establish goals based on their values determines its vast trends, probable How can participants in recovery pro- and establish the means to reach those future outcomes, and options avail- grams begin to deal with these imple- goals (Ham and Hill 1987). It is es- able to solve the problem. The pro- mentation problems and others? To sential in defining a recovery chal- cess by which decisions are made is improve future performance in con- lenge to explore thoroughly its his- also explicitly and continuously conserving species and the ecosystems tory, scientific and management considered. Participants' independent on which they depend, appreciation text, and trends, and to identify all assessments of the problem are com- of the actual complexity of the work factors which may have a bearing on pared, common views are discussed, to be done is required. This means the success of the program. Evidence and discrepancies are considered. All developing a broad understanding of suggests that some of these factors, relevant methods for analysis of the the interactive web of biological, or- particularly policy and organizational problem are used, and new methods ganizational, and policy components variables, are underappreciated or are encouraged. When the group ar- involved. Such a "systems perspec- "invisible" to some participants. Or- rives at a decision, responsibilities for tive" can be very different from the ganization and management struc- carrying it out are assigned. Docu- conventional views held by tradi- tures, resource limitations, uncer- mentation of participants' activities tional biologists and bureaucrats, tainty, and jurisdictional and control becomes the group's "institutional views which are rooted in single uni- issues are just a few of the variables memory" (Brewer 1975). An inter-

152 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 bling information to resolve focused problem-solving orientation disputes. Analysts have ap- and has contributed greatly to the suc- plied decision analysis to the cess of the captive breeding effort. critically endangered 2. Organizational improvements Sumatran rhino The second kind of improvements (Dicerorhinus sumarensis) needed in recovery programs is or- and other species (Maguire et ganizational. Organizations are more al. 1987; Maguire et al. 1988). than just a collection of individuals; "Adaptive manage- they persist over time and have es- ment" (Hollings 1978) is a tablished norms, traditions, and ac- third way of guiding recov- tivities above and beyond the indi- Daurian pika (Ochotona daurica) by Richard P. ery group actions. From this viduals who direct and staff them. Reading. perspective, decision mak- They are major determinants of the disciplinary approach is essential. ing should be treated explicitly as a behavior of those individuals and Many recovery programs incorporate process of making mistakes and cor- major actors in policy implementa- some aspects of the decision seminar recting errors (Brewer 1988). Instead tion. The nature of endangered spe- model. But, for the most part, they of seeking and relying on a single cies recovery programs — complex, lack the explicit attention to multiple "best answer," managers should con- rapidly changing, and highly uncer- methods and the breadth of analysis sider many plausible approaches and tain — requires organizational ar- that characterize decision seminars. solutions, adapting to changes in the rangements that fit these task proper- Recovery programs, which fully problem and its context. The key to ties. Highly bureaucratized organi- adopt a decision seminar format, adaptive management is to monitor zations with rigid standard operating could be expected to improve both the outcomes of decisions carefully procedures probably lack the flexibil- their openness to problem-solving so as to learn from each and to cut ity needed. Recovery program man- techniques and their awareness of losses when solutions are not work- agers should question whether the their own decision-making processes. ing. Since recovery programs almost program's organizational structure is Another specific tool that has always involve risk and uncertainty, hindering the recovery effort. Organi- proven useful in species recovery pro- managers should use contingency zational development consultants could grams is decision analysis which al- planning to anticipate the possibility provide valuable expertise in matching lows managers to integrate ecologi- of failure. recovery program structures to organi- cal theory, objective data, subjective Through the decision seminar zational tasks and environments. judgments, and financial concerns in process, using decision analysis and An effective organization should making decisions under conditions of adaptive management, an explicit process information well and learn uncertainty (Maguire 1986). Proba- understanding can be gained not only rapidly from its own mistakes. Use- bilistic models are developed relat- of the substantive problem but of the ful organizational models for endan- ing the outcomes of alternative ac- processes most useful for solving it. gered species recovery include task tions to random events in the envi- Some movement in this direction has forces and project teams operating ronment, and probability values are occurred in the ferret program. The under adaptive management and de- assigned to each possible outcome of participation of the IUCN Captive cision seminar guidelines. (Task a decision. For example, the prob- Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) in forces tackle temporary problems, and ability of extinction of a species can the ferret recovery program since project teams address problems that be estimated under current manage- 1985 has improved the program's need long-term, continuous coordina- ment conditions and then compared technical capabilities and broadened tion; Daft 1983). A recovery team with extinction probabilities under discussion of a range of ideas and should ideally be composed of profes- different management scenarios. The problem-solving approaches. This sionals with formal training and expe- probabilities and effects of random has brought the program a little closer rience, who are focused on completing events such severe weather and dis- to the decision seminar model than it the job successfully and willing to ac- ease, and the costs of different man- was before. Although the program cept the uncertainty and risk inherent agement actions can be explicitly still functions under several policy in endangered species challenges. considered. Parties that dispute the and organizational constraints dic- Certain characteristics are key to facts can see where they agree and tated by Wyoming, CBSG's partici- the effective functioning of recovery disagree and suggest ways of assem- pation to-date has resulted in a more teams. As the recovery task and its

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 153 larger context change, the team must Ham and Hill 1987.) Individuals are ways been addressing unbounded be able to respond quickly and molded and constrained by conven- problems successfully when our ana- adaptively, using all available infor- tional experience and established lytical resources are bounded (Ascher mation. Communication practices, policy prescriptions. Analysis is of- 1986). Real improvements will come which facilitate high creativity, such ten less important than values and about by refining the conceptual tools as emotional supportiveness, brain- preconceptions as a basis for decision that enhance understanding of com- storming, and non-personally di- making, and agency structures and plex conservation problems and by rected evaluation of ideas, are help- procedures. Nevertheless, individual developing practical tools that allow ful. A willingness to examine any and performance in a recovery program the problem to be dealt with realisti- all alternatives is essential. Teams is an important factor in the success cally. A number of conceptual and must avoid "groupthink," in which of the program and it can, in many practical tools already exist but go disagreements and conflicting per- cases, be improved. largely unused. Improvements will spectives are muted in the interest of An admonishment often heard is not come quickly, even with increased maintaining group cohesion (Janis that if only individuals would act with use of these tools. There are many 1972). A strong, mutually support- more professional integrity, a pro- barriers to learning and improvement ive atmosphere in which mistakes gram could significantly be im- (Etheredge 1985), but with so much will not result in withdrawal of the proved. But as Betts (1978:82) noted, at stake in every recovery program, group's support is important. Mis- "Integrity untinged by political sen- we must learn to recognize and over- takes and failures should be viewed sitivity courts professional suicide." come those barriers. The full extent as occasions for learning and for im- Betts suggests that individuals can try of these problems across all endan- proving the system. to improve programs by asking hard gered species recovery programs is Clark and Cragun (1994) provide questions of their superiors, acting as unknown. But we hope that this pa- a framework for analyzing organiza- socratic agnostics, nagging decision per will stimulate further documen- tional problems and for implement- makers into awareness of the full tation, discussion, and analysis, and ing change in species recovery pro- range of uncertainty, and making au- we are hopeful that improvements grams. This 14-step procedure in- thorities' calculations harder rather will ensue. cludes four major stages: problem than easier. But most leaders will not identification, development of alter- appreciate these approaches by indi- Acknowledgements native strategies, development of an vidual professionals (e.g., Craighead We would like to thank Thomas. M. action plan, and implementation and 1979; Homocker 1982; Clark 1986). Campbell III, Leonard Carlman, evaluation of the action plan. It can Simply providing more reliable facts Archie Carr III, Denise Casey, guide participants in defining prob- or new arguments to decision mak- Pamela Parker, Debra Patla, Chris lems and objectives, identifying forces ers will not reverse their basic beliefs. Servheen, John Weaver, Michael B. that could help or hinder movement to- Analysis is often less important than Whitfield, Dusty Zaunbrecher, and ward objectives, analyzing strategies to values and preconceptions as a basis three anonymous reviewers for their overcome obstacles, outlining specific for decision making (Betts 1978). thoughtful comments on earlier drafts tasks to be accomplished, and evaluat- Real solutions depend on the open- of this paper. We acknowledge that ing the success of their efforts. It pro- ness of decision makers and their not all the reviewers endorse the con- vides an explicit method for recovery understanding of the premises they tent of this paper, but such is the na- programs to use in solving both tech- use in accepting or rejecting intelli- ture of policy process in which we all nical and organizational problems. gence. Individuals should continue work in trying to protect and restore trying to improve their programs, but endangered species. 3. Individual improvements they should do so with an understand- Improvements can also occur at the ing of the potential politic conse- Literature cited individual level. Many participants quences of their efforts. Anderson, E., S.C. Forrest, T.W. Clark, and and observers believe the root cause The sheer complexity of endan- L. Richardson. 1986. Paleobiology, biogeography, and systematics of the black- of faltering programs is misguided or gered species and ecosystem conser- footed ferret, Mustela nigripes(Audubon selfish individuals. This "human re- vation tells us there is no single, and Bachman), 1851. Great Basin Nat. lations" view of organizations over- straightforward, technocratic recipe Mem. 8:11-62 simplifies the many complex organi- for success. The essential challenge Ascher, W. 1986. The evolution of the policy zation, management, and policy as- in species and ecosystem conserva- sciences: understanding the rise and avoiding the fall. J. Policy Analysis and Man- pects introduced here (see Hall 1987; tion, as in complex situations, has al- agement 5:367-373.

154 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Asins, R. 1987. Wolf recovery in the Fagerstond, and E.T. Thorne. 1988. Black- 16:111-120. Yellowstone ecosystem: a progress report. footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) population May, R.M. 1986. The black-footed ferret: a Endangered Species UPDATE 4(11):1-4. attributes at Meeteetse, Wyoming, 1981- cautionary tale. Nature 320:13-14. Betts, R.K. 1978. Analysis, war, and decision: 1985. J. Mamology 69:261-273. Oakleaf, B. 1988. Divide the breeding colony? why intelligence failures are inevitable. Hall, R.H. 1987. Organizations: structure, An agreement is reached. The Black-footed World Politics 31:61-89. processes, and outcomes. 4th ed. Prentice- Ferret Newsletter 5(1):2. Brewer, G.D. 1988. An ocean sciences agenda Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Pressman, J.L. and A. Wildavsky. 1973. The for the 1990s. The McKerman Lecture, Ham, C. and M. Hill. 1987. The policy pro- complexity of joint-action. Pp. 87-124 in University of Washington, Seattle, Wash- cess in the modern capitalists state. Implementation. University of California ington. Wheatsheaf Books, Sussex, England. Press, Berkeley. Brewer, G.D. 1975. Dealing with complex Harvey, A.H. 1987. Interagency conflict and Randall, P. 1986. Survival Crisis at Meeteetse. social problems: the potential of the "deci- coordination in wildlife management: a Defenders 61(1):4-10. sion seminar." In G.D. Brewer and R.D. case study. Masters thesis, University of Salancik, G.R. and J. Pfeffer. 1977. Who gets Brunner, eds. Political development and Michigan, Ann Arbor. power — and how they hold on to it: a stra- change: a policy approach. Free Press, New Hollings, C.S., ed. 1978. Adaptive environ- tegic-contingency model of power. Orga- York. mental assessment and management. John nizational Dynamics Winter: 2-21 Carr, A. 1986. Introduction: the black-footed Wiley and Sons, New York. Schön, D.A. 1983. The reflective practitio- ferret. Great Basin Nat. Mem. 8:1-7 Hormocker, M. 1982. Letter to the editor. The ner: how professionals think in action. Ba- Clark, T.W. 1986. Professional excellence in Wildlifer November-December: 51-52. sic Books, Inc., New York. wildlife and natural resource organizations. Janis, I.L. 1972. Victims of groupthink: a psy- Thorne, E.T. 1988. 1987 black-footed ferret Renewable Resources J. Summer: 8-13. chological study of foreign-policy deci- captive breeding season successful. Con- Clark, T.W. and J. Cragun. 1994. Organiza- sions and fiascoes. Houghton Mifflin, Bos- servation Biology 2(1): 11-12 tional and managerial guidelines for endan- ton. Thorne, E.T. and E. Williams. 1988. Disease gered species restoration programs and re- Lasswell, H.D. 1960. Technique of decision and endangered species: the black-footed covery teams. Pp. 9-33 in M.L. Bowles and seminars. Midwest Journal of Political Sci- ferret as a recent example. Conservation C.J. Whelan, eds. Restoration of endan- ence 4:213-236. Biology 2(1):66-73. gered species. Cambridge University Press, Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view of the policy Warwick, D.P. 1975. A theory of public bu- Cambridge, United Kingdom. sciences. American Elsevier Publ., New reaucracy: politics, personality, and orga- Craighead, F.C. 1979. Track of the grizzly. York. nization in the State Department. Harvard Sierra Club, San Francisco. Latour, B. 1987. Science in action. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachu- Daft, R.L. 1983. Organization theory and de- University Press, Cambridge. setts. sign. West Publ. Co., St. Paul, Minnesota. Maguire, L.A., U.S. Seal, and P.F. Brussard. Weinberg, D. 1986. Decline and fall of the Duff, D. 1976. "Managing" the pupfish proves 1987. Managing critically endangered spe- black-footed ferret. Nat. Hist. Mag. 95:62- fruitless. Defenders 51:119-120. cies: the Sumatran rhino as a case study. 69 Endangered Species Technical Bulletin. 1985. Pp. 141-158 in Viable populations for con- Yaffee, S.L. 1982. Prohibitive policy: imple- Final action taken on eight species. 10(7):1, servation. Cambridge University Press, menting the federal endangered species act. 6-8. Cambridge. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Etheredge, L.S. 1985. Can government learn? Maguire, L.A., T.W. Clark, R. Crete, J.Cada, Zimmerman, D.L. 1986. Protecting the black- Pergamon Press, New York. C. Groves, M.L. Shaffer, and U.S. Seal. footed ferret. New York Newsday, Jan 21: Forrest, S.C., D.E. Biggins, L. Richardson, 1988. Black-footed ferret recovery in Mon- Pt. 111:1-3. T.W. Clark, T.M. Campbell III, K.A. tana: a decision analysis. Wildl. Soc. Bull.

Saiga (Saiga tatarica) by Richard P. Reading.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 155 Conserving Biodiversity in the Real World: Professional Practice Using a Policy Orientation

Tim W. Clark*, Peter Schuyler, Tim Donnay, Peyton Curlee, Timothy Sullivan, Margaret Cymerys, Lili Sheeline, Richard P. Reading, Richard L. Wallace, Ted Kennedy, Jr., Arnald Marcer-Batlle, and Yance De Fretes Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 205 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 [email protected]*

Abstract Conservation biologists often take the view that their role is simply to provide biological information to policy makers and resource managers, not to engage in the overall conservation process about endangered species conservation. Considering the many challenges to biodiversity conservation, stemming from social, political, and economic issues, we argue that professionals could better aid species recovery if they broadened their role and activities, as well as knowledge and skill, beyond conservation biology. A more effective professional approach to endangered species conservation might be to teach conservation biologists a "policy orientation" to their important work. A policy orientation encourages its holder to best integrate the biological and social sciences to help managers, leaders, and the public make sound choices, and to solve problems effectively. In order to apply this orientation, biologists must first understand the conservation (policy) process. One practical model of this process describes six phases or activities through which all policies and programs pass (i.e. initiation, estimation, selection, implementation, evaluation, and termination). Therefore, we recommend that university conservation biology programs, particularly at the graduate level, teach policy orientation and that professionals actively make an effort to learn and apply a policy orientation. Significantly improved endangered species conservation can be expected from using this innovation.

Introduction learn what a "policy orientation" is, information useful to natural resource The unifying goal of conservation much less how to apply it responsi- managers or decision makers. This biology is the preservation of biologi- bly and practically to benefit approach uses tools such as field sur- cal diversity through the maintenance biodiversity conservation efforts. veys, population viability assess- of viable ecosystems. Even though ments, and analyses of preserve de- there is general agreement about the The biodiversity conservation sign and management. Some conser- paramount goal, there is debate challenge vation biologists are apt to accept the among its practitioners as to the scope Conservation biology is a "mission- view that production of useful bio- of acceptable professional practice. oriented crisis discipline"(Soulé logical knowledge is the only goal of We believe that a "policy orientation" 1986:3) that exists to address the chal- their profession. While we accept that can complement rigorous scientific lenge posed by the loss of biological good science must remain at the core methods and is essential for achiev- diversity. Few would debate the ulti- of conservation biology and that there ing many conservation aims. Further- mate aims of conservation biology, should be limits to the sort of advo- more, scientific professionalism need but what is less clear to professional cacy a scientist pursues, it is a practi- not be sacrificed. We briefly exam- conservation biologists is their spe- cal mistake to limit the training and ine the elements of the biodiversity cific role in meeting this challenge. experience of conservation biologists conservation challenge and how pro- The loss of biological diversity has to scientific fields only. fessionals can better meet this chal- multiple causes and efforts to redress Few would deny that the ultimate lenge with a "policy orientation" that losses will require contributions from causes of biological impoverishment we introduce. Unfortunately, most many disciplines. One approach con- are social, political, and economic in university programs provide few op- servation biologists have adopted is nature. Conservation biology, how- portunities for future professionals to to use scientific methods to provide ever, should not be about directly

Reprinted from Endangered Species UPDATE: 1992, 9(5/6):5-8.

156 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 changing the social forces that are the biology of the species, thus creat- recently, Soulé (1990:1) observed that causing our environmental problems. ing the unrealistic view that conser- "solutions to environmental problems Murphy (1990) is right when he con- vation and recovery are strictly tech- have as much to do with politics and cludes that conservation biology nical, biological tasks. In fact, nu- perceptions as with biological should be about providing the scien- merous non-biological factors and fact…when it comes to influencing tific information necessary to correct forces have direct, immediate and public policy, we will need political the problems leading to the loss of paramount significance to endan- as well as research skills." Yet, the biological diversity. But we need to gered species recovery, and if the con- question remains, where should the recognize that the process of correct- servation movement is to be effective, science of conservation biology end ing biological problems takes place it must explicitly recognize the inter- and the advocacy of other constitu- in the same social and political arena active impacts and contributions of encies begin? Should conservation as the processes that are driving en- all the various dimensions." biology assume itself to be a "value- vironmental degradation in the first For conservation biologists to be free" science, merely providing infor- place. If conservation biologists are successful, they must become more mation to resource and political man- to be effective in promoting solutions proficient at understanding the pro- agers? Or do conservation biologists to environmental problems, they must cesses that drive environmental deg- have an obligation to "participate understand the non-biological factors radation and at providing remedial with the public in a debate regarding behind environmental change and be strategies and tactics. Accepting this the very nature of ecological health, willing and able to participate effec- premise still leaves some questions even while trying to protect it?" tively and offer solutions in the areas to the scope of acceptable profes- (Norton 1988:238). nas where social change occurs. Pro- sional practice for conservation biolo- A growing number of authors viding the scientific information to gists. Conservation biologists are and have suggested that conservation bi- guide policy, and not "just provoke must remain above all else scientists; ologists need to become more profi- it" (Pool 1990:673), is necessary for applying scientific methods to con- cient at understanding, participating real conservation actions. Hales servation questions. Systematic, rain, and anticipating policy processes. (1987:81) identified one aspect of the tional, fact-theory driven, experimen- Firstly, Noss (1989) concluded that problem in noting that the "trained tal, and "objective" science is a must. effective conservation biologists analytical approach of the biologist, However, if experience or knowledge must walk the narrow line between or any other disciplinarian, often of the policy process makes conser- science and policy-making and ad- seems to lead to fragmented problem vation biologists more effective, how dress concerns raised by both. Sec- definitions and unimaginative solu- much farther should they go? As Orr ondly, Carr (1987:86) observed that tions, the success of which, over time, (1990:9) asked, "how should those good conservation biologists should is not particularly impressive." calling themselves conservation bi- be "willing to use their training and An alternative, and we argue ologists deal with politics and the analytical skills beyond the confines more effective, way for conservation question of management in their re- of biology, reaching out to examine biologists to approach the challenge search, writing and teaching?" If the cultural or sociological factors posed by the loss of biological diver- knowledge of the policy process is that bear on the survival of their fa- sity is to understand the policy pro- valuable, how should it be incorpo- vorite species." Thirdly, Maguire cess well enough to maximize oppor- rated into training programs for con- (1990:125) recently presented a tunities so that science-based recom- servation biologists? scheme to guide conservation biolo- mendations are applied. It is at this gists towards responsible advocacy, level that a policy orientation to con- The professional challenge: a by using risk analysis to assess man- servation biology can be most help- problem of definition agement options and illuminate "the ful, particularly when the policy sci- The limitations of traditional wildlife consequences of silence and inac- ences are taught along with the bio- management programs and "normal tion" should traditional scientific logical sciences in a comprehensive science" (see Kuhn 1970) that pro- conservatism prevail. university training program. In dis- mote narrow, "technical," "fix-it" ap- Can conservation biologists ac- cussing the weaknesses of endan- proaches, and their failure to encom- tually play an effective role beyond gered species recovery programs, pass the biodiversity conservation the confines of biology without sac- Clark (1989:3) states: challenge, have been outlined by rificing their effectiveness and cred- "Most descriptions of endan- Clark (1986, 1988), Norton (1988), ibility as scientists? Can both capa- gered species recovery focus only on Orr (1990, 1991) and others. More bilities exist in the same individual

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 157 professionalism? We believe the an- The policy sciences study deci- problem-solving skills, it might make swer is "yes" — a professional can sion and policy processes, using both a considerable difference in construc- be expert in scientific pursuits and at experimental hard science and obser- tively influencing the pertinent deci- the same time possess an explicit ori- vations or experience in order to de- sion and policy processes. entation to the policy process. termine how these processes work Having a useful "map" of the independent of their reliance upon policy process is essential for a policy How can a policy orientation technical knowledge (see Lasswell orientation. Just as there are models help professional conservation 1971). The term policy science of ecological systems, there are also biologists? "is not another way of talking about models of policy processes. These We all know of instances where good the 'social sciences' as a whole, or of models can aid in practical applied scientific knowledge has been ig- the 'social and psychological sciences.' conservation by revealing the many nored, dismissed, misapplied, or only Nor are the 'policy sciences' identical aspects of a problem's setting and partially used by decision and policy with 'applied social sciences' or 'ap- useful paths of action. The models makers (see, for example, Snyder plied social and psychological can direct one's intellectual attention 1986). If conservation biologists are sciences'…Nor are the 'policy sci- and highlight areas where informa- to make greater conservation gains, ences' to be thought of as largely iden- tion is lacking (Brewer and deLeon they must facilitate the integration of tical with what is studied by the 'politi- 1983). People adept in the policy decision and policy processes with cal scientists' (Lasswell 1951:3)." process have been likened to expert, reliable information. The way a sci- Policy scientists are problem-ori- general problem solvers (Lasswell entist presents data and interacts with ented, focused on defining and solv- 1971; Buffington, 1989). A conser- decision makers and the public may ing real-world problems (Brewer and vation biologist, expert in science, very well make the difference be- deLeon 1983). They use a variety of can also be expert in general prob- tween the success or failure of a con- tools to understand the context of a lem solving without compromising servation program. The stakes are problem as completely as possible; his or her scientific standing. The high when extinction of species or the examining its history and trends, ex- practitioners' primary interest may be loss of biological communities can plaining the trends, projecting the conservation science, for example, result from inappropriate decisions trends into the future, evaluating the but they should also have an interest and policies. Conservation biologists, trends, and inventing and selecting al- in the decision and policy processes therefore, must produce reliable ternative solutions. Policy scientists' that use their science. If such biolo- knowledge through research and par- problem-solving approaches are not gists are viewed to be outside the ticipate in the socio-political context reductionistic or "positivistic" (see bounds of accepted professional in which that knowledge is used. The Brunner 1988; Norton 1988; Clark practice, then perhaps the bounds term "policy orientation" was coined 1993), in the sense that discipline- need to be redefined. by Harold Lasswell (1951). "Policy" based biological science and even The best model of the policy is a broad strategic intent to accom- much of conservation biology tends processes that we know of was de- plish a goal (Brewer and deLeon to be. It is beyond the scope of this veloped by Brewer and deLeon 1983); the aim here being the conser- small paper to develop this observa- (1983), based on Lasswell (1971), vation of biodiversity. "Orientation" tion and contrast the problem-solv- and describes the six phases reflects a direction or the relationship ing approaches of the policy and con- through which nearly all policies or of an idea or concept to the dynamic servation sciences. The policy sci- programs pass. They are: problem policy process. Having a policy ori- ences are a fundamentally different identification (initiation); expert entation means having knowledge way of thinking in contrast to tradi- analysis and technical consider- that is directly useful in the process tional science; they are a way of ations (estimation); policy formu- as well as having knowledge of the thinking, in the sense that logic is a lation, debate, and authorization process itself (Lasswell 1971). way of thinking. Norton (1988) ad- (selection); specification and appli- Therefore, conservation biologists equately outlined the limitations and cation (implementation); expost must have two kinds of knowledge. failures of scientific positivism as a appraisal (evaluation); and discon- First, the biological skills to generate philosophy for problem-solving and tinuation or revision of the policy basic and applied knowledge; and the need for a new post-positivistic or program (termination). Each of second, the social science skills to philosophy. Even if a conservation these phases can be very complex, encourage the wise use of scientific biologist possesses only a little policy but there are recurring characteris- knowledge by policy makers. science knowledge or a few of its tics and weaknesses in each phase

