SPECIAL REPORT

The Women’s Conference: Where Aspirations and Realities Met By Jeanette H. Johnson and Wendy Turnbull

‘‘Back in June, as I made my first trip as Development, held in Cairo in 1994. There, During the spring and summer of 1995, President of the [World] Bank, the first the delegations representing member nongovernmental organizations lobbied country my wife and I visited was Mali states of the United Nations (UN) had their governments to take positions re- in West Africa. About an hour’s drive reached the consensus that improving the flecting their views. These organizations south of the capital lies the village of Koro status of women was key to solving prob- were intending to make their presence felt Koro, and while we were there, a baby lems of population, environment and eco- on an unprecedented scale at the Beijing was born—a girl. I have thought often nomic development.1 Women’s repro- meeting itself. Strategy sessions, educa- of that little girl—and the life ahead of ductive health and rights in particular tional programs and a plethora of publi- her. Her chances of going to school are no were seen as central to the larger popula- cations detailing philosophies on disput- better than one in four. She will likely be tion and development agenda. The ques- ed issues and the recommended wording stunted in her growth due to chronic mal- tion became: Would the Cairo agreements for the Platform were sponsored by in- nutrition. Around the age of six, she will become the floor on which improvements numerable interest groups, including peo- probably suffer genital mutilation, bru- in the status of women could be built? Or ple and organizations devoted to repro- tally. When she marries, probably at a had the Cairo conference usurped the ductive health issues. very young age, she faces two decades of women’s conference, setting a ceiling with The draft version of the Platform for Ac- childbearing. And her chances of dying regard to women’s issues that subsequent tion was indicative of the conflict: It went during childbirth are terrifyingly high— UN gatherings would never quite reach? to Beijing not as a finished or almost fin- about one in 20. She will be expected to Preparations for the women’s conference ished document, but laden with hundreds grow most of her family’s food, but be the had been acrimonious and early alignments of sets of brackets around words, phras- last to sit down to a meal. She will be re- predictable: Many countries and organiza- es, sentences, and even whole paragraphs sponsible for educating and taking care tions were determined to obtain agreements that one or more countries had indicated of her children, but will have to walk from the assembled governments that contained unacceptable language. Alto- miles a day to gather firewood and water. would go beyond previous commitments; gether, the brackets surrounded 40% of the And if she subsequently works for a other nations and groups were asking for 150-page document. These disputed pas- wage, she is likely to earn a third less for a retreat from these commitments, which sages would have to be negotiated and de- doing the same job as a man.” they argued violated many of their cultur- cided by the delegates in Beijing—not an —James D. Wolfensohn, address to the al values and religious traditions. auspicious prospect. Fourth World Conference on Women, Bei- Preparatory meetings, held to write a Plat- jing, Sept. 15, 1995 form for Action that would settle many of Then in Beijing... the agenda items in advance and leave the Delegations of up to 20 people, predom- he year leading up to the United Na- conference to deal with the formalities, had inantly women and often hand-picked by tions’ Fourth World Conference on adjourned in May leaving many disputes their governments for their political savvy TWomen, held in Beijing in Septem- in the areas of poverty, human rights, health, and negotiating skills, arrived in Beijing ber 1995, had been filled with suspense. and economic and political participation un- from 187 nations. They did not step off the Would the nations of the world be able to resolved. Dissension centered both on issues plane into a peaceful atmosphere. Their find common ground on which they could thought to have been settled in Cairo, and presence had been preceded by weeks of all stand and agree to raise the education, on concepts new to universal documents wrangling between the Chinese govern- health and economic well-being of women that were being proposed for the Beijing ment and just about everybody else. to levels equal to those of men? Platform: Did the majority of nations think First, there had been the dispute between The issues had been framed by the In- parental rights and responsibilities should China and the United Nations over the lo- ternational Conference on Population and overrule the rights of the girl child and cation of the nongovernmental forum that young women? Had the world finally de- was to run concurrently with the govern- Jeanette H. Johnson is executive editor of International cided that women had “sexual rights”? ment conference. When China applied for Family Planning Perspectives and Wendy Turnbull is a pub- lic policy associate in the Washington, D.C., office of The When does a “conscience clause” that allows and was selected by the United Nations as Alan Guttmacher Institute. Both attended the Fourth medical providers to opt out of providing the site of the Fourth World Conference on World Conference on Women in Beijing. The preparation of this article was funded in part by the Pew Global Stew- health services become a denial of the rights Women, it was understood that both the ardship Initiative and the Turner Foundation. of women to obtain lawful services? governmental and nongovernmental por-

