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Chapter 7.

Silviculture and Management Strategies Applicable to Southern

Ray R. Hicks, Jr., William INTRODUCTION H. Conner, Robert C. Kellison, n this chapter, we discuss the 1 and David Van Lear and management of upland and bottomland I hardwoods in the Southeastern United States. We begin by briefly describing the physiographic, edaphic, and climatic conditions for each 51 Abstract—Southern stretch type. Land use history and ownership patterns from the Virginias to Florida and from the mid- are then discussed because these factors are Atlantic to Missouri. They can generally be important in determining what types of stands grouped into upland forests and bottomland occur and the objectives of landowners. Finally we forests. The upland hardwood forests of the describe the appropriate silvicultural techniques southern region are usually associated with the for regenerating and culturing the commercially mountainous topography of the Appalachians and valuable species in each management type. Ozarks. Bottomland hardwoods are found along the floodplains of larger rivers in the Atlantic and Upland Hardwoods Gulf Coastal Plains, including the Mississippi River The southern upland hardwoods occur floodplain. Southern hardwood forests are owned extensively in the Southern Appalachians, by a variety of governmental and private owners, on the Cumberland Plateau, and in the Ozark but the vast majority of owners are nonindustrial region. A diverse array of hardwood species is private individuals. These owners seldom engage represented by genera such as Acer, Carya, Fraxinus, Liquidambar, Liriodendron, Prunus, in intensive , often exploiting and Quercus. The southern upland hardwoods the resource. The silvicultural systems applicable include -hardwood mixtures in the Piedmont to the management of hardwoods are the same and southern Coastal Plains, but by far the most as those recommended for , but in hardwood commercially significant upland hardwoods in management, reliance on natural is the South occur in the Southern Appalachian more common than use of silviculture. region. For purposes of this discussion, the Oak species are very important in the southern Southern Appalachian region includes the hilly or hardwood forests, and lack of oak regeneration mountainous area west and north of the Piedmont in present-day forests is a major concern. Lack and south of the glaciated portion of Pennsylvania. of fire and the resurgence of white-tailed deer Using Fenneman’s (1938) classification, this region throughout the southern region are proposed as is termed the “Appalachian Highlands,” and reasons for poor oak regeneration. Many stands, contains parts of the Blue Ridge, Ridge and Valley, and Appalachian Plateau physiographic provinces. either due to their stage of development or The Appalachian Highlands are classified as being neglect, are in need of intermediate management in the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province (Bailey operations such as and improvement 1996). The is continental and part of cutting. - management is a method that the Humid Temperate Domain (Bailey 1996). is particularly useful in southern hardwoods. It Rainfall is favorable for plant growth and is was concluded that although hardwoods make well distributed throughout the year. Highest up a significant part of the southern forest precipitation rates occur in the southern Blue resource, they are generally managed with less intensity than pines, and hardwood management is an opportunity area for the South in the future. 1 Professor of , West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506; Professor of Forestry, Baruch Institute of Coastal and Forest Science, Clemson University, Georgetown, SC 29442; Professor Emeritus, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695; and Professor of Forestry, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, respectively. Southern Forest Science: 52 Past, Present, and Future Productivity underlain byalluvial andmarinesediments of with inherently fertilesoils.TheCoastal Plain is agricultural usebecauseit occupied levelterrain converted toagriculturalcrops. Itwastakenfor United Statestobe the firstinSouthern difficulty ofclearingland,this ecosystemwas 1995). Despitethedensetree coverandthe and minorriverseastoftheGreatPlains(Hodges Illinois andtosomeextentalongallthemajor along theMississippiRiverfloodplaintosouthern the RioGrandeRiver. Theyalsooccurnorth Atlantic coastandwest along thegulfcoastto tipofPennsylvaniathe eastern southalongthe gulf lowlands(Fenneman 1938)extendingfrom the Atlantic Plainphysiographicdivisionandthe in thebroad,LowlandCoastalPlainProvinceof Bottomland Hardwoods and firesorfromrevegetationofabandonedfields. second growth,resultingfrompreviouslogging of theforestsAppalachianHighlandsare as beingintheoak-chestnutforestregion.Most substantial portionoftheAppalachianHighlands oaks ( the AppalachianHighlands.Theseincludeseveral the AppalachianHighlands. foundin complex, steep,androckyterrain with thegeologicmaterialstoproduce folding, andgeologicweatheringhaveinteracted Precambrian rockoutcropscanbefound.Faulting, BlueRidge, higher elevationsofthesouthern rock.Atand smallareaswithsedimentary rock substrateswithsomeigneousintrusions Blue Ridgeiscomposedprimarilyofmetamorphic sharply foldedRidgeandValley Province.The and limestonesshalespredominateinthe throughout theAppalachianPlateauProvince, Pennsylvanian periodcapthehighestmountains predominantly sedimentary. Sandstonesofthe geology oftheAppalachianHighlandsregionis annual precipitationaverages40to50inches.The per year(Hicks1998).Across mostoftheregion, annual precipitationaverages60to80inches Ridge oftheCarolinasandnorthGeorgia,where part