Basic Techniques CHAPTER 1

P ART I

Getting Started

Edward Steichen, Lotus, Mount Kisco, New York, 1915. Reprinted with permission of Joanna T. Steichen. GETTING STARTED

It is not difficult to take photographs. Billions of photographs are made by the public every year with successful results for their purposes. However, photography is a bit like sailing. With a little instruction it is not too hard to fig- ure out how to get the boat to move, but it can take a lifetime to master all the intricacies. This chapter will give you just enough information to get moving. Once you have started producing photographs, you will probably want more information so that you can get even better results. Use the color edge tab guide to the photographic process on the front endsheets and the chapter references to locate more in-depth discussion of the steps covered in this chapter. If things do not turn out as well as you expected, chapter 7 can help you with some possible cures for your problems. Mastering the technical details that make up the craft of photography is only the beginning. To make photographs that communicate your ideas or feelings, you will also have to learn the differences between human visual perception and the way photographs repre- sent reality. The best way to do this is to start making photographs, but you will find some helpful suggestions for improving your photographic seeing in chapter 9.

Equipment and Materials To begin making photographs you will need film, camera, and a light meter, either the one built into your camera or a separate meter.

Film Photographic film is a material that is sensitive to light. When a pattern of light falls on film, an image is produced. Chemical processing makes this image vis- ible and useful for producing photographs. Any of the many types of film available, black and white or color, may be used for getting started. If you plan on See chapter 2 for complete film information. processing your own film, black and white is simpler to process. On the film box you will see a number labeled ISO. The higher this number is, the more sensitive the film is to light. A good starting film is one with an ISO See pages 16 and 33 for more on film between 100/21° and 400/27°. Several black-and-white films are available in sensitivity. this range: ISO 100/21° Kodak T-Max 100, Agfapan 100 Professional, Ilford Delta 100 ISO 125/22° Kodak Plus-X, Ilford FP4 Ilford XP2 Super and Kodak Black and White ISO 400/27° Kodak Tri-X, Kodak T-Max 400, Agfapan 400 Professional, 400 are black-and-white films designed to be Ilford HP5, Ilford Delta 400, Ilford XP2 Super, Kodak processed in color print film developer (C-41). Black and White 400

Color films for prints in this range are offered by Kodak, Konica, Agfa, and For a more complete listing of films, see Fuji, all available in ISO 100, 200, and 400. appendix G.

Camera A camera is basically a lighttight box that holds the film and has a lens that gathers light from the subject, forming an image of the subject on the film. Many different types, brands, and models of cameras are available. For the

3 CHAPTER 1

See chapter 4 for information on camera purpose of discussing operation of the camera, we will use a basic 35mm cam- types. era, shown on page 5. This is a manual camera, meaning that you have complete control over all the settings. Other cameras may control some settings automatically. For high-quality images the film must receive the proper amount of light, called the correct exposure. Two controls on the camera alter film exposure: the aperture and the shutter speed.

Aperture The aperture is a variable-size opening in the lens, much like the iris in the eye. It is adjusted with the aperture ring. The numbers on the ring are an indication of the size of the opening and are called f-stop numbers. A standard series of f-stop numbers has been established:

Aperture Control Ring Set at f/8. 1.4 2 2.8 4 5.68111622 More Exposure ←→Less Exposure

Contrary to what you might expect, larger f-stop numbers indicate smaller For more on aperture see pages 30 and 81. apertures, which admit less light. Setting the aperture at f/8 will give less exposure than setting it at f/4.

For more on shutters see pages 29 and Shutter Speed The shutter shields the film from the image formed by the 59–63. lens until you are ready to take a photograph. When the shutter release (see “Locating Camera Parts,” page 5) is depressed, the shutter opens for the amount of time indicated on the shutter speed control dial, which is marked with a set of standard shutter speeds in seconds:

1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 1/1000 More Exposure (Slower Speeds) ←→Less Exposure (Faster Speeds)

On the shutter speed dial these are indicated as whole numbers, but the actual shutter speeds are fractions of a second. The longer shutter speeds give more exposure to the film: 1/30 second will give more exposure than 1/125 second. Some cameras may have longer or shorter shutter speeds in addition to the ones given on this scale. Shutter Speed Dial Set for 1/125 Second. Light Meter A reflective-type photographic light meter measures the amount of light coming from a subject and gives settings for the aperture and shutter speed See pages 33–50 for complete information on to insure proper film exposure. Most small cameras made today have a light light meter types and their uses. meter built into them. Separate light meters in their own housings—hand- held light meters—are also available. A typical hand-held light meter is shown on page 9.

