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About a Definition of Nano: How to Articulate Nano and Technology? About a Definition of Nano: How to Articulate Nano and Technology? Sacha Loeve Abstract: It is often assumed that ‘nano’ is merely a communication and mar- keting token. Our inquiry in a number of French laboratories in the field of artificial molecular machines resulted in a quite different picture: a number of researchers are concerned with the definition of nanotechnology. This paper starts from the attempts made by one of the leading figure in the field of mo- lecular machines, Christian Joachim, to draw a clear demarcation between what is ‘really nano’ and what is not. Probing the epistemological basis of his strategy, we also underline its limits. As this definition is only focused on the prefix ‘nano’, it would benefit from being completed and enlarged by a defini- tion of ‘technology’. We argue that molecular machines belong to the realm of technology in Gilbert Simondon’s meaning of this term: a genesis of individu- alized objects coordinating natural processes and human projects. Finally, this emphasis on the technological dimension of nanotechnology leads to ethical reflections based on the practices of nanotechnology rather than on their po- tential applications. Keywords: nanotechnology, epistemology, science versus technology, molecular machine, individuation. “Nanotechnology’s father figure is President Clinton, whose support of the USA’s National Nanotechnology Initiative converted overnight many industrious physicists, chemists and materials scientists into nanotech- nologists. In this cynical (though popular) view, the idea of nanotechnol- ogy did not emerge naturally from its parent disciplines, but was imposed on the scientific community from outside. As a consequence, nanotech- nology is a subject with an existential crisis – is there actually any firm core to this subject at all, any consensus as to what, at heart, defines nanotech- nology?” [Jones 2006] “Nanomaterials, nanostructures, nanostructured materials, nanoimprint, nanobiotechnology, nanophysics, nanochemistry, radical nanotechnology, nanosciences, nanooptics, nanoelectronics, nanorobotics, nanosoldiers, nanomedecine, nanoeconomy, nanobusiness, nanolawyer, nanoethics to HYLE – International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry, Vol. 16 (2010), No. 1, 3-18. Copyright 2010 by HYLE and Sacha Loeve. 4 Sacha Loeve name a few of the nanos. We need a clear definition of all these burgeoning fields for the sake of the grant attribution, for the sake of research pro- gram definition, and to avoid everyone being lost in so many nanos.” [Joachim 2006] 1. Introduction The term ‘nano’ is in an awkward position: it concerns more and more re- search fields and even refers to nature, its use increases dramatically and per- vades common language. As it is being oversold, denounced, and discussed on innumerable websites where images of the nanoworld proliferate, it first sounds like a scientific marketing term. To many scientists, ‘nano’ is just a magic prefix to get funds and a way to communicate. Thus, they often de- plore that the debate is too ‘politicized’. We contend that it is essential to go further, because in this situation, anything and its contrary can be said, from ‘everything is going to be revolu- tionized’ to ‘nothing is new’ – which triggers cynicism and complacent accep- tance. Beyond the general views, we should show more interest in the ob- jects, patterns, and knowledge the term ‘nano’ embraces, and most of all in this new situation: instrument-based relations to matter are moving out of the laboratory to be dragged to a public level. A recent review of nanoscale sciences and technologies in the social and human sciences (SHS) points out that the issues of what is about to become a research field on the ethical and social implications of nano will remain too vague as long as (Kjølberg & Wickson 2007): • significant applications of nano are still largely hypothetical and futur- istic, • there is no consensus on the definition of nano, • there is no consensus on how to distinguish (or not) between nanoscience(s) and nanotechnology, • there is no consensus on the dimension of novelty in the concerned practices, • only 10% of nano-based literature directly concerns ‘science’, i.e. analysis of practice and knowledge, • even without directly dealing with it, only 20% of the literature shows any concern on the matter. This paper argues that it is crucial to share nano-objects and to discuss their values. If the nano-objects considered by SHS scholars have nothing to do with those of nanoscientists, it will be difficult to build mutual trust. ‘What you say about nano has nothing to do with what we are actually doing, so we are not concerned. If this is your understanding of nano, then we can as well About a Definition of Nano 5 say that we are not doing nano’, some nanoscientists did claim. If nano has no epistemic and/or technological ground, the discussion of its ethical im- pacts will always be problematic. Of course, the purpose of ethics is not to give consensual answers but rather to move into the depth of questions. It should therefore remain problematic, but in a reflective and explicit way. Sharing nano-objects does not mean seeking a consensus. On the contrary, this paper gives prominence to divergence. 