ofthe20 Anderson&Anderson]} duringtheearly (Murrill) [formerly Barr (Murrill) the chestnutblight{ Borkh.], aspeciesthatwasallbuteliminatedby American chestnut[ Ehrh.). Theareawasalsoaprimerangefor Ehrh.), andAmericanbeech( tulipifera maples ( Southern bottomlandhardwoodsoccur mainly Southern hardwoodspeciespredominatein Quercus Acer L.), black cherry ( L.), blackcherry spp.),yellow-poplar( th century. Braun(1950)classifieda spp.), hickories( Castanea dentata Cryphonectria parasitica Cryphonectria Endothia parasitica Prunus serotina Prunus Fagus grandifolia Carya Liriodendron spp.), (Marsh.) many purposes. Theycontrolledthecomposition and others2002). NativeAmericansused firefor of yearspriortotheadvent ofEuropeans(Carroll manipulated byNativeAmericans forthousands UnitedStateswere forests oftheSoutheastern Pre-European Forests are increasing(Hodges1995). composition andquality, eventhoughvolumes influences hasbeenageneraldegradationof uncontrolled fires.Theoverallresultofthese agriculturaluse,grazing,and timber harvesting, forests havebeeninfluenceddramaticallybypast and Buford1998,Megonigalothers1997). they arehighlyvariable(Conner1994,Conner rates inthemorefloodedareascanbehigh,but conditions (McKevlin andothers1998).Growth which haveevolvedspecialadaptationstothese yearhavefewerspecies, extended periodsevery growth (Smith1995).Areasthatarefloodedfor the mostdiverseforestsandsustainexcellent flooding formostoftheyear. Theseareassupport in theportionsoffloodplainthatarefreefrom others 1998).Bottomlandhardwoodforestsoccur [ elm ( Nutt.), wateroak( styraciflua pennsylvanica ( ( sugarberry [ water hickory these includeredmaple( bottomlands; are commonthroughoutsouthern occur.few gymnosperms Anumberoftreespecies predominate,buta (Hosner 1962).Angiosperms others 1960)ofwhich40arecommercialvalue including morethan70treespecies(Putnamand precipitation does(Kellison andothers1998). larger impactondownstreamfloodingthanlocal (some coverhundredsofthousandsacres)hasa occur. Upstreamprecipitationinlargewatersheds magnitude anddurationofthefloodingthatcan received, however, isnotareliableindicatorofthe 1998).Theamountofrainfall and Grymes season(Kellisonwarm andothers1998,Muller 64 inchesandisgenerallygreaterduringthe the majoralluvialfloodplainsrangesfrom48to and Schoenholtz1998).Annualprecipitationin nearshore, andoffshoreenvironments(Stanturf age. Sedimentswerelaiddowninvariousonshore, mostly Cretaceous,Tertiary, andQuaternary Taxodium distichum Diospyros virginiana Both uplandandbottomland hardwood The qualityandcompositionofbottomland Bottomland forestsareextremelydiverse, Ulmus americana L.),swampchestnutoak( Celtis laevigata Marsh.),sweetgum( C. aquatica Q. nigra (L.)Rich.](Kellison and L.),greenash( L.),andbaldcypress A. rubrum A. rubrum (Michx.f.) Nutt.], L.),American Willd.), persimmon Liquidambar L.), Q. michauxii Fraxinus and pattern of vegetation by frequently burning laurel (Kalmia latifolia L.) thickets have become the southern landscape. They burned to manage so dense and expansive that the species diversity wildlife habitat, ease travel, expose acorns and of cove forests is threatened. Because of these chestnuts, improve visibility, encourage fruiting, problems, there is renewed interest in using prepare their fields for planting, and to facilitate prescribed fire as a management tool in upland and defense (Bonnicksen 2000, Pyne hardwood forests (Yaussy 2000). and others 1996, Williams 1989). Frequent low- Villages of early European colonists were intensity burning by Native Americans created a almost always located along major streams. southern landscape of prairies, fields, savannas, A rice culture developed, first in the vicinity of , and dense forests. The southern Charleston, SC, and then elsewhere along the hardwood forest was hardly a dense, old-growth Southeastern U.S. coast. On the fringes of the landscape at the time of European discovery. rice paddies and beyond, corn, wheat, and cotton The myth of low-impact management by Native supplanted hardwood forests. Americans may have been reinforced by the fact 53 that the major European occupation of interior Following attempts to control water flow in America came after native populations had been the major alluvial floodplains, first by private devastated by diseases introduced by earlier enterprise and then by public agencies, especially European immigrants. the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the forests were increasingly cleared for agricultural . Some areas were burned on an annual basis

Only about half of the original bottomland forests 7. Chapter and, if burning continued over long periods, remained by the 1930s. From the 1930s to the became prairies or balds. Other areas, such as 1980s, the bottomland forest area was further north-facing coves in the Southern Appalachians reduced from 11.8 to 4.3 million acres as a result of and frequently flooded bottomland forests, burned drainage and clearing for agriculture.2 Conversion infrequently. Between these two extremes were Southern Hardwoods Southern

