ISBN 0 85403 604 0 © The Royal Society 2004 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1998), no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, or, in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the appropriate reproduction rights organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to: Science Policy Section The Royal Society 6–9 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG email [email protected] Typeset in Frutiger by the Royal Society Proof reading and production management by the Clyvedon Press, Cardiff, UK Printed by Latimer Trend Ltd, Plymouth, UK ii | July 2004 | Nanoscience and nanotechnologies The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering Nanoscience and nanotechnologies: opportunities and uncertainties Contents page Summary vii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Hopes and concerns about nanoscience and nanotechnologies 1 1.2 Terms of reference and conduct of the study 2 1.3 Report overview 2 1.4 Next steps 3 2 What are nanoscience and nanotechnologies? 5 3 Science and applications 7 3.1 Introduction 7 3.2 Nanomaterials 7 3.2.1 Introduction to nanomaterials 7 3.2.2 Nanoscience in this area 8 3.2.3 Applications 10 3.3 Nanometrology 13 3.3.1 Introduction to nanometrology 13 3.3.2 Length measurement 13 3.3.3 Force measurement 14 3.3.4 Measurement of single molecules 14 3.3.5 Applications 14 3.4 Electronics, optoelectronics, and information and communication technology (ICT) 17 3.4.1 Introduction to electronics, optoelectronics, and ICT 17 3.4.2 Nanoscience in this area 17 3.4.3 Current applications 17 3.4.4 Applications anticipated in the future 18 3.5 Bio-nanotechnology and nanomedicine 19 3.5.1 Introduction to bio-nanotechnology and nanomedicine 19 3.5.2 Nanoscience in this area 20 3.5.3 Current and future applications 20 4 Nanomanufacturing and the industrial application of nanotechnologies 25 4.1 Introduction 25 4.2 Characterisation 25 4.3 Fabrication techniques 25 4.3.1 Bottom-up manufacturing 26 4.3.2 Top-down manufacturing 28 4.3.3 Convergence of top-down and bottom-up techniques 29 4.4 Visions for the future 30 4.4.1 Precision Engineering 30 4.4.2 The chemicals industry 31 4.4.3 The information and communication technology industry 31 4.5 Resource management and environmental issues 32 4.6 Barriers to progress 32 4.7 Summary 33 The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering Nanoscience and nanotechnologies | July 2004 | iii 5 Possible adverse health, environmental and safety impacts 35 5.1 Introduction 35 5.2 Assessing and controlling risk 35 5.3 Human health 36 5.3.1 Understanding the toxicity of nanoparticles and fibres 36 5.3.2 Manufactured nanoparticles and nanotubes 41 5.4 Effects on the environment and other species 45 5.5 Risk of explosion 47 5.6 Addressing the knowledge gaps 47 5.7 Conclusions 49 6 Social and ethical issues 51 6.1 Introduction: framing social and ethical issues 51 6.2 Economic impacts 52 6.3 A ‘nanodivide’? 52 6.4 Information collection and the implications for civil liberties 53 6.5 Human enhancement 54 6.6 Covergence 54 6.7 Military uses 55 6.8 Conclusions 56 7 Stakeholder and public dialogue 59 7.1 Introduction 59 7.2 Current public awareness of nanotechnologies in Britain 59 7.2.1 Quantitative survey findings 59 7.2.2 Qualitative workshop findings 60 7.2.3 Interpreting the research into public attitudes 61 7.3 Importance of promoting a wider dialogue 62 7.4 Nanotechnologies as an ‘upstream’ issue 64 7.5 Designing dialogue on nanotechnologies 64 7.5.1 Incorporating public values in decisions 66 7.5.2 Improving decision quality 66 7.5.3 Resolving conflict 66 7.5.4 Improving trust in institutions 66 7.5.5 Informing or educating people 66 7.6 Conclusions 67 8 Regulatory issues 69 8.1 Introduction 69 8.2 Approaches to regulation 69 8.3 Case studies 70 8.3.1 Workplace (including research laboratories) 70 8.3.2 Marketing and use of chemicals 71 8.3.3 Consumer products incorporating free nanoparticles, particularly skin preparations 72 8.3.4 Medicines and medical devices 74 8.3.5 Consumer products incorporating fixed nanoparticles: end-of-life issues 74 8.4 Knowledge gaps 74 8.4.1 Hazard 74 8.4.2 Exposure 75 8.4.3 Measurement 75 8.5 Conclusions 76 iv | July 2004 | Nanoscience and nanotechnologies The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering 9 Conclusions 79 9.1 Nanoscience and nanotechnologies and their industrial application 79 9.2 Health, safety and environmental risks and hazards 79 9.3 Social and ethical impacts 81 9.4 Stakeholder and public dialogue 81 9.5 Regulation 82 9.6 Responsible development of nanotechnologies 83 9.7 A mechanism for addressing future issues 84 10 