A Procedure for Taking Photographs The following procedure explains how to make photographs with a manual camera. All cameras utilize the same controls, but the location and operation of those controls will vary, especially on cameras with automatic controls. If your camera is not like the one discussed, refer to your operator’s manual to see how the controls on your camera correspond to the controls shown here.

4 GETTING STARTED

Chapters 3 and 4 also help explain the operation of different types of light meters and cameras. If your camera can be set to completely manual operation, follow the procedures given here. Refer to the illustration below to locate controls.

Locating Camera Parts

Vivitar V4000s 35mm Camera.

5 CHAPTER 1

Loading the Film into the Camera

A. Pull up on the back cover release—rewind B. Leave the knob pulled up and insert the film C. Push the back cover release—rewind knob knob until the camera back pops open. cassette into the camera. The end with the all the way in, rotating it slightly if necessary. spindle projecting should be toward the Insert the end of the narrow film leader firmly bottom of the camera. Do not expose the film into one of the slots on the take-up spool. cassette to direct sunlight.

D. Operate the film-advance lever until the film E. Close the camera back and press gently is securely wrapped around the take-up spool until it latches. Repeatedly press the shutter and both edges of the film are engaged with release and operate the film-advance lever the sprockets. If the film-advance lever will not until the frame counter reads 1. move at any time during this procedure, press the shutter release and continue.

Developing Ideas for Photographs

Most photographs are taken as a record of people, places, things, or events. Many other reasons for making photographs exist, and some of these are discussed in chapters 9 and 10. For now, photograph anything that interests you.

6 GETTING STARTED

Framing and Composing Your Photograph

A. When you take a photograph, only part of B. If you have one central subject, move what you see of the subject with your eyes will backward or forward until you have it framed be included within the borders—the “frame”— as you want it. Make sure that other objects of the photograph. To see what you are going appearing in the viewfinder do not distract to get in your photograph, look through the from the main subject. Unattractive viewfinder of the camera. backgrounds or strong shapes or patterns may C. Most cameras take a rectangular picture, draw attention from the subject. Move the so you can also turn the camera on end to get subject to a better place if possible, or change a different framing. This view shows the subject your position for a different point of view. closer up with vertical framing.

Evaluating the Light on Your Subject

Flex the book and look for red and orange edge tabs for information throughout the book on composing and lighting the subject. A complete guide to the color edge tabs can be found inside the front cover.

A. Start thinking about how the light falls on B. The easiest way to control the light on your your subject, the quality of the light, the subject is to simply move the subject so that the direction the light comes from, and the resulting light strikes it in a more desirable way. Other pattern of light and shade on your subject. ways of controlling light are discussed in chapters 8 and 14.

7 CHAPTER 1

Metering and Setting Camera Controls: In-Camera Meter

A. Setting the ISO. Set the number before the B. This dial is set for a film labeled ISO slash of the ISO into the film speed window 125/22°. Note that not all numbers are labeled ISO by lifting up on the outer rim of marked on the scale. The two dots between the shutter speed ring and rotating it. On some the 100 ISO mark and the 200 ISO mark cameras the film speed window may be correspond to ISO 125 and ISO 160. (See labeled ASA, but the procedures are the same. page 33 for a list of ISO numbers.) Some cameras automatically set the ISO if DX coding is indicated in the film labeling.

C. Taking the Meter Reading. Point the D. Setting the Camera Controls. Keeping the camera just as you will when you take the camera pointed at the subject, change the photograph. In this view through the shutter speed or the aperture settings or both viewfinder, the needle on the right indicates the until the needle is centered between the and amount of light coming from the subject, and it signs. You will discover that several shutter will rise with increasing light and fall with speed and f-stop pairs will center the needle. decreasing light. The meter needle also moves All of these pairs give the same exposure to the as the aperture ring and the shutter speed dial film. are changed.

E. Choosing Camera Settings. The controls are now set for a shutter speed and f-stop pair of f/8 at 1/125 second. Reasons for choosing one pair over another are discussed in later chapters. For now stay with shutter speeds of 1/60 second or faster—for example, 1/125, 1/250, and so on—to reduce the possibility of image blurring due to camera movement. NOTE: You can set the aperture ring between f-stops to make the meter balance, but the shutter operates only at the marked speeds.

8 GETTING STARTED

Metering and Setting Camera Controls: Hand-Held Reflected-Light Meter

Flex the book and look for yellow and green edge tabs for information throughout the book on measuring and controlling exposure.