2. To Be Or Not To Be… Nano In the ‘nanoworld’, Christian Joachim belongs neither to the enthusiasts nor to the skeptics, but to ‘purists’, showing a great concern to the definition of nanotechnology. He means to distinguish clearly “what is nano from what is not” (Joachim 2005). Nanoscience should be reserved solely for the study of a single atom or a sin- gle molecule, that is, of one entity at a time, and not for groups of such enti- ties where statistics or interactions between them come into play. [Ibid., p. 107] The adventure of nanotechnology started with the molecule acquiring an exis- tence of its own, as an independent material entity. [Joachim & Plévert 2008, p. 65] Unlike the official definitions referring to the scale of 10-9 m that makes new properties emerge, Joachim’s one is based on the individuation of objects, the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) allowing to manipulate them one by one. Joachim calls this approach the nanotechnology, as opposed to nanotech- nologies. He contrasts his definition with a ‘sociological’ one that is too wide to convey right depictions of nano-objects. Bit by bit, he says, the scientific community has learned to disguise their projects in order to make them look ‘nano’. According to him, 90% of these researches “are not actually nano” (Joachim 2005, p. 109). To Joachim, it is “a case of embezzlement” (Joachim & Plévert 2008, first chapter’s title), a “political hijacking” by the US Na- tional Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in 2000 (ibid., p. 15) of a project which was, in its very beginning, a fundamental ‘ecotechnological’ one (i.e. using the minimum amount of matter and energy sufficient to make ma- chines). Yet posing an ‘original nano’ well defined before ‘the Fall’ – the launch of the US NNI – is nothing but rewriting history. In the 1980s, there were many potential forerunners, protein engineering, supramolecular chemistry, ultrafine particle engineering, surface science, thin film engineering, meso- physics, molecular electronics, and scanning probe microscopy, but there was 6 Sacha Loeve nothing like a well-defined ‘nanoproject’. The many candidates to the title make Joachim’s claim of a ‘pure’ origin in molecular electronics extremely doubtful. However, we should consider seriously the concern motivating such a claim: as long as nanotechnology is shaped by futuristic objectives, non- historical claims, and purely conventional definitions, research communities who are trying to construct their ‘nano-identity’ need to dig into the past on their own to construct ‘counter-histories’. 3. Big naNNo and Small naNo Christian Joachim has a nice way of distinguishing ‘real nano’ from ‘fake nano’. The word meaning dwarf was occasionally spelt ναννοσ with a double ‘n’ in ancient Greek and nanus with a single ‘n’ in Latin. The term reappears in the 19th century. In 1960, the eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures decided that Latin would be used to qualify the fractions of the meter (e.g., milli-, micro-, pico-) and that Greek would be used to qualify the multiples of the meter (e.g., mega- and giga-). It was therefore necessary to designate the unit 10-9 with a Latin term rather than with a Greek one. That would explain why ‘nanno’ has become ‘nano’. Beyond the linguistic quarrels, this story matters to Joachim because it allows him to distinguish his practice from the ‘big nano’: to him, what we call ‘nano’ today is in fact ‘nanno’ when it comes to the mesophysical (inter- mediate) scale. It would have been more correct to use the term ‘nano’ for objects of a few nanometers and to keep the term ‘nanno’ for that intermedi- ate scale. What matters in this definition is not size but the difference be- tween the statistical approach and the individual approach to phenomena. Electronic, optoelectronic, and spintronic devices that show quantum phe- nomena but are analyzed statistically concern mesoscopic physics; the same is true of macromolecular machines in biology – kinesin, myosin, ATP syn- thase, etc. – which are treated classically with some stochastic ‘noise’ and sta- tistical ‘fuzziness’. On the other hand, monomolecular machines are made up individually through internal quantum behaviors intervening with a single object (a molecule) or a few countable objects (electrons) rather than in a statistical way. To Joachim, confusion has eventually been established and ‘nano’ has come to qualify any object of nanometer size. Joachim’s definition of nanotechnology excludes much: microelectronics (whose components are engineered to the precision of few nanometers and which are nanoscale ob- jects); biochips and microarrays, which are considered tools whose functional elements are ultraminiaturized rather than being specific molecular objects; About a Definition of Nano 7 nanomaterials (materials whose macroscopic properties are controlled at the nano-scale); and nanoparticles (assemblings of atoms with at least one di- mension less than 100 nm).
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