Volume 21, Number 4, December 1995 155 The Women’s Conference tions of the conference would be held in anticlimactic in some respects. Early in the and South American countries did chal- Beijing. But a few months before the open- two-week event, it became clear that in- lenge the chair and the views of the ma- ing date, China announced that the non- stead of a bruising battle or even a sullen jority on a number of issues. governmental gathering would be held in standoff, the Fourth World Conference on Huairou, a smaller town 40 miles (and Women was going to be a civil, although Reproductive Health Issues about an hour’s drive) outside of Beijing. not entirely harmonious, affair. Perhaps partly because they did not spend The distance and conditions separating By the time the government delegates as much time as expected rehashing com- the two parts of the conference made the arrived in Beijing, the majority had adopt- mitments agreed upon in Cairo, delegates petitioning and lobbying by nongovern- ed the attitude that there could be no re- were able to move ahead in a number of mental attendees who wanted to influence treat from Cairo: They would not go other areas. Some new or expanded con- government delegates more difficult. The home knowing that they had given up cepts had been introduced in the draft Plat- nongovernmental gathering was moved some of the gains in women’s rights and form for Action, and these became the issues out of Beijing, according to the Chinese, be- reproductive health that had been so that provided an element of suspense to the cause the stadium that was originally to hard-fought just a year earlier. Having conference—suspense that continued into have been the cornerstone facility for the adopted this position, the delegates with the early morning hours of the final day. nongovernmental gatherings had struc- a particular interest in reproductive One contentious issue was what the tural problems. Skeptics countered that in health were somewhat surprised to learn Platform should say about parental rights a country where no group gathers without that the Holy See, which had led a drive and responsibilities, primarily in the con- the approval and input of the government, against much of the reproductive health text of adolescents’ access to confidential there is no such thing as a nongovern- language adopted in Cairo, did not in- health services. The draft platform that ar- mental organization; China did not want tend to fight over this issue in Beijing. Its rived in Beijing had included 23 references its own citizens getting ideas about grass- spokesperson announced just prior to the to parental rights, all of which were in roots organizing, hence it selected a site less start of the conference that the Holy See brackets. The phrase “taking into account conspicuous and accessible than Beijing. saw no benefit to reopening issues that the rights, duties and responsibilities of Although nongovernmental organizations had been decided to the satisfaction of the parents and other persons legally re- urged the UN to move one or both parts of majority of nations in Cairo and that it sponsible for children...” had been in- the conference out of China in protest, the would not try to win reversals of that lan- serted, usually by the Holy See, to modi- relatively late notification given to the UN guage.2 Because it had given every indi- fy all statements about the rights of that the stadium would be unavailable for cation in the preparatory meetings lead- children and adolescents. For example, the conference made that option difficult. ing up to the conference that it intended one paragraph on actions to be taken by Also contributing to the charged atmos- to continue the struggle for wording con- governments, in cooperation with other phere surrounding the conference was an sistent with its beliefs, this new position organizations and societal institutions, intensification of ongoing political sparring came as a surprise. Many delegates at- had stated “Prepare and disseminate ac- between the governments of China and the tributed the Holy See’s decision to a de- cessible information, through public United States. A few weeks before the con- sire to avert an encore of the negative health campaigns, the media, reliable ference was to open, an American citizen press coverage it had gotten over its in- counselling and the education system, de- who was a native of China had been ap- transigence in Cairo. signed to ensure that women and men, prehended while attempting to enter China The presence of a mostly female and