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Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 1072 HODGKINS FUIS^D. THE ATMOSPHERE IN RELATION TO HUMAN LIFE AND HEALTH BY FEANCIS ALBERT ROLLO RUSSELL, Vice-President of the Boijal Meteorological Society, Fellow of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, Member of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. CITY OF WASHINGTON: PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 1896. — THE ATMOSPHEEB IK RELATION TO HUMAK LIFE AISTD HEALTH. By Francis Albert Eollo Eussell,* Vice-President of the Boyal Meteorological Society, Fellow of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, Member of the Boyal Institution of Great Britain. [Memoir submitted in the Hodgkins Fund Prize competition of the Smithsonian Institution, and awarded honorable mention with a silver medal.] Part I. Constitution and Conditions of the Air. The atmosphere has been compared to a great ocean, at the bottom of which we live. But the comparison gives no idea of the magnitude of this ocean, without definite bounds, and varying incessantly in den- sity and other important qualities from depth to height and from place to place. Uninterrupted by emergent continents and islands, the atmosphere freely spreads high above all mountains and flows ever in mighty cur- rents at levels beyond the most elevated regions of the solid earth. What is the composition of this encompassing fluid, and what its char- acter? The work of the present century has gathered in a rich store of knowledge to answer the inquiry. The atmosphere consists in the main of two gases, oxygen and nitro- gen, and these are intimately mixed in the proportion of about 20.9 of oxygen to 79.1 of nitrogen by volume, and 23.1 of oxygen to 76.9 of nitrogen by weight. ^ These gases, which are each of them chemical ele- ments, are not chemically combined with one another, but only mixed,- each preserves its qualities, modified only by solution in the other. Gases have the property of diffusing among each other so completely, that no portion which could be conveniently taken, however small, would fail to represent the two gases in a proportion corresponding with that which they maintain in the whole atmosphere. Another valuable constituent of the atmosphere, though varying greatly in amount at different times and places, is of no less impor- ' Author of "London Fogs," *' Epidemics, Plagues, and Fevers; their Causes and Prevention," " The Spread of Influenza," *' Observations on Dew and Frosts," etc. ^M. Leduc gives the weights as follows: Oxygen, 23.58; nitrogen, 76.42. Dumas and Boussingault give the density of nitrogen as 0.09725. (Comptes Rendus, 1890.) 3 4 ATMOSPHERE IN RELATION TO HUMAN LIFE AND HEALTH. tance to mankind than the tw^ elementary gases which make up by far the greater part of the vohime and weight of the whole. This is vapor of water, the result of the process of evaporation of those vast watery surfaces which are always in contact with the lower strata of the air. Deprive the air of any one of these three main constituents and human life becomes impossible. ;N"ext in rank from the human point of view is carbon dioxide, or car- bonic acid gas, which, though comparatively very small in amount, exists throughout at least all the lower ranges of the atmosphere, and has the same close and necessary relations with plant life as oxygen has, or rather as food has, with the life of animals. It presents on a great scale an example of the wonderful law of gaseous diffusion; for, though much heavier than air, in the proportion of about 2 to 1, it diffuses under natural conditions nearly equably through every part, whether the region of its origin be near or distant. Stated in tons, the following are the calculated weights of the chief substances composing the whole atmosphere; Billions of tons. Oxygen 1,233,010 Nitrogen 3,994,593 Carbon dioxide 5, 287 Vapor 54,460 In addition to the above, we find in the air a variable and very small quantity of ammonia, chlorides, sulphates, sulphurous acid, nitric acid, and carburetted hydrogen, but some of these depend, where detected, to a great extent on manufacturing operations and on aggregations of men and animals. Liquids and solids in great variety are also very important, widely diffused, and constant ingredients in the atmosphere. The solids are everywhere present in the condition of very minute microscopic or ultra- microscopic motes or dust, composed chiefly of sea salt, or chloride of sodium, sand, or fine silicious particles, various dusts derived from volcanoes, factories, towns, and the remains of meteors set on fire in their passage through the upper air. Some of the most beneficent functions of these microscopic and invisible motes will be considered later. Other solids present in