was especially rapid during the 1960s and 1970s forest communities that burned at varying when the price for farm crops, especially soybeans, intervals, thus creating a mosaic of forest reached unprecedented levels. conditions throughout the South. In the hardwood forests of the South, anthropogenic fires were Land Ownership Characteristics complemented by occasional lightning-ignited The majority of hardwood forest land (upland fires (Carroll and others 2002). and bottomland) is in the hands of nonindustrial Post-European Effects private forest (NIPF) ownership (MacCleery 1990), although a substantial portion of the Blue The European settlers who displaced the Ridge and Allegheny Highlands is in national Native Americans from the upland forests forests and parks. The motivation for forest continued to burn the forest frequently to activity for most nonindustrial forest landowners encourage forage production for their livestock appears to be income, although most of these (Pyne and others 1996). However with the advent owners do not rank commercial forest production of steam power for harvesting and processing as the number one reason for holding land (Egan of timber, wide-scale and the slash it and Jones 1993). produced created a different type of fire regime. High-intensity, stand-replacement fires ignited It is possible to combine commercial timber by sparks from locomotives followed logging and operations with improvement through burned vast acreages of upland forests from the application of appropriate silviculture in southern late 1880s though the early 1930s (Brose and hardwoods. The development of new markets for others 2001). smaller diameter and lower grade materials has enhanced the opportunity for producing revenue Fire protection efforts begun early in the 20th from heretofore noncommercial stands. century gradually became more effective and Unfortunately, however, the type of timber allowed the forests to develop—for the first time in harvesting often being practiced on NIPF lands millennia—in the absence of fire. However decades amounts to high-grading of one type or another. of fire exclusion had unintended consequences. The development of dense and midstories of shade-tolerant and is now a major contributor to the oak regeneration 2 Allen, J.A.; Kennedy, H.E., Jr. 1989. Bottomland hardwood problem. In other areas, rhododendron in the Lower Mississippi Valley. [Not paged]. On (Rhododendron maximum L.) and mountain file with: Southern Research Station, Southern Hardwoods Laboratory, P.O. Box 227, Stoneville, MS 38776. Southern Forest Science: 54 Past, Present, and Future Productivity Highlands intheearlydecadesof20 from thehardwoodforestsofAppalachian poplar (Abrams1998,Broseandothers2001). aggressive speciessuchasredmapleandyellow- position inmanyuplandforests,beingreplacedby SILVICULTURE OFUPLANDHARDWOODS but simplyfastergrowing. are even-aged,andthelargertreesnotolder, accept thefactthatmanysecond-growthforests years inthemaking.Ownersmayfinditdifficultto aregoingagainstbeliefsthathavebeen difficult toconvinceownersofsuchfacts,since productivity, andvalueoftheforest.Itmaybe out overtimewhileenhancingthefuturehealth, small tracts,itispossibletospreadtheincome need tounderstandthatevenwithrelatively means andwhatisnotpossible.Owners explaining whatplannedforestmanagement with landownerstobegintheirassociationby of managingtheirforestland. affair. Thusmanyownersfailtoseethevalue believe that“timbering”isaonce-in-a-lifetime people, accustomedtothepracticesofpast, Inaddition,many worked hardtopreserve. forest landwasinfields,aconditionthatthey and havelivedduringtimeswhenmuchoftoday’s that helptoexplaintheirbehavior. Manyareolder silvicultural methods thatareappropriate to Central Hardwood Forests” todescribe the (1998) book“EcologyandManagement of poised todominate. species intheadvanceregeneration poolare disturbstheuppercanopy,harvesting other regeneration pool.Thusaswind,ice,orpartial maintain apositionofdominanceintheadvance fires,oaksdonot absence ofperiodicsurface distinct advantageovertheircompetitors.Inthe the resultingseedlingsproutsofoakshavea fireskilltheabovegroundportion oftrees, surface especially onabove-averagesites.However, when species likeyellow-poplarandredmaple, are atacompetitivedisadvantagewithaggressive root developmentattheexpenseofheight,they Brose 2001).Becauseyoungoaksinvestheavilyin fires(Broseandothers1999,Vansurface Learand thrive underaregimeofperiodicdisturbanceby has changedthecharacteroftheseforests.Oaks O Exclusion of periodic, low-intensity surface fires Exclusion ofperiodic,low-intensitysurface It isincumbentonforesterswhointeract Forest landownerssharecertainattributes This chapterusesconcepts fromHicks’ aks, asagroup,constitutethemostsignificant uplands. Oaks,however, arelosingtheir hardwood forestresourceinthesouthern th century management opportunities. forestregionprovideviable southern shade-tolerant commercial species inthe species inmultiagestands. However, noneofthe work welliftheobjectiveis togrowshade-tolerant system aged ortwo-agestands.Thesingle-treeselection two-age systems.Alloftheforegoingcreateeven- method,andrelated , theshelterwood that aremostappropriatetohardwoods management. Amongregenerationsystems,those thinning, improvementcutting, that aremostappropriatetohardwoodscrown cuttings quality ofdesirabletrees.Intermediate processes tofavortheregeneration,growth,and is toworkinconcertwiththenaturalecosystem trees oflowervalue.Theobjectivemanagement with commercially valuabletreesareintermingled occur inmixedspeciesstandswhich management. Also,hardwoodsalmostalways plantation silvicultureforuplandhardwood regeneration usuallypreventtheapplicationof economic factors,andtheabundanceofnatural in bothareas.Topographic considerations, silviculture differsmarkedlyfrompine are aimedatregeneratingnewstands.Hardwood operations)andthosethat stands (intermediate into treatmentsthatareusedtotendexisting thatisusefultomanagers. presented inaform thathasbeenproduced mustbe information has beenconductedinNorthAmerica,the a greatdealofresearchonhardwoodmanagement relatively simpleconiferousecosystems.Although methodsthatweredevelopedforusein on German texts emphasize“traditional”approachesbased and changingsocialpressures. suchasinsectanddiseaseoutbreaks, occurrences adaptable tochangingmarketconditions,natural that managementofhardwoodstandsmustremain several silviculturalmethodssimultaneously, and toapply necessary hardwood stands,itisoften recommended. Finally wewanttostressthatin appropriate anddescriptiveofthepracticesbeing thatis foresters todevelopavocabulary such as“selectivecutting,”andtoencourage We alsohopetodiscouragetheuseoflooseterms methods andtheirapplicationtoNIPFstands. and toprovidedescriptionsofrelevantsilvicultural canutilizesilviculturallysoundconcepts, harvests demonstrate thatproperlydesignedcommercial most uplandhardwoodstands.Itisourgoalto Silvicultural methodscangenerallybegrouped Most silvicultureandforestmanagement