158 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 regardless of the specifics of the "is to contribute fully and ad- Space precludes a complete de- case (Ascher and Healy 1990). equately to the critical societal deci- scription of a sample course that Examples of weaknesses in several sions affecting the future abundance teaches a policy orientation. Our ex- phases of conservation programs and well-being of our nation's flora perience in a graduate-level course at have been described in Kohm and fauna, then it seems essential that Yale University's School of Forestry (1991). If a conservation biologist young wildlife professionals be suf- and Environmental Studies offers one is knowledgeable about these ficiently educated in the complexi- example. Our course was titled: phases and what is likely to happen ties, subtleties and techniques of the "Species and ecosystem conserva- in each, then he or she is in a posi- policy process." tion: developing and applying a tion to influence outcomes of deci- The training for conservation policy orientation." It sought to edu- sions and policies and aid biologists could benefit from cate conservation biology students biodiversity conservation. We broadening the scope of what they about the professional, institutional, readily acknowledge, however, that teach to incorporate a policy orien- and policy settings in which they are not all decision and policy processes tation to conservation. likely to work. The course surveyed are accessible for improvements. a range of policy and organizational The Brewer and deLeon (1983) Professionals and the future theories, techniques, and contexts policy process model was modified In addition to the obvious need for using exercises and national and in- and expanded in 1988 (Clark and good science education, there is ternational case studies. It examined Kellert 1988; Kellert and Clark 1991) growing recognition that university the policy sciences, as well as the to fit more explicitly the needs of conservation biology programs conservation sciences, in some detail people interested in the conservation should teach an explicit policy ori- and applied problem-solving con- of biodiversity and management of entation. Professional conservation bi- cepts and tools to various species and wildlife resources. This modified ologists educated with a policy orien- ecosystem conservation challenges. model employs the same six phases tation can be expected to be more ef- It included a survey of techniques, and identifies four classes of "factors fective in achieving conservation aims. such as population viability assess- or forces" that make up the policy A policy orientation can be in- ment and geographic inventory sys- dynamic: biophysical (physical prop- troduced at an undergraduate level, tems, and how these are used in de- erties of the resource), valuational but is most effective in Master's and cision and policy processes. Perhaps (human values about the resource), Ph.D. programs, after students have the greatest value of the course came social-structural (property rights and had some "real" world working ex- from examining cases where good access to the resource), and institu- perience. Beissinger (1990:457) calls traditional science had failed to lead tional-regulatory (organizations and for an expanded course requirement to effective conservation actions. By their directives). for conservation biologists to incor- explicitly recognizing the limits of More conservation biologists porate disciplines outside the tradi- science to produce desired results, now recognize the need for a policy tional departments, and recommends students were forced to explore and orientation in their professional prac- that "Conservation biology may be learn about other skills and perspec- tice, but not all authors refer to it by best taught at the master's level, tives that promise to make future that label. Three illustrations of this where breadth of knowledge, scien- biodiversity management efforts point follow. Lovejoy (1989:329) tific methodology, and problem-solv- more effective. noted that "An awareness of this pub- ing skills can be emphasized…" We Our course at Yale is just one lic role [of conservation biologists], assert here that an essential problem- example of how a policy orientation whether sought by ourselves or thrust solving skill that should be taught is can be incorporated into a training upon us uninvited, is essential. We a policy orientation involving ex- program for scientists. We encour- do not help either science or society plicit, practical, applied knowledge age students and faculty associated by evading our social responsibilities of the policy sciences. With a policy with similar programs to reach out to as experts." Deskmukh (1989:321) orientation as introduced above, colleagues in other disciplines, nota- concluded that: "As conservation biolo- conservation biologists should be bly economics, sociology, and politi- gists we can help decide what to con- able to communicate and partici- cal science which share similar inter- serve and where, within a policy frame- pate within the public policy dy- ests in conservation and wise man- work that we should help to formulate." namic with enhanced creativity and agement of natural resources. They Lastly, Clark and Kellert (1988:7) noted leverage applied to our common should collaborate with them in trans- that if the field of conservation science goal of preserving biodiversity. disciplinary efforts to examine how

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 159 conservation biology can be made reviewers critically reviewed the work. In Mangun, W.R. ed. Public Policy more effective. manuscript. Issues in Wildlife Management. Green- wood Press, New York. Kohm, K.A., ed. 1991. Balancing on the brink Conclusion Literature cited of extinction: the Endangered Species Act Given the urgent threats to Ascher, W. and R. Healy. 1990. Natural re- and lessons for the future. Island Press, biodiversity, it is crucial that conser- source policymaking in developing coun- Washington, D.C. tries: environmental, economic growth, and vation scientists, managers, adminis- Kuhn, T.S. 1970. The structure of scientific income distribution. Duke University Press, revolutions. Univ. Chicago Press, Illinois. trators, policymakers, and others be Durham, North Carolina. Lasswell, H.D. 1951. The policy orientation. as effective as possible. As "the rela- Beissinger, S.R. 1990. On the limits and di- Pp. 3-15 in D. Lemer and H.D. Lasswell, tionship between people and the bio- rections of conservation biology. eds. The policy sciences. Stanford Univer- logical resources upon which their BioScience 40:456-457. sity Press, Stanford, California. Brewer, G.D. and P. deLeon. 1983. The foun- Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view of the policy welfare depends" changes (McNeely dations of policy analysis. The Dorsey sciences. American Elsevier Publ., New et al. 1990:16), new methods of ad- Press, Homewood, Illinois. York. dressing conservation issues are re- Brunner, R.D. 1988. Conceptual tools for Lovejoy, T. 1989. The obligations of a biolo- quired. This changing relationship policy analysis. Center for Public Policy gist. Conservation Biology 3:329-330. Research, University of Colorado, Boulder, and its consequences are being appre- Maguire, L.A. 1990. Risk analysis for con- Colorado. servation biologists. Conservation Biology ciated in various ways. For example, Buffington, P.W. 1989. No problem! SKY 5:123-125. Gorbachev (1990:33) said: the 18:93-95, 97 McNeely, J.A., K.R. Miller, W.V. Reid, R.A. "greening of politics is an affirmation Carr, A.C. III. 1987. Letter (Diversity). Con- Mittermeier, and T.B. Werner. 1990. Strat- of the priority of values common to servation Biology 1:80,86 egies for conservation biodiversity. Envi- Clark, T.W. 1986. Professional excellence in ronment 32:16-20, 36-40. humanity…and [the development of] wildlife and natural resource organizations. Murphy, D. 1990. Conservation biology and a new and contemporary attitude to- Renewable Resource Journal 4 Winter:8- scientific method. Conservation Biology ward nature." An example, on a mod- 13. 4:203-204. est scale, is the origin of the profes- Clark, T.W. 1988. The identity and images of Norton, B.G. 1988. What is a conservation wildlife professionals. Renewable Re- sion of conservation biology. The biologist? Conservation Biology 2:237- sources Journal 6, Summer:12-16. 238. leadership and professional activities Clark, T.W. 1989. Conservation biology of the Noss, R.F. 1989. Who will speak for of conservation biologists have much black-footed ferret. Wildlife Preservation biodiversity? Conservation Biology 3:202- to offer in these uncertain times of Trust International Special Scientific Rept. 203. extraordinary global environmental No. 3. Orr, D. 1990. The question of management. Clark, T.W. 1993. Creating and using knowl- Conservation Biology 4:8-9. change. Nevertheless, we should edge for species and ecosystem conserva- Orr, D. 1991. Politics, conservation, and pub- constantly question how professional tion: science, organizations, and policy. lic education. Conservation Biology 5:10- conservation biologists can be most Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. 12. effective in meeting the overall Clark, T.W. and S.R. Kellert. 1988. Toward a Poor, R. 1990. Struggling to do science for policy paradigm of the wildlife sciences. biodiversity conservation challenge society. Science 248:672-673. Renewable Resources Journal 6 Winter:7- Snyder, N.F.R. 1986. California condor recov- and bringing about Gorbachev's "new 16. ery program. Pp. 56-71 in S.E. Senner, contemporary attitude toward na- Deskmukh, I. 1989. On the limited role of C.M. White, and J.R. Parrish, eds. Raptor ture." We are convinced that knowl- biologists in biological conservation. Con- conservation in the next 50 years. Raptor edge of how to apply a policy orien- servation Biology 3:321. Research Report No. 5, Raptor Research Gorbachev, M.S. 1990. Two world leaders on Foundation, Hasting, Minnesota. tation can significantly improve pro- global environmental policy: remarks by Soulé, M.E. 1986. Conservation Biology. fessional effectiveness. George Bush and Mikhail S. Gorbachev. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. Environment 32(3):12-13, 32-35. Soulé, M.E. 1990. Editorial. Tropinet. Asso- Acknowledgments Hales, D.F. 1987. Letter (Diversity). Conser- ciation for Tropical Biology and the Orga- vation Biology 1:81-86. Steve Beissinger, Steve Kellert, Den- nization for Tropical Studies, Durham, Kellert, S.R. and T.W. Clark. 1991. The theory North Carolina. 5:1. nis Murphy, and three anonymous and application of a wildlife policy frame-

160 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 cases

Mexican gray wolf (Canis lupus) by Jim Clark, USFWS

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 161 Black-Tailed Prairie Dog Conservation: A New Approach for a 21st Century Challenge

Richard P. Reading Denver Zoological Foundation and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, 2900 East 23rd Avenue, Denver, CO 80205 [email protected] Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Lauren McCain Department of Political Science, University of Colorado at Boulder, Campus Box 333, Boulder, CO 80309-0333 [email protected] Brian J. Miller Denver Zoological Foundation, 2900 East 23rd Avenue, Denver, CO 80205 [email protected]

Abstract Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) policy is highly contentious. We use the policy sciences to examine how prairie dog conservation became so controversial and suggest ways to increase the prospects for success. We begin by describing the context of prairie dog management — who is involved and how they interact. Stakeholders with diverse values, strategies, sources of power, goals, and demands conflict in their struggle to influence prairie dog management. This conflict stems from the diverse perspectives and interactions of those involved, including ranchers, conservationists, animal rights activists, agency personnel, prairie dog shooters, developers, and the general public. We next examine management and policy responses to the problem. The agencies have begun responding, but are largely offering a replay of old ideas, perspectives, and patterns of interaction that contributed to the decline of prairie dogs. The current mixed federal and state agency program is highly fragmented, and likely will meet with limited success. Progress has been plagued by a narrow focus on biological issues, agency inertia, powerful special interest political forces, and negative attitudes. To improve matters, we suggest keeping participation open and including all stakeholders. We further recommend using adaptive, interdisciplinary, and multi- method approaches. Using a "best practices" approach would capitalize and build on past successes. Only by improving conservation practices can we hope to restore the black-tailed prairie dog to levels that permit it to function as a keystone species across the Great Plains.

Introduction the overall goal of prairie dog manage- operative, practical way. The ongoing conflict about black-tailed ment, and the assemblage of associated We begin by describing the con- prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) species (i.e. the prairie dog ecosystem), text of prairie dog management — who policy is one of the most contentious is to ensure the ecosystem's viability in is involved and how they are interact- wildlife conservation issues in the well-distributed populations in ways ing. Next we examine management United States. In 1999, the United that benefit from broad public support and policy responses to the problem. States Fish and Wildlife Service (Clark et al. 1989). Achieving this goal Finally, we offer recommendations to (USFWS) designated the black-tailed is proving very difficult in practice be- improve matters. We use the policy prairie dog as a "candidate species" for cause "Today's West is at war over natu- sciences in our analysis, which requires listing under the Endangered Species ral resources, with wildlife the refu- that we address both the content (e.g., Act (ESA). One journalist said gees" (Frasier 1999:A8). How did this biology) and procedures (e.g., human "[S]ome worry that any effort to pro- issue move to the top of controversies? interaction) involved (Clark et al. 2001; tect prairie dogs will ignite a range war In this paper we examine this and other Clark 2002). We have more than 35 between endangered species advocates questions and suggest ways to achieve years combined experience in prairie and landowners." Broadly speaking, prairie dog conservation in a more co- dog management. We seek to contrib-

162 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 ute constructively to prairie dog con- dangered or threatened. frontier, and the control of nature for servation, lessen the conflict involved in The contemporary prairie dog economic gain. Ranchers use their be- the current effort, and achieve a success- sociopolitical arena reflects a tension liefs, the powerful symbol of the ful conclusion in the common interest. rooted in these shifts. In 1998 black- American cowboy, and their traditional tailed prairie dogs covered only influence over local politicians to sup- Who is involved? What are their 280,000 to 320,000 hectares port their interests. perspectives? (Biodiversity Legal Foundation 1998; For decades prairie dog policy was National Wildlife Federation 1998). Conservationists characterized by stability. Soon after The further decline of prairie dogs is These participants view prairie dogs as Europeans began settling the Great no longer universally viewed as the a native keystone species and demand Plains to ranch and farm, the U.S. Gov- success of science and technology to their protection. They tend to be moti- ernment embarked on a campaign to control an agricultural pest, but also as vated to conserve and expand prairie eradicate prairie dogs. At that time, a failure to protect a species important dog populations because of their im- around 1900, biologists estimated that to an entire ecosystem. The data and portance to prairie ecosystems. The prairie dogs inhabited 41 million hect- what they mean for policy are highly root of this viewpoint lies in assump- ares (Mac et al. 1998). Prairie dogs disputed among interested groups. The tions and philosophies associated with were classified as agricultural pests. movie Varmints captures much of the ecological and conservation thought, Near consensus existed among scien- conflicting views of people involved in the right-to-existence for all organisms, tists (most employed by the United contemporary prairie dog management and changing human relationships to States Department of Agriculture), live- (Hawes-Davis 1998). The complexity, the natural world (Kellert 1995). The stock ranchers, and other appointed and and conflict, stems from the diverse myth challenges other popular and elected government officials that these perspectives of people now involved powerful myths that define quality of rodents consumed as much as 50 to and the way they choose to interact with life in solely economic terms, instead 75% of the forage available for cattle one another. Currently, many well-or- arguing that society should balance and must be diligently controlled (Di- ganized groups hold deeply-felt, but some economic growth for a healthy vision of the Biological Survey 1902; contradictory views on prairie dog environment. Powerful symbols in- Merriam 1902; State of Colorado 1915; management. To understand the issue clude wilderness, endangered species, Jones 2000). requires that we know who is involved and charismatic animals. Proponents The prairie dog issue became sa- and why. Each participant has a unique largely distrust and often vilify big busi- lient because the situation changed; vantage point, holds special interests, ness (e.g., corporate America) and natu- new players with a new set of demands and often "defines" the problem in a ral resource extractors, including many, gained power in the political arena. By narrow and incomplete manner that if not most, ranchers. 1960, prairie dog populations had reflects these interests; thus each view- dwindled to about 600,000 hectares — point proposes a different solution Animal rights activists a reduction of more than 98%. The (Weiss 1989). Animal rights activists want decreased 1960s also brought a rise in citizen en- human impact on the environment and vironmental consciousness with social Ranchers desire an end to pain and suffering to movements devoted to reducing indus- The agricultural industry generally prairie dogs caused by poisoning and trial pollution and saving declining spe- wants prairie dogs eliminated or held other extermination methods. They cies. The new science of conservation at low numbers. Ranchers believe that support extending legal rights to ani- biology emerged and often conflicted prairie dogs reduce forage and crops mals that are now reserved for humans with science serving industrial and ag- available for their livestock and liveli- (Wise 2000), including prairie dogs. ricultural constituencies. Though the hood. More broadly, they feel a chang- The views of animal rights activists can U.S. had some early wildlife conser- ing economy and culture threaten their be traced to the urban animal welfare vation laws on the books (e.g., the traditional lifestyle. They also see that movement, and developed into a pow- Lacey Act of 1900 protected some they are losing control over public and erfully organized interest in the last few game animals and the Migratory Bird private grazing lands, particularly when decades (Rudacille 1998). These stake- Treaty Act of 1918 regulated hunting species are protected under the Endan- holders, often in conjunction with con- of designated birds), the 1973 Endan- gered Species Act. Ranchers' views of servationists, demand increased in- gered Species Act brought a sea prairie dogs are an outgrowth of a volvement in wildlife and public land change with sweeping protection for worldview that promotes domination management and often use lawsuits, plant and animal species deemed en- over nature, libertarianism, an endless media publicity, and appeals to public

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 163 pressure, including citizen ballot initia- serve as live tives, to achieve their interests. targets for their shooting. Agency personnel Shooters view Federal, state, local, and tribal agency themselves as personnel hold personal views that vary highly skilled greatly, but can be quite similar within agents of con- a single agency. Despite multiple use trol for agri- mandates, most agencies are strongly cultural pests influenced by a more limited number and identify of special interests (e.g., hunters, log- with the agri- gers, miners, or ranchers), and this in- cultural com- fluence is manifest in policies that of- munity. They ten clash with the common interest mostly em- Black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) by Richard (Meier 1993). In extreme cases, this brace a liber- P. Reading. leads to agency "capture" by a special tarian view, interest group that the agency was cre- one that is an offshoot of the frontier/ vey by Czech and Krausman (1997) ated to manage or regulate (Clarke and cowboy worldview. Prairie dog shoot- found 84% of the public support the McCool 1985). There are also ers want free access to public lands for current ESA or would like it strength- struggles for power among the agen- hunting with minimal government ened. Some publics, such as cies (Fischer 2000). State, local, and regulation, and they support continued homeowners living near urban prairie tribal government personnel maintain shooting opportunities provided on dog colonies, are a part of the develop- an interest in maximizing power vis à many public lands and Indian reserva- ment debate. Zinn and Andelt (2001) vis the federal government, especially tions. They influence prairie dog man- found that support for prairie dogs in- in the western U.S. Despite these dif- agement by actively promoting their creased with the distance respondents ferences, some broad generalizations interests and enlisting support of ranch- lived from prairie dog colonies in the among agencies are possible. Agency ers, gun rights activists, and local busi- city of Fort Collins, Colorado. Alter- personnel generally embrace the "tech- nesses that benefit from their pursuits. natively, some of the most vocal sup- nical rationalist/expert" role (see Clark porters of prairie dogs in urban envi- 1997). In this view, control of nature Developers ronments are people living near the for human purposes is both possible Developers play a restricted role in the colonies who like to watch the animals and desirable, and professional re- prairie dog management debate, but or recognize their ecological impor- source managers should be entrusted they are key stakeholders along tance (Prairie Dog Coalition 2002). with making decisions and manipulat- Colorado's Front Range, for example. Fox-Parrish (2002) found that antago- ing nature. With respect to prairie dogs, Developers focus on generating wealth nism toward prairie dogs increased as formal agency policy at all levels re- for themselves and view prairie dogs their exposure to and experience with sulted in substantial prairie dog declines as pests that interfere with urban de- prairie dogs increased among the gen- over past decades. Today, most agen- velopment. As housing tracks are put eral public in rural Kansas. Many Na- cies seek to keep prairie dogs off the in, prairie dogs are killed or relocated. tive Americans with traditional cultural endangered species list, and often this Developers are searching for inexpen- beliefs consider prairie dogs to be a goal appears to be more important than sive solutions to the prairie dog man- species with which they are intimately species conservation (e.g., see BLM agement challenge that will permit interconnected. They demand that ev- 2000; EDAW 2000; NGPC 2001). In them to continue developing land (e.g., eryone can and should be more con- addition, an anti-prairie dog attitude re- exterminate or move animals in the way nected to nature, that all species are im- mains strong among wildlife profes- of development). portant, and that therefore the tribes are sionals and especially land managers, obligated to protect and restore native but this is changing (Reading 1993). General Public communities on reservation lands. The American public is diverse, and Recreational shooters most citizens are unaware of the prai- Prairie dogs Recreational shooters form a small but rie dog conservation problem. How- Black-tailed prairie dogs are partici- vocal stakeholder group. They want ever, public support for conserving pants in this issue too, as are a myriad prairie dogs to be abundant enough to wildlife is strong. For example, a sur- of other associated species. Prairie

164 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 dogs are one-kilogram ground squirrels unmanaged conflict can erode trust in stated that they favored local control that live in colonies of strongly de- government institutions and lead to over federal listing as the best way to fended family groups, known as "co- policy failure. manage the species. Persuasion as well teries" (Hoogland 1995). One of five as coercion were used to influence the species of prairie dogs, the black-tailed Prairie dogs as a policy problem evolving definition of the prairie dog form is the only species that inhabits Defining the prairie dog "problem" conservation "problem," shape a pre- the Great Plains, ranging over most of practically is a challenge. As Weiss ferred "solution," and control the over- the short and mid-grass prairies from (1989:97) noted, "problem definition is all decision-making process to the southern Canada to northern Mexico. a package of ideas that includes, at least maximum extent possible (see Clark Because they are colonial and live in implicitly, an account of the cause and 1997). Attention during this phase fo- burrows they excavate, and constantly consequences of undesirable circum- cused on the USFWS. Ranchers and clip tall vegetation, prairie dogs alter stances and a theory about how to im- government agencies, especially state the grassland ecosystem's structure, prove them." Key questions include: agencies, largely opposed listing. The processes, and composition (Kotliar et "Just what is the problem?;" "How big states, in particular, banded together to al. 1999). To ecologists, these changes is it?;" and "Who is it a problem for?;" form an anti-listing coalition. indicate their importance as a "keystone as well as "What might be done about Caught between savvy conserva- species" that enriches ecosystem func- it?" Prairie dog conservation is about tionists, ranchers, and state govern- tion in a unique and significant way making choices, like "How will the ments, often backed by their represen- disproportionate to their abundance prairie dog ecosystem be managed?" tatives in the U.S. Congress, the (Miller et al. 2000). Their interest, to and "Who gets to decide?" In other USFWS took the most risk-averse path. the extent their interest can be known, words, it is largely a human value prob- The agency decided to designate the appears to be for continuation of their lem in decision-making, although species as "warranted" for listing as species and individual well-being. many technical elements are involved. threatened under ESA, but "precluded" Miller and Reading (2002) list eight In fact, much of the behind-the-scenes it from listing because of other, higher threats facing black-tailed prairie dogs: politics is masked by technical discus- priority species that needed attention continued habitat destruction; uncon- sions. The answers to the last two ques- first (USFWS 1999). The USFWS trolled recreational shooting; intro- tions are determined by who has au- appeared reluctant to grant prairie dogs duced diseases (especially plague); in- thority and, especially, control of the candidate species status, and so far has adequate regulatory mechanisms by management process. Authority means abdicated its responsibility to protect a government agencies; continued and having the right to make a decision, and species it accepts as meeting the re- widespread poisoning; the inability of control means having the power to carry quirements for ESA protection. The prairie dogs to respond evolutionarily out an action in the face of opposition. USFWS's 90-day and 12-month find- to present threats; lack of adaptive man- ings supported a definition of the prob- agement; and negative attitudes toward Prairie dogs on the political agenda lem as articulated in the petitions, that prairie dogs. Black-tailed prairie dogs made it onto prairie dog populations had indeed de- Right or wrong, humans will de- the U.S. political agenda as a conser- clined by as much as 99% due to threats cide the prairie dogs' fate. The catego- vation issue in 1998 when several con- including habitat loss, plague, inadequacy ries delineated above provide a general servationists petitioned the USFWS to of existing regulatory mechanisms, and characterization of the players involved list the species as threatened under the long-term rodent control (USFWS 1999; in prairie dog policy. Many participants ESA (National Wildlife Federation USFWS 2000). This move sent shock fall into more than one category; much 1998; Biodiversity Legal Foundation waves through the Western cattle and real variance exists within categories. In- et al. 1998). The USFWS had rejected estate industries (Matthews 1999:8). The tensity of belief and the degree to which an earlier petition filed by Biodiversity "warranted, but precluded," or candi- individuals are willing to work with Legal Foundation and Sharps (1995). date species, designation focused the other groups vary as well. However, Following the second petition, all controversy that had been brewing for conflict and polarization largely typify participants positioned themselves ei- years and fueled great activity by agri- interactions between groups in the prai- ther for or against the petition and uti- cultural interests, government land and rie dog policy arena that have included lized their resources to substantiate or wildlife management agencies, nongov- lawsuits, arrests of activists at protests, refute its claim that prairie dogs were ernmental conservation organizations, sci- and even threats of violence (Gutierrez or were not in need of special help. In entists, and others (e.g., Predator Conser- 1998; Proskocil 1999; Fong 1999). some cases, participants recognized vation Alliance 2001; Thacker 2001; Prai- While some debate can be constructive, that prairie dogs needed protection, but rie Dog Coalition 2002).