the upper air over a large part of the globe and in the lower strata, especially in the Arctic regions, are small particles of ice, condensed either in clouds or in air which appears nearly clear. Explorers in high latitudes relate that on fine cold days the air is frequently sprinkled with shining crystals of ice which seem to fall from a blue sky, and, on the other hand, in heavy gales and stormy weather the lower air is filled with a fine icy dust, resulting from the freezing of the spray torn from the sea waves. In temperate climates very much of the rain which falls on the surface of the earth has existed previously at high levels in the state of snow or ice particles. The experience of mountaineers and balloon voyagers, and, in a moun- tainous country, the sight of peaks covered with fresh snow after a ATMOSPHERE IN RELATION TO HUMAN LIFE AND HEALTH. 5 day's rain on tlie low ground^ prove how commouly rain is melted ice or snow. Other solid particles always present in great numbers in the lower air, and of great importance in relation to human, animal, and plant life, are various kinds of microbes, fungi, molds, and spores. At certain sea- sons the pollen of plants is very abundant. In some countries the air is thick in tlie dry and windy season with the dust of tbe soil. Agri- cultural fires cause a thick haze over parts of Germany, the United States, and other countries at certain times of the year. After great volcanic eruptions the air over many thousand square miles has been affected by a dense haze. This was notably the case in the summer of 1783, when, after an eruption in Iceland, terrestrial and celestial objects were dimmed by "dry fog" in western and central Europe dur- ing several weeks. In 1883, on the other hand, after the eruption of Krakatoa, near Java, the upper air, between 40,000 and 120,000 feet in altitude, was overspread with a semitransparent haze of a very remark- able character, consisting mainly of finely divided, glassy pumice. This haze stratum in the upper sky extended over all known countries and remained visible for several months. Cloud globules are the most obvious and widely present liquid ingre- dients of the atmosphere. They possess properties of great interest in connection with the recently discovered ubiquitous atmospheric dust, with optical phenomena, and with the formation and distribution of rain. The other familiar forms of water in the air are dry and damp fogs, mist, and rain. Haze is in most instances, at least so far as the pres- ent writer's observations go, in the south of England, a phenomenon depending on very small particles of water and on the presence of dust particles as nuclei. Ozone, an allotropic and unstable form of oxygen, has been found to be constantly present, in very small quantities, in the open air in nat- ural conditions, but can not be traced in the impure air of great towns, and is no doubt always greatly diminished where dwellings are thick together. Ozone consists of molecules, each supposed to contain three molecules of oxygen. Peroxide of hydrogen is also supposed to exist in slight traces in the general atmosphere. Minor impurities, arising from animal life, from manufacturing processes, and from the combustion of coal, are mostly not perceptible to the senses, except in the neighborhood of places where they are given off very abundantly. The principal functions of all these various elements and substances of which the atmosi)here is composed, may now be regarded in detail with special reference to their influence upon human life and welfare. OXYaEN. Oxygen, that wonderful element which constitutes very nearly half of the solid crust of the globe, combined as most of it is with the 6 ATMOSPHERE IN RELATION TO HUMAN LIFE AND HEALTH. metallic and other elements of the earth, forms also, in union with hydrogen, the great body of water which covers three-fourths of the terrestrial surface. Water consists of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen chemically combined. Stated by weight, out of nine parts of water eight are oxygen. But water, as we know it, always contains other matter, and chiefly atmospheric air, which is dissolved in it, and to a considerable extent changes its character. For the serv- ice of man, water, deprived of air, would have lost several important characteristics. Oxygen is dissolved in water to the extent of 2.99 volumes to 100 of water at 15° C, an amount sufficient to support the existence of fishes and hosts of other aquatic creatures, and to oxidize and render innocuous some of the common impurities which result from animal and vegetable processes and decay. Probably its power when dissolved in the liquid is greater than in the atmosphere, and it must be compressed into a smaller space.
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