An Ecological Survey and Assessment of Median Trees and Shrubs As an Urban Biodiversity Component in Gaza City, Palestine

الجامعة اإلسالمية– غزة The Islamic University–Gaza Research and Postgraduate Affairs شئون البحث العممي والدراسات العميا Faculty of Science كمية العموم Master of Biological Science (Botany & Mycology) ماجستير العموم الحياتية- نبات وفطريات

An Ecological Survey and Assessment of Median Trees and Shrubs as an Urban Biodiversity Component in Gaza City, Palestine

مسح و تقييم بيئي ألشجار و شجيرات جزر الشوارع كعنصر تنوع حيوي حضري في مدينة غزة، فمسطين

Ayat Abdel Hameed A. Abbas Bachelorus of Education Science

Supervised by Abdel Fattah N. Abd Rabou Associate Professor of Environmental Sciences

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Biological Science (Botany &Mycology)

November \ 2016

Abstract

Median trees and shrubs are a significant component of a country‟s streets. They provide a range of psychological, social, aesthetic and economic values. No previous studies dealing with the identification and assessment of median trees and shrubs were carried out in Gaza Strip. Hence, the current study is the first of its kind in Gaza Strip; The management and conservation of processese median trees and shrubs in Gaza City are weak and the ecological awareness of local people towards median trees and shrubs seems to be weak. It aims to identify the median trees and shrubs in selected streets in Gaza city through local ecological survey. The public awareness was investigated as well through questionnaire application on 180 people living proximate to the targeted streets. All data were statistically analyzed using Excel and SPSS computer programs. The results showed that a total number of 4060 trees and shrubs belonging to 45 species, 25 families and 15 orders were identified and recorded in Al Jalaa, Jamal Abdel Naser, Awn Shawa (Street 8), Al Shuhada and Al Aqsa Street in Gaza City of the current study. The Rosales was the biggest order and comprised 16% of the surveyed trees and shrubs. Moraceae was the biggest family and comprised 13% of the recorded species. Angiosperms represented 95.56% of the recoded trees and shrubs. The majority of species (80.43%) are exotic, while the rest (17.39%) are native. Fruit trees and shrubs represented 15.56% in the sense that they can provide food for humans. The Oleander (Nerium oleander) was the most common species in the targeted streets and constituted 38.23% of the occurrence of the recorded species. It was followed by the River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), California Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera), Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), Hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa) and Weeping Fig (Ficus nitida).

The results concerning questionnaire application showed that 96.7% of the interviewed population believed on the importance of median trees and shrubs for humans and environment. 86.7% of them ensured the role of median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity, especially birds. About two-thirds (68.9%) believed on the threat facing median trees and shrubs. Destruction by locals, overgrazing by livestock, solid waste disposal, and poor management were obvious examples. Finally, the conduction of environmental awareness campaigns to local people is recommended to ensure the sustainability of these urban biodiversity elements in Gaza city.

الممخص

تعتبر أشجار وشجٌرات جزر الشوارع عنصر هام فً شوارع المدٌنة. إنها توفر مدى من القٌم النفسٌة واالجتماعٌة والجمالٌة واالقتصادٌة. لم تجر أي دراسات سابقة تتعامل مع تصنٌف وتقٌٌم األشجار والشجٌرات الوسطٌة فً قطاع غزة. وبالتالً، فإن الدراسة الحالٌة هً األولى من نوعها فً قطاع غزة ؛ عملٌة اإلدارة وصون أشجار وشجٌرات الجزر فً مدٌنة غزة ضعٌفة؛ والوعً البٌئً للسكان المحلٌٌن اتجاه أشجار وشجٌرات الجزر ضعٌفة. وتهدف الدراسة إلى تصنٌف أشجار وشجٌرات جزر شارع الجالء و جمال عبد الناصر )الثالثٌنً( و عون الشوا )شارع 8( و الشهداء وشارع األقصى )الصناعة( فً مدٌنة غزة خالل المسح البٌئً المحلً. الوعً العام قد تحقق كذلك من خالل تطبٌق استبٌان على 180 شخص ٌعٌشون على مقربة من الشوارع المستهدفة. وقد تم تحلٌل جمٌع البٌانات إحصائٌا باستخدام برامج الكمبٌوتر Excel و .SPSS