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 165 The agencies respond listing under the ESA (Luce 2002). exploring the use of regulatory amend- In response to the candidate species The objectives of the draft inter- ments to the ESA to encourage partici- designation, federal land management state plan ". . . set an adaptive manage- pation by landowners, tribes, and state agencies made some prairie dog man- ment strategy target to increase occu- agencies, such as Candidate Conserva- agement changes. The U.S. Forest Ser- pied acreage [of prairie dog colonies] tion Agreements with Assurances. vice declared a temporary moratorium to exceed 1% of historic range in the Annual reviews by the USFWS on poisoning prairie dogs within Na- next 10 years (by 2011)," while stating and states claim the agencies are mak- tional Grasslands. The U.S. Bureau of that present acreage figures are "slightly ing adequate progress (USFWS 2001; Land Management also ceased poison- less than 1% of historic (Luce Luce 2001b). Indeed, some progress ing prairie dogs on land it manages, and 2002:13)." Thus, the plan is striving has been realized at the federal and state both agencies began more active prai- for a vague goal that is just marginally level, but it has been slow to arrive. rie dog conservation, such as tempo- better than the status quo. In addition, Conservation efforts thus far have been rary shooting bans. The USFWS rec- the plan never clarifies how success or largely evaluated by the agencies them- ommended including incentives for failure in adaptive management will be selves; a task ideally conducted by an landowners in the 2002 farm bill to pay assessed, or how the plan will be external organization with no stake in landowners for helping to conserve adapted or terminated. The draft inter- the outcome (Kleiman et al. 2000). prairie dogs. But the USFWS basically state plan goes on to call for conduct- Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, turned prairie dog management over to ing additional research and monitoring, and Wyoming already claim that they the states that had lobbied for control identifying focal areas that contain high exceed the target figures laid out in their of implementation, moving the states densities of prairie dogs, creating finan- individual state plans. (Luce 2002). to center stage. A directive to them that cial incentives for cooperating land- Colorado and Wyoming suggest they al- "doing nothing" was not a policy op- owners who conserve prairie dogs, and ready exceed the draft interstate plan's tar- tion accompanied delegation of author- increasing regulation of and oversight get figures (CDOW 2002; Luce 2002). ity to the states. The USFWS retains over prairie dog shooting and poison- What the states have so far pro- oversight of states' efforts and reviews the ing (Luce 2001c, 2002). The draft plan posed and carried out is necessary for status of candidate species each year. also permits unrestricted shooting and prairie dog conservation, but far from The states have begun responding calls for providing money to cooperat- sufficient. Calls for more research, to the USFWS's "warranted, but pre- ing landowners for poisoning, even if frequent meetings, and regular revis- cluded" ruling, but progress toward a state remains below its target objec- ing of the draft plan give the impres- prairie dog conservation has been slow. tives for prairie dog acreage. sion that the states are working to- The 11 states within the range of the After three years, the interstate plan ward conservation goals, but these black-tailed prairie dog formed the In- remains in draft form, but all states are activities are not substitutes for ef- terstate Black-tailed Prairie Dog Con- developing conservation plans and fective policy and real action. The servation Team and produced a conser- some states have begun taking action draft interstate plan promotes tradi- vation plan, the "Black-tailed Prairie (Luce 2001b). For example, a few tional decision-making, without fully Dog Conservation Assessment and states have removed "pest" species des- addressing how the states will reverse Strategy" with subsequent draft ignations from prairie dogs and others their lack of success in protecting the addendums, to conserve the species and are working toward that end (Predator prairie dog ecosystem to date. In- address factors causing its decline (Van Conservation Alliance 2001). A num- stead, the interstate plan, the perspec- Pelt 1999; Luce 2001a, 2002). The ber of state agencies have also started tives behind it, and the interests it draft interstate plan's main goal appears regulating prairie dog poisoning and serves, offer a replay of old ideas and to be to prevent listing prairie dogs un- shooting, which were formerly unlim- patterns of interaction that have for der the ESA and the associated loss of ited (Luce 2002). Arizona, Colorado, decades contributed to the decline of control over management (Miller and and South Dakota have already banned prairie dogs. As a result, current prai- Cully 2001). That goal arguably takes shooting for part or all of the year, pri- rie dog conservation efforts are plagued precedence over recovery of the spe- marily on public land (Luce 2002). In by a narrow focus on biological issues, cies — a classic case of goal substitu- 2002, Colorado started a $600,000 pi- agency inertia, powerful special inter- tion driven by competition for power. lot program that uses lottery money to est political forces, and negative human Throughout the draft plans, recovery provide financial incentives to land- attitudes toward prairie dogs. In addi- is never discussed as such; instead, the owners that conserve prairie dogs tion, agencies have dominated conser- plans refer to prairie dog conservation (Davis 2002). Other initiatives include vation planning, with little input from with respect to precluding the need for developing education programs and other important stakeholders.

166 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 One of the most significant defi- among stakeholders. The plan offers to improve matters. ciencies of the interstate and individual no recognition of these complex and One of the biggest challenges is state plans are their failure to provide contentious sociopolitical variables and convincing the key participants that mechanisms for addressing the no methods to provide policy-relevant achieving broad public support for and sociopolitical factors affecting prairie information about them. This is not realizing prairie dog conservation is in dog conservation policy. The plans fail surprising, given the traditional, bio- the common interest and in their own to establish how the states will man- logical focus of the training that most interest. For example, how will ranch- age their political environments, such conservationists and wildlife and land ers, who see prairie dogs and prairie as powerful conservative governors, managers receive (Clark 2001). How- dog conservation as threatening to their agricultural lobbies, urban and subur- ever, the states ignore sociopolitical livelihood and lifestyle, ever tolerate ban developers, and conservation in- variables at their own peril. prairie dog protection policies? Why terest groups. For example, how will Inattention to the relevant social should conservationists care if enacted the interstate plan address the fact that context can lead to increased tension policies receive broad support when for politically powerful stakeholders (e.g., and ultimately policy failure. Problems many the goal is conservation using ranchers) hold strongly negative atti- exist that impede prairie dog conser- science not public opinion as indica- tudes toward prairie dogs that leads vation. Some states face hostile state tors, regardless of the level of coercion them to continue fighting conservation legislatures and commissions. For ex- needed to achieve it? Opponents resis- initiatives and arguing for continued ample, in 2001 the Wyoming Game and tant to popular conservation proposals poisoning (e.g., see Reeder 2002). Both Fish Commission voted to bar the state risk provoking more coercive regula- state and federal agencies have pitched from endorsing the states' conservation tions — such as ESA measures — simplistic solutions to this problem. plan. And recently, Wyoming joined which they despise. They also risk los- For example, the agencies advocate North Dakota and Colorado in with- ing some popular support for agricul- landowner incentives as a primary tool drawing from the official interstate ef- tural programs that are increasingly to protect the species. While potentially fort, calling into question the new contested by the conservation commu- helpful, incentives are insufficient, as organization's ability to coordinate ef- nity. On the flip side, even strict prai- they do little to address the underlying fective regional conservation. In addi- rie dog protection codified by the ESA negative attitudes toward prairie dogs tion, animal rights and conservation is likely to fail without the political will held by many stakeholders (Reading et groups have sued to gain protection for needed to effectively implement and al. 1999; Lamb et al. 2001; Fox-Parrish prairie dogs resulting in resource inten- enforce enacted policies. It is the state 2002). Ranchers are already resisting sive court battles for federal and state and federal agencies, those formerly voluntary measures, even financial in- agencies (McCullen 2000). charged with eradicating prairie dogs that centives that reward prairie dog pro- Currently, the prairie dog program will have discretion over the application tection on private land (Omaha-World is on a fixed course and there seems to of prairie dog conservation measures. Herald 2002). Indeed, an incentive pro- be no effort by either the federal or state We recommend building new co- gram in Colorado was largely unsuc- agencies involved to seek out more ef- operative relationships and expanding cessful in finding ranchers willing to fective management in the common on successful practices to date — "prac- participate, possibly because they dis- interest. The program chosen is the tice-based" approaches. Practice-based like prairie dogs for far more than fi- most conservative and the closest to the conservation is adaptive management nancial reasons (e.g., prairie dogs are status quo as possible. Moreover, it is at its best. It involves finding and tak- seen as symbols of poor land steward- failing to advance the common inter- ing advantage of opportunities that ex- ship, a loss of control over public and est in ensuring the survival of prairie ist or can be created to address prob- private land, outsiders telling them dogs and the viability of prairie dog lems. Practice-based conservation in- what to do, and threats to their ecosystems in ways that benefit from volves three steps, each of which re- lifestyles; Reading and Kellert 1993; broad public support. quires on-going evaluation (Kleiman Reading et al. 1999). There is a also et al. 2000). First, participants iden- risk of non-compliance to new rules, es- How can prairie dog tify the "best practices" being em- pecially poisoning and shooting restric- conservation be improved? ployed. Second, these are adapted tions that are difficult to monitor on huge The prairie dog conservation challenge and applied to similar circumstances swaths of private and public land. is complex and contentious and it likely elsewhere in the prairie dog's range. Overall, the draft plan currently will not yield to more government bu- Finally, the most effective practices offers little that is new, creative, and reaucracy. The practical problem at are diffused as widely as possible, helpful in maximizing cooperation hand now is to decide what can be done where professionals continue to

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 167 adapt, refine, and upgrade them re- Process-focused initiatives rie dog species (black-tailed and white- lying on their own experience. Such Opening up a dialogue between tradi- tailed) that inhabit Montana, its goal is adaptive management should be car- tional antagonistic stakeholders holds "for the state of Montana to provide for ried on endlessly. Thus, the prudent the promise of reducing unproductive management of prairie dog populations way for conservation to proceed is to conflict and stimulating discussions and habitats to ensure long-term viabil- find and continually upgrade perfor- that can help dispel inaccurate myths ity of prairie dogs and associated spe- mance in the light of experience and build bridges for conservation. cies." Five objectives follow and a strat- (Clark and Brunner 1996). Indepen- Such dialogues must occur in "safe- egy to meet each objective is outlined. dent evaluations of policies and prac- harbor" situations, where people feel Annual review is required. Although tices are essential to prevent self- safe to come together and freely state lacking in some areas, the plan is the serving appraisals. "Watch dogging" their true opinions without resorting to product of a cooperative effort among the agencies and helping them to rhetoric (i.e. opening "real" dialogue diverse interests over several years and learn and upgrade their performance among stakeholders). For example, in is arguably the best state plan currently is necessary. We have chosen to high- 1999 the Denver Zoological Founda- addressing prairie dog management. light a few of what we consider "best prac- tion and the Northern Rockies Conser- More importantly, it provides a basis tices," each of which could be improved vation Cooperative held a daylong for upgrading conservation planning through evaluation and refinement. workshop at the Denver Zoo on prairie and implementation in the future. dog conservation. Participants in- Several other best practices should Outcome-driven initiatives cluded representatives from the West- be identified, adapted, and spread While the federal and state govern- ern Governor's Association; ranching, among participants in prairie dog con- ments have not considered alterna- animal rights, environmental, and conservation efforts. Particularly impor- tives to the interstate prairie dog plan, servation organizations; and tribal, city, tant areas for analysis include federal some bottom-up approaches are county, state, and federal government agricultural policies (including both worth considering. Several private agencies. Many of these individuals working to halt perverse agricultural individuals and organizations have and groups had never met in such a set- subsidies that encourage prairie dog initiated conservation projects for ting before. Although the workshop eradication and creating incentives for black-tailed prairie dogs in recent was a modest beginning, it succeeded landowners that manage their proper- years. For example, several recently in bringing together diverse interests, ties for prairie dog conservation), ini- created land trusts focus on conserv- in sharing values, concerns, and strate- tiatives on tribal lands, actions under- ing wildlife and ecosystems. With gies for addressing prairie dog manage- taken at the city and county levels, fed- respect to the prairie dog ecosystem, ment, and in opening a dialogue for eral land management (including na- the Southern Plains Land Trust was future collaboration, coordination, or at tional grasslands, wildlife refuges, founded in 1998 to capitalize on the least communication. Unfortunately, parks, and monuments, as well as lands relatively low price of land in and this process was discontinued, but it managed by the BLM), and applied around southeastern Colorado. They serves as a model that could be dupli- research, especially on managing intro- focus on land inhabited by prairie cated and expanded in the future. duced diseases. We suggest holding dogs and located close to large blocks well-mediated, problem-oriented of public land. Their experience has Process/outcome initiatives workshops on each of these issues to much to offer others involved in prai- Montana was the first state to set up a facilitate the process. rie dog conservation. Similarly, other prairie dog working group to seek ap- Finally, prairie dog conservation non-profit organizations, such as The propriate conservation and manage- requires sound leadership at all levels. Nature Conservancy, and for-profit ment of prairie dogs within the state. Leaders should strive for a strong, open, organizations, such as Turner Enter- The group recently put together a man- objective, fair, and competent leader- prises, Inc., are purchasing land and agement plan (Montana Prairie Dog ship style. Westrum (1994) refers to working to restore prairie dogs and Working Group 1999), which involved such competent, dynamic leaders as their associated species. They and state and federal agencies, tribal repre- "maestros." Maestro coordinators their collaborators have taken an ex- sentatives, conservation organizations, could greatly improve both social and perimental approach to restoring the and private interests and builds on the decision processes in prairie dog con- prairie dog ecosystem that promises Montana Prairie Dog Management servation efforts by facilitating infor- to benefit similar restoration efforts Guidelines developed in 1988 by the mation flow, communication, coordi- throughout the range of prairie dogs Montana Black-footed Ferret Working nation, efficient use of resources, the (Truett et al. 2001). Group (1988). Focusing on both prai- identification and dissemination of best

168 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 practices, and more. Quality leader- range. We must improve conservation sion process. Endangered Species Update ship at state levels is also required for practices if we hope to restore the black- 13:1-4. Clark, T.W., D. Hinckley, and T. Rich, eds. similar reasons. tailed prairie dog to levels that permit 1989. The prairie dog ecosystem: Manag- it to function as a keystone species ing for biological diversity. Montana BLM Conclusions across the Great Plains. Wildlife Technical Bulletin No. 2. Black-tailed prairie dog populations Clark, T.W., M.J. Stevenson, K. Ziegelmayer, have declined dramatically and become Acknowledgments and M.B. Rutherford, eds. 2001. Species and ecosystem conservation: An interdis- increasingly fragmented over the past Support for this work was provided by ciplinary approach. Yale University's century. That decline has important the Denver Zoological Foundation, the School of Forestry and Environmental implications for the entire ecosystem Northern Rockies Conservation Coop- Studies, Bulletin Series 105:1-275. because of the prairie dog's role as a erative, Yale University School of For- Clarke, J.N. and D. McCool. 1985. Staking out the terrain: Power differentials among keystone species. The USFWS recog- estry and Environmental Studies, and natural resource agencies. State University nized the plight of the prairie dog in the Southern Plains Land Trust. Com- of New York Press, Albany, New York. 1999 by declaring the species war- ments by Richard Wallace and espe- Colorado Division of Wildlife (CDOW). ranted for listing under the ESA. How- cially Denise Casey greatly improved 2002. Division to compensate landowners ever, the USFWS also precluded such the manuscript. who protect black-tailed prairie dogs. CDOW Press Release, January 15, 2002, listing, stating the need to focus on CDOW, Denver, Colorado. other, higher priority species. Prairie Literature cited Czech, B. and P.R. Krausman. 1997. Public dog conservation is highly contentious, Biodiversity Legal Foundation and J.C. Opinion on Species and Endangered Spe- wherein stakeholders with diverse val- Sharps. 1994. Petition to classify the Black- cies Conservation. Endangered Species tailed Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) Update 5/6:7-10. ues, strategies, sources of power, goals, as a Category 2 Candidate species pursu- Davis, T. 2002. Division of Wildlife to com- and demands conflict in their struggle ant to the Administrative Procedures Act pensate landowners who protect prairie to influence the prairie dog manage- and the intent of the Endangered Species dogs. The Colorado Conservator 18(1):9. ment process. The current mixed fed- Act. Unpublished Petition, USFWS Region Division of the Biological Survey. 1902. An- eral and state agency program is highly 6, Denver, Colorado. nual Reports of the Department of Agri- Biodiversity Legal Foundation, J.C. Sharps, culture for the Fiscal Year ended June 30, fragmented, especially among the fed- and Predator Project. 1998. Black-tailed 1902. Government Printing Office, Wash- eral and state governments. The cur- prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus). Un- ington, DC. xci. rent program likely will meet with lim- published Petition, USFWS Region 6, Den- EDAW. 2000. Black-tailed prairie dog study ited success. We recommend a more ver, Colorado. of eastern Colorado. Unpublished report Brunner, R.D. and T.W. Clark. 1997. A prac- prepared for Colorado Department of Natu- innovative response. tice-based approach to ecosystem manage- ral Resources, Denver, Colorado. We suggest that prairie dog con- ment. Conservation Biology 11(1):48-58. Fischer, F. 2000. Citizens, experts, and the servation is more likely to succeed if Brunner, R.D. and R. Klein. 1999. Harvest- environment: The politics of local knowl- participation remains open and includes ing experience: a reappraisal of the U.S. edge. Duke University Press, Durham, the full range of stakeholders. This re- Climate Change Action Plan. Policy Sci- North Carolina. ences 32:133-161. Frasier, C. 1999. The turtles in the shoe box. quires movement toward adaptive, in- Bureau of Land Management (BLM). 2000. Casper Star Tribune 12/23/99:A8. terdisciplinary, and multi-method ap- Candidate determination of the black-tailed Frost, R. Undated. Possible answer to diffi- proaches. We provide recommenda- prairie dog. U.S. Bureau of Land Manage- cult questions. Cooperative Extension Ser- tions for using a "best practices" ap- ment, Instruction Memorandum No. 2000- vice, New Mexico State University, Las 140. Cruces, New Mexico. proach that capitalizes and builds on Clark, T.W. 1997. Averting extinction: Re- Fong, T. 1999. Activists sue to save prairie activities that have already proven suc- structuring the endangered species recov- dogs complaint directed at federal prison. cessful in prairie dog conservation. ery process. Yale University Press, New Denver Rocky Mountain News. November Using workshops and a more represen- Haven Connecticut. 25, p. 44A. tative, open, and flexible organizational Clark, T.W. 2001. Developing policy-oriented Fox-Parrish, L. 2002. Attitudes and opin- curricula for conservation biology: Profes- ions of landowners and general citizens structure offers a better chance for re- sional and leadership education in the pub- relative to the black-tailed prairie dog. M.S. solving the conflict of values currently lic interest. Conservation Biology 15:31- Thesis, Emporia State University, Empo- dominating prairie dog conservation 39. ria, Kansas. and moving more quickly toward more Clark, T.W. 2002. The policy process: A prac- Gutierrez, H. 1998. Town faces ruckus over tical guide for natural resources profession- prairie dogs; woman arrested in Lafayette effective and efficient practices that are als. Yale University Press, New Haven, during protest over gassing of animals for acceptable to more stakeholders. De- Connecticut. development. Denver Rocky Mountain spite recent attention to the plight of Clark, T.W. and R.D. Brunner. 1996. Making News. March 26, pg. 36A. the black-tailed prairie dog, the species partnerships work in endangered species Hawes-Davis, D. 1998. Varmints. High Plains continues to decline across most of its conservation: An introduction to the deci- Films, Missoula, Montana.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 169 Hoogland, J.L. 1995. The black-tailed prairie McCullen, K. 2000. State faces suit over prai- Conservation Biology 7:569–580. dog: social life of a burrowing mammal. rie dogs group says poisons affect other Reading, R.P., B.J. Miller, and S.R. Kellert. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. species. Denver Rocky Mountain News. 1999. Values and attitudes toward prairie Jones, S. 1999. Becoming a pest: prairie dog March 14, Pg. 20A. dogs. Anthrozoos 12:43–52. ecology and the human economy of the Meier, K.J. 1993. Politics and the bureau- Reeder, J. 2002. Prairie dogs threatening Euroamerican West. Environmental His- cracy: Policymaking in the fourth branch ranchers crops and livelihoods. Durango tory. 4(4):531-552. of government. Wadsworth Publishing Herald, May 2:8. Kellert, S.R. 1995. The value of life. Island Company, Belmont, California. Rudacille, D. 1998. Activism for animals. Pp. Press, Covelo, California Merriam, C.H. 1902. The prairie dog of the 1-3 in M. Beckoff and C.A. Meaney, eds. Kleiman, D.G., R.P. Reading, B.J. Miller, T.W. Great Plains. Yearbook of the United States Encyclopedia of animal rights and animal Clark, J.M. Scott, J. Robinson, R. Wallace, Department of Agriculture. United States welfare. Greenwood Press, Westport, Con- R. Cabin, and F. Fellman. 2000. The im- Government Printing Office, Washington necticut. portance of improving evaluation in con- DC. Schneider, A.L and H. Ingram. 1997. Policy servation. Conservation Biology 14(2):1- Miller, B. and R.P. Reading. 2002. The black- design for democracy. University of Kan- 11. tailed prairie dog: Threats to survival and sas Press, Lawrence, Kansas. Kotliar, N.B., B.W. Baker, A.D. Whicker, and a plan for conservation. Wild Earth State of Colorado. 1915. Horticulture pests. G. Plumb. 1999. A critical review of as- 12(1):46-55. Laws Passed at the Twentieth Session of sumptions about the prairie dogs as a key- Miller, B., R. Reading, J. Hoogland, T.W. the General Assembly of the State of Colo- stone species. Environmental Management Clark, G. Ceballos, R. List, S. Forrest, L. rado. Western Newspaper Union, State 24:177-192. Hanebury, P. Manzano, J. Pacheco, D. Printers, Denver, Colorado. Lamb, B.L., K. Cline, A. Brinson, N. Sexton, Uresk. 2000. The role of prairie dogs as Thacker, P. 2001. A new wind sweeps the and P.D. Ponds. 2001. Citizen knowledge keystone species: A response to Stapp. plains. Science 292:2427. of and attitudes toward black-tailed prairie Conservation Biology 14:318-321. Truett, J.C., J.A.L.D. Dullum, M.R. Matchett, dogs: Completion report. U.S. Geological Miller, S. and J.F. Cully, Jr. 2001. Conserva- E. Owens, and D. Seery. 2001. Translocat- Survey Open-File Report 01-471. tion of black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ing prairie dogs: A review. Wildlife Soci- Midcontinent Ecological Science Center, ludovicianus). Journal of Mammalogy ety Bulletin 29:863-872. Fort Collins, Colorado. 82:889-893. USFWS. 1999. 90-day finding for a petition Licht, D.S. 1997. Ecology and economics of Montana Black Footed Ferret Working Group. to list the black-tailed prairie dog as threat- the Great Plains. University of Nebraska 1988. Prairie dog management guidelines. ened. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Wash- Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and ington, DC. List, R. 1997. Ecology of kit fox (Vulpes Parks, Bozeman, Montana. USFWS. 2000. 12-month finding for a peti- macrotis) and coyote (Canis latrans) and National Wildlife Federation. 1998. Petition tion to list the black-tailed prairie dog as the conservation of the prairie dog ecosys- for rule listing the black-tailed prairie dog threatened. Federal Register 65(24):5476- tem in northern Mexico. Ph.D. dissertation, (Cynomys ludovicianus) as threatened 5488. University of Oxford, Oxford, United throughout its range. USFWS Region 6, USFWS. 2001. Endangered and threatened Kingdom. Denver, Colorado. wildlife and plants: Annual notice of find- Luce, R. 2001a. An umbrella, multi-state ap- NGPC [Nebraska Game and Parks Commis- ings on recycled petitions. Federal Regis- proach for the conservation and manage- sion]. 2001. Draft Nebraska conservation ter 66(5):1295-1300. ment of the black-tailed prairie dog, plan for the black-tailed prairie dog. Ne- Van Pelt, W.E. 1999. The black-tailed prairie Cynomys ludovicianus, in the United braska Game and Parks Commission, Lin- dog conservation assessment and strategy. States. Black-tailed Prairie Dog Conserva- coln, Nebraska. Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoe- tion Team, Cheyenne, Wyoming. Omaha World-Herald. 2002. Keep trying on nix, Arizona. Luce, R. 2001b. Letter of November 12 from prairie dogs UNL survey indicates fewer Van Putten, M. and S.D. Miller. 1999. Prairie the Interstate Coordinator of the Black- opportunities for voluntary conservation. dogs: The case for listing. Wildlife Society tailed Prairie Dog Conservation Team to January 20:10b. Bulletin 27:1113-1120. Peter Gober. USFWS, Ecological Services Prairie Dog Coalition. 2002. Prairie dog sum- Weiss, J.A. 1989. The powers of problem defi- Field Office, Pierre, South Dakota. mit forms coalition. Prairie Dog Tales nition: The case of government paperwork. Luce, R. 2001c. Conserving black-tailed prai- 1(1):1. Policy Sciences 22:92-121. rie dog habitat through landowner incen- Predator Conservation Alliance. 2001. Restor- Westrum, R. 1994. An organizational perspectives. Black-tailed Prairie Dog Conserva- ing the prairie dog ecosystem of the Great tive: Designing recovery teams from the tion Team, Rock Springs, Wyoming. Plains: Learning from the past to ensure the inside out. Pp. 327-349 in T.W. Clark, R.P. Luce, R.J. 2002. A multi-state conservation prairie dog's future. Predator Conservation Reading, and A.L. Clarke, eds. Endangered plan for the black-tailed prairie dog, Alliance, Bozeman, Montana. species recovery: Finding the lessons, im- Cynomys ludovicianus, in the United States Proskocil, N. 1999. Groups Sue Over Delay proving the process. Island Press, Wash- – an addendum to the black-tailed prairie In Ruling on Prairie Dogs. Omaha World- ington, DC. dog conservation assessment and strategy, Herald. February 11:23. Wise, S.M. 2000. Rattling the cage: Toward November 3, 1999. Unpublished Draft #3, Reading, R.P. 1993. Toward an endangered legal rights for animals. Perseus Books, Black-tailed Prairie Dog Conservation species reintroduction paradigm: A case Cambridge, Massachusetts. Team, Cheyenne, Wyoming. study of the black-footed ferret. Ph.D. Dis- Zinn, H.C., and W.F. Andelt. 1999. Attitudes Mac, M.J., P.A. Opler, C.E. Puchett Haecker, sertation. Yale University, New Haven, of Fort Collins, Colorado residents toward and P.D. Doran. 1998. Status and trends of Connecticut. prairie dogs. Wildlife Society Bulletin the nation's biological resources. U.S. De- Reading, R.P., and S.R. Kellert. 1993. Atti- 27:1098–1106. partment of the Interior, U.S. Geological tudes toward a proposed reintroduction of Survey, Reston, Virginia. black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes).