and variationssuchasgroupselectionwill

and crop-tree Intermediate Operations marketing of trees removed may be difficult. Many Crown thinning—The crown-thinning method is upland hardwood stands have a past history of defined by Smith (1986) as thinning that involves high-grading (Nyland 1992) which may limit the the removal of trees in the upper strata of the number of desirable trees available to leave in the to favor desirable trees in the same canopy residual stand. At some point, it becomes advisable range. In crown thinning, the focus is on the better to regenerate severely impoverished stands rather trees (crop trees) that are to be provided with than apply intermediate management to them. additional growing space and resources. As with Crop-tree management—Crop-tree management all thinning methods, crown thinning is applied is a technique that focuses on “individual” trees at the stand level where residual stocking targets that have the potential to develop into high-value are an important consideration. Crown thinning crop trees. Perkey and others (1993) emphasize seems particularly applicable to fully stocked or that crop-tree value should be defined by overstocked mixed oak or mixed mesophytic the landowner’s objectives. The two phases hardwood stands on above-average sites. Although in crop-tree management are assessment and 55 species such as northern red oak (Q. rubra L.) enhancement. Generally the assessment phase are capable of responding to release at age 50 involves the selection of trees that have the and older, appropriate candidate stands of shade- potential for meeting the objectives defined by intolerant species such as yellow-poplar and the landowner. Enhancement consists of activities black cherry should be treated earlier than oaks. that foster the attainment of those objectives. For Care should be given to residual stand density, example, if timber management was the objective, 7. Chapter composition, and stem wounding of trees of desirable species with good stem quality residual trees. Excessive thinning can induce and capable of responding to release would be epicormic branching of residuals or release selected as crop trees. The enhancement operation undesirable midstory or understory species, or would release crop trees by removing some of the Southern Hardwoods Southern both. Sonderman and Rast (1988) recommend trees that compete with them for sunlight, water, of moderate-to-light intensity in mixed and nutrients. The recommended method for oak stands in order to minimize branch-related releasing crop trees is the “crown-touching” defects that typically result from heavier thinnings method described by Lamson and others (1988). in such stands. Residual stand density should be To apply this method, the crop-tree crown is maintained at a level above the “B” line and below divided into four quadrants (sides) and one the “A” line defined by Gingrich (1967). determines whether the tree is free-to-grow Improvement cutting—Smith (1986) defines on each of these sides. A three-sided release improvement cutting as cuttings done in stands has been recommended by Lamson and others past the sapling stage for the purpose of improving (1990) for use in younger stands. For older composition and quality by removing trees of stands or for species with a tendency toward undesirable species, form, or condition from the epicormic branching, a two-sided release is main canopy. Unlike crown thinning and crop-tree more appropriate. Cutting, girdling, or the use management, the focus of improvement cutting of (Miller 1984) can accomplish release is on the “undesirable trees.” Improvement cutting of the crop tree. The advantages of crop-tree is widely applicable to southern upland hardwood management are: stands. It is appropriate for use in mixed oak, oak- 1. It permits crop-tree designation to fit hickory, and mixed mesophytic hardwood stands. landowner objectives The silvical characteristics of the species present 2. It is simple to apply and fits well with should be a prime consideration, but improvement NIPF needs cutting can generally be applied to stands well beyond age 50. Depending on the owner’s 3. It provides for an even flow of forest products objectives, species typically targeted for removal over time can include red maple, American beech, hickories, 4. It allows for continuous forest cover until blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.), scarlet oak crop trees are harvested (Q. coccinea Muenchh.), and black locust (Robinia 5. Management efforts are concentrated on trees pseudoacacia L.) in addition to poor-quality with the highest potential for future gain individuals of more favored species. Improvement cutting is widely applicable to current upland Crop-tree management has disadvantages: hardwood stands because of the age and current 1. It does not provide for regeneration after composition of many such stands, although removal of crop trees Southern Forest Science: 56 Past, Present, and Future Productivity clearcutting provide exceptionallygoodhabitat The earlysuccessional communitiesproduced by can delaytheregeneration process evenfurther. by white-taileddeer( prevail, butotherfactorssuch asheavybrowsing most cases,commercialwoody speciesultimately