particularly young people, can acquire without proper documentation; the purpose less strident Holy See delegation proved knowledge about their health, especially of the clandestine attempt was to gather in- to be somewhat of a curiosity, particular- information on sexuality and reproduc- formation for a continuing campaign against ly for those who had witnessed the Holy tion, taking into account the rights, duties and China’s human rights practices. Some lead- See’s performance in Cairo. Perhaps re- responsibilities of parents and other persons ers within the U.S. Congress threatened not membering that image, Mervat Tallawy, legally responsible for children [italics in- to allow the American delegation to attend chair of the conference committee that ne- serted] and consistent with the Conven- the Fourth World Conference on Women if gotiated the health-related language, tion on the Rights of the Child....”3 China did not first release the American cit- warned the Holy See at one point not to Delegates and nongovernmental orga- izen it had detained. On the eve of the con- abuse its privileges as an observer nation. nizations espousing conservative views of ference, China did so; the American dele- She drew a polite but wounded protest the family supported these insertions, but gation arrived, but often vexed China with from the delegate, who noted that the there were strong arguments against them criticism of human rights policies, family Holy See was trying to be cooperative. as well. Many delegates noted that prac- planning practices and conference facilities. Seeming to voice her surprise over the tices harmful to the health and welfare of subdued nature of the delegation, Tallawy girls and young women often go on with The Conference Gets Underway relented, saying, “As a matter of fact, the the encouragement and full consent of par- Given the controversy that had surround- Holy See has been very cooperative.” ents. Two examples cited were female gen- ed many of the conference themes and the Proponents of freeing the health section ital mutilation and early arranged mar- conference host, the meeting itself proved from brackets also benefited by having riage. Further, they contended, as young Tallawy, Egypt’s ambassador to Japan, as people become vulnerable to sexually *One of the commitments to the advancement of women their chair. Tallawy was clearly familiar transmitted diseases, AIDS, unwanted that the United Nations is being asked to make is the es- with the intricacies of the working docu- pregnancy, sexual abuse and unsafe abor- tablishment of a position within the office of the UN sec- retary general to promote the advancement of women. ment and determined to preside over a tion, adolescents have the right to infor- Tallawy is considered a candidate for that position, as is productive outcome.* While the Holy See mation and services essential to their well- Gertrude Mongella of Tanzania, who was secretary gen- exercised comparative restraint, a few of being without the threat of parental veto. eral of the Fourth World Conference on Women. its colleagues from among Islamic nations After several days of deliberations, a

156 International Family Planning Perspectives compromise was reached on wording that against the sexual rights passage had been gued that health professionals have the right would appear in two of the 23 paragraphs. articulated well before delegates arrived to abstain from performing services or re- All other references to parental rights were in Beijing. Opponents maintained that the ferring women for services that conflict with deleted, or the reader was referred to the term “sexual rights” lacked a clear defin- their own moral or religious beliefs. Other compromise language, in which the final ition and was really a euphemism for les- delegations argued that its inclusion was a phrase in the previously cited paragraph bian rights, and thus violated the cultur- violation of medical ethics, and a violation was modified to read: “taking into account al and religious values of their countries. of the patient’s right to legal health care ser- the rights of the child to access to infor- Supporters countered that sexual rights vices. Ultimately, the conscience clause was mation, privacy, confidentiality, respect were rooted in existing human rights and deleted and replaced with another that and informed consent, as well as the re- were fundamental to the human rights of refers to existing codes of medical ethics that sponsibilities, rights and duties of parents women to control their own lives. guide health professionals. and legal guardians to provide, in a man- Once negotiations began in earnest, it The second abortion-related paragraph ner consistent with the evolving capaci- became increasingly clear that a compro- also appeared in the section on increasing ties of the child, appropriate direction and mise was in reach: The term “sexual access to health care services and infor- guidance in the exercise by the child of the rights” would have to be abandoned if the mation. In draft form, it suggested that rights recognized in the Convention on the concept of women’s sexual rights was to governments “Consider reviewing laws Rights of the Child, and in conformity survive in the document. The approved containing punitive measures against with the Convention on the Elimination paragraph reads: “The of All Forms of Discrimination Against human rights of women Women. In all actions concerning children, include their right to “More than any other material, [the] two the best interests of the child shall be a pri- have control over and mary consideration.”4 decide freely and re- sentences recognizing sexual rights as Because the Convention on the Rights of sponsibly on matters re- the Child* had defined child as “every lated to their sexuality, human rights emerged as the major human being below the age of eighteen including sexual and re- accomplishment of the health chapter, years,” delegates considered the compro- productive health, free mise language introducing the concept of of coercion, discrimina- and perhaps of the entire platform.” the evolving capacity of the child to be an tion and violence. Equal important advance. Moreover, the new lan- relationships between guage emphasizes the rights of the child women and men in matters of sexual re- women who have undergone illegal abor- throughout, delineates the role of parents lations and reproduction, including full tions.”8 Language calling on countries to and finishes with the statement that the best respect for the integrity of the person, re- reform laws that punish women who have interests of the child are paramount. quire mutual respect, consent and shared clandestine procedures had been A number of press reports coming out of responsibility for sexual behavior and its broached in Cairo, but abandoned fol- the conference took note of the fact that the consequences.”6 More than any other ma- lowing strong opposition. However, the platform recognizes the right of a woman terial, these two sentences recognizing sex- sentence made it through intact in Beijing. to say “no” to sexual intercourse, another ual rights as human rights emerged as the A compromise was struck when delegates first for a universal document. It does this major accomplishment of the health chap- agreed to preface the disputed language in a paragraph that was frequently referred ter, and perhaps of the entire platform. with language on unsafe abortion agreed to in the draft version as the “sexual rights” With regard to the issue of abortion— to in Cairo, indicating that abortion should paragraph. The subject of women’s sexual fought over bitterly for days in Cairo—two not be promoted as a method of family rights had been broached in Cairo, but new paragraphs were the subject of ne- planning and that governments should re- strong opposition from an alliance of states gotiations. One, written with the objective duce recourse to abortion through ex- of which the Holy See was the most out- of increasing women’s access to quality panded family planning services. spoken blocked the inclusion of sexual health care and related information, stat- In some wording disputes, both sides rights language in the final document. ed that one action to be taken was to “En- claimed to have the support of science. Nevertheless, by endorsing sexual health sure that all health services and workers Brandishing articles that have appeared as central to promoting women’s overall conform to human rights and to ethical, in the medical literature that raise the pos- health, the Cairo conference had laid the professional and gender-sensitive stan- sibility of a connection between abortion groundwork for moving forward on rec- dards in the delivery of women’s health and breast cancer or that detail side effects ognizing a woman’s right to exercise con- services aimed at ensuring responsible, of oral contraceptives, a number of dele- trol over her sexuality. Consequently, in the voluntary and informed consent.” The gations argued strongly in support of re- final Beijing preparatory conference, a para- problem was a sentence authored by the taining in the platform a bracketed para- graph beginning “Sexual rights include the Holy See that had been appended in the graph that suggested governments individual’s right to have control over and draft platform stating “Nothing, howev- “Inform women about data which show decide freely on matters related to her or er, in the present Platform for Action is in- that hormonal contraception, abortion and his sexuality,...”5 had been inserted in the tended to require any health professional promiscuity increase risks of developing draft platform—and promptly bracketed. or health facility to provide (or refer for) cancers and infections of the reproductive Much early speculation centered on services to which they have objections on tract, so that they can make informed de- whether the term “sexual rights” itself, the basis of religious belief or moral con- cisions about their health.”9 Most delega- which had never appeared in an interna- viction as a violation of conscience.”7 tional agreement, would make it into the Proponents of the language, which was *An international agreement that took effect in Septem- final platform. The arguments for and referred to as the “conscience clause,” ar- ber 1990.