170 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Great Ape Conservation in Central Africa: Addressing the Bushmeat Crisis

Heather E. Eves Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710, Silver Spring, MD 20910 [email protected] Elizabeth A. Gordon School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, 205 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 [email protected] Julie T. Stein Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, 8403 Colesville Road, Suite 710, Silver Spring, MD 20910 [email protected] Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected]

Abstract The commercial trade in bushmeat presents an immediate and rapidly growing threat to Africa's great apes and other wildlife. Unresolved, this trade risks extinction of many ape populations within 10 to 20 years. Although great apes, including gorillas (Gorilla gorilla ssp.), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ssp.), and bonobos (Pan paniscus), make up only one to four percent of the widespread trade in wildlife, they are a key focus of this problem for a variety of cultural, economic, ecological, political, medical, and ethical reasons. A solution to the bushmeat crisis requires changing the outcome of many existing decision processes involving diverse participants. This requires a multilateral and interdisciplinary effort to find and support actions that are appropriate, effective, and respect each nation's decision-making authority. This paper examines the decision process for this issue and recommends ways to resolve the problem, including information coordination, development of nutritional and economic alternatives for urban people, and public awareness campaigns across Africa and the world.

Introduction process that must be understood and Ruggiero 2000). The great apes and other wildlife are addressed if the crisis is to be re- This paper gives a brief overview disappearing from large areas of Cen- solved. Resolution of the crisis also of the bushmeat crisis, especially with tral Africa, largely due to hunting for requires addressing growing nutri- respect to great apes, its context, and bushmeat. Conservationists seek to tional, educational, and other local ways to improve conservation. We maintain remaining wildlife and re- demands. Despite the fact that the use the learning and analytic ap- store populations back to healthy, vi- majority of wildlife species hunted proach described by Clark et al. able levels in ways that benefit from are elephants, duikers, pigs, rodents, (2001) and Clark (2002) to examine lasting public support (Robinson and and other primates, Africa's great apes and present this case. This empiri- Bennett 2000; Bushmeat Crisis Task (gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobos) cal, systematic approach is problem Force 2002). Achieving this common dominate media coverage of the oriented, contextual, and multi- goal is difficult given the rate of wild- bushmeat crisis (Stein and BCTF method. It has been used to under- life loss and magnitude of forces driv- 2001), perhaps due to morphological, stand and improve other complex ing bushmeat hunting. Many areas behavioral, and genetic closeness be- conservation challenges in an inter- now contain little wildlife, a condi- tween humans and apes (Beck et al. disciplinary manner. tion known as the "empty forest syn- 2001). This focus is also important H.E. Eves has been working on drome" (Bennett et al. 2002:28). This for cultural, economic, ecological, wildlife utilization and the bushmeat conservation crisis is an outcome of political, medical, and ethical reasons issue in Africa since the 1980s includ- many choices by many people that (see Noss 1998; Gao et al. 1999; ing dissertation research on the com- together form a complex decision Auzel and Wilkie 2000; Eves and mercial and subsistence bushmeat trade

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 171 in northern Congo (Brazzaville). J.T. corporations, and international con- government authorities (Mordi 1991). Stein has studied community wildlife servation organizations. Participants Their practices are justified in terms management issues in Kenya, and is include local, national, and interna- of well-being, survival, and security. interested in finding solutions to en- tional stakeholders. Logging compa- Participants interact in various sure the survival of Africa's wildlife nies, their financing institutions, and situations; some are disorganized, that are supported by local commu- employees, for example, play a key while some are organized. The nities. E.A. Gordon has studied ani- role in facilitating the bushmeat trade, bushmeat trade extends from groups mal behavior and wildlife conserva- as these operations expose areas of of hunters in the Central African tion, and is interested in finding prac- forest historically off-limits to hunt- rainforest to Central African logging tical ways to protect non-human ani- ing and construct roads that facilitate concessions where the transport of mals from exploitation and extinc- rapidly transporting wildlife meat out meat is often facilitated via logging tion. T.W. Clark focuses on species of the forest and into urban centers. roads and vehicles. The meat is then and ecosystems conservation at pro- Other participants, including interna- transported to roadsides and small fessional, scientific, organizational, tional coalitions such as the Bushmeat markets and then to urban restaurants and policy levels. He has conducted Crisis Task Force (BCTF), have re- and "chop bars" where the meat is field research and applied projects in cently grown in importance in this consumed. Other participants, such North America, Australia, Asia, Cen- process. In thinking about how to as the international community, may tral America, and Africa. resolve the problem, both temporary be organized and interact in other and permanent solutions lie within political, economic, or diplomatic The context of the great ape this set of participants. contexts, by designing policies or crisis Participant perspectives are as laws that affect land use, or in design- The bushmeat crisis is caused by hu- varied as they are numerous. The ing global agreements to protect en- mans making decisions to hunt and range of perspectives across govern- dangered species. consume animals, almost to the point ment personnel are linked in complex All people possess and seek ba- of extinction in some instances. A relationships that determine the na- sic values, regardless of where or complex set of choices stands behind ture of their participation in the when they live. Lasswell (1971) these decisions. Before examining bushmeat crisis. These include na- identified eight base values that in- these decisions, it is essential to un- tional and international nongovern- fluence human behavior — power, derstand who is involved in the prob- mental organizations (NGOs), indus- enlightenment, wealth, well-being, lem, how, and why. This requires that try developers (e.g., timber, mining, skill, affection, respect, and rectitude. we look briefly at the human context rail), and the public (bushmeat con- Many participants in the bushmeat of the species loss problem. sumers in and out of Africa as well trade are motivated by wealth and as foreign consumers of the products well-being. Many consumers are The people involved — the social of natural resource exploitation). purchasing bushmeat to meet basic context of the problem Examining the interaction of these nutritional needs, as this is the only Examining the human social process relationships in greater detail is cru- affordable source of protein available allows us to understand who is in- cial to identifying potential solutions. in markets, often costing less than volved, as well as their perspectives and It is important to note that the basic domestic protein sources (Wilkie values, the situations in which they in- beliefs and worldviews of people in- 2001). Most hunters, traders, and teract, the strategies they use to achieve volved in this issue are often at odds. sellers are engaged in the bushmeat their goals, and the outcomes and ef- Most Western conservationists adhere trade because it is a lucrative busi- fects of these interactions (Lasswell to a view of global scarcity that calls ness. The cash generated is signifi- 1971). These features comprise the for conserving biodiversity to main- cant — it has been described as a bil- social process of the bushmeat crisis tain ecological and human health. In lion dollar industry in Central Africa and embedded in this social process lie contrast, many African communities alone (Wilkie and Carpenter 1998). the solutions for this conservation and have a perspective of local abundance In contrast, scientists and the inter- development problem. (BCTF 2000) that guides their use of national community are driven by There are many participants in natural resources. Perceived respon- rectitude and enlightenment values. the bushmeat crisis. Among them are sibility for conservation in many of These values may be at odds with tra- the great apes themselves, hunters, these communities rests outside the ditional and even the modern value traders, market sellers, urban con- community and either belongs to systems of African societies. sumers, governments, multinational some supernatural entity or with the Field researchers have discov-

172 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 ered that gorilla populations cannot increase hunting intensity", bushmeat issue from a public stand- be adequately protected if their ex- (Robinson and Bennett 2000:511). point (i.e. media), a second, more istence is perceived as an obstacle to Not only is the income from likely initiation of the issue was the the well-being of human beings shar- bushmeat for local communities lim- announcement that HIV/AIDS was ing the ecosystem (Tutin and Vedder ited, this commercial trade removes linked directly to chimpanzees in Af- 2001). There are attendant costs a valuable protein source from sub- rica (Gao et al. 1999). This dramatic (such as crop raiding by gorillas and sistence communities. In the end, announcement and the potential links conflicts over conversion of gorilla wildlife is destroyed and community with the bushmeat issue galvanized a habitat for agricultural production) values regarding the importance of rapidly expanding effort to under- for these local communities that, un- wildlife for future generations are stand and address the crisis. derstandably, are interested in im- permanently compromised. Throughout the late 1980s and proving their family's standard of liv- early 1990s, research was conducted ing in the short term through activi- Choices involved – the decision in Central Africa and around the globe ties such as development, agriculture, context of the problem (Robinson and Bennett 2000). The and livestock grazing. In addition, The bushmeat problem is the out- estimation phase included studies some human populations that previ- come of many choices made by many aimed at defining the problem, under- ously held taboos against hunting and people. To solve this problem, the standing its scope, and projecting its eating great apes have ceased follow- current decision process must change long-term impacts. Similar assessing these traditions and have begun so that choices made are life sustain- ments took place throughout East and eating these animals as human popu- ing, not life destroying. A critically Southern Africa during the mid to late lations and the demand for affordable important question emerges: Where 1990s (Barnett 2000). Many people protein increases (Bowen-Jones is the most important point(s) of en- were surprised to learn that a 1998; Tashiro 1995). try to effect change in the bushmeat bushmeat crisis was occurring in Participants in the process utilize crisis? To identify areas for interven- these regions as well. different strategies to obtain imme- tion, it is helpful to divide the deci- Selection and implementation diate and long-term goals. The inter- sion process into smaller components activities are currently underway in- national community engages in strat- and analyze each. Brewer (1983) ternationally and locally. Many sig- egies of communication among elites identified six functions that make up nificant actions have recently taken of governmental and non-govern- a complete decision process — ini- place internationally, including ac- mental organizations, as well as the tiation (start up), estimation (defin- tions by The World Bank, African general public. Conservation orga- ing the problem), selection (the plan), Heads of State, CITES, and the nizations, for example, may use edu- implementation (work in the field), IUCN. Four examples follow. cation campaigns to assist key deci- evaluation (monitoring and ap- In 1998, the World Bank con- sion makers and the public's under- praisal), and termination (solving the vened the first meeting of the Chief standing of the ecological and social problem and moving on or changing Executive Officer's ad hoc Forum on impacts of the bushmeat crisis. tactics). The decision process for a Forests. The World Bank considered Bushmeat hunters, traders, and mar- particular issue may pass through this a critical step toward forging a ket sellers engage in primarily eco- these functions more than once or si- working partnership between interna- nomic strategies, like maximizing multaneously as the problem evolves. tional forest industries and environ- their income, to indulge their chief It is difficult to identify when the mental and social development orga- values. Despite arguments for the bushmeat decision process was initi- nizations. Working Group # 3ii on economic contributions of the ated. There were at least two initia- Tropical Africa continues to facilitate bushmeat trade to rural communities, tion phases for this issue from an in- dialogue on sustainable forest man- the majority of wealth actually ac- ternational perspective. The first was agement options, including wildlife crues to the traders and market sell- within the scientific community. In management and the bushmeat trade ers in urban centers, not to local the early 1990s, Robinson and and how such initiatives can be imple- people: "Access to capital allows Bennett (2000) offered a global per- mented in the Congo Basin (World traders to supply new hunting tech- spective of the bushmeat trade as a Bank 2002). nology (e.g., guns, wire snares, flash- response to increasing awareness Second, the Yaoundé Declaration lights, etc.) to hunters, who frequently about unsustainable trends in wildlife was signed in 1999 as the result of remain in continuous debt to the exploitation. Although there were the six nation Yaoundé Forest Sum- traders…This debt peonage serves to limited pockets of interest in the mit. This event, organized by the

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 173 World Wildlife Fund, brought to- specific activities to address the cri- discussed below. Three trends are gether heads of state from Central sis in Africa (BCTF 2002). These highlighted here — ecological, eco- Africa to explore sustainable manage- projects focus on a range of activi- nomic, and social-political. ment of the Congo Basin. The Dec- ties, including education, anti-poach- laration committed signatories to ing controls, research, policy devel- Ecological trends implementing measures to protect opment, identifying protein and in- The last few decades have seen the these important landscapes. Follow- come alternatives, and creating sanc- rapid decline of great ape populations ing this historic event, ongoing policy tuaries for apes (a.k.a. orphans of the (Bailey and BCTF 2001). Wild chim- initiatives, including alliances be- bushmeat trade). panzee numbers have declined from tween groups such as World Wildlife The evaluation and termination one to two million in 1900 to about Fund and the World Bank, are defin- phases of the decision process are the 150,000 today (Goodall 2001). ing ways to implement the 12-point least developed at this time. Although Bonobo populations are under severe Declaration (WWF 2000). a number of policy and programmatic threat from civil war and declining Third, in Nairobi in 2000 at the actions are taking place, there is cur- adherence to cultural taboos (Bailey 11th meeting of the Conference of rently no system for evaluating or and BCTF 2001). A number of go- Parties of the Convention on Interna- communicating evaluation results. rilla populations have experienced tional Trade in Endangered Species There is a clear need for a project that significant declines from bushmeat of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the identifies, lists, monitors, analyzes, hunting. The low reproductive rate international community agreed that and disseminates information regard- of great apes makes them particularly there was clear evidence of illegal, ing the bushmeat problem and efforts vulnerable to hunting. widespread, and unsustainable trade to address it. Because evaluation has Despite earlier reports recom- in bushmeat, including endangered not adequately occurred, no termina- mending the potential for utilization of and threatened species. The Confer- tion or modification can take place wildlife as a major source of protein ence was particularly concerned (and none has). (Cremoux 1963; Asibey 1966), trends about the trade's impact on endan- in unsustainable hunting have been re- gered animals, such as elephants and Finding common interest goals corded since the 1970s (Asibey 1974; the great apes. In response to this Given the complexity of the bushmeat Hart 1978). Forest ecosystems inhab- threat, the Parties agreed to form the crisis, a common interest goal that a ited by African great apes are extremely CITES Bushmeat Working Group majority of participants might agree to vulnerable to over-hunting (Bennett et with the aim of identifying solutions is to achieve sustainable wildlife con- al. 2002). The low productivity of Cen- that can be willingly implemented by servation, including all African great tral African Forests, especially com- range states (CITES 2001). apes, and ensure meeting basic needs pared to woodland, savannah, and ma- Finally, the World Conservation [economic and protein] and human dig- rine ecosystems, means that these habi- Union (IUCN) adopted a Bushmeat nity for African human communities. tats may be unable to meet the future Resolution (IUCN 2000), originally Any effective bushmeat program must dietary and economic needs of human drafted by the Bushmeat Crisis Task empower and ensure the health of lo- populations. This trend will likely per- Force, recognizing bushmeat trade as cal communities while simultaneously sist as human populations increase, in- a complex cultural and socio-eco- ensuring the long-term viability of frastructure grows, and supply and de- nomic issue that represents one of the wildlife populations. In addition, we mand for bushmeat continue rising and world's most pressing conservation risk species extinctions if we do not take causing further unsustainable wildlife problems. Since then they have held immediate action to curb current trends harvests and extinction. a joint workshop with the Food and in commercial wildlife exploitation. Agriculture Organization in an at- Economic trends tempt to review the status of major The past, present, and future of Africa is currently unable to meet taxa and identify an action agenda for the bushmeat crisis demands for food through direct pro- addressing the crisis (IUCN 2000). Many causative factors underlie the duction. Insufficient foreign ex- This list of international policy bushmeat crisis and current trends are change is available to provide suffi- decisions illustrates the will to ac- expected to continue into the foresee- cient substitutes. As a result, wild- knowledge the bushmeat issue as a able future unless effective action is life consumption has increased in priority focus area at senior political taken soon. A brief examination of many areas to meet basic human levels. NGOs, local communities, past trends, the causative factors be- needs. The resulting unsustainable and governments are carrying out hind them, and likely future trends are exploitation to meet increasing de-

174 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 mands drives many local wildlife In addition, high-level decision moral, political, and cultural impor- populations to extinction and causes makers have demonstrated a shift in tance of great apes inspires conser- hunters to exploit species not previ- perspective and have begun a com- vation action. In this light, we evalu- ously targeted (Ntiamoa-Baidu 1997; mitted focus on resolving the unsus- ate the most practical and justifiable Robinson and Bennett 2000). With- tainable utilization of wildlife. Such entry points in the decision process. out engaging and implementing so- efforts include the previously men- First, a review of the decision cial systems that meet the basic eco- tioned Yaoundé Declaration as well process identified a need for evalua- nomic and protein needs of Africa's as the UK Bushmeat Campaign and tion of current bushmeat policies and growing populations, not only will the US Congressional Oversight programs (Kleiman et al. 2000). This many species of wildlife disappear, Hearing on Bushmeat in the House evaluation process is being led by the but also dependent human commu- Subcommittee on Fisheries Conser- Bushmeat Crisis Task Force, which nities will face food shortages and vation, Wildlife and Oceans. The fo- plays a significant role in providing resulting tragedy. cus of these campaigns include not timely information to key decision Improved transport systems and only the importance of assuring eco- makers, media, wildlife managers, modernized hunting methods have con- logical systems that function but also local communities, and others to as- tributed to dramatic increases in wild- the necessary engagement of private sist in developing specific actions that life exploitation and resulted in unsus- industry and development efforts. directly address the problem. tainable harvests in nearly every area International conservation efforts The Bushmeat Crisis Task Force where commercial bushmeat hunting must consider African nations' stated was established by several of the occurs (Robinson and Bennett 2000). priorities involving development in world's leading wildlife organizations The combination of the large-scale innovative ways. It is essential that and given a mandate of establishing impacts of international logging opera- awareness about the importance of a network of individuals and organi- tions, the limited capacity for enforc- ecosystem health and how it relates zations from the US, Europe, and ing existing wildlife laws, and the lack to human health and economic Africa involved in addressing the of economic alternatives presents a strength be raised. Although research bushmeat problem and providing an multi-layered challenge to curtailing on efforts toward integrated conser- information base to help its members the trade. These regionally and inter- vation and development projects have identify appropriate solutions and nationally driven economic trends will shown limited success (Peters 1998; take action. BCTF's primary goals likely increase as human populations Browder 2002), current trends sug- are to: (a) work with its general mem- place more pressure on the world's gest the essential nature of assuring a bers to focus attention on the natural resources. matrix of land-use options including bushmeat crisis in Africa, (b) estab- a core system of protected areas lish an information database and Socio-political trends coupled with establishment of sys- mechanisms for information sharing Although the ecological and economic tems that engage industry developers on the issue, (c) engage African part- trends above predict a dim future for in environmentally appropriate land ners and stakeholders in addressing wildlife populations in general and use activities. Examples of this in- the problem, and (d) promote collabo- Africa's great apes particularly, a simul- clude the innovative approaches in rative planning, decision-making, taneous positive trend provides hope. northern Congo (Brazzaville) to in- fund-raising and actions among the Increasingly, stakeholder groups are clude wildlife management and members and associates. improving their ability to leverage bushmeat control programs in log- Second, a review of the social power and resources to address conser- ging concessions (Glave 2001) as context revealed a set of actors who vation issues collaboratively. Expand- well as current efforts to address im- are often at odds with one another's ing use of the Internet for information pacts of bushmeat hunting in coltan base values, perspectives, and prob- sharing and the widespread understand- mining operations in eastern Demo- lem identification (Robinson and ing of the need for broad collaboration cratic Republic of Congo. Bennett 2000). Because the urban among stakeholder groups have re- market demand for bushmeat is one sulted in unprecedented cooperation Recommendations of the significant driving factors be- among those working to solve the Improving the bushmeat crisis re- hind the bushmeat trade it is the most bushmeat crisis. The rise of collabora- quires changing the social and deci- likely entry-point for successful miti- tive initiatives such as BCTF and the sion processes in ways that support gation. It is unlikely that hunters will Ape Alliance and the effectiveness of sustainable wildlife conservation. refrain from killing an animal large their approach exemplify this trend. Fortunately, a heightened sense of the enough to generate a profit and trans-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 175 port easily (Wilkie and Godoy 1996). Mordi (1991:148) suggests, "self- paigns enables understanding of the If hunting of apes is to end, it will be blame is precisely the unsettling force personal significance of such loss. It because they are either no longer which will awaken the educated and is this personal connection with loss available or profitable to hunt. economically secure middle class to the that engages people to action through Developing economic and protein urgent need for personal involvement accepting individual responsibility. alternatives in areas with high human in animal conservation." CI's Bushmeat Campaign in populations is a primary mitigation To shift African perspectives to- Ghana has already begun to generate technique. Focusing efforts on urban, wards personal responsibility and results with significant numbers of rather than rural, locales is critical since behavioral changes regarding the chop shop sellers deciding not to sell control programs are likely to have the bushmeat crisis, a massive awareness illegal bushmeat (Okyeame, personal greatest impact and opportunity for campaign is essential. This campaign communication). The BCTF is success in urban centers where re- must be developed by African experts partnering with several institutions, sources are concentrated and informa- for the African public, and should link including CI in West Africa, to imple- tion can be transmitted quickly. Solu- the severe depletion of great apes and ment a pilot program called The tions to the crisis should enable in- other species to African cultural heri- Bushmeat Promise which provides creases in the availability of both eco- tage. Focusing on the urban middle individuals with a statement of prom- nomic and protein alternatives in urban class may provide a unique opportu- ise to sign stating they will take indi- centers where the demand driving the nity for conservation action, as Afri- vidual action on the bushmeat issue. bushmeat trade originates. can societies become increasingly These promises will be tracked Third, a public awareness cam- urbanized and, like the rest of the through a database system to docu- paign is needed that focuses on in- developed world, further removed ment and further encourage indi- creased recognition and the eventual re- from the reality of rural communities vidual responsibility toward address- emergence of traditional cultural taboos and natural ecosystems. This is an ing the bushmeat crisis. and totemic status of great apes. Mordi optimal intervention point for two As discussed above, focusing on (1991) suggests that conservation ac- reasons. First, it enables participants great ape conservation is justifiable tion follows a three-phase evolution in in the bushmeat issue to target efforts and practical for multiple reasons. At developing nations. The first phase is in areas of highest human and the most basic level, all species of theistic passivism wherein wildlife's bushmeat commerce density. Sec- great apes are either endangered or abundance is attributed to some exter- ond, this option has a great chance of critically endangered, and all are sen- nal force. Responsibility for wildlife immediately impacting the target au- sitive to even low hunting rates. Be- rests outside the individual and soci- dience in areas where substitutes — yond their moral and cultural signifi- ety, and with some supernatural force. both economic and protein — have a cance, great apes are also central eco- The second phase, naturalistic passiv- greater chance to occurring. In addi- nomically and politically. Great apes ism, is initiated by Western education tion, it enables local communities to can generate enormous funds for and culminates in a general understand- retain some level of legal wildlife wildlife conservation through eco- ing that wildlife can indeed be depleted harvest to supplement both income tourism, which can increase local and that the rate of habitat loss is in- and protein needs. community support for conservation. creasing. Responsibility for wildlife A focused and effective media Furthermore, great apes are the focus conservation in this phase is seen as campaign is already showing prom- of several large-scale conservation belonging to the central government, ising results in Ghana, where Conser- funds (US Great Ape Conservation still outside the individual but within vation International (CI) has led a Fund, UNEPs Great Ape Survival society. In the third and final phase, unique prototype effort (Bakarr et al. Project). Great apes are protected humanistic activism, concern for wild- 2001). Following a local meeting, from hunting both nationally and in- life loss is based within the local soci- community leaders agreed that an ternationally, which provides a politi- ety and individual. It is brought about appeal to the public that focused on cal and legislative mandate for con- by "A combination of widespread edu- the totemic link of wildlife to ethnic servation. Finally, great apes and cation, severe depletion of animals, and groups would be optimal. Such an bushmeat are at the center of one of an incipient self-recrimination for the approach is exactly what Mordi the most significant human health is- imminent loss of the cultural heritage (1991) described as humanistic activ- sues facing the globe — HIV/AIDS. that animals represent" (Mordi ism. The loss of cultural heritage Protection of Africa's great apes could 1991:147). The transition to such a coupled with severe depletion of hold the key to both current and fu- phase rests with the middle class. wildlife and effective awareness cam- ture global human health issues as