A. Setting the ISO. Set the number before the B. Taking the Meter Reading. Slide the white slash of the ISO into the window labeled ASA plastic incident dome to one side so that the C. Setting the Calculator. The needle will by rotating the inner dial of the meter calculator. light receptor is not covered. Holding the meter move when the metering switch is pressed. Note that ASA has been superceded by ISO, at the camera position, point the light receptor While keeping the meter button depressed and but many meters are still marked ASA. end of the meter in the same direction the the meter pointed at the subject, move the Procedures are the same in either case. This dial camera will be pointing when the photograph outer ring of the calculator dial as shown and is set for a film labeled ISO 125/22°. Note is taken and push the metering switch to you will see the needle moving with the dial. that not all numbers are marked on the scale. activate the meter. A common tendency is to Adjust the ring until the meter needle is The two dots between the 100 ISO mark and tip the meter up to read the dial, in which case centered on zero. (Other types of light meters the 200 ISO mark correspond to ISO 125 and you are no longer metering the subject. are discussed in chapter 3.) ISO 160. (See page 33 for a list of ISO numbers.) continued

9 CHAPTER 1

D. Choosing Camera Settings. Once the E. If the shutter speeds and f-stops do not calculator dial has been set, you may choose match up perfectly, choose a shutter speed any pair of shutter speed and f-stop that are and then set the aperture at the value indicated matched on the calculator dial. Here f/11 is between the two f-stops. In this case, if the matched with 1/250 second. Set f/11 on the shutter speed is set at 1/250 second, then the aperture scale of the camera and 1/250 f-stop should be set between f/8 and f/11. second on the shutter speed dial. You could NOTE: You can set the aperture between f- also set the camera for f/16 at 1/125 stops, but the shutter operates only at the second or f/8 at 1/500 second or any other marked speeds. matching pair. The result in terms of the exposure will be the same. Choose a shutter speed of 1/60 second or faster to avoid image blur from camera movement.

Focusing the Camera

A. In the viewfinder, parts of your subject look B. The distance at which the subject is in focus C. The focus ring has a distance scale on it sharp and clear, while other parts look blurred can be changed by turning the focus ring. You with a pointer, to tell you what distance will be or fuzzy. This effect depends on the distance of will be able to see the focus change if you in focus. Most cameras give this distance in the objects from the camera. The part of the watch through the viewfinder. Turn the focus both feet and meters, so be sure to read the subject that is sharp and clear is said to be in ring until the part of the subject you think is correct scale. This camera is focused on 12 focus. Here the background is in focus and the most important looks sharp and clear in the feet—a little less than 4 meters. people are not. viewfinder. Now the people are in focus and the background is not. (See chapter 4 for focusing methods on other camera types.)

10 GETTING STARTED

Exposing the Photograph

Check the focus and the framing of the subject. When you feel the moment is right, gently Flex the book and look for blue edge tabs for squeeze down on the shutter release to make information throughout the book on controlling the exposure on the film. To avoid blurring the the appearance of the image on your film by image, steady the camera by holding your focus, filters, and other techniques. arms against your body and the camera against your face. After taking the photo, advance the film to the next frame with the film- advance lever.

Rewinding the Film and Removing It from the Camera

A. The number of exposures available on each B. Turn the camera over and press the rewind C. Flip open the small crank on the back cover roll of film is listed on its box. The film counter release button on the bottom. If it does not stay release–rewind knob. indicates the number of exposures you have in, hold it in with one finger while you perform ■ CAUTION Do not pull up on the back made. After you have taken the last frame on a the next steps. cover release–rewind knob. roll, you will be unable to advance the film. Slowly wind in the direction of the arrow until Do not force the film-advance lever. you feel the film release from the take-up ■ CAUTION Do not open the back of the spindle. If you listen carefully you can also camera until the film has been rewound. hear the end of the film as it releases and winds into the cassette.

D. Pull up on the back cover release–rewind knob until the back pops open and remove the film cassette from the camera. Protect the film cassette from direct sunlight, heat, and moisture until you have it processed.

11 CHAPTER 1

Processing and Printing the Exposed Film You can take your exposed film to a commercial photo finisher for processing and printing, or you can process and print the film yourself. If you plan to do your own processing and printing with black-and-white film, the procedures are given in detail in chapters 5 and 6. If you take the film to a photo finisher, it is more convenient to work with color film, since black-and-white processing and printing services are difficult to find.

Evaluating Your First Results If you have been careful in following directions, your first roll of film should give you good results. Look for technical quality in the prints: Are they sharp and clear? Do the tones or colors look as you expected? Now look for aesthetic qualities of each photograph: Is the subject framed in a way you like? Do ex- traneous distracting details appear in the print? Are the expressions of people in the photograph interesting or attractive? Do you like the way light illumi- nates the subject? Have you recorded an interesting moment of time? What kind of feelings or ideas do you get from the photograph? You will probably also like to find out what other people think of your images. The remaining chapters in this text will help guide you through the process of learning to make more interesting and exciting photographs.