L.), rhododendron,andgrapevine ( albidum as woodyperennialssuchsassafras[ brambles,andherbaceousspecies,aswell ferns, development ofcompetingvegetationsuchas clearcuttingbytherapid can bedelayedafter stands ofthatspecies.Successfulregeneration favors yellow-poplar, resultinginpure often (oak siteindexgreaterthan70),clearcutting Appalachians On thebestsitesinSouthern clearcutting iseffectiveinregeneratingoaks. (south- andwest-facingslopesridges), poplar, sweetgum,andpines.Onpoorersites fast-growing, exploitivespeciessuchasyellow- uplands, clearcuttingpromotesregenerationof acres insize(Sander1992).Inthesouthern as aclearcut,openingsmustbeatleast1to2 stands. Inordertoprovideconditionsthatqualify hardwood historic roleinthecreationofsouthern thathavehada such asthefiresandwindstorms Clearcutting mimicslarge-scaledisturbances favors relativelyshade-intolerantspecies. even-aged, single-cohortstands,andgenerally operation. Themethodisdesignedtoregenerate iscompletelyremovedinasingle the overstory Clearcutting— root sprouts(Nyland1996). method, e.g.,,,orstumpand of competingvegetation;and(4)regeneration advanced reproduction);(3)kindandamount trees(desiredinitialand condition ofunderstory treesbyspecies;(2)quantityand of overstory includes: (1)conditionandsize-classdistribution needed would beregenerated.Theinformation howthestand should bemadetodetermine Regeneration Methods Silvicultural Systemsand and potentialcompetitorsatearlyages. there arerisksinattemptingtoassesscroptrees the effectcanbenefitcroptrees.However, enhancement canbeappliedtoastand,thelonger mixed hardwoodstands.Theearlierthecrop-tree applicable methodthatisappropriatetomany management likeimprovementcuttingisawidely 2. Sometimesremovaloflow-gradeinterfering When a harvest isplanned,anassessment When aharvest However generallyspeaking,crop-tree thus mayconstituteacosttothelandowner trees maynotbeacommercialoperationand (Nutt.)Nees],dogwood( In theclearcuttingmethod, Odocoileus virginianus Cornus florida Cornus Vitis Sassafras spp.).In ) become asignificant problemwhenapplying the they maybewilling tomake.Deerbrowsing can on thepartoflandownersand managersthan process, andthisrepresents alongercommitment regeneration years tocompletetheshelterwood In theabsenceoffire,itmay take10to20 methodrequires. the timeshelterwood resprouting byoakreproductionshortens andthevigorous vegetation byburning oak reproduction.Thereductionincompeting developing advanceregenerationtofavorthe through the isrun hot growing-seasonburn cut,amoderately theinitialshelterwood after of oakregenerationongoodsites.Afewyears competitors toenhancethecompetitiveposition development strategiesofoaksandmanytheir androot basic differencesbetweengermination by Broseandothers(1999)takesadvantageof 1990,1993). ,suchasoaks(Loftis in for regeneratingspeciesthatareintermediate recommended methodisoften The shelterwood standareofthedesiredspecies. in thecurrent cutting andisappropriatewheremostofthetrees variation ofthemethodeliminatespreparatory designed toremovetheoverstory. Thetwo-cut encourage regeneration;and(3)aremovalcutting, of theresiduals;(2)aseedcutting,designedto cutting, designedtoimprovethequalityandvigor thecutsare:(1)apreparatory shelterwood, (Smith1986).Inathree-cut of theoverstory regeneration throughaseriesofpartialremovals that involvesdevelopmentofastandingcrop method isaneven-agedmanagementsystem Shelterwood method— of theirlandbase. might representarelativelysmallpercentage larger ownership,clearcutsupto2030acres is compromisedforalongperiod.Conversely andtheaestheticvalueofproperty intervals long which incomeisproducedonlyatvery time. Thiscreatesanundesirablesituationin tocutmost orallofthetimberatone necessary attract abuyerforhisorhertimbermayfindit relatively small.Asmallownerwhowantsto case ofNIPFownership,thepropertyisoften acceptable tomostowners.Inaddition,inthe produces abarelandscapethatisnotaesthetically time (1to10years,dependingonsitequality) landowners regarditwithdisfavor. For ashort to regenerateavarietyofhardwoods,many landscape (Harlowandothers1997). maturing second-growthforestsdominatethe Appalachianswhere for wildlifeintheSouthern A shelterwood-burn techniquedeveloped A shelterwood-burn Although clearcuttingisareliableway The shelterwood , it shelterwood method, since deer often selectively tree selection, although group selection, like browse species that are desired as regeneration. single-tree selection, requires repeated entry into the stand. One of the common mistakes Two-aged system—Leave-tree (deferment) made by both foresters and landowners is to cutting is receiving increasing attention for refer to “selective cutting” (cutting some trees regeneration of southern upland and bottomland and leaving others) as a legitimate silvicultural hardwoods. Implementation of the practice activity. The similarity between the terms includes leaving 20 to 30 square feet per acre of “selective cutting” and “selection system” basal area until the end of the following rotation is unfortunate and leads to confusion. in combination with the regeneration that develops in the openings created by partial harvesting of SILVICULTURE OF BOTTOMLAND the parent stand. As opposed to the shelterwood HARDWOODS system, where the residual overstory trees are removed to allow the regeneration to develop, ottomland hardwood forests are made up leave-tree cutting maintains the overstory trees of an extremely heterogeneous mixture of 57 until the end of the rotation. At that time, the B species except in permanently flooded swamps residual trees are removed together with about and newly formed lands and old fields. Thirteen 75 percent of the basal area of the regenerated bottomland forest types are recognized by the stand. The cycle is repeated in the next rotation Society of