176 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 populations of primates are found to in northern Congo: hunting in a commer- Clark, T. W. 2002. The Policy Process: A Prac- be living with pre-cursor strains of cial logging concession. Pp. 413-426 in J.G. tical Guide for Natural Resource Profes- Robinson and E.L. Bennett, eds. Hunting sionals. Yale University Press, New Haven, HIV which may provide a useful link for Sustainability in Tropical Forests. Co- Connecticut. to enabling development of solutions lumbia University Press, NY. Clark, T. W, M. Stevenson, K. Ziegelmayer, for humans living with AIDS. Bailey, N.D. and BCTF. 2001. Effects of and M. Rutherford, eds. 2001. Species and Bushmeat Hunting on Populations of Afri- Ecosystem Conservation: An Interdiscipli- Conclusion can Great Apes. Bushmeat Crisis Task nary Approach. Yale School of Forestry and Force, Silver Spring, Maryland. http:// Environmental Studies, Bulletin Series The crisis affecting great apes has gal- www.bushmeat.org/html/ 105:1-276. vanized participants in a way that few apesbushmeat.htm Cremoux, P. 1963. The importance of game conservation issues have. Solving this Bakarr, M., W. Oduro, and E. Adomako. 2001. meat consumption in the diet of sedentary crisis will require the collaborative in- West Africa: Regional Overview of the and nomadic peoples of the Senegal River Bushmeat Crisis. In N.D. Bailey, H.E. Eves, Valley. IUCN Publications, New Series, volvement of the private sector, gov- A. Stefan, and J.T. Stein, eds. BCTF Col- 1:127-129. ernments, universities, non-govern- laborative Action Planning Meeting Pro- Eves, H.E. and R.G. Ruggiero. 2000. mental organizations, and the general ceedings. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force. Sil- Socioeconomics and the sustainability of public. In addition, we must understand ver Spring, Maryland. http:// hunting in the forests of northern Congo the social and decision processes sur- www.bushmeat.org (Brazzaville). Pp. 427-454 in J.G. Barnett, R. 2000. Food for Thought: The Uti- Robinson and E.L. Bennett, eds. Hunting rounding the bushmeat crisis because lization of Wild Meat in Eastern and South- for Sustainability in Tropical Forests. Co- it is at their nexus that solutions will be ern Africa. TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa. lumbia University Press, New York. found. We identify several methods of Nairobi, Kenya. Gao, F., E. Bailes, D.L. Robertson, Y. Chen, addressing this problem. First, we can BCTF. 2002. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force C.M. Rodenburg, S.F. Michael, L.B. Projects Database. Bushmeat Crisis Task Cummins, L.O. Arthur, M. Peeters, G.M. upgrade evaluation of current bushmeat Force, Silver Spring, Maryland. http:// Shaw, P.M. Sharp, and B.H. Hahn. 1999. policy and programs as a basis for im- www.bushmeat.org Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan tro- proving future intervention. Second, BCTF. 2000. Bushmeat: A Wildlife Crisis in glodytes troglodytes. Nature 397:436-441. we must generate economic and pro- West and Central Africa and Around the Glave, J. 2001. "Logging company returns tein alternatives in areas of high hu- World. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force. Avail- rainforest land." The Associated Press. July able from: \t "_blank" http:// 6, 2001. man population as soon as possible. www.bushmeat.org/pdf/BCTFBRIE.PDF\t Hart, J.A. 1978. From Subsistence to Mar- Third, we should carry out an effec- "_blank" ket: A Case Study of the Mbuti Net Hunt- tive public awareness campaign in Beck, B.B., T.S. Stoinski, M. Hutchins, T.L. ers. Human Ecology 6(3):325-353. the urban centers across Africa and Maple, B. Norton, A. Rowan, E.F. Stevens, IUCN. 2000. International Spotlight on Grow- and A. Arluke, eds. 2001. Great Apes and ing Trade in Bushmeat. IUCN News Re- elsewhere to develop the broad-scale Humans: The Ethics of Coexistence. lease October 11, 2000. http:// support necessary for implementing Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/pressreleases/ conservation programs. DC. bushmeat.html Bennett, E.L., H.E. Eves, J.G. Robinson, and Jane Goodall Institute. 2001. JGI Addressing Acknowledgements D.S. Wilkie. 2002. Why is eating bushmeat the Bushmeat Crisis in Africa's Congo Ba- a biodiversity crisis? Conservation in Prac- sin. Jane Goodall Institute, Silver Spring, We acknowledge our supporting in- tice 3(2):28-29. Maryland. http://www.janegoodall.org/jgi/ stitutions and the following individu- Bowen-Jones, E. 1998. The African bushmeat programs/congo.html als for their contributions to this docu- trade — a recipe for extinction. Ape Alli- Kleiman, D., R.P. Reading, B.J. Miller, T.W. ment: Natalie Bailey, BCTF Program ance/Fauna and Flora International, Cam- Clark, M. Scott, J. Robinson, R.L. Wallace, bridge. R.J. Cabin, and F. Felleman. 2000. Improv- Coordinator; Jane Ballentine AZA Brewer, G.D. 1983. The policy process as a ing the evaluation of conservation pro- Director of Public Affairs; Rebecca perspective for understanding. Pp. 57-76 in grams. Conservation Biology 14(2):356. Hardin; David S. Wilkie; Doug Cress, E. Zigler, S.L. Kagan, and E. Klugman, eds. Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A Pre-View of Policy Executive Director of the Great Ape Children, Families, and Government: Per- Sciences. American Elsevier, New York. Project and Jocelyn Ziemian. spectives on American social policy. Cam- Mordi, A.R. 1991. Attitudes Toward Wildlife bridge University Press, New York, New in Botswana. Garland Publishing, Inc., York. New York. Literature cited Browder, J.O. 2002. Conservation and devel- Noss, A.J. 1998. The impacts of cable snare Asibey, E.O.A. 1966. Wild animals and opment projects in the Brazilian Amazon: hunting on wildlife populations in the for- Ghana's economy. Investigations into Lessons from the community initiative pro- ests of the Central African Republic. Con- bushmeat as a source of protein. Ghana gram in Rondonia. Conservation Biology servation Biology 12(2):390-398. Game and Wildlife Department (Mimeo). 29(6):750-762. Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. 1997. Wildlife and Food Asibey, EOA. 1974. Wildlife as a source of CITES. 2001. Communiqué of the 1st CITES Security in Africa. FAO Conservation protein in Africa south of the Sahara. Bio- Bushmeat Working Group. http:// Guide 33. Food and Agriculture Organiza- logical Conservation 6(1):32-39. www.cites.org/programme/BWG/ tion of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Auzel, P. and D.S. Wilkie. 2000. Wildlife use communique.shtml Peters, J. 1998. Transforming the integrated

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 177 conservation and development approach conservation and research in Central Af- indigenous rain forest economies and bio- (ICDP): Observations from the rica: A diversity of approaches and prob- logical diversity: model predictions and Ranomafana National Park Project, Mada- lems. Pp. 429-448 in W. Weber, L.J.T. directions for research. Pp. 83-102 in M.R. gascar. Journal of Agricultural & Environ- White, A. Vedder, and L. Naughton-Treves, Perez and J.E.M. Arnold, eds. Current Is- mental Ethics 11(1):17-47. eds. African Rain Forest Ecology and Con- sues in Non-timber Forest Products Re- Robinson, J.G. and E.L. Bennett, eds. 2000. servation. Yale University Press, New Ha- search. Center for International Forestry Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical For- ven, Connecticut. Research. Bogor, Indonesia. ests. Columbia University Press, New York. Wilkie, D.S. 2001. Relative price of bushmeat. World Wildlife Fund. 2000. A New Future for Stein, J.T. and BCTF. 2001. BCTF Research Discussion paper compiled for the Central Africa's Forests. Press Release, Archive Analysis Project: Summary Sta- Bushmeat Crisis Task Force Members. December 4, 2000. http://www.panda.org/ tistics. Bushmeat Crisis Task Force. Silver Bushmeat Crisis Task Force. http:// forestsummit/summit_pr.cfm Spring, Maryland. www.bushmeat.org/pdf/ World Bank. 2002. CEOs Forum: Forest In- Tashiro, Y. 1995. "Economic difficulties in WilkieBushmeatPrices.pdf dustry and Conservation Working Group: Zaire and the disappearing taboo against Wilkie, D.S. and Carpenter, J. 1998. The im- Tropical Africa. http://lnweb18. hunting bonobos in the Wamba area." Pan pact of bushmeat hunting on forest fauna worldbank.org/essd/essd.nsf/ Africa News, Vol. 2, No. 2. http:// and local economies in the Congo basin. 6d0ba59b041433b185256a4000709170/ jinrui.zool.kyoto-u.ac.jp/PAN/2(2)/ Unpublished Report, Wildlife Conservation e6a3568af774699a85256a5c0065a6be? tashiro.html Society, Bronx, New York. OpenDocument Tutin, E.G.C. and A. Vedder. 2001. Gorilla Wilkie, D.S. and R.A. Godoy. 1996. Trade,

Galapagos tortoise (Geochelone elephantopus) by Richard L. Wallace.

178 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Projeto Abraço Verde: A Practice-Based Approach to Brazilian Atlantic Forest Conservation

Scott C. Fenimore Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 205 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut [email protected] Laury Cullen Jr. Caixa Postal 91, Teodoro Sampaio, SP, 19280-000, Brasil [email protected]

Abstract The Brazilian Atlantic Forest of the Interior is experiencing dramatic human pressure as newly landed communities increase farming along the edge of the remaining fragments of this important ecosystem. This paper describes and analyzes a project developed to reduce these pressures and restore the forest fragments. This practice-based approach addresses the lack of practical farming education in government land redistribution policies through a cooperative agroforestry project aimed at local "landless" farmers and large landowners. The program provides skills and technical assistance to farmers, contingent on participants including a majority of their trees in buffers to forest fragments. In order to transplant this cooperative program to regions facing similar pressures, it is necessary to establish trust among participants prior to commencing with the program; understand participant needs and expectations; and keep the program simple. Incorporating these three elements into a cooperative project results in a more successful and rewarding conservation program.

Introduction muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoids), of the land owned by 3% of the popu- The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is one and howler monkeys (Alouatta lation (Mark 2001). This discrepancy of the most critically endangered eco- palliata), many of which are critically in land ownership has led to increas- systems in the world (Downie 2001). endangered (Downie 2001). São ing conflict between "landless" When Portuguese explorers arrived Paulo is the most developed state in people and large landowners. The on the shores of modern-day São Brazil, and its few remaining interior São Paulo state government, working Paulo, Brazil, the Atlantic Forest cov- Atlantic Forest fragments in the with landowners, developed a nego- ered 125 million hectares along much Pontal do Paranapanema region serve tiation process in which landowners of the Brazilian coast and into Para- as the remaining habitat for the en- donate 30 to 70% of cleared land to guay and Argentina. Today, only 7% dangered black lion tamarin (L. "landless" people of the Pontal do of the forest remains in small forest chrysopygus) (Valladares-Pádua et al. Paranapanema region in exchange for fragments (Anonymous 2000). This 2002). Morro do Diablo State Park, official title to the remaining property massive destruction is the conse- a 35,000-hectare forest, is the largest (Cullen et al. 2001). According to quence of intensive conversion to fragment in the region. Cullen et al. (2001), much of the land agricultural land during Brazil's In addition to wildlife in the re- donated to "landless" families is mar- population expansion of the mid- gion, there are significant human ginal and borders on sensitive forest twentieth century. settlements. In recent years, the com- fragments. The land redistribution The remaining fragments of the munity around Morro do Diablo State process lacked a comprehensive pro- Atlantic Forest continue to face hu- Park has grown with the arrival of gram to provide these newly landed man pressures. Conservation Inter- "landless" people, represented by the families with the skills and techno- national designated the Atlantic For- Landless Workers Movement logical assistance needed to make est as a biodiversity hotspot due to (Movimento dos Trabalhadores productive use of their small farms. its high levels of diversity and en- Rurias Sem Terra, MST). In addition This paper examines a program demic plants and animals. Of great to the "landless" community, the other developed to address the problem interest are the primate species of the major group in the region is large arising from land redistribution with- forest, including the several species landowners. Brazil has a strong his- out a program to assist new landown- of lion tamarin (Leontopithecus sp.), tory of aristocracy, with 40 to 60% ers in minimizing their impacts to the

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 179 Brazilian Atlantic Forest of the Inte- the project and achieve conservation search organization dedicated to the rior. This paper describes and evalu- objectives. Prototyping has been used conservation of wildlife in the Atlan- ates the Green Hug Project (Projeto in other ecosystem management situ- tic Forest. During the organization's Abraço Verde, PAV) in terms of its ations (Clark 2002, including bandi- infancy, its founders, Claudio and social context, decision-making pro- coot (Perameles gunnii) conservation Suzana Padua, realized the need to cess, and ability to meet conservation in Australia; Clark et al. 1995). The combine conservation science with goals. Further, it appraises the project guiding goal of this effort was to pro- community participation. Environ- in terms of its applicability to other vide small "landless" farmers and mental education programs within the forest fragments and regions facing large landowners with the resources communities in the Pontal do similar pressures. Finally, recom- and skills to improve agricultural pro- Paranapanema region became an im- mendations are made to ensure effec- ductivity while protecting and restor- portant component of IPÉ. As IPÉ tive application of the PAV in other ing forest fragments. A secondary goal grew, its position in the community forest fragments. of the project was to apply successful was strengthened through coopera- Information for this paper was elements at a broader scale to similar tion with local landowners in conser- collected from various sources. Most problems in other regions, with the vation projects and environmental important were personal communica- possibility of including such a program education. These cooperative conser- tions with Institute for Ecological in national land redistribution policies. vation projects were mainly agreements Research (Instituto de Pesquisas The social context of this prob- between landowners and IPÉ for per- Écológicas, IPÊ) staff and our per- lem is complex, particularly at the mission to conduct scientific research sonal experiences in Brazil. Staff in- national scale. Land redistribution is in forest fragments on private land. terviews included Claudio Pádua, one of the most contentious issues in Relationships were also formed with Director of Conservation Science for Brazil, and while few organizations the local "landless" community in the IP,Ê and Suzana Pádua, President of participate, the membership of par- region, mostly through interviews re- IPÊ. Online resources such as the IPÊ ticipating organizations is large. At garding hunting and poaching in the website and websites dedicated to the the heart of the conflict are the Bra- forests. These relationships generated "landless" movement in Brazil were zilian national government, the São a strong level of affection between IPÉ also used. Finally, newspaper and Paulo state government, MST, inter- and its community (Valladares-Padua, magazine articles proved useful in national human rights non-govern- personal communication). understanding the complexity of the mental organizations (NGOs), Brazil- As the "landless" issue became Brazilian government and the "land- ian and international environmental more contentious in the late 1990's, less" issues. We employed the policy NGOs, and the landed aristocracy of IPÉ sought a way to assist the "land- sciences framework to wade through Brazil. Currently there is little effec- less" in managing their new farms and this complex conservation problem tive communication among partici- protecting the forest fragments. Due and prototype. pants, with the Brazilian government to the relationships already in place, actually criminalizing the MST as a IPÉ was able to design PAV to ad- The Pontal do Paranapanema terrorist organization (Veronese dress these needs. situation 2001). Faced with the complexity of The problem facing the Pontal do the land redistribution issue, the PAV "Landless" farmers Paranapanema region is how to ac- reduces the scale of the problem to The "landless" farmers of the Pontal complish conservation goals while more manageable terms by addressing do Paranapanema region are a well- improving the quality of life for the a single portion of the issue. Addition- organized group supported by MST. human community. IPÊ set out to ally, PAV builds trust and opens lines Prior to 1998, the "landless" in the address this problem using an adap- of communication among the three Pontal do Paranapanema region were tive and multi-faceted project as a main stakeholder groups; environmen- without legal property title. They prototype, or small-scale, innovative tal NGOs (e.g., IPÊ), "landless" farm- were squatters on large private program coupled with a guiding goal ers, and large landowners (Table 1). ranches and had no legal right to farm, (Brunner and Clark 1997). While nor were they provided assistance prototypes are similar to pilot pro- Instituto de Pesquisas from the state or national govern- grams and controlled experiments, Écológicas (IPÉ) ments (Valladares-Padua, personal they are adaptive in nature, permit- The organization responsible for communication). During this period, ting changes as problems and diffi- building and implementing PAV — the "landless" families viewed land culties develop in order to strengthen IPÉ — was formed in 1992 as a re- redistribution as the solution to their

180 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Table 1. Social Context of the Green Hugs Project (Projeto Abraço Verde – PAV).

PARTICIPANTS

Instituto de Pesquisas VARIABLE "Landless" farmers Large landowners Écológicas (IPÊ)

Participant Trait Identification *Formerly “landless” *Own majority of land in *Environmental NGO *Granted land by state govt. Brazil and area in question *Took primary responsibility to resolve *Well organized community *Land redistributed by govt land use problem and protect Atlantic to small farmers Forest fragments

Expectations Practice traditional farming Maintain control over land Restore Atlantic Forest and corridors techniques with little responsibility with farmer's assistance

Beliefs With land ownership comes the Ownership and control of Cooperation and support of communi- ability to support families land should remain with the ties leads to ecosystem conservation historical landowner of wildlife

Base Values (1,2) Rectitude: ethical right to make a Wealth: among the richest Affection: support and cooperation of living citizens farmers and landowners

Skill: understand basic farming Power: their property, their Enlightenment: knowledge and under- techniques control standing of Atlantic Forest and local communities Power: strong political force Well-being: possess access to healthcare and food Rectitude: ethical responsibility to conserve nature

Strategies *Farm to best of abilities *Engage in "land for legal *Environmental education program in *Utilize forest to increase productivity title" deals with government community *Participate in PAV *Ecological research *Establish PAV prototype

Values promoted by Wealth, well-being, skill Wealth, affection Enlightenment, affection, rectitude Strategies

1. Assets or resources used by participants to achieve their goals (Clark and Wallace 1998). 2. Eight value categories include affection, enlightenment, power, rectitude, respect, skill, wealth, and well-being. For a complete description of the eight values see Laswell (1971). problems, believing that subsistence provided an alternative to traditional ers in the Pontal do Paranapanema crops and small-scale dairy opera- subsistence farming and an opportu- were not dependent on these lands for tions would sustain the community nity to address their needs, particu- their livelihood, but rather saw the (Cullen et al. 2001). larly well-being. In addition, the PAV ranches as symbols of their wealth In 1998, the "landless" were provided skills to the "landless" farm- and power (Valladares-Padua, personal awarded land tenure to the once pri- ers that would in turn increase wealth communication). The presence of vate ranches. Land was removed in the community. squatters ("landless" families) on their from its original owners and redistrib- lands angered the large landowners, but uted in 35-acre farms among the fami- Large landowners they did not aggressively enforce their lies (Cullen et al. 2001). The "land- The aristocratic landowners in the ownership rights (Valladares-Padua, less" now had control of the land they region play an interesting role in PAV. personal communication) desperately wanted, but soon found that Prior to the 1998 land redistribution, In the mid 1990s, tensions in- traditional agriculture could not provide the large landowners enjoyed many creased between the large landown- for the needs of their families and com- of the benefits of owning large tracts ers and the "landless" community, munity. Many of these new farms bor- in Brazil. The government provided leading to a negative image of the dered the forest fragments that provided tax incentives to maintain productiv- landed aristocracy to the public at large. the farmers with resources such as ity on the land, and this was easily During this period, IPÉ approached fuelwood, fodder, and wildlife to accomplished through cattle grazing several landowners with significant supplement the subsistence crops. and other activities with limited la- forest fragments regarding accessibil- For the "landless" farmers, PAV bor costs. The majority of landown- ity for scientific research. Several land-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 181 owners agreed with the hope of improv- reinitiate the decision-making process lies with farms bordering a 400-hect- ing relations with the community. in response to a government land re- are forest fragment participated in The large landowners in the distribution policy that awarded 15 1998. As issues concerning planting Pontal do Paranapanema region hectares to each of the "landless" techniques and nursery management sought to maintain the status quo. In families in the Pontal do were resolved, 20 more families were the face of the land redistribution pro- Paranapanema region. This action by included by the middle of 1999. gram, many of these landowners sought the large landowners and state gov- With the assistance of the com- to cooperate with PAV in order to main- ernment forced IPÊ to reconsider munity advocates, IPÊ staff members tain a level of control over their remain- their earlier project and begin efforts have continually monitored the pro- ing resources and improve their image to develop a new prototype. This time totype since its inception. The pro- within the community. a new, more pressing issue developed. totype is dynamic and flexible, allow- Forest fragments once surrounded by ing for incorporation of suggestions Designing the Projecto Abraço land owned by a single family were from participants. The prototype con- Verde now encircled by up to 50 families. tinues to expand and include more Design of the PAV effort began in Reinitiating the prototyping pro- "landless" families and large land- 1995 when IPÊ realized the need to cess, IPÊ altered the focus of data owners during implementation. The protect Atlantic Forest fragments on collection to better match the needs hope of IPÊ staff and other partici- private land. Morro do Diablo State of the "landless" community. Based pants is that the prototype will be- Park was the only protected area in on information gathered during the come a powerful force in the region, the region and, while large at 86,000 new and original estimation phases, shifting perceptions of the forest acres, it could not sustain viable popu- "landless" participants identified their away from that of it being an obstacle lations of most wildlife species greatest needs as uncomplicated agri- toward one in which forest fragments (Cullen et al. 2001). Given the press- culture techniques that could increase are viewed as a useful resource that ing need to ensure preservation of productivity, a fuelwood source for the must be maintained. No termination other forest fragments and the con- community, and the possibility of mov- is planned. Instead, participants hope struction of corridors linking frag- ing from subsistence to cash crop agri- that it becomes an independent pro- ments, IPÊ recognized the necessity culture (Cullen et al. 2001). gram with continued input from all. of community cooperation (Pádua PAV was established based on a 2001). During this early initiation community dialogue among IPÊ staff, Why does PAV work? stage, staff from IPÊ worked closely "landless" farmers, and large land- To ascertain the utility of PAV as a with large landowners and "landless" owners. The driving force of PAV is prototype for other regions it is nec- families to encourage conservation of an agroforestry program in which IPÊ essary to examine trends and factors the forest fragments. staff provides instruction and a nurs- influencing those trends. Four major Between 1995 and early 1998, ery with appropriate species for trends in the Pontal do Paranapanema IPÊ staff worked closely with large fuelwood, non-timber forest products, region permitted the PAV prototype: landowners and the "landless" com- and increasing nutrient levels in soils deforestation by "landless" farmers munity to determine the needs of par- (Cullen et al. 2001). Farmers agreed and large landowners; limited produc- ticipants. In addition, scientific data to plant 60% of their seedlings along tivity of the farmland; hunting and from forest fragments were collected forest edges, with the remainder poaching in forest fragments; and a to determine which fragments likely planted elsewhere on the farms or land redistribution program that per- served as corridors or sinks for wild- sold in local markets. In addition to mits ownership of land along forest life from Morro do Diablo (Cullen et the nursery and training courses, PAV fragments (Table 2). al. 2001). IPÊ also conducted sur- hired representatives from the "land- The historical trend towards de- veys of "landless" individuals regardless" community to serve as commu- forestation in the region stems from ing hunting and poaching within the nity advocates, to ensure healthy a culturally based dominion view of forest fragments. Based on this in- communication among participants. land and resources. For much of formation, IPÊ sought to increase co- Community members were also em- Brazil's history, forests have been operation with large landowners on a ployed to build and manage the nurs- viewed as an obstacle for progress restoration prototype, while maintain- ery under IPÊ guidance. and development. In addition to the ing ties with the "landless" community As with most trial interventions, it conversion of forest to pasture and through environmental education. is best to start small (Clark et al. 1995). agricultural land, the collection of In late 1998, IPÊ was forced to In the case of PAV, 15 "landless" fami- fuelwood from within forest frag-

