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73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page 1 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF India 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page 2 editorial board Editor in Chief the curator of Southeast Asian Art at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Stanley Wolpert Stanley Wolpert is a distinguished professor emeritus of Deena Khathkate History at the University of California, Los Angeles. Deena Khathkate is the former assistant director of the His publications include Tilak and Gokhale: Revolution Monetary and Financial Systems Department at the and Reform in the Making of Modern India (1962); Morley International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C. He is and India, 1906–1910 (1967); Roots of Confrontation in also the former managing editor of World Development, a South Asia (1982); Jinnah of Pakistan (1984); Zulfi Bhutto monthly journal of development studies published by of Pakistan (1993); Nehru: A Tryst with Destiny (1996); Elsevier. He has authored several articles on economics Gandhi’s Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi in academic journals, including Quarterly Journal of Eco- (2002); A New History of India (7th edition, 2003); and nomics, Review of Economics and Statistics, and Oxford Eco- India (3d edition, 2005) as well as his forthcoming nomic Papers. Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India. Raju G. C. Thomas Raju G. C. Thomas is the Allis Chalmers Distinguished Board Members Professor of International Affairs, Marquette University. Among his dozen books, edited and co-edited, are Robert Brown Indian Security Policy (1986); Perspectives on Kashmir Robert Brown is a professor in the Department of Art (1994); Democracy, Security and Development in India History at the University of California, Los Angeles and (1996); and India’s Nuclear Security (2001). 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page 3 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF India V OLUME 1 A–D Stanley Wolpert Editor in Chief 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page iv Encyclopedia of India Stanley Wolpert, Editor in Chief © 2006 Thomson Gale, a part of The Thomson For permission to use material from this prod- While every effort has been made to ensure Corporation. uct, submit your request via Web at the reliability of the information presented in http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you this publication, Thomson Gale does not guar- Thomson and Star Logo are trademarks and may download our Permissions Request form antee the accuracy of the data contained Gale and Charles Scribner's Sons are regis- and submit your request by fax or mail to: herein. Thomson Gale accepts no payment for tered trademarks used herein under license. listing; and inclusion in the publication of any Permissions organization, agency, institution, publication, For more information, contact Thomson Gale service, or individual does not imply endorse- Thomson Gale 27500 Drake Rd. ment of the editors or publisher. Errors 27500 Drake Rd. Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 brought to the attention of the publisher and Farmington, Hills, MI 48331-3535 Permissions Hotline: verified to the satisfaction of the publisher Or you can visit our Internet site at 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253 ext. 8006 will be corrected in future editions. http://www.gale.com Fax: 248-699-8074 or 800-762-4058 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Since this page cannot legibly accommodate No part of this work covered by the copyright all copyright notices, the acknowledgments hereon may be reproduced or used in any constitute an extension of the copyright form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or notice. mechanical, including photocopying, record- ing, taping, Web distribution, or information storage retrieval systems—without the written permission of the publisher. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Encyclopedia of India / Stanley A. Wolpert, editor in chief. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-684-31349-9 (set hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 0-684-31350-2 (v. 1)—ISBN 0-684-31351-0 (v. 2)—ISBN 0-684-31352-9 (v. 3)—ISBN 0-684-31353-7 (v. 4) 1. India—Encyclopedias. I. Wolpert, Stanley A., 1927– DS405.E556 2005 954'.003—dc22 2005019616 This title is also available as an e-book. ISBN 0-684-31512-2 Contact your Thomson Gale representative for ordering information. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page v staff Executive Vice President and Publisher Indexers Frank Menchaca Jennifer Burton Marianna Wackerman Director, New Product Development Hélène Potter Product Design Jennifer Wahi Project Editors Andrea Kovacs Henderson Imaging Sarah Turner Lezlie Light Christine O’Bryan Contributing Editors Dana Barnes Graphic Art Shawn Corridor GGS Information Services Anjanelle Klisz Meridian Mapping Editorial Technical Support Rights Acquisition and Management Mark Springer Margaret Chamberlain-Gaston Leitha Etheridge-Sims Additional Editorial Support Susan Rudolph Ken Wachsberger Composition Copyeditor Evi Seoud Dorothy Bauhoff Mary Beth Trimper Proofreader Manufacturing Amy Unterburger Wendy Blurton ENCYCLOPEDIA OFIndia v 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page vii table of contents Volume 1 Volume 3 List of Maps . ix List of Maps . vii Preface . xi List of Articles . ix List of Articles . xv K–R Thematic Outline of Contents . xxiii Color Insert: Handicrafts Directory of Contributors . xxxiii Chronologies . xlvii Volume 4 A–D List of Maps . vii Color Insert: Art, Architecture, and Sculpture List of Articles . ix S–Z Volume 2 Color Insert: Physical Environment List of Maps . vii Primary Source Documents . 261 List of Articles . ix Glossary . 287 E–J General Bibliography . 295 Color Insert: Contemporary Life Index . .299 ENCYCLOPEDIA OFIndia vii 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page ix list of maps Volume 1 Volume 3 The Mughal Empire, 1525–1707 . 30 Jammu and Kashmir . 12 The Empire of Alexander the Great . 35 The Marathas, 1646–1819 . 95 The Bengal Partition and Related Changes, Mauryan Empire, 321–185 B.C. .104 1905–1912 . 132 Muslim Expansion, 8th–15th Centuries . 199 The Revolt of 1857–1859 . 170 Te rritorial Changes, 1947–1955 . 304 The Advance of British Power, 1766–1857 . 178 Te rritorial Changes, 1956–2000 . 305 European Commercial Contacts, 16th–18th Volume 2 Centuries . 321 Guptan Empire, c. 300–550 . 163 Invasions from the Northwest, 330–1 B.C. .209 Indus Valley Civilization, c. 2800–1600 B.C. .260 ENCYCLOPEDIA OFIndia ix 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page xi preface India’s strategic power and economic prosperity have grown so swiftly since the 1990s that no one will wonder why the vast country is the subject of this four-volume encyclo- pedia. Countless Americans who have had their computer problems solved by young Indi- ans—at work for General Electric, Microsoft, or Dell, “outsourced” in air-conditioned offices in Bangalore, Pune, Mumbai, and Kolkata—will hardly be surprised to learn of the precocious mathematical brilliance and scientific genius of India’s civilization. So many of us have read books by Salman Rushdie, V. S. Naipaul, Rohinton Mistry, and Arundhati Roy, and delighted in watching the movies of Satyajit Ray, Mira Nair, and Merchant-Ivory, as well as musicals or films about “monsoon weddings” and “Bombay nights,” that none will be amazed to learn that America’s some 2 million Indians are, in fact, the best edu- cated, wealthiest minority in the United States. India has not only erased its former stereo- typical global image as a land of poverty and snake charmers, but has surpassed its old superpower patron, Russia, in gross national product as well as average life expectancy. India’s nuclear-powered modern army is second in size and might only to those of the United States and China. As one of the world’s greatest and oldest civilizations, India has also been the source of several major religious systems, giving birth to Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism, the multifaceted faith to which some 80 percent of India’s more than 1 billion people adhere today. The Sikh faith, which emerged from northwest India’s Punjab in the sixteenth cen- tury, has also now grown to global dimensions. Yoga and Ved¯anta, two of India’s ancient systems of philosophy, have of late acquired millions of adherents throughout the United States and in Europe as well as in other parts of Asia and Africa. Hinduism’s noblest doc- trine of nonviolence (ahimsa) has—thanks to Mahatma Gandhi, who equated it to “God”—won respect and admiration for India from countless millions. All of us who enjoy playing chess or gaming with dice, moreover, are indebted to India’s ancient wit as well as wisdom. There are, indeed, at least as many reasons for wanting to learn more about India as there are articles, nearly 600, and pages, some 1,400, in this new encyclopedia. More tourists fly into New Delhi and Mumbai every year, or sail into one of India’s beautiful ports, from Mumbai to Goa to Trivandrum on the west coast, and from Pondicherry to Chennai to Kolkata on the east coast. More American and multinational corporate businesses have opened offices in hundreds of Indian cities, hiring bright Eng- lish-speaking Indians, and more Indian doctors, nurses, and scientists work as heart and brain surgeons in our best hospitals, and on pure research in university as well as indus- trial laboratories, than any other Asian-born residents. India has thus arrived as our global partner, in so many more ways than the best-publicized “strategic” one, that we might well ENCYCLOPEDIA OFIndia xi 73269_FM_Vol1_i-lxxxv_GGS 10/12/05 9:36 AM Page xii PREFACE ask why it has taken so long for our Encyclopedia of India to be published? I am perhaps most to blame for being so slow to master my computer, without which, however, a project as large as this one might have taken fifty years, rather than five.