American Foresters (Eyre 1980). The and, thus, an overstory is present during all U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service stages of stand development. recognizes only two bottomland hardwood types 7. Chapter for inventory purposes: oak-gum-cypress and An additional benefit of this system is that elm-ash-cottonwood. The following discussion of a mixture of crop trees can be retained for the silvicultural information draws heavily on Hodges next rotation. Some of the trees might be selected (1995) and the chapter by Kellison and others Southern Hardwoods Southern for their timber value, and some for wildlife and (1998) in the book “Southern Forest Wetlands: other values. This system is equivalent to the Ecology and Management” (Messina and Conner “high forests with reserves” of European forestry 1998). Other primary sources include McKelvin (Matthews 1989). A major disadvantage of two- (1992) and Kellison and Young (1997) who have age systems is the vulnerability of leave trees compiled the findings of scientists regarding to damage by , lightning strikes, and regeneration of bottomland hardwood forests. epicormic shoot development. Mixed hardwoods in the major alluvial Selection system—The single-tree selection floodplains generally have been logged one system is designed to develop a multicohort to several times since Dutch settlers (Heavrin (all-age) stand of shade-tolerant species. In 1981) built the first in the United States practice, however, it may be impractical to achieve in 1633. Loggers have usually removed only the this goal because it requires frequent stand entry best and largest trees while leaving the smallest and because the smallest diameter classes may and least valuable trees to form the new stand. not develop in the shade of trees of the larger This form of timber harvesting, commonly known diameter classes. Proper application of the as selective harvesting, is in reality high-grading, selection system involves establishing several a practice that should be condemned by foresters. criteria, which include a residual basal area target, This degenerative practice is not to be confused largest-tree-to-grow, a “q” factor, and a cutting with the silviculturally sound selection system, cycle length (Smith and Lamson 1982). Single-tree in which the desired tree species mix of all size selection is complex to apply, requires long-term classes is maintained. commitment, and requires the presence of commercial species that are shade tolerant. In Diameter-limit cutting, improperly applied, is the Southern Appalachians, it may be applicable another form of high-grading. The principle is to only in high-elevation stands that contain sugar harvest only those trees above a certain size, such maple (A. saccharum Marsh.). Because as those 14 inches in diameter at breast height, it has these limitations, professional foresters and leave the remainder to develop into the rarely apply the system. succeeding stand. The assumption is that the small trees will grow into large trees of good Modifications of this method involve cutting quality in perpetuity. The problem is that natural trees in small groups or patches. These “group stands of timber do not perpetuate themselves selection” systems may be more appropriate by like-producing-like. The openings created by in the southern upland hardwoods than single- removal of the larger trees will be occupied by the Southern Forest Science: 58 Past, Present, and Future Productivity application to majoralluvialfloodplainsare of even-agedregeneration systemshaving to thesitebywind,water, andfauna.Thetypes ortransported inplaceatthetimeof harvest altered hydrologywilllargely regeneratefrom 1990). Standsofanolderage classandthosewith be largelyfromstumpand root sprouts(Mader stands oftreeslessthanabout100yearsoldwill cutting). Theregenerationfromsuchharvested (clearcutting) orintwoentries(shelterwood ofthetimberinasingleentry complete harvesting major alluvialfloodplainswillregeneratefollowing Even-Aged Systems crownclass. desirable treesintheintermediate undesirable treesarecontrolledtoreleasethe of timberstandimprovement,inwhichthe occupying sitesofhighsoilquality, areworthy However, many ofthesestands,especiallythose oftheresidualcrownclasses. in theunderstory from thedevelopmentofshade-toleranttrees is usuallyofpoorspeciescomposition,resulting component oftheyoungestageclasstimber culls withnotimbervalue.Conversely, ahigh desirable, ahighcomponentofthetreesis composition oftheolderageclassesisusually Eventhoughthespecies previous harvest. age groups,witheachgroupdatingtoa containtwo,butrarelymorethanthree often with thealluvialforest. and maintenanceoftheflorafaunaassociated suited fortimberproduction,wildlifemanagement, accomplishing thesegoalsarealsothosebest 1988). Fortunately, thepracticesbestsuitedfor and cyclesofwaterflow(Kellison andothers andtomaintain naturalpatterns are harvested, undesirable treesatthesametimedesiredones major alluvialfloodplainforestsistocontrolthe low-value condition. bottomland hardwoodstandstoapoorlystocked, havereducedmany selective, incompleteharvests finally supplantsugarberry. Generationsof oak( cherrybark Inalluvialfloodplains, with eachpartialharvest. stand fortimberproductionandwildlifehabitat The succeedingtreesdecreasethevalueof treesthatarealreadyinplace. tolerant understory expanding crownsoftheedgetreesorbyshade- hornbeam ( hornbeam and boxelder( green ashwouldbereplacedbysugarberry; Ell.) wouldlikelybesucceededbygreenash; Experience hasshownthatstandsoccupying repeatedly Stands thathavebeenharvested The propermanagementprocedurefor Carpinus caroliniana A. negundo Q. falcata L.)andAmerican var. pagodifolia Walt.) would small patches createinnumerableproblems in eventually results inmanysmallpatches. The