182 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 ments also contributes to deforesta- ing improper agriculture techniques, Over the years, many areas like the tion in the region (Cullen et al. 2001). degradation of the landscape will in- Pontal do Paranapanema region of With limited income, many "landless" crease leading to an increase in pov- São Paulo will benefit from these pro- families depend on the forest to pro- erty in the region. grams. While these programs are a vide a heat source as well as fodder The third trend making the Pontal major step forward in human and for livestock. As these activities con- do Paranapanema region viable for worker rights, they fail to address the tinue, the Atlantic Forest ecosystem an agroforestry prototype is hunting potential for environmental impact. will eventually either be entirely con- and poaching in the forest fragments. The redistribution of land increases verted to agricultural land or endemic The "landless" community mainly human proximity to and encroach- plant species will be decimated, im- conducts this activity, but some ment into forest fragments. pacting the biodiversity for which the large landowners condone it on Each of these trends will con- region is known. their land. The need for supplemen- tinue to degrade the Atlantic Forest The majority of farmland in the tal income and food sources are the ecosystem under current policies. In region was converted from forested greatest conditions contributing to many Atlantic Forest regions, a pro- land through slash and burn agricul- this trend. As many small farmers totype such as PAV does not exist to ture (Tabarelli et al. 1999). While this are unable to provide for their fami- address these trends and the future provided substantial nutrients during lies, they must rely on the wildlife impact they will cause. The most the infancy of these ranches 50 years for additional nutrition. As the farms realistic alternative to the inadequate ago, it has left a land with low nutri- continue to decline in productivity, land redistribution program is a pro- ent levels (Cullen et al. 2001). Addi- poaching will increase leading to lo- totype similar to that used in the tionally, "landless" farmers were cal extinction of many of the large Pontal do Paranapanema region. By awarded thirty-five-acre farms dur- mammal species endemic to the At- including the local community in ing land redistribution. In order to lantic Forest. Since many of these ecosystem conservation, many of the provide some level of subsistence species are already critically endan- above projections can be avoided or crops, farmers must utilize all thirty- gered, these local extinctions may in even reversed. PAV encourages pro- five acres, with little crop rotation and fact be global extinctions. tection and restoration of the forest other techniques that might provide Land redistribution and owner- rather than deforestation. By plant- increased nutrient levels in the soil. ship of small farms is the final trend ing important nutrient cycling species Many of the farmers are also un- providing for the possibility of a PAV on farms, productivity will increase skilled or unfamiliar with methods to program. The Brazilian government and subsistence agriculture may in increase productivity of the land is facing increasing pressure both fact be able to sustain many families, (Cullen et al. 2001). As "landless" nationally and internationally to in- while other families may make a liv- and other small farmers continue us- crease land redistribution programs. ing from cash crops. As productiv-

Table 2. Characteristics of a situation that lends itself to the use of a conservation project similar to Green Hug Project (Projeto Abraço Verde – PAV). Items in italics represent alternative outcomes associated with a community agroforestry system such as PAV.

What's Happening Why is it occurring? Likely future?

Deforestation Culturally–based, improper use of land; Destruction of the Atlantic Forest Ecosystem; Forest viewed as an obstacle; Protection and Restoration of Atlantic Forest Timber necessary for fuel fragments

Limited Productivity Overuse of 35 acre farms; Degradation of the landscape; of Soils Improper farming techniques Increase in poverty among "landless" farmers; Increased soil nutrient levels

Hunting/Poaching Wildlife necessary to supplement Decline of wildlife populations; Pressure income and nutrition; Decline in hunting as a means to provide sufficient Dependency on subsistence farming nutrition

Land Redistribution Strong pressure from "landless" Human encroachment into forest fragments; or Ownership movement; Protection and respect for forest fragments Small farms with inexperienced farmers

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 183 ity increases, "landless" farmers will members will only continue to par- and protects these valuable forest frag- not be forced to resort to poaching ticipate if a prototype meets their ments. The Projeto Abraço Verde has wildlife from the forest fragments. goals and addresses issues they believe been a dramatic success both socially And finally, protection of the Atlantic are important. Once agroforestry was and ecologically. "Landless" families Forest will be a part of land ownership. selected as the backbone of the proto- now have access to training and re- Given the controversial nature of type, further discussion was resources that increase productivity on land redistribution programs, the quired to understand which tech- their farms, but are also committed to most proactive approach to resolving niques would work best for the using the training and resources to the policy problem is not at the na- farmers (Cullen et al. 2001). By lis- protect adjacent forest fragments tional level, but rather the local level tening to the needs of the farmers, IPÊ (Cullen et al. 2001). (Valladares-Padua, personal commu- was able to introduce agroforestry tech- IPÊ was contextual when devel- nication). The more technical assis- niques that were straightforward, oping the PAV. Understanding par- tance and training organizations like simple, and provided quick returns. ticipant needs and addressing those IPÉ can provide to newly landed com- Working with participants and address- needs proved to be the most impor- munities, the greater the possibility for ing their needs increases the likelihood tant element for the success. While a reduction in harmful activities. of their participation. IPÊ staff members were not familiar Third, keep the prototype simple. with the "prototyping strategy", they Recommendations The success of the PAV prototype is nonetheless used it in their program, Several key concepts must be fol- in its simplicity and flexibility. Farm- successfully constructing a problem- lowed to successfully apply the PAV ers' suggestions can be easily incor- oriented "prototype" to address a as a prototype in other regions fac- porated into the system and new tech- complex conservation problem. ing similar challenges: (1) Establish niques are disseminated quickly trust before initiating the prototyping through a Community Advocate pro- Acknowledgements process to ensure positive communi- gram. By starting small, a prototype We would like to thank Claudio and cation among all participants. (2) can address problems as they de- Suzana Pádua for their assistance in Understand the needs of participants velop. The PAV prototype started putting together this analysis. Their — be contextual. (3) Keep it simple. with 15 families and has grown to generosity and friendship have been Prototypes are meant to be dynamic over 50. IPÊ incorporated all "land- a valuable resource. In addition, we (Clark et al. 1995), and a large, com- less" families and large landowners would also like to thank Mary Pearl plex program cannot adapt to changes into the decision process, but selected and Wildlife Trust for their generous in participant needs or goals. a single forest fragment for the ini- support of IPÊ and PAV. The help of First, the issue of trust is an im- tial module. The project continues Yale colleagues Aspasia Alexandra portant element to many policy prob- to grow and more nurseries are be- Dimiza and Quint Newcomer was lems. Without trust, participants of- ing built to accommodate more farms invaluable. Additional thanks must ten will be suspicious of other's ac- and forest fragments. be extended to Timothy Clark for tions and may be apprehensive about exposing us to the Policy Sciences completely participating in the deci- Conclusion and assisting in the evaluation of the sion process. Prior environmental A land donation and redistribution pro- PAV and the editing of this paper. education programs in the commu- gram in the Pontal do Paranapanema Additional thanks must be extended nity and collaboration with large region of Brazil provides formerly to Lindsey Adams for her editorial landowners in ecological studies in- "landless" families with agricultural assistance and support. creased IP's visibility in the commu- plots and an opportunity to achieve self- nity and helped establish a high level sufficiency. What the program does not Literature cited of trust. Involving potential partici- provide, however, are the skills and as- Anonymous. 2000. "Still chopping." The pants in less controversial activities sistance "landless" farmers need to be Economist 355(8168):36 April 27, 2000. Brunner, R.D. and T.W. Clark. 1997. A prac- can build trust and respect among all productive and conserve remaining tice-based approach to ecosystem manage- parties, especially when participants' fragments of the biodiversity-rich At- ment. Conservation Biology 11(1):48-58. well-being and wealth are affected lantic Forest of the Interior. Rather than Clark, T.W. 2001. Interdisciplinary problem (Brunner and Clark 1997). approach the conservation problem on solving in species and ecosystem conser- Once trust has been established, a national scale, IPÊ sought to develop vation. Pp. 35-54 in T.W. Clark, M. Stevenson, K. Ziegelmayer, and M. Ruth- the next step requires understanding a localized "prototype," one that real- erford, eds. Species and Ecosystem Con- participants' needs. Community istically addresses community concerns

184 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 servation: An Interdisciplinary Approach, spectives on Private Land Use and Endan- tumn, 2001:4-7. Bulletin #105. Yale University, School of gered Species Recovery. Transactions of Tabarelli, M., W. Mantovani, and C. Peres. Forestry and Environmental Studies. Bul- the Royal Zoological Society of New South 1999. Effects of habitat fragmentation on letin Series, New Haven, Connecticut. Wales. plant guild structure in the montane Atlan- Clark, T.W. 2002. The policy process: A prac- Cullen Jr., L., M. Schmink, C. Valladares- tic Forest of southeastern Brazil. tical guide for natural resource profession- Pádua, and M.I.R. Morato. 2001. Biological Conservation. 91(2-3):119-127. als. Yale University Press, New Haven, Agroforestry benefit zones: A tool for the Valladares-Padua, C. Personal communica- Connecticut. conservation and management of Atlantic tion. June 10, 2002 Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1998. Under- forest fragments, São Paulo, Brazil. Natu- Valladares-Padua, C., J.D. Ballou, C. Saddy standing the human factor in endangered ral Areas Journal 21(4):346-356. Martins, and L. Cullen Jr. 2002. species recovery: An introduction to human Downie, A. 2001. Atlantic forest in more peril Metapopulation management for the con- social process. Endangered Species UP- than Amazon. Christian Science Monitor servation of black lion tamarins. In D.G. DATE 15:2-9. 92(103):7 April 19, 2000. Kleiman and A.B Rylands, eds. The Lion Clark, T.W., G.N. Backhouse, and R.P. Read- Laswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view to policy sci- Tamarins of Brazil. Smithsonian Institution ing. 1995. Prototyping in endangered spe- ences. American Elsevier, New York. Press, Washington, DC. cies recovery programmes: The Eastern Mark, J. 2001. Brazil's MST: Taking back Veronese, A. 2001. Reconciliation between all Barred Bandicoot experience. Pp. 50-62 in the land. Multinational Monitor 22(1/2):10. Brazilians. http://www.mstbrazil.org/ A. Bennett, G. Backhouse, and T. Clark, Pádua, S. 2001. People of animals? On the 083101Veronese.html. August 31, 2001. eds. People and Nature Conservation: Per- Edge, Prospect Park, Pennsylvania. Au-

California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) by David Clendenen, USFWS.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 185 Path of the Tapir: Integrating Biological Corridors, Ecosystem Management, and Socioeconomic Development in Costa Rica

Quint Newcomer Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 210 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 [email protected]

Abstract To address crises of ecosystem degradation and poverty in the central-southern Pacific coastal region of Costa Rica, communities must cooperatively define problems, goals, and strategies. The Path of the Tapir Program is not only about sustainable development for this region, but also serves as a model for the regional Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Initiative. This paper explores the case from a policy sciences perspective to reveal strengths and gaps in processes that might hinder program success. This case provides lessons that are useful in many settings within Mesoamerica by identifying shortcomings in decision making and methods to address them and illustrating how local leadership and involvement can help program managers identify diverse perspectives, values, and strategies of those who participate in or are directly affected by a selected program. In this way, managers can learn to avert social conflict and, in some instances, leverage conflict for constructive progress toward program goals.

Introduction sources. This paper analyzes the Path zone identified as the priority area for In the face of ecosystem degradation of the Tapir Program. The following forest conservation and establishing and poverty, communities in the cen- sections present a contextual analy- corridors (Rodríguez 2000). The pro- tral-southern Pacific coastal region of sis of the program, analyze the his- gram area is principally located in the Costa Rica have demonstrated their tory of the central problems, and pro- dry forest on the western slope of the ability to organize and self-govern vide alternatives for strengthening the coastal range, with distinct wet (May– through local committees, commis- local institutional and organizational November) and dry (December– sions, and associations (Rodríguez foundations of the program. May) seasons, and annual rainfall of 2000; Stroud pers. comm.; Fernández about 4000 millimeters. Twenty-nine et al. 2000). Nonetheless, many fac- What is the problem? rivers run through this landscape, tors contribute to a lack of coordi- The geographic area of CBPD is some reaching up to 30 meters wide nated, effective effort to address re- rich in cultural, biological, and (Rodríguez 2000). gional problems. Specifically, com- habitat diversity. However, all While some endangered species, munities lack common principles and three are threatened due to impedi- including large mammals such as ta- practices for identifying problems, ments to decision making and poor pir (Tapirus bairdii) and anteater amassing knowledge, and translating communication and cooperation (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) no longer knowledge into action. between key program participants. inhabit the region, other endangered Corredor Biológico Paso de la Path of the Tapir spans roughly species such as margay (Leopardus Danta (CBPD), or Path of the Tapir, 50 km in length, connecting Los wiedii), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), is a locally-run effort to establish for- Santos National Forest Reserve, jaguar (Panthera onca) and the trees est corridors along the Tinamastes Chirripó National Park, and La quira (Caryodaphnopsis burgeri) — and Costeña mountain ranges that Amistad Biosphere Reserve with a endemic to this region, alazán parallel the central Pacific coast of mangrove estuarine system and a net- (Tachigali versicolor), ajo (Caryocar Costa Rica. CBPD seeks to integrate work of protected areas on the Osa costaricensis), carey (Elaeoluma conservation and socioeconomic de- Peninsula, including Corcovado Na- glabrescens), mimillo (Minquartia velopment to capture social and eco- tional Park (see Figure 1). The el- guianensis), and ojoche (Brosimum nomic benefits from the sustainable evation ranges from sea level to 1100 alicastrum) are still found in a few management of the region's re- meters, with the 300- to 800-meter forested areas within this region

186 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Figure 1. The proposed Mesoamerican Biological Corridor, right (Miller et al. 2001), and the Path of the Tapir Biological Corridor in Costa Rica, left (Rodríguez 2000).

(Rodríguez 2000; Stroud pers. grounds are some of the area's most (TNC) identified at least 40 tree spe- comm.). The program area hosts prominent marine and coastal features. cies of commercial timber interest, many small mammal species, includ- Over the past century, natural along with 43 species of orchids, 31 ing 58 identified species of bats which habitat has been converted to agri- species of palms, 13 species of serve as important pollinators cultural uses throughout the region. heliconias, eight species of begonias, (Rodríguez 2000). More than 320 This process has been stimulated by seven species of costaceas, and 20 bird species have been identified at local and national settlement and de- species of bromeliads (Rodríguez Hacienda Barú, a 336 hectare reserve velopment policies (Castro and 2000). The presence of diverse mam- within CBPD boundaries (Stroud Murillo 1997). Between 1960 and mals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians, pers. comm.). Forty-one reptile spe- 1990, an expanding cattle industry as well as large forested areas and cies and 24 amphibian species were was a major contributing factor to de- secure water sources, are important identified during a rapid assessment forestation (Rodríguez 2000). Cur- for ecologically-based tourism. conducted in early 2000 (Rodríguez rently, industrial logging and the need Path of the Tapir encompasses 28 2000). All of these species are directly for fuelwood reduce forested areas, communities, focusing on conserving affected by CBPD, although there are resulting in ecological degradation privately-owned lands (Rodríguez few formal mechanisms to give them (Stroud pers. comm.). As a result of 2000). Because all properties within voice in decision-making. these trends many species have now the proposed corridor area are pri- In addition to the terrestrial system, disappeared from the region or are vately owned, outreach to and partici- nearshore coral reefs, humpback whale found only in small, isolated pock- pation from all the communities — (Megaptera novaeangliae) migrations, ets (Rodríguez 2000). including hundreds of individual land- and Olive Ridley sea turtle As a basis for economic devel- owners and two dozen organizations — (Lepidochelys olivacea) nesting opment, The Nature Conservancy are necessary for the program to suc-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 187 cessfully achieve its goals. The pro- ernment is represented by an ap- economic power, and views toward gram must reconcile opposing percep- pointed local liaison between the pro- the natural environment change tions of resource management, devel- gram and the Ministry of Environ- within the region. opment, and wildlife conservation. ment and Energy (MINAE). National Also notable is the recent coor- Clark and Wallace (1998) out- ministries and municipal government dination between diverse community lined methods for evaluating social agencies have direct interests in and groups throughout the region to ad- processes in wildlife conservation influence on the program. Finally, dress the problem of declining fresh- and related programs. For CBPD, the landowners fall into two subgroups: water resources. This effort resulted 'social map' identifies (a) the major those landowners who participate in in a broad-based, regionally sup- and minor participants; (b) their ex- conservation management practices ported petition to MINAE and the pectations and demands with respect and those who do not. A fourth gen- municipality to protect watersheds by to land management, economic de- eral category, participant observers, suspending new logging permits velopment, and conservation; (c) the includes the author and other outside (Stroud pers. comm.). While at times values that motivate their desires and analysts and scientists who study or the diverse groups within the commu- actions; and (d) the situation in which evaluate the program. nities have cooperated well, this is the participants interact. Participants' perspectives often typically only accomplished in re- Path of the Tapir participants can differ, and thus their expectations and sponse to crisis. More commonly, be grouped into three main in-coun- demands on the program differ as participants compete for power and try clusters: community organiza- well. Tracking CBPD participants' control of limited funds, yielding a tions; government; and landowners. perspectives is especially important process marked by little coordination Community organizations are clus- because the region's demographics between organizations to identify tered into seven sub-groups: coopera- are currently undergoing rapid change common ground in perspectives, to tives (local membership institutions (Stroud pers. comm.). Families who plan cooperatively, or to negotiate and organized around the production, col- have farmed in the region for genera- resolve conflicts in ways that further lection, and distribution of agricul- tions are selling their farms to for- common goals. tural products); foundations; women's eigners and migrating from the rural Social maps may be used to help groups; environmental groups; agri- communities to the more populated participants understand the broader cultural groups; community develop- towns both within and outside the social context within which they ex- ment associations; and the CBPD Co- program area. These shifts in demo- ist so they can better consider alter- ordinating Committee (Stroud pers. graphics and land ownership will af- native positions to their own. "By comm.; Rodríguez 2000). The gov- fect the program, as land-use patterns, making use of the different values that exist among people and societies, we can protect a wider swath of nature — and more fully appreciate biodiversity and the needs of human generations to come" (Perlman and Wilson 2000:3). A successful project will be adaptable, considering the diverse institutional cultures of participant organizations as well as the diverse social cultures of the region's inhabitants. CBPD has the opportunity to draw participants in through open, participatory processes. Suc- cess depends on the participants' abilities to collectively identify and address problems. Path of the Tapir's 13-year history can be analyzed through the six-phase decision process (Brewer and deLeon 1983). This framework helps to iden- Marine iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) by Richard L. Wallace. tify positive aspects and gaps in deci-

188 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 sion making which call for interven- program has received funding support to bear legitimacy and not be viewed tions. "Human decisions…determine from the United Nations' Global En- as politically motivated (Patton whether species and ecosystems will vironment Facility. "At times the 1997). Although the program is just thrive or vanish. Focusing on improv- implementation has been very orga- beginning, it is not clear how success ing the human decision-making pro- nized and coordinated, though rarely will be measured, who will be respon- cess is therefore key to achieving as an amalgam of all the groups" sible for measuring it, and what will sustainability" (Clark et al. 2001:11). (Stroud pers. comm.). ASANA ad- happen once a corridor network is in In 1987, a small group of people ministers environmental education place. Termination does not signal within one community initiated a pro- programs across the region. Land- an end, but rather the closure of one cess to integrate economic develop- owners act individually and in small chapter and the opening of another. ment and ecosystem management by groups, and there is little ongoing It is essential that this transition from investing in social and natural capi- coordination between communities in implementing corridors to monitor- tal with a long-term outlook for the the region. As a whole, efforts to ing and maintaining them be planned region as a whole (Ewing 2000). implement CBPD have been locally- in a way that does not derail preced- Committee meetings and consulta- administered, small-scale projects, ing initiatives. The lack of a transi- tions began between the San José- which, with improved cooperation tion plan for this natural progression based Center for Environmental and and communication, can serve as a in management objectives could ul- Natural Resource Law model of regional collaboration. timately prohibit CBPD from reach- (CEDARENA) and other key indi- The Nature Conservancy assessing long-term goals of sustainability. viduals in the largest local town, ment contributed critical information The strategy selected for CBPD Dominical. In these meetings, par- for both evaluation and clarification is similar to the landscape-level ticipants began to envision how to of program strategy. In addition to ecoregion strategy of TNC. The ap- connect agriculture, tourism, and identifying the biological, hydrologi- proach is decided first — in this case habitat protection and provide eco- cal, and geological characteristics of a network of forest corridors formed nomic incentives for landowners to the zone, the assessment identified to connect two other protected area participate in CBPD (Stroud pers. local organizations and their focus of networks — followed by a survey of comm.). In 1994, the Path of the Ta- activities, and assessed local percep- the biophysical and ecological char- pir program was created to coordinate tions of conservation efforts within acteristics of the region. Human in- these efforts and to consider the the zone (Rodríguez 2000). TNC fluences on the landscape are consid- region's economic and conservation surveys assessed the willingness of ered in terms of impacts (e.g., roads, needs (Rodríguez 2000). Since that landowners to participate and reasons fence lines, field/forest boundaries) time, workshops, community meet- for participation and non-participa- that isolate habitat fragments. It is ings, and meetings with individual tion in conservation and sustainable only in the final stages, once specific landowners have been held in col- land management practices regions have been targeted for con- laboration with CEDARENA and the (Rodríguez 2000). The overriding servation, when regional managers Association of Friends of Nature of factor determining landowners' deci- meet with local landowners to assess the Central and South Pacific sions to participate in CBPD is per- strategies for incorporating them into (ASANA) with the objective to share ceived economic benefit, while finan- the process (Toomey pers. comm.). information with landowners and dis- cial restrictions (e.g., liens on prop- Given the authoritative nature of this cuss how best to approach their eco- erties), titling discrepancies, and joint style of decision process, CBPD man- nomic and environmental concerns ownership prohibited involvement in agers must decide whether or not this (Chacón pers. comm.). some cases. is an appropriate strategy in terms of Path of the Tapir is a local pro- It is not clear how individual pro- building local trust and confidence in gram being managed by local actors, grams are being evaluated with re- the program. Without legitimate au- although the program has received spect to the overall Path of the Tapir thority to do so, the imposition of a financial and technical support from program. Evaluation is critical for regional conservation plan on an area national and international organiza- measuring progress toward estab- characterized by private land holdings tions. The Costa Rican office of The lished goals and objectives. The or- at the least will garner distrust with Nature Conservancy was hired spe- ganizations or individuals that as- some individual landowners, and at cifically to conduct a rapid assess- sume the responsibility for evaluation most could stimulate regional back- ment for the program, and otherwise must have the trust and respect of pro- lash against the program. Given the has not been involved in CBPD. The gram participants for their evaluations low individual awareness of CBPD as