Volume 21, Number 4, December 1995 157 The Women’s Conference tions argued that the scientific evidence support their families. The African dele- women are being denied them.” was not conclusive enough to allow such gations, aware that AIDS has left many Bhutto also made the connection be- specificity into the final document, and children without parents, countered that tween equal access to resources and the agreed instead upon a paragraph that because of this and other situations, rights of women: “A woman cannot make read: “Inform women about the factors daughters must have the right to inherit her own choices unless she has financial which increase the risks of developing the same amount of family property as independence, and a woman cannot have cancers and infections of the reproductive their brothers if their chances of surviving, financial independence if she cannot tract, so that they can make informed de- educating themselves and contributing to work. If the girl child is to be valued, if the cisions about their health.” society are to be ensured. This issue was wife is to say no to domestic violence, she one that resisted resolution until late in the must have financial independence.” Other Platform Issues conference, when compromise language Some of the conference’s highest drama An emotional debate raged over what the was found to express the sense of the ma- surrounded the adoption of a declaration platform should say regarding the amount jority of nations while allowing dissenters that would serve as a preamble to the Plat- of resources that nations should commit to some leeway. It urges governments to form for Action. The platform is 362 para- the advancement of women. Nations that enact “as appropriate, and enforc[e] leg- graphs of convoluted, multiclause, com- tended to be the recipients of internation- islation that guarantees equal right to suc- mittee-written sentences that are a al funds—and that also had within their cession and ensures equal right to inher- grammarian’s worst nightmare. (“Where borders populations of women facing the it, regardless of the sex of the child.” but in a UN document can you find one starkest inequalities—sought wording that Although much is often made of a sentence that goes on for 20 lines?” asked would pledge new and additional re- “north-south” split between nations,* it was one attendee.) Thus, some thought it would sources; the “donor” nations, almost all of not a major dynamic at this conference. The be a welcome contrast if the declaration them experiencing economic cutbacks division of nations that it implies was most could rise above the technicalities and give within their borders, sought wording that evident in the discussion over resources to voice to women’s aspirations. As one del- would commit only to considering a re- be committed to women’s programs. A split egate stated early in the conference, “I’d allocation of present commitments. The Eu- that was at least as evident is among Islamic like the declaration to ‘sing’”—an ambi- ropean Union and the United States, the nations. Some, which take a conservative tious goal for any document on which 187 two most prominent donors in the debate, stance regarding the status of women, were political entities must reach a consensus. also sought wording that would include prominent among the nations that regis- Periodically, harried members of the the concept of the private sector as a way tered reservations to the reproductive health working group drafting the declaration of reducing some of the pressure on gov- section of the final document to indicate that from a version submitted by the Group of ernments. Days of semantic maneuvering they were not part of the consensus on these 77§ would appear at meetings of the com- by the two sides ended with a Platform that issues.† Veiled women delegates from these mittee at which they were to present their calls for “adequate mobilization of re- countries rose in committee sessions to work for approval, saying they were not sources at national and international lev- speak in opposition to much of the brack- yet ready and begging for postponements. els as well as new and additional resources eted language, suggesting, for example, as Word circulated that much ground was to developing countries from all available did a delegate from Yemen, that wording being ceded to conservative voices trying funding mechanisms....”10 referring to the sexual and reproductive to insert wording in the declaration that One small attempt to break through the rights of adolescents simply be deleted be- would undermine the Platform for Action. poverty in which women around the cause “young girls don’t have sexual and Alarmed by that thought, members of sev- world often dwell was a call for an end to reproductive health concerns.” eral nongovernmental organizations set unequal inheritance customs that provide