Recommendations 85 11 References 89 Annexes AWorking Group, Review Group and Secretariat 95 B Conduct of the study 97 C List of those who submitted evidence 99 D Mechanical self-replicating nano-robots and ‘Grey Goo’ 109 Acronyms and abbreviations 111 The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering Nanoscience and nanotechnologies | July 2004 |v vi | July 2004 | Nanoscience and nanotechnologies The Royal Society & The Royal Academy of Engineering Summary Overview Significance of the nanoscale 1 Nanoscience and nanotechnologies are widely seen 5A nanometre (nm) is one thousand millionth of a as having huge potential to bring benefits to many areas metre. For comparison, a single human hair is about of research and application, and are attracting rapidly 80,000 nm wide, a red blood cell is approximately 7,000 increasing investments from Governments and from nm wide and a water molecule is almost 0.3nm across. businesses in many parts of the world. At the same time, People are interested in the nanoscale (which we define it is recognised that their application may raise new to be from 100nm down to the size of atoms challenges in the safety, regulatory or ethical domains (approximately 0.2nm)) because it is at this scale that that will require societal debate. In June 2003 the UK the properties of materials can be very different from Government therefore commissioned the Royal Society those at a larger scale. We define nanoscience as the and the Royal Academy of Engineering to carry out this study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at independent study into current and future developments atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where in nanoscience and nanotechnologies and their impacts. properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale; and nanotechnologies as the design, 2 The remit of the study was to: characterisation, production and application of structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and · define what is meant by nanoscience and size at the nanometre scale. In some senses, nanotechnologies; nanoscience and nanotechnologies are not new. · summarise the current state of scientific knowledge Chemists have been making polymers, which are large about nanotechnologies; molecules made up of nanoscale subunits, for many · identify the specific applications of the new decades and nanotechnologies have been used to technologies, in particular where nanotechnologies are create the tiny features on computer chips for the past already in use; 20 years. However, advances in the tools that now allow · carry out a forward look to see how the technologies atoms and molecules to be examined and probed with might be used in future, where possible estimating the great precision have enabled the expansion and likely timescales in which the most far-reaching development of nanoscience and nanotechnologies. applications of the technologies might become reality; · identify what health and safety, environmental, ethical 6 The properties of materials can be different at the and societal implications or uncertainties may arise nanoscale for two main reasons. First, nanomaterials have from the use of the technologies, both current and a relatively larger surface area when compared to the future; and same mass of material produced in a larger form. This can · identify areas where additional regulation needs to be make materials more chemically reactive (in some cases considered. materials that are inert in their larger form are reactive when produced in their nanoscale form), and affect their 3 In order to carry out the study, the two Academies strength or electrical properties. Second, quantum effects set up a Working Group of experts from the relevant can begin to dominate the behaviour of matter at the disciplines in science, engineering, social science and nanoscale - particularly at the lower end - affecting the ethics and from two major public interest groups. The optical, electrical and magnetic behaviour of materials. group consulted widely, through a call for written Materials can be produced that are nanoscale in one evidence and a series of oral evidence sessions and dimension (for example, very thin surface coatings), in workshops with a range of stakeholders from both the two dimensions (for example, nanowires and nanotubes) UK and overseas. It also reviewed published literature or in all three dimensions (for example, nanoparticles). and commissioned new research into public attitudes. Throughout the study, the Working Group has 7 Our wide-ranging definitions cut across many conducted its work as openly as possible and has traditional scientific disciplines.