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 189 revealed in the rapid assessment, it is assign and enforce accountability. velopment and niche-market monoc- not clear that CBPD has a clearly des- Feedback mechanisms built into ulture plantations) such that indi- ignated authority (Rodríguez 2000). implementation and evaluation plans vidual projects and participants re- Working land easements — legal facilitate rapid and effective response main isolated. A third alternative tar- land use restriction contracts that al- to bottlenecks. Few of these pro- gets investment in communication low for specified resource manage- cesses are evident in the overall skills and building organizational ca- ment prescriptions such as timber CBPD program. While there are pacity of key participants. With fo- extraction — and land trusts are ex- many devoted and talented people rums for public participation and the amples of creative strategies for lo- working on this program, there do not skills to promote constructive dialog, cal consideration. One potentially appear to be any well-conceived, com- local institutions will be better pre- successful program has been initiated prehensive, and coordinated strategies pared to address the complexity of between ASANA and the World among participants to address the com- this program and to adapt, based on Bank. In this scheme, landowners can plex environmental and socio-eco- what is learned along the way. The receive payments for environmental nomic problems of the region. third option offers the greatest ben- services (e.g., watershed mainte- Instead, should current biophysi- efit to the most people over the long- nance) in exchange for developing cal, socioeconomic, and organiza- est period of time, and will contrib- and implementing a clearly specified, tional trends continue, there is poten- ute the most in terms of building a formal land management plan for tial for increased social tensions due replicable prototype for the region. their property. These agreements are to conflicting demands and expecta- Unlike laboratory or highly con- supported by legally-binding con- tions among participants. It is likely trolled field experimentation, tracts. This model program is an ex- that continued independent actions, prototyping involves the systematic ample of how markets can be created especially those that focus solely on observation of institutional practices to bring direct economic benefits to economic growth (e.g., re-routing the rather than a list of specific, measur- individual landowners in exchange Inter-American Highway through this able variables, as a strategy to pre- for the local, national, and global eco- zone, and the boom in commercial test multiple policy options (Lasswell system services they provide through and residential development) or en- 1971). Indicators that demonstrate conservation stewardship of their vironmental restoration and conser- trends and magnitudes are subordi- property. While initial results seem vation (e.g., private reserves), will nated to qualitative and context-spe- positive in terms of short-run partici- soon lead to conflict between partici- cific observations, such as the participation and increased land values as a pant groups. Projects driven by sec- pants' perspectives and expectations, result of forest protection, the long- tor-specific goals compete for fund- and do not readily support aggre- term benefits and stability of this pro- ing and force participants to take sides gated, normalized data analysis gram are uncertain. in determining which projects are (Lasswell 1971). Prototypes are dif- carried out at the expense of other ferent from pilot studies — they rely Historical trends, conditioning interests. At this juncture, the leading on creativity, strategic self-observa- factors, and projected future organizations in CBPD need to help tion, and adaptation based on insights outcomes participants establish common goals gained through the learning process One way CBPD managers might and develop cohesive, interdisciplinary (Clark et al. 1995). measure program success is to assess strategies to evaluate progress toward One strategy to draw attention to whether or not it meets the following achieving those goals. policy problems is to exploit crisis broad tests (Clark 2002): Is the pro- situations. The gap in institutional ca- gram ecologically sound? Is it so- Recommendations pacity in the Path of the Tapir case is cially and politically feasible? And, Based on its current status, there are widened by crisis situations involv- is the program morally just? If not, a number of possible directions the ing local infrastructure and poverty. interventions will be met with resis- program can take. Maintaining in- Using crises as case studies, it is pos- tance, thus inhibiting the decision sufficient cooperation and coordina- sible to illustrate the local relation- process. Program leaders must work tion among participant groups will ship between economics and environ- together with key participants to for- lead to weak institutional support for mental quality, and to develop new, mulate legitimate decision-making regional land management. A varia- creative solutions through measures strategies. Attention should be given tion on this approach targets solutions that promote institutional coopera- to establishing criteria for evaluation, that focus on imported financial and tion. The process of sustainable de- and should include mechanisms that technical resources (e.g., tourism development is stimulated by building

190 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 capacity within local organizations. tributions For example, with support from toward this ASANA, a local school runs a man- goal. agement project for threatened sea Evalua- turtles that addresses both conserva- tions com- tion and economic objectives. Stu- prised of a dents learn social and technical skills collection they can take to other projects. of disci- There is an immediate need to plinary build social capital (e.g., skill, knowl- analyses edge, culture, and organization) in the typically region. Training in social skills, such fail to inte- as decision process analysis and con- grate the flict resolution, is essential for creat- knowledge ing the context for making sound de- they gener- cisions. The National Biodiversity ate into a Institute–INBio has successfully contextu- trained local "parataxonomists" who ally appro- assist taxonomists in field collection priate ap- Hood mockingbird (Nesomimus macdonaldi) by Richard L. and identification of Costa Rica's proach to Wallace. flora and fauna species (Allen 2001). identifying Similarly, Global Environment Facil- root problems and strategies to address making among local organizations, ity and other institutional investors these issues. "By addressing the bio- build trust and community, and is should train "parasociologists" to sup- logical and social science aspects of the consistent with the spirit of education port the management of local organi- recovery challenge separately (i.e. a that Costa Ricans embrace in their zations and facilitate the decision- multi-disciplinary approach), practitio- culture. As Dobyns et al. (1971) dem- making process within CBPD. In- ners risk devising fragmented, possi- onstrated, prototyping includes measur- vestment in building the skills to ex- bly contradictory solutions" (Clark et ing how an interdisciplinary planning plore and document previously unad- al. 1999:101). approach enhances skill, wealth, power, dressed social structures reflects a Professionally-led decision semi- respect, well-being, rectitude, and en- process-oriented approach toward ad- nars and workshops that address com- lightenment in the overall system. dressing complex, dynamic prob- munication and negotiation skills are "Policy-oriented learning occurs lems. Participants could design per- possible forums to bring together re- as participants in the policy process formance indicators to measure how gional planners and program leaders. pay attention to feedback from their this approach enhances skill, wealth, Decision seminars build a core own actions so that they will eventu- power, respect, well-being, and en- nucleus of people that work together ally be successful in reaching their lightenment in the overall system over a number of years to explore the goals" (Primm and Clark 1996:1042). (Dobyns et al. 1971). theoretical and practical processes of This requires effective evaluation There is also urgent need for im- decision making (Lasswell 1971). procedures, willingness for self-re- proving the regional infrastructure. Working groups can emerge from the flection, and management styles that This would bring development asso- seminar to focus on specific problems encourage creativity and flexibility. ciations and municipal public works (Lasswell 1971). Traditionally, de- Success in regional efforts to manage departments into the process to decision seminars are a formal academic private lands for both biological con- sign bridges, roads, electrification process carried out in higher univer- servation and socioeconomic pur- projects, and new transportation net- sity, corporate, or government set- poses will depend on building lead- works in a way that meets the stated tings (Lasswell 1971), yet this con- ership capacity, mutual respect and program goal of creating human cept could be strategically adapted to trust among participants, and a com- settlements in harmony with nature conform to the socio-cultural context monly accepted problem definition. (Ewing 2000). Interdisciplinary plan- of this region. Gathering leaders from Investing in organizational ca- ning and an in-depth prior understand- the multiple institutions throughout pacity and improving the relation- ing of the perspectives of all partici- the program area, this exercise would ships and coordination between par- pant groups will make significant con- improve communication and decision ticipants in CBPD has several ben-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 191 efits. First, this approach seeks to in- focusing on alternatives that are eco- research and survey database from the corporate all points of view and facili- logically sound, socially and politi- TNC rapid assessment. Professors tate constructive dialog, building trust cally feasible, and morally just, inves- Tim Clark and Garry Brewer have and respect among participants. Sec- tors and program leaders have a much mentored me in understanding and ond, this is a logical first step in the greater likelihood for successfully applying the policy sciences frame- process of building local decision-mak- attaining both development and con- work, and provided critical reviews ing and management skills needed to servation goals (Brechin et al. 2002). of manuscript drafts. My advisor, develop and maintain long-term re- We desire a system in which or- Professor Bill Burch, has given me gional coordination. And third, im- ganizations are working together to- tireless encouragement to pursue this proving communication skills helps ward common goals and addressing work. Finally, I am grateful to Rich- participants identify creative opportu- commonly perceived problems. In ard Reading and Richard Wallace for nities where partnership is the most ef- this system, individual organizations their editing skill and patience in the fective way to meet their own interests. have the capacity to look clearly at development of this manuscript. problems and evaluate their actions Conclusions in a larger context. Feedback mecha- Literature cited The goal of this analysis is to assist nisms and well-defined performance Allen, W. 2001. Green Phoenix: Restoring the CBPD participants in understanding indicators provide constructive infor- tropical forests of Guanacaste, Costa Rica. Oxford University Press, Inc., New York, the processes of problem orientation, mation and are designed into the man- New York. social context mapping, and decision agement system. An integrated, adap- Brechin, S.R., P.R. Wilshusen C.L. making. The case study has revealed tive strategy will help CBPD succeed Fortwangler, and P.C. West. 2002. Beyond that the major barriers to successful in securing habitat for endangered the square wheel: Toward a more compre- implementation of the program have species and protecting water re- hensive understanding of biodiversity conservation as social and political process. to do with policy problems and the sources within the context of a sus- Society and Natural Resources 15:41-65. decision-making process. tainable socioeconomic system. Brewer, G.D. and P. deLeon. 1983. Founda- Ecological rehabilitation of de- To serve as a prototype for the tions of policy analysis. Dorsey Press, graded lands and the sustainable man- Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Homewood, Illinois. Castro Salazar, R. and G. Arias Murillo. 1997. agement of the region's natural re- Initiative, the social context and de- Costa Rica: Hacia la sostenibilidad de sus sources are key components of the cision-making processes within recursos naturales. Ministerio de Ambiente economic and social well-being of CBPD must be examined and de- y Energía, San José, Costa Rica. this region. However, implementing scribed in a way that provides gen- Chacón, C.M. Personal interviews. New Ha- a successful project in this complex eral lessons for other regions (Clark ven, Connecticut. 18-19 April 2002. Clark, T.W., G.N. Backhouse, and R.P. Read- social setting requires more than sim- 1999). For example, lessons learned ing. 1995. Prototyping in endangered spe- ply providing a multi-disciplinary about how to implement and evalu- cies recovery programmes: the Eastern management plan. ate the program can be applied not Barred Bandicoot experience. Pp. 50-62 in Path of the Tapir has the poten- only to other corridor projects involv- A. Bennett, G. Backhouse, and T. Clark, eds. People and nature conservation: Per- tial to demonstrate what early investing private landowners, but also to spectives on private land use and endan- ment in building social capital — cases involving national parks or gered species recovery. Transactions of the negotiation and communication skills marine sanctuaries. The comprehen- Royal Zoological Society of New South and organizational capacity — can siveness and interdisciplinary nature Wales, Australia. achieve in terms of developing a suc- of the policy sciences framework al- Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1998. Under- standing the human factor in endangered cessful prototype. In documenting lows us to move across scales and species recovery: An introduction to human how these investments improve de- context in a holistic approach to natu- social process. Endangered Species UP- cision making and ultimately affect ral resource management. DATE 15(1):2-9. program success, the prototype be- Clark, T.W. 1999. Interdisciplinary problemsolving: Next steps in the Greater comes a useful mechanism to trans- Acknowledgements Yellowstone Gcosystem. Policy Sciences fer lessons across contexts (Dobyns Steve Stroud, in San José–Dominical, 32:393-414. et al. 1971). Investment that enhances introduced me to CBPD, and has pro- Clark, T.W., R.P. Reading, and R.L. Wallace. local social capital rests at the heart vided rapid and insightful responses 1999. Research in endangered species con- of an integrated approach to conser- to my questions, facilitation of conservation: An introduction to multiple methods. Endangered Species UPDATE vation — this approach gives rise to tacts with CBPD, and multiple re- 16(5):96-102. the legitimacy needed to develop and views of this manuscript. Mario Clark, T.W., N. Mazur, S.J. Cork, S. Dovers, implement a management plan. By Fernández generously shared his field and R. Harding. 2000. Koala conservation

192 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 policy process: Appraisal and recommen- Fernández Arias, M.E. and H.M. Bonilla conservation. Conservation Biology dations. Conservation Biology 14(3):681- Quesada. 2000. Estudio para la 10(4):1036-1045. 690. conformación y consolidación del corredor Patton, M.Q. 1997. Utilization-focused evalu- Clark, T.W., M. Stevenson, K. Ziegelmayer, biológico "el Paso de la Danta" Pacífico ation. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, M. Rutherford. 2001. Introduction: Lead- Central y Sur, Costa Rica: Aspectos California. ership in species and ecosystem conserva- socioeconómicos. In Rodríguez, ed., Rodríguez, K., ed. 2000. Corredor Biológico tion. Pp. 9-15 in T.W. Clark, M. Stevenson, Corredor Biológico Paso de la Danta. The Paso de la Danta. Rapid ecological assess- K. Ziegelmayer and M. Rutherford, eds. Nature Conservancy, San José, Costa Rica. ment prepared for la Asociación de Amigos Species and ecosystem conservation: An Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view of policy de la Naturaleza del Pacífico Central y interdisciplinary approach. Bulletin series sciences. American Elsevier Press, New Sur—ASANA by The Nature Conservancy, #105. Yale University Press, New Haven, York, New York. San José, Costa Rica. Connecticut. Miller, K., E. Chang, and N. Johnson. 2001. Stroud, S. "edits" [e-mail to Q. Newcomer]. Clark, T.W. 2002. The policy process. Yale Defining common ground for the 28 February 2002. . University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. World Stroud, S. "Re: appreciate your edits" [e-mail Dobyns, H.F., P.L. Doughty, and H.D. Resources Institute, Washington, DC. to Q. Newcomer]. 18 December 2001. Lasswell, eds. 1971. Peasants, power, and Perlman, D. and E.O. Wilson. 2000. Conserv- . applied social change: Vicos as a model. ing earth's biodiversity: An interactive Stroud, S. "Re: saludos" [e-mail to Q. Newcomer]. Sage Publications, Inc., Beverly Hills, Cali- learning experience for studying conserva- 30 July 2001. . fornia. tion biology and environmental science. Toomey, B. 2002. "Conservation by design." Ewing, J. May 2000. Speech to ASANA mem- Values in Conservation section. Interac- Presentation to Strategies for Land Conser- bership. Dominical, Costa Rica. In tive compact disc published by Island Press, vation seminar course, Yale School of For- Rodríguez, ed., Corredor Biológico Paso Washington, DC. estry and Environmental Studies, New de la Danta. The Nature Conservancy, San Primm, S.A. and T.W. Clark. 1996. Making Haven, Connecticut. 23 January 2002. José, Costa Rica. sense of the policy process for carnivore

California sea otter (Enhydra lutris) by Mike Boylan, USFWS.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 193 If the Tasmanian Tiger Were Found, What Should We Do? An Interdisciplinary Guide to Endangered Species Recovery

Tim W. Clark Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 301 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 and Northern Rockies Conservation Cooperative, Box 2705, Jackson, WY 83001 [email protected] Richard P. Reading Denver Zoological Foundation, 2900 East 23rd Avenue, Denver, CO 80205 [email protected] Richard L. Wallace Environmental Studies Program, Ursinus College, P.O. Box 1000, Collegeville, PA 19426 [email protected] Barbara A. Wilson Deakin University, Geelong, Australia, V1C 3217 [email protected]

Abstract The Tasmanian tiger, or thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus), is a wolf-like carnivorous marsupial last reported in the 1930s in Tasmania, an island state of Australia. Although the species is likely extinct, sightings are reported annually. A fictional scenario is described in which a female thylacine with four pouched young is captured. This scenario is explored and an interdisciplinary approach to endangered species recovery is introduced. This approach is applicable to all endangered species recovery efforts and focuses on the principal dimensions of recovery: (1) orienting to the problem at hand and meeting it successfully; (2) understanding the recovery effort itself, its full context, and the required management (decision) process; (3) using a broad range of methods; and (4) integrating research results into a comprehensive recovery process (picture of the whole). By using this interdisciplinary approach, recovery can be systematically understood, best managed, and restoration prospects enhanced.

Introduction pen? Are we equipped to deal with edge, skills, and actions all focused Some people believe that the Tas- such an important conservation on the species' recovery in a timely, manian tiger, or thylacine challenge? What actions will we reliable way. Clearly an interdis- (Thylacinus cynocephalus), still need to undertake to recover it? We ciplinary approach is needed (see exists in the wilds of Tasmania know that endangered species re- Clark 1997, 2002). Exploring the (Figure 1). Finding surviving thy- covery is always complex, risky, thylacine scenario illustrates how lacines would focus international and a difficult task. The thylacine an interdisciplinary approach could attention on this magnificent ani- conservation scenario we present aid all recovery efforts. mal. It would be viewed as our last below clearly demonstrates this. This paper describes a fictional chance to restore a unique member The problem of recovering an en- scenario wherein a live thylacine is of Australia's and the world's natu- dangered species can be guided us- captured. We explore an interdis- ral heritage. Resources likely ing biological science, but more ciplinary approach to endangered would be unlimited. Unfortunately, than biological science is required species recovery applicable to this evidence suggests that the species in species recovery. Information case and others. This approach is is extinct both on mainland Austra- from other disciplines is necessary. generalized and draws on systems lia and in Tasmania. Conservation People must be organized, knowl- thinking and the policy sciences. did not come to the aid of this fas- edge and skill need to be mobilized We provide a brief overview of the cinating animal when it was most and integrated, and an adequate approach, identify relevant litera- needed, decades ago. decision process is required. The ture, and examine part of the ap- If the thylacine did exist and challenge becomes one of integrat- proach (i.e. the "intelligence" func- was discovered, what should hap- ing diverse perspectives, knowl- tion) in the limited space available.

194 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Rediscovery of the thylacine rects them toward the back of the tern may assist in camouflage. The A scenario house. They quietly approach the thylacine has a large head that appears Jack O'Halloran, a Tasmanian farmer shed and observe the animal sleep- like that of a dog with long and pow- from Black Creek, calls the local ing under the table. It is a thylacine! erful jaws. The tail of the thylacine Department of Parks, Lands & Wild- They immediately call the Direc- is long and stiff, but unlike that of a life in Launceston. "Charlie I've got tor, to inform him of events. He then dog it cannot be wagged laterally. a problem 'ere, sumthins turned up calls the Minister as well as the Fed- The legs of the thylacine are relatively youse might be interested in. She's eral Endangered Species Unit and short. Because it is a marsupial, the in the back shed — chook feathers Federal Minister for Environment. A female gives birth to small, undevel- everywhere." Charlie asks Jack to teleconference is arranged for that oped young that continue their devel- describe the animal, as well as its evening to decide what to do. Deci- opment in her pouch. condition and behavior. "Size of a sions must be made. Should the ani- The thylacine has a sad history, large dog, sandy colour, but with them mal be turned loose immediately or which is intimately linked with the stripes down the back — that was should it be held in captivity? Many way Australia was settled (Guiler what struck me" replied Jack. He also more questions need to be posed and 1985). This history reveals much describes the animal resting quietly answers rendered. All decisions must about settlers' attitudes towards the in the shed, under a table. The chick- be based on reliable information and land and its flora and fauna. The ens were still excited. "Reckon it may good judgment. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman reported have chased a chook in from the yard in 1642 that one of his crew had found last night, was probably after some Thylacines footprints similar to the claws of a ti- tucker, it's been pretty damn cold out Before we consider recovery efforts, ger on the shores of Van Diemen's here this summer. The shed door was what do we know about the thyla- Land (Tasmania). The first account closed, but I locked it after I peaked cine? The thylacine, also known as of the animal from Tasmania was in in. Pretty shook up I was — had a the Tasmanian wolf or tiger, is possi- the 1805 Sydney Gazette and New cuppa though, before I went to bly one of the most widely known of South Wales Advertiser and reported check again through the shed win- the Australian mammals although it evidence of "an animal of a truly sin- dow and rang you," Jack said. has not been captured for over 70 gular and novel description" and "cer- "That certainly does sound worth years (Dixon 1989). It is a large car- tainly the only powerful and terrific investigating, hold tight I'll be there nivorous marsupial and single mem- of the carnivorous and voracious tribe soon," Charlie tells Jack. ber of the family Thylacinidae. It is yet discovered on any part of New Charlie calls his assistant wild- sandy colored and has 15 to 20 dis- Holland (Australia) or its adjacent life officer, Bob, down the hallway. tinct dark stripes that transverse its islands." (see Dixon 1989). He begins to relate the story, at the back, the number of bands varying The first scientific description of same time phoning his boss, the Di- between individuals. The color pat- the thylacine was to the Linnean So- rector of Wildlife in Hobart, to alert him to the possibility of finding a live Figure 1. Thylacine (South Australian Museum, Adelaide). thylacine. Charlie says that they will call back, after a site visit to Jack's. Charlie and Bob then drive along the windy open forest road to Black Creek. Black Creek is 20 km west of Deloraine and 65 km west-southwest of Launceston. The area is known mainly for its wool production, and the landscape is dotted with flocks of sheep and lambs. Densely forested mountainous tracts surround Jack's property. A national park, Black Mountain, and an escarpment, the Great Western, lie south and southwest of the farming area. Jack meets the two officers at the gate and di-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 195 ciety of London (Harris 1808). In process and the problem itself are approach and thus we will not repeat 1803, sheep were introduced to the human constructs — that is, they are them here in detail. fertile midlands of Tasmania by set- both a concern and product of people The interdisciplinary approach tlers. The area also provided habitat interacting. Thus, recovering the thy- draws on systems thinking and the for thylacines, and most sheep losses lacine is really about people as much policy sciences (Lasswell 1971). In- were attributed to the thylacine, al- if not more than it is about thylacines. terdisciplinary approaches differ fun- though wild dogs may also have As a result, the human social process damentally from multi-disciplinary caused losses (Guiler 1985). In 1830 or context of the thylacine conserva- approaches, although many people the Van Dieman's Land Company in- tion problem must be understood and use the terms interchangeably. Inter- troduced a bounty on the thylacine. addressed simultaneously with ad- disciplinary approaches systemati- Government bounties in place be- dressing the core conservation biol- cally integrate information from dif- tween 1888 and 1909 resulted in ogy problem and setting up an effec- ferent disciplines into a unified ap- 2,184 payments (Guiler 1985; Dixon tive decision process. proach, ideally that integration occurs 1989). The last thylacine killed in the Fortunately, for our thylacine before and during data collection wild was in 1930, and the last known conservationists all these concerns (Clark et al. 1999). Alternatively, animal died in the London Zoo in have been dealt with many times by multi-disciplinary approaches rely on 1931 (Dixon 1989). By 1936, the other conservationists in many other information from several disciplines, species was added to the Tasmanian endangered species cases (e.g., Clark but that information is usually col- list of protected animals. Over 70 1996a, 1997; Reading and Miller lected, evaluated, and used indepen- years later no further specimens have 2000). In fact, we now have so much dently to make recommendations. been collected, but scores of sightings experience in trying to save species The lack of integration can lead to have been reported. that practical interdisciplinary guide- recommendations from different dis- lines about how to set up and carry ciplines that are incompatible or con- Thylacine recovery out a successful recovery program tradictory. For example, when a bi- The thylacine recovery effort faces have been developed and are begin- ologist and a social scientist made many challenges. A number of criti- ning to be used. The principal dimen- independent recommendations for cal decisions need to be made, some sions of this interdisciplinary ap- core area delineations within a newly quickly. Because so many things proach with respect to species con- created national park that included need to be considered and addressed, servation have been described in ar- indigenous people in Mongolia, there the challenge is truly an interdiscipli- ticles published in the Endangered was almost no overlap between their nary one. Because of this, all parties Species UPDATE (Figure 2). These recommendations (R. Reading, involved need to ensure that the de- articles cover introductions to (1) the unpubl. data). cision process they set up to address benefits of an interdisciplinary ap- An interdisciplinary approach thylacine recovery is of the highest proach (Clark et al. 1992); (2) set- sees recovery as a type of problem quality — timely, reliable, compre- ting up decision processes (Clark and with systems-like features (i.e. prob- hensive, trustworthy, and effective, Brunner 1996); (3) understanding the lem orientation, social process, and among other things. In all likelihood, social process or context of a case decision process) that must be suc- the thylacine will only be restored (Clark and Wallace 1998); (4) meth- cessfully addressed (Figure 2). First, through a decision process that brings ods of focusing on core problems at the heart of endangered species many people together and integrates (Wallace and Clark 1999); (5) mul- conservation is a perceived problem their knowledge and skills. How the tiple methods (Clark et al. 1999); (6) that must be solved — in our case, decision process is organized and understanding people's standpoints recovering thylacines. The problem managed will mean the difference (Clark and Wallace 1999); and (7) can be best appreciated by carrying between saving the thylacine or its learning about how to learn to be out five interrelated tasks that make loss forever! more successful (Clark 1996b). Sev- up rational problem solving (Wallace eral of these papers offer checklists and Clark 1999). Second, because the Interdisciplinary approach and sets of questions for the thyla- problem is a concern for people who What is an interdisciplinary approach cine conservationists to use. These interact in a social process, this pro- and how does one set up an appropri- papers, all reprinted in this special cess represents the context of the con- ate decision process directed at solv- issue of Endangered Species UP- servation problem to be solved (Clark ing the problem posed by the thyla- DATE, can be consulted to develop a and Wallace 1998). Third, the people cine discovery? Both the decision more complete understanding of this focusing on the thylacine conserva-