is thatitrequiresfrequent stand entry, which tolerant ones. intolerant speciesattheexpense ofshade- trees. Theedgetreeslimit the growthofshade- about thedistanceofheightdominant the influenceofwhichextendsintoopening areas areadverselyaffectedbyedgetrees, acres areusuallyconsideredoptimum.Smaller noncontiguous patchesorstrips.Areasofabout5 the majordifference.Theconfigurationimpliedis clearcutting, withthesizeoftreatedareabeing Patch clearcutting— associated floraandfauna. onsitefor dead anddownedtreesshouldbeleft purposes (approximately2peracre);and(3) standingforwildlife hollow treesshouldbeleft or scalloped edges;(2)declining,overmature, area shouldbeconfiguredtothelandscapewith Additionally, itisdesirablethat(1)theharvested while minimizingtheadverseaestheticeffects. maintains thesilviculturalbenefitsofclearcutting the sizeofclearcutsnotexceed20acres.This wildlife considerations.We recommendthat the visualimpactoftreatmentandfrom species showingfastestinitialgrowth. with seedlingreproduction,shade-intolerant reproduction andsproutsproceedsmuchasitdoes development. Speciessuccessionofadvanced sprout stand ifitoccurs3ormoreyearsafter has littlechanceofdevelopingintothesucceeding reproduction isabsent. stand inpatcheswheresproutoradvanced apartofthesucceeding reproduction willform advanced reproductionandsprouts,butseedling stands. Theregenerationwilllargelybefrom hardwoods, especiallydegradedorimpoverished thebestwaytoregenerate clearcutting isoften regeneration mustbefromseedsorplanting. a clearedbottomlandfieldwhereallinitial of windthrowandperhapstwostagesshort merchantable timberisseverelylimitedbecause inwhichstumpandrootsproutingof hurricane one stageshortofacatastrophiceventsuchas succession almosttothepioneeringsere.Itisonly from stumpandrootsproutsreducesspecies that havethepropensitytoregeneratethemselves Clearcutting— cutting, andseed-treecutting. clearcutting, patchshelterwood A significantlimitationofpatch clearcutting resultsfrom Opposition toclearcuttingoften In spiteofitslackaestheticappeal, Clearcutting ofhardwoodforests This systemisavariationof stand management and inventory, and they are Single-tree selection—This is the system often poorly suited for forest interior-dwelling birds advocated by the opponents of clearcutting or and certain other fauna (Sietz and Segers 1993). . The ecological basis of the system is sound, but the application is so difficult Shelterwood cutting—When the shelterwood that, in practice, the exercise often approximates system is applied to bottomland hardwoods, best a selective or diameter-limit cut. results are obtained when the overstory canopy is reduced to about 50 percent of its original cover. Group selection—This variant of single-tree This level of reduction allows sufficient sunlight selection involves removal of groups of trees of to reach the ground to promote seedling and similar age, size, or species on an area usually sprout reproduction. not exceeding 0.25 acres. Care must be taken to remove undesirable as well as desirable trees. Experience has shown that clearcutting and Group selection differs from patch clearcutting shelterwood cutting initially give rise to similar in that it employs small openings and frequent types of reproduction, but that the intolerant entries to promote a multiaged stand of shade- 59 species under a shelterwood will start to decline tolerant species. The necessity to enter the stand if the overstory trees are not removed within 5 to repeatedly at short intervals may make it 10 years. Shelterwood cuts can help buffer against impractical to implement the practice. rising water tables in areas where the water table has risen as a result of altered hydrology. Two-aged system—We have discussed this

In some situations, the shelterwood system is method previously in connection with upland 7. Chapter advocated for the regeneration of oaks, especially hardwoods. The method is similarly applicable cherrybark oak. Shelterwood cutting is not to bottomland hardwoods and has the advantage always essential for oak regeneration in alluvial on wet sites of requiring relatively few entries. floodplains because species such as water oak and

Plantation Management and Restoration Hardwoods Southern

willow oak (Q. phellos L.) can regenerate equally well with or without a partial overstory stand Procedures have been developed for (Leach and Ryan 1987). In deeper water systems, establishing hardwood on alluvial such as muck swamps, shelterwood systems floodplains (Malac and Herren 1979). Industrial appear to be no more effective in developing foresters have focused on developing eastern the desired reproduction than clearcut systems cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr. ex Marsh.) (McKevlin and others 1998). and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) plantations. Eastern cottonwood has shown more Seed-tree cutting— The prescription for seed- promise than other species in the Mississippi tree cutting is to leave four to eight seed trees River Delta, but sycamore—and to some extent per acre while removing all other overstory and sweetgum, green ash, water oak, and willow oak— understory trees. The theory is that seeds from have proven more adaptable than cottonwood the leave trees will be disseminated over the to some of the other alluvial floodplains of the area, helping to ensure success in regeneration. South. About 125,000 acres of commercial However seed trees are usually a wasted effort in hardwood plantations currently exist in southern alluvial floodplains because most heavily harvested bottomlands. Despite successes on the floodplains, hardwood stands regenerate successfully from with growth rates of 3 to 4 cords per acre per year sprouts, from seeds buried in the duff, and