In contrast, other Islamic nations stressed to work drafting an alternative declara- more for sons than for daughters. Not pos- that nothing in the Islamic religion prevents tion that they hoped one of their govern- sible, responded delegations from sever- the full and equal participation of women ments would introduce for consideration, al Islamic nations, who said that Islamic in society; the problem, they said, is the way or that they would simply release as their law specifies that sons inherit at least twice in which Islam is sometimes interpreted. own unofficial conference statement. as much as daughters because males must Among the most prominent spokespersons Another set of voices suggested that for this point of view was Prime Minister since the declaration was proving so trou- *”North-south” is a designation for developed and de- Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan who addressed blesome, it should be dropped altogether. veloping countries that refers to the geographical location the opening plenary session. The Chinese, who wanted something that of most developed countries in the northern hemisphere and most developing nations in the southern hemisphere. “Today, the Islamic world has elected could be referred to in later years as the three women prime ministers,” she Beijing Declaration, let it be known that the †Rather than refusing to join the consensus that adopts an noted.‡ “We were elected by men and latter suggestion was not acceptable. A de- entire document, nations can “reserve” or withhold their women. Our election has shown that it is claration was eventually adopted, after the endorsement of particular sections or paragraphs. While all 187 nations endorsed the Platform for Action, some 20 socially acceptable for a woman to work conference officers sent a delegation to the 11 nations registered reservations on the paragraph calling and be a mother.” meetings to quell bickering within the sub- for a review of punitive laws on illegal abortion and on the Nonetheless, she acknowledged that committee and rumors without. sexual rights paragraph. The Holy See withheld its en- these same nations are among 15 Asian The finalized Platform for Action and dorsement of the entire health chapter of the Platform. countries in which men increasingly out- the Beijing Declaration had been sched- ‡In addition to Bhutto, the other two prime ministers are number women because female fetuses uled to be adopted in a plenary session on Begum Khaleda Zia of Bangladesh and Tansu Ciller of Turkey. are often aborted and girl babies aban- the last morning of the conference, with §The Group of 77 is an alliance of developing nations that doned at birth. This happens, she said, closing ceremonies in the afternoon. formed in response to the Group of Seven, an alliance of “not because of religion but because of so- Agreement on final wording did not come industrialized nations. cial prejudice. The rights that Islam gave until 5 AM on the last morning, however,

158 International Family Planning Perspectives and the documents needed to be produced forced—this women’s conference asked the on Women? It is not known yet whether the in the six official conference languages so head of state or the chief delegate to list UN will convene additional conferences on the governments could see what they were country-specific actions that their nation the topic. But it is interesting to note that adopting. Therefore, the program for the would take to empower women within some of the strongest advocates of contin- final day was switched: Closing cere- their borders. In the 15-minute statements uing the series of conferences are women monies were held in the morning while that each nation was allotted as part of the from developing countries. While early translators and the UN Secretariat worked plenary sessions, about half of the countries conferences might have been initiated and feverishly to produce the needed docu- complied with the request and listed actions led primarily by the developed countries, ments. Those were approved in a plenary that they pledged to take to improve the sta- delegations from developed countries session that convened in the late afternoon tus of women. Other nations later said that tended to accompany the Holy See to the and adjourned around midnight. they, too, had or were working on such a list. back-row seats in Beijing, where they lis- In addition to the official government tened while their “southern” sisters took Will Anything Change? delegations representing the 187 member to the microphones. Their vocalizations, Reminding the conference of the impor- states of the United Nations, some 3,000 and the promise of more to come, may have tance of its work in determining wording nongovernmental organizations sent one finally silenced the charge that women’s within bracketed sections, Gertrude Mon- or more accredited representatives to ob- rights are a concept being thrust on the rest gella of Tanzania, who was secretary gen- serve the government conference, a 10- of the world by radical Western women. eral of the conference, stated, “The brack- fold increase over the approximately 300 eted sections are the ones that can make that registered for the 1985 Nairobi con- References a difference. No one brackets sections that ference.