196 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 tion problem must work through a that dominate species recovery pro- patient. The administrator will need decision process that hopefully will grams. As such, most recovery pro- to coordinate specialist doctors who end with species recovery (Clark and grams employ conventional ap- can contribute to the patient's medi- Brunner 1996). These three dimen- proaches based on the biological sci- cal well-being and eventual recovery. sions of saving the thylacine corre- ences, despite their many limitations As time goes on, other specialists and spond to problem orientation, social and difficulties. These conventional generalists would become involved process, and decision process (Figure approaches often exacerbate the inad- because of their knowledge, skills, 2). These dimensions describe the equacies of trying to solve complex, and other resources (e.g., national and basic features associated with the in- multi-faceted problems with narrow or international scientific and conserva- terdisciplinary approach we recom- limited knowledge and skills. tion communities). NGOs such as mend. Proponents of this approach, World Wide Fund For Nature, Aus- who are often systems builders, have The thylacine scenario tralian Conservation Society, the In- developed a comprehensive frame- An examination of the thylacine sce- ternational Union for Conservation of work for inquiry that embraces a nario using the interdisciplinary ap- Nature may offer resources, financial, complex set of terms, concepts, maps, proach permits us to begin seeing technical, and educational aid. These values, institutions, function, process, species recovery as involving tasks participants will have different per- and intellectual skills that are part and such as problem orientation and so- spectives, values, strategies, and seek parcel of the whole system (Chen cial and decision processes (Figure 2). different outcomes. This must be 1989). This system is imminently prac- In species recovery, these dimensions understood, "mapped" (i.e. informa- tical, but rarely employed in species and are intertwined in complex ways and tion and interrelationships organized ecosystem conservation to date. they must be understood and man- and outlined), and managed openly The interdisciplinary approach aged successfully. Because the intel- and fairly if the decision process is to we present here is a different way to ligence function — the gathering, work well. think about species recovery for most processing, and dissemination of in- The public would also play a part practitioners. There are many ways formation — is such a vital activity in the conservation effort. Assistance to conceive of species recovery. The in the thylacine decision process, our from the public would be needed to most common approach is a conven- discussion focuses on it. find more thylacines. Outreach and tional one that draws on biology, and publicity in the local area and beyond its paradigms, models, and methods Social process would be important for the public to (experimental, predictive science). Because thylacine recovery is a hu- understand the thylacine, its habits, This approach typically assumes that man undertaking, knowledge of the what the recovery effort is aiming to the conservation challenge is largely social process is vital. Initially, some achieve and how, and the significance or solely a biological problem, thus people, groups, and institutions will of the effort. As time goes on, the so- biologists are brought in to address be involved in a rapidly organizing cial and decision processes become it. The biological disciplines obvi- decision process. Other participants more complex. A wider network of ously have much to contribute, but will become involved later. Partici- people and organizations come to play recovery faces far more than simply pants in and people and groups af- important roles in the recovery process. biological challenges. For example, fected by the process are often re- biologists may not be skilled in set- ferred to as stakeholders, or key Decision process ting up or participating in a decision stakeholders. Participants are in- A key initial step in the overall deci- process (e.g., organizational or lead- volved for different reasons; some sion process is a well-organized in- ership skills — see Clark and will be included because of their au- telligence activity that helps clarify Wallace's paper on values, this vol- thority and control responsibilities the problem and its context (Figure ume). Nor will they necessarily be (e.g., state and federal governments). 2). Intelligence is the first phase in able to systematically map and com- The Tasmanian Government would the decision process, but it should prehend the full context of the con- have a major role in organizing the remain ongoing over the life of the servation challenge. They may be social and decision processes. Per- recovery effort. Much information limited in the kinds of methods they haps an analogy can best illustrate must be gathered and organized from know and have little experience with what is involved. The thylacine is like existing sources and new intelligence integrative, interdisciplinary meth- a critically ill patient in a hospital, the must be obtained. All of this infor- ods. This situation typically exists Tasmanian Government is the hospi- mation must be integrated and dis- among the government bureaucracies tal administrator looking after the seminated as a basis for debate (pro-

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 197 Figure 2. Illustration of the interdisciplinary problem solving approach introduced in this paper.

motion), decisions (prescriptions), plan must be developed. The possi- how well they are orienting to the re- and subsequent activities (invocation, bility of setting up a captive breed- covery problem and the rapidly application, appraisal, termination). ing program is now a real option. emerging social and decision pro- These seven functions comprise a com- Tasmanian biologists, familiar with cesses and conclude they are doing plete decision process. All decision the Black Creek area, based on well (appraisal). functions will need to be carried out knowledge of ecological systems in Many aspects of a growing and well if the thylacine is to be recovered. the region, predict that the wild popu- self-organizing decision process re- The participants in thylacine relation would consist of only a few quire attention, especially intelligence covery should make decisions based animals, at best (intelligence). To activities. As the social and decision on available intelligence and a short ensure a well-functioning program, processes become more active and but thorough debate about the prob- the rapidly forming recovery team complex, and as technical, social, and lem and options for addressing it. also attends to social science consid- decision issues become more press- They should make every effort to re- erations. For example, they evaluate ing, it is vital to attend to each of these main problem oriented. likely attitudes of the local public to- diverse matters. There will be many In this case, let's assume they ward thylacines and begin collecting biological, technical issues needing decide (prescription) to hold the thy- additional data (intelligence). They attention, but there will also be many lacine temporarily in captivity at the also assess the ability of the growing social and decision process issues that Hobart Zoo. Plans are made to cap- number of participants to work well are equally or even more important. ture the animal that evening and together (intelligence). Based on the The tendency of many officials and house it in a quiet, off-exhibit accom- available information, they decide to administrators is to simply rely upon modation. Keepers and vets from the develop a public relations program their own bureaucracy to address these zoo assist in the capture and transfer and a special working group for thy- issues. Hard won experience in spe- of the animal (invocation and appli- lacine recovery (prescription). The cies recovery shows that this traditional cation activities). The animal is ex- working group is formed that includes bureaucratic approach can be disastrous amined (intelligence) and much to participants with diverse skills and the (see Clark et al. 1994; Miller et al. 1996; everyone's surprise is found to be fe- ability to work together in a team (in- Reading and Miller 2000). male with four small pouch-young! vocation), and they rapidly begin It is likely that there are a few other working on the recovery problem (ap- Problem orientation thylacines in the wild, and a search plication). Participants take stock of Orienting to the thylacine problem

198 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 requires that conservationists focus left in the wild? The objective of a chances for successful thylacine re- on all of the tasks associated with captive breeding program would be covery we therefore should be enlist- problem solving (Wallace and Clark to restore populations to self-sustaining the support of social scientists and 1999). To carry out sound integrated ing viable levels in the wild. How others with practical expertise in these research, management, and policy would we go about reintroducing cap- areas. We should also be training fu- and to avoid a "solution oriented" tive-bred animals into the wild? ture practitioners in endangered spe- approach (wherein practitioners rap- To this point, we have empha- cies recovery in these areas. idly jump to solutions before fully sized biological intelligence activi- understanding a problem), Harold ties; however, information in many Conclusions Lasswell (1971) proposed a strategy other areas is also necessary. A num- Our scenario of discovering a living for problem solving that consists of ber of non-biological factors also af- thylacine has illustrated the complex- five tasks: (1) clarifying goals; (2) fect thylacine recovery efforts. Intel- ity that typifies endangered species describing trends; (3) analyzing con- ligence on the social and decision recovery efforts. We have only just ditions; (4) projecting developments; processes can help focus problem ori- touched upon some of the aspects in- and (5) inventing, evaluating, and se- entation, for example. Such intelli- volved. The scenario has introduced lecting alternatives (Figure 2). We rec- gence consists of information on the us to the contributions that modern ommend using this approach in endan- values and attitudes of the various interdisciplinary approaches, well gered species conservation, although it stakeholders, method of organizing founded in the policy sciences, can is applicable to any kind of problem for recovery, power and authority re- make to solve endangered species solving, conservation or otherwise. lationships, economic considerations, problems. Other papers in this vol- Much information already exists pertinent legislation, and more. In ume explore these theories and con- about thylacines, but more is needed, addition, recovery programs are sub- cepts we briefly introduce here in and quickly. From a biological per- jected to uncertainty, because, as we more detail. All conservation prob- spective, a number of questions need have seen for the thylacine, often very lems involve social and decision pro- answering quickly. The following little is known about the biology of cesses, as well as problem definition; questions, although not comprehen- endangered species, so researchers even though most practitioners prob- sive, help thylacine conservationists may make errors of estimation and ably do not recognize them as such. orient to the biological aspects of the judgment. Such programs are com- A significantly improved understand- problem. These questions are about plex because of the many individuals ing each of these aspects of a prob- trends, conditions, and projections, and organizations involved, all with lem therefore offers the promise of and also a tentative look at alterna- a sense of urgency to succeed before increased success rates in the future. tives. First, what do we know of thy- extinction of the species. These con- We based our scenario on an ex- lacines: their life span, age of repro- siderations argue for adaptive man- traordinary animal, the thylacine. duction, number of offspring, mating agement approaches to recovery that Because of its unusual and unique pattern, care of offspring? Second, are experimental and permit rapid status in the animal world, people can how would one go about caring for changes in approaches based on new easily identify with its plight and these unique animals in captivity? information and frequent evaluation would likely mobilize rapidly for its Third, what do we know of their be- (Holling 1995). To enhance chances recovery. Unfortunately, it is unlikely havior? Fourth, even though life his- for success, the recovery process that the thylacine will be found. One tory information is essential to suc- should remain interdisciplinary, with wonders what the outcome would cessfully managing a species, it pro- all aspects of the challenge, includ- have been if, in the 1930s, the con- vides only a partial understanding of ing social and decision processes, in- servation biology perspective we en- changes in a population's numbers vestigated and incorporated in adap- dorse here had pervaded, and mod- and density. Fifth, because there are tive approaches to decision-making ern techniques had been available. so few thylacine individuals in our and action. Similar situations, however, are likely scenario, we would need to know the Most of the considerations and to develop in the future. Will our re- genetic relationship of individuals to work we have outlined in each of sponse be adequate to meet the chal- guide genetic management of captive these areas (i.e. social process, deci- lenge? How would the situation dif- and wild populations. Sixth, how sion process, and problem orienta- fer for a less glamorous species, such would one find other thylacines in the tion) fall well outside of the biologi- as an insect or "weed," or for a spe- wild? Seventh, if more animals were cal disciplines in which most practi- cies surrounded by greater conflict, detected, should they be captured or tioners are trained. To improve our such as a large, dangerous carnivore

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 199 or an agricultural "pest?" Each of structing endangered species recovery. Yale the Tasmanian Tiger. Oxford University these scenarios exists today, but only University Press, New Haven, Connecticut. Press, Melbourne. Clark, T.W. 2002. The policy process A prac- Harris, G.P. 1808. Descriptions of two new the future will tell if recovery efforts tical guide for natural resource profession- species of Didelphis from Van Dieman's will succeed. als Yale University Press, New Haven, Land. Transactions of the Linnean Society Connecticut. of London 9:174. Acknowledgments Clark, T.W. and R.D. Brunner. 1996. Making Holling, C.S. 1995. What barriers? What This work was supported by the Den- partnerships work: Introduction to decision bridges? Pages 3-36 in L.H. Gunderson, process. Endangered Species UPDATE C.S. Holling, and S.S. Light, eds. Barriers ver Zoological Society, Yale 13(9): 1-5. and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems University's School of Forestry and Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1998. Under- and institutions. Columbia University Environmental Studies, Eckerd Col- standing the human factor in endangered Press, New York. lege, and grants to the Northern species recovery: An introduction to human Lasswell, H.D. 1971. A pre-view of policy social process. Endangered Species UP- sciences. American Elsevier Publishing Rockies Conservation Cooperative. DATE 15(1): 2-9. Company, New York. Clark, T.W. and R.L. Wallace. 1999. The pro- Lasswell, H.D. and M.S. McDougal. 1992. Literature cited fessional in endangered species conserva- Jurisprudence for a free society. Kluwer Chen, L. 1989. An introduction to contempo- tion: An introduction to standpoint clarifi- Law International, The Hague, Nether- rary international law: A policy-oriented cation. Endangered Species UPDATE lands. perspective. Yale University Press, New 16(1): 9-13. Miller, B J., R.P. Reading, and S.C. Forrest. Haven, Connecticut. Clark, T.W., R.P. Reading, and A.L. Clarke, 1996. Prairie night: Black-footed ferrets Clark, T.W. 1996a. Appraising threatened speeds. 1994. Endangered species recovery: and recovery of endangered species. cies recovery efforts: Practical recommen- Finding the lessons, improving the process. Smithsonian Press, Washington, DC. dations. Pp. 1-22 in Back from the brink: Island Press, Washington. Reading, R.P. and B.J. Miller, eds. 2000. En- Refining the threatened species recovery Clark, T.W., R.P. Reading, and R.L. Wallace. dangered animals: A reference guide to process. Australian Nature Conservation 1999. Research in endangered species con- conflicting issues. Greenwood Press, Agency in Transactions of the Royal Zoo- servation: An introduction to multi-meth- Westport, Connecticut. logical Society of New South Wales, Aus- ods. Endangered Species UPDATE Wallace, R.L. and T.W. Clark. 1999. Solving tralia. 16(5):90-97 problems in endangered species conserva- Clark, T.W. 1996b. Learning as a strategy for Dixon, J.M. 1989. Thylacinidae. Pp. 549-59 tion: An introduction to problem orienta- improving endangered species conserva- in D.W. Walton and B.J. Richardson, eds. tion. Endangered Species UPDATE 16:28- tion. Endangered Species UPDATE Fauna of Australia: Mammalia. Australian 34. 13(1&2): 22-24. Government Publ. Vol. 1b, Canberra. Clark, T.W. 1997. Averting extinction: Recon- Guiler, E.R. 1985. Thylacine: The tragedy of

Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus) by Richard P. Reading.

200 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Conclusion Becoming a More Effective Professional: The Next Steps in Learning and Applying an Interdisciplinary Approach to the Conservation of Biological Diversity

To increase our effectiveness at re- four continents. sidered how your own values affect covering endangered species we must So what should you do with the the decisions you make? How are the apply the lessons we learn from our information in this special issue? We eight values (i.e. power, wealth, en- work, our colleagues, and the litera- suggest using it as a launching pad lightenment, skill, well-being, affec- ture. Learning is best achieved by for promoting interdisciplinary pro- tion, respect, and rectitude) shaped building on our successes, what we fessionalism in your own work. You and shared through your recovery call a "practice-based" approach. might start by asking questions of program? Do you assess the values Learning depends directly on yourself and others in endangered of other participants in the decision people's willingness and ability to species programs. These questions making process, especially when their accept and try new approaches. This flow from this publication, and re- decisions affect you? How can they special issue of Endangered Species quire you to place yourself in a com- be employed more effectively? UPDATE provides concepts, tools, prehensive context by starting with l Does your program use a and examples of how we might learn the question: Where do you and your combination of ecological and social more systematically and explicitly, program fall with regard to the vari- methods and integrate them practi- thereby moving toward a new level ables discussed above? Then con- cally and in a timely fashion? If not, of effectiveness. tinue with the following: how can improvements be made? Do In looking at interdisciplinary l How does your program use you strive to accommodate profession- endangered species recovery in this partnerships and teamwork? Are they als from fields outside of your own volume, we have considered, among effective? Is there a better way to when the policy process calls for their other things, the complexities of part- employ these tools? involvement? Do you try to educate nerships and teamwork, challenges of l How clearly do you and oth- yourself about tools and methods in cooperatively and cogently identifying ers in your program identify prob- disciplines other than your own as they problems, the influence of peoples' val- lems and develop alternatives to ad- relate to your job or program? ues on decision making, the role of self- dress them? Do you systematically l How can organizational im- awareness in professional productivity, attend to the five tasks required of provements be made? What is your use of multiple methods, organizational problem solving (i.e. goal clarifica- role in the formal or informal groups improvements, prototyping, and the tion, trend description, condition in which you participate? concept of interdisciplinary practice. analysis, trend projection, and alter- l Is prototyping something that We have taken these tools from the native creation)? If not, why not and would help improve your program? policy sciences and seen how to apply what can you do about it? How can These questions all underlie a more them in practice to address actual en- your program be more effective at fundamental set of questions, in part: dangered species and ecosystem con- identifying and addressing problems? l In what ways are you an in- servation programs and challenges on l How directly have you con- terdisciplinary professional?

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 201 l What have you done that l Do you write them down to re- can answer the questions given above contributes to practical problem solv- flect on and be reminded of them later? and use this information in success- ing or critical evaluation in your pro- The answers to these and other ful recovery programs.). If you have gram to improve its performance? questions provide the stepping stones an experience to share, please write l Do you engage in internal to interdisciplinary professionalism. it down and send it (via e-mail to and external evaluations of your work They are the rational next step beyond [email protected]). We will rein formal and informal settings? reading about and (we hope) benefit- spond and, with permission, incorpo- l How have you increased the ing from the information in this spe- rate them into future papers on en- knowledge and skill you need to man- cial issue. By answering these and dangered species and ecosystem con- age and operate within your program? related questions you are taking the servation. By encouraging this feed- l Have you helped others to be next steps! back, we hope to improve both the more effective? How and with whom Finally, we ask you to share with quality of discussions about profes- have you shared your experiences? us your experiences in professional sional practice and the process and l Do you discuss with col- practice that can contribute to our outcomes of the vital work we all leagues the benefits of the concepts, collective understanding of what it undertake — conserving the earth's tools, or methods you use to be a more means to be an interdisciplinary pro- biological diversity. effective practitioner? fessional (that is, one who asks and

Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) courtesy of the USFWS.

202 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 News from Zoos

Condors to Be Released in Mexico Biologists from the US Fish and Wildlife Service, in cooperation with the Zoological Society of San Diego, the Los Angeles Zoo, the California Department of Fish and Game, and numerous Mexican partners, began ferrying six Califor- nia condors from the Los Angeles Zoo to Mexico on August 12, 2002, flying the endangered birds by plane on the first leg of a journey to a remote mountain site where five will be released this fall. Three of the birds were flown by private plane from Burbank, California to Tijuana, Mexico, said Mike Maxcy, principal animal keeper at the Los Angeles Zoo. The plane was to turn around and pick up the other three birds later. From Tijuana, the birds were to continue on by plane and truck to a remote and rugged site in the Sierra de San Pedro Martir, where they will remain in a mountaintop pen for several weeks. Once acclimated, five of the condors, all juveniles, will be released to fly over what was once the southernmost extension of a range that stretched from Mexico to Canada. Condors have been absent from Mexico for at least 50 years. "This is another piece of just fabulous habitat where we expect the birds to thrive," said Bruce Palmer, California condor recovery coordinator for the US Fish and Wildlife Service. "To have a place that is reasonably isolated and protected from people, this is important for the birds to develop." The sixth bird, an older female, will remain penned at the site to act as a mentor for the other birds, who were all raised at the Los Angeles Zoo. She will eventually return to the zoo. In the 1980s, biologists began an aggressive program to capture the last of the free-flying condors and breed them in captivity. Up from an all-time low of 22 birds in the early 1980s, there were 208 condors in the wild and captivity as of August 1, 2002. As the captive population grew, biologists began returning the birds to the wild in 1992, releasing them in California and Arizona. The Mexico releases mark the international expansion of the recovery program. The goal of the $40 million recovery effort is to establish two wild populations and one captive population of condors, each with 150 birds, including a minimum of 15 breeding pairs apiece. Since condors range so far, biologists will consider the Mexican colony part of the California population, with which it is expected to mix. [Source: Associated Press]

Fossil Rim Establishes Cheetah Conservancy The Robert B. Haas Cheetah Conservancy will open at Fossil Rim Wildlife Center in the fall of 2002. The new conservancy includes seven pens, five of which will be used for public display and two for expectant females, in addition to a modern food preparation facility. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association's (AZA) Cheetah Species Survival Plan® (SSP) deemed the immediate construction of the conservancy vital to the long-term success of the captive cheetah population. Funded by a generous challenge grant from the Robert Hass Family Philanthropic Fund of $2 for every $1 raised by Fossil Rim, the $300,000 conservancy will provide Fossil Rim the opportunity to significantly increase the North Ameri- can captive cheetah population by instituting propagation techniques proven to be successful. Allowing the public a view of the conservancy provides Fossil Rim the opportunity to exhibit cheetahs in spacious, natural environments in an effort to raise awareness for the need to support conservation efforts in captivity and in the wild. [Source: AZA Communiqué]

Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Centre Plants Salt Marsh On April 16, 2002, staff members and volunteers of the Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Centre planted a new salt marsh at the mouth of the BC Hydro Salmon Stream Project in Stanley Park. Salt marshes and wetlands found at the mouths of rivers and streams where fresh and salt water mix serve as a vital feeding and transition ground for salmon about to make their migration to the open ocean. Volunteers from the Aquarium's RiverWorks program set up four rough plots at the mouth of the Stanley Park stream with layers of gravel, filter cloth, sand, and peat moss in which plants could take root. The plots were built with a barrier of large rocks to prevent erosion. RiverWorks, an Aquarium initiative, is an estuary clean-up program supported by community groups and volunteers. The BC Hydro Salmon Stream Project highlights the life cycle and importance of salmon and is free to the four million people who visit Stanley Park each year. Salmon return to the stream each fall and can be seen at the park's Alcan Salmon Pool Display. [Source: AZA Communiqué]

Information for News from Zoos is provided by the American Zoo and Aquarium Association.

Vol. 19 No. 4 2002 Endangered Species UPDATE 203 News & Events

Biogeography Society Meeting queries, spatial data sets, regional vival Commission, the Cat Special- The International Biogeography So- contact lists, and general information. ist Group consists of the world's lead- ciety (IBS) is holding their inaugural The data is available for use by bi- ing scientists and wildlife managers meeting on January 4-8, 2003, in ologists, interagency groups, and involved with 36 species of wild cats Mesquite, Nevada. Biogeographers the general public. The geographi- in more than 50 countries. The Group from around the world will deliver cal coverage is the United States. provides data on the development and five symposia, and meeting partici- implementation of conservation pro- pants are invited to submit titles and Algae on the Internet grams and projects, serving as hon- abstracts for poster sessions. For AlgaeBase is a new on-line database orary advisors to the IUCN. The Cat more information, see the IBS web that provides information on algae of Specialist Group web site provides site: http://www.biogeography.org. the world, including terrestrial, ma- information about the biology of wild rine, and freshwater forms. Cur- cat species, cat publications, and Nonindigenous Aquatic Species rently, the data is most complete for links to other relevant organizations. The U.S. Geological Survey has cre- seaweeds, however information is For more information: http:// ated the Nonindigenous Aquatic Spe- constantly accumulated and updated. lynx.uio.no/catfolk. cies (NAS) web site (http:// AlgaeBase is part of the nas.er.usgs.gov), which was estab- SeaweedAfrica project funded by the lished as a central repository for ac- European Union. For more informa- curate and spatially referenced biogeo- tion: http://www.alagebase.org. E-mail your announcements for the Bulletin graphic accounts of nonindigenous Board to [email protected]. Some items are aquatic species. The NAS provides IUCN Cat Specialist Group provided by the Smithsonian Institution's Bio- logical Conservation Newsletter. scientific reports, online/realtime As part of the IUCN's Species Sur-

204 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 19 No. 4 2002