from at rotations of 15 to 18 years, the trend is to seeds disseminated by water, wind, and fauna. establish hardwood plantations outside of the The primary reason for leaving such trees is alluvial floodplains. The causes for this shift for wildlife, ecological, and aesthetic values. in site location include environmental concerns Uneven-Aged Systems and the difficulty of managing and harvesting the resource in areas with episodic flooding. Stands of trees of widely different ages can Few industrial forestry organizations are willing be maintained by the selection system in which to invest in plantation forestry in alluvial harvesting, regeneration, and intermediate stand floodplains when there is significant uncertainty treatments are applied at the same time. Stands about the implications of the Clean Water Act are entered at intervals of from 1 year to perhaps for such operations. every 10 years. Each cutting removes financially mature and high-risk trees, adjusts stand density Floodplain efforts have been to create room for the best trees to grow, and limited, and most have focused on reestablishment makes space for new reproduction. A specific of forest cover for timber, stream protection, or stand structure is achieved by leaving the desired basal area levels in several diameter classes. Southern Forest Science: 60 Past, Present, and Future Productivity sweetgum, greenash,andAmerican elm. invasion oflight-seededspecies, especially seeds,eventhoughtherewaseffective germinated extensive -causedmortality ofnewly establishing wildlifehabitatquickly. Hereported seedlings wasmoreeffectivethandirectseedingin Wildlife Refuge,concludedthatplantingoftree 4- to8-year-oldstandsintheYazoo National soil.Allen(1990),whocompared and dry seeds aremoresusceptibletodamagebyheat [ degree, otherlarge-seededspeciessuchaspecan technique isreliableonlyforoaksand,toalesser planting seedlings(Bullardandothers1992),the Although directseedingisabouthalfthecostof andothers 1998a). bottomland species(Stanturf planting ofseedlingsorcuttingsseveral been used,includingdirectseedingofoaksand Lea 1990,HaynesandMoore1988). habitat (AllenandKennedy 1989,Clewell and may providecommercialtimberandwildlife reestablishing bottomlandhardwoodspeciesthat and restorationeffortsareprovingsuccessfulin crop yieldsandlimitedaccessibility. Reforestation 1970s andabandonedlaterbecauseofsubstandard cleared foragriculturalcropsinthe1960sand being reforestedareonpoorlydrainedlands 2005 (KingandKeeland 1999).Manyoftheareas toforestbytheyear 494,000 acresbeingreturned have beenseededorplanted,withthepotentialof Wetland Program.About193,000acres Reserve Area, andonprivatelyownedlandenrolledinthe Refuge, andtheOuachitaWildlife Management Wildlife Refuge,theTensas NationalWildlife River Valley, includingpartsoftheYazoo National today areinareasoftheLowerMississippi 2001, KingandKeeland 1999). variety ofbottomlandspecies(Allenandothers emphasis hasbeengiventoplantingawider 1992).Morerecently,Conservancy greater was typicalofpresettlementforests(TheNature ofoakregionallythan in agreateroccurrence and Keeland 1999),andthispracticecouldresult planting oaks(Haynesandothers1995,King to 15yearstherehasbeenapreferencefor (Chambers andothers1987).Inthepast10 treespeciesinthestands of certainpreferred managers havetendedtoincreasethenumbers andothers1998b).TypicallyStanturf forest wildlife habitatvalues(KingandKeeland 1999, Carya illinoensis Carya Various forest establishmenttechniqueshave Several ofthelargestreforestationefforts (Wangenh,) K.Koch]. Smaller managing hardwoods exclusivelyforpremium- hardwoods, but alimitationtothestrategy of logs areamongthemostprofitable marketsfor deciduous forest.High-quality sawlogsandveneer in theeastern the inceptionoftimberharvesting high-grading thathasbeen normalpracticesince proper silviculturewillresult incontinuationofthe on aregion-widescale.Failure toimplement embrace thepracticeofpropertimberharvesting public officials,andenvironmentaladvocatesto professional foresterstoconvincelandowners, for fiberproducts.Thechallengewillbe premium-grade timberwhileusingtheresidual Therefore thefuturewillbetomanagefor developedcountry. inevery demand forfurniture such as in theworld(Hicks1998).Thetimberfromgenera deciduousforestissecondtonone the eastern managed sustainably. hardwoods canbe regeneration, southern avoiding high-grading,andprovidingfor withperiodicgrowth, matching harvesting arefollowed,suchas As longascertainrules changes isimportantinhardwoodmanagement. regeneration andtocapturevaluefrommarket advantage ofbumpercropsadvance Maintaining anadaptivestrategytotake of uplandhardwoodshavehadlimitedsuccess. sycamore hasbeensuccessful,butplantations species likecottonwood,sweetgum,andAmerican stands. Plantationsilvicultureofbottomland regenerate andmaintainmultiagedhardwood forests, whilegroupselectioncanbeusedto intolerant ones)inbothuplandandbottomland a varietyofhardwoodspecies(generallyshade- method. burn upland sitesbyemployingashelterwood- it ispossibletofavoroakregenerationonbetter regenerating oaks.Ifprescribedfireisanoption, recommendedfor modification ofthem,areoften methods troublesome. Shelterwood partial cuttingmethods. volume regulation,sinceitismorecompatiblewith that seemsmostappropriatetohardwoodstandsis regulation management). Themethodofharvest (notably improvementcuttingandcrop-tree cuttings managed bymeansofintermediate hardwood standsintheSouthareappropriately B CONCLUSIONS The array ofpremium-gradehardwoodsin The array Clearcutting isaneffectivewaytoregenerate Selecting themethodofregenerationismore ecause oftheownershipcharacteristics,age characteristics ofthespeciespresent,many and compositionofstands,thesilvical Acer , Juglans , Prunus ,

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