† The nongovernmental repre- 1. S. A. Cohen and C. L. Richards, “The Cairo Consen- will make no difference.” sentatives banded into groups based on sus: Population, Development and Women,” International Family Planning Perspectives, 20:150–155, 1994. But will a Platform for Action that is de- common concerns and formed some 40 termined by consensus of the participants caucuses‡ that met daily to plan strategy 2. J. Navarro-Valls, director of the Holy See Press Office, briefing, Aug. 25, 1995. make a difference? Will anything happen and lobby delegates for favored wording as a result of a document that has no meth- in the Platform for Action. Such grassroots 3. United Nations (UN), Draft Platform for Action, A/CONF.177/L.1, New York, N.Y., May 24, 1995, para- od of enforcement? activism, in which citizens of the various graph 108 (e). Mongella herself underscored both the countries gather information about pro- great potential of UN conferences and grams in the rest of the world and go back 4. Earth Negotiations Bulletin, Vol. 14, No. 17, Sept. 12, 1995. most people’s more limited expectations home to monitor their own governments, 5. UN, 1995, op. cit. (see reference 3), paragraph 97. of them when she stated, “If the world is another way that nonbinding resolu- 6. Working Group I, “Corrections to Chapter IV,” Sept. were to implement even one chapter of the tions from UN conferences can achieve 11, 1995, paragraph 97. document, we would see a big change in results. As soon as it became known, for 7. UN, 1995, op. cit., (see reference 3), paragraph 107 (g). women’s lives.” example, that the country-specific com- 8. Ibid., paragraph 107 (k). As its name indicates, this conference mitments that each nation had pledged to was the fourth in a series called by the take were not going to be recorded in any 9. Ibid., paragraph 110 (e). United Nations to raise the visibility of official conference document, non- 10. Earth Negotiations Bulletin, Vol. 14, No. 19, Sept. 14, women’s issues and help people recognize governmental representatives set about 1995. the problems that exist.* In this manner, winnowing them from speeches, compil- 11. B. Bhutto, plenary address, Fourth World Conference UN government conferences and their ing them, seeking means of distribution on Women, Beijing, Sept. 4, 1995. parallel nongovernmental forums are be- and urging representatives to hold their 12. J. D. Wolfensohn, “Women and the Transformation lieved to contribute to changes in world governments accountable. of the 21st Century,” address to the Fourth World Con- public opinion that then advance policy. Attendance at the conference by the ference on Women, Beijing, Sept. 15, 1995. These conferences have surely been part president of the World Bank, James D. of the reason that the empowerment of Wolfensohn, may be an indication that at- women is now being spoken of as critical tending to women’s needs is being taken to solving some of the world’s major prob- seriously on the economic front. Wolfen- lems related to population, environment sohn, who had been in his position for and sustainable development. And because only three months at the time of the con- people had become concerned that nations ference, noted, “I have made only three might be engaging in mostly talk and little appointments at the vice presidential action—sometimes even passing laws that level...so far. All three have been based on they could point to as accomplishments the sole criterion of professional excel- even though the laws were not being en- lence. All three have been women.”12 Nonetheless, Wolfensohn was not always *The first was held in Mexico City in 1975, the second in treated kindly during a question and answer Copenhagen in 1980 and the third in Nairobi in 1985. session at a meeting of nongovernmental †This figure does not take into account the more than representatives. Many women wore white, 20,000 women and men who came—often simply as in- the color of mourning in China, for Wolfen- terested individuals—to attend the nongovernmental forum in Huairou. sohn’s appearance and had plenty to say about forced restructuring of economies that ‡Caucuses were devoted to such areas as reproductive health, indigenous peoples, refugee women, peace, dis- victimized most a country’s poorest citizens, abled women, human rights, youths and lesbians, among primarily women and children. others. Will there be a Fifth World Conference

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