وأظهرت النتائج أن إجمالً عدد األشجار والشجٌرات 4060 والتً تنتمً إلى 45 نوعا، 25 عائلة و 15 رتبة قد تم تصنٌفها وتسجٌلها فً الشوارع الخمسة المستهدفة فً مدٌنة غزة من الدراسة الحالٌة. تعتبر رتبة الوردٌات )Rosales( هً أكبر الرتب وقد حازت على نسبة %16 من األشجار والشجٌرات المسجلة. كذلك تعتبر عائلة التوتٌات )Moraceae( هً أكبر عائلة وحازت على نسبة %13 من ااألشجار والشجٌرات المسجلة. تمثل كاسٌات البذور نسبة %95.56 من األشجار والشجٌرات المسجلة. الغالبٌة العظمى من األنواع هً دخٌلة وبلغت نسبتها (%80.43) بٌنما البقٌة أهلٌة/ بلدٌة وبلغت نسبتها (%17.39). مثلث األشجار والشجٌرات المثمرة المهمة كغذاء لإلنسان %15.56. تعتبر الدفلى (Nerium oleander) أكثر األنواع شٌوعا فً الشوارع المستهدفة و ٌشكل تواجدها حوالً 38.23% من األشجار والشجٌرات المسجلة. أعقب ذلك الكٌنٌا أو الكافور (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)، ثم الواشنطونٌا )Washingtonia filifera( وثم نخٌل البلح (Phoenix dactylifera) ثم الدٌدونٌا (Dodonaea viscosa) ثم الفٌكس نتدا (Ficus nitida) من حٌث شٌوعها.

أظهرت النتائج المتعلقة بتطبٌق االستبٌان أن %96.7 من السكان الذٌن تم مقابلتهم ٌعتقدون بأهمٌة أشجار وشجٌرات جزر الشوارع لإلنسان والبٌئة. أكد %86.7 منهم على دور أشجار وشجٌرات جزر الشوارع فً جذب التنوع البٌولوجً الحٌوانً، وخاصة الطٌور. ٌعتقد ثلثا عدد الدراسة )%68.9.5( بوجود تهدٌدات تواجه أشجار وشجٌرات جزر الشوارع. فالعبث من قبل السكان المحلٌٌن، والرعً الجائر من قبل المواشً، والتخلص من النفاٌات الصلبة، وسوء اإلدارة أمثلة واضحة على تلك التهدٌدات. أخٌرا، نوصً بعقد حمالت توعٌة بٌئٌة للسكان المحلٌٌن لضمان استدامة عناصر التنوع الحٌوي فً المناطق الحضرٌة فً مدٌنة غزة.

III

ﭧﭐﭨﭐﱡﭐ ﱶ ﱷ ﱸ ﱠ ]الرحمن: 6[

Dedication

I present this work to those who do not scrimp on me at any moment or condition to provide the best circumstances for my success .... to my heart and soul

♥♥♥♥♥ my parents.

To my sisters and brothers ♥♥♥♥♥ the rose of my life.

To that man who give me the love and Support ♥♥♥♥♥ to my husband Abdullah Abu Shaweesh.

To that great spirits who go up to the sky, sacrifice for the holiness of this land ♥♥♥♥♥ to our martyrs mercy upon them.

To all people who are the explorers of the knowledge and science ♥♥♥♥♥ to my professors and teachers.

V Acknowledgments

First of all thanks and appreciation, love and gratitude to my creator Allah for bounty and support granted to me during my study.

I express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Dr. Abdel Fattah N. Abd Rabou, Associate Professor of Environmental Sciences, The Islamic University of Gaza for his planning and initating this research and for his continuous support, encouragement and kind supervision that leads to the emergence of this work in its current form.

Thanks go to the staff of Biology Department, Islamic University for their continuous help, support, and encouragemen to achieve this research .

Special thanks also go to Municipality of Gaza; Specially Eng. Montaser Shehada and to Mr. Ayman Drdona and nurseries owners for encouragement and support during the survey in the streets of Gaza City and to everyone who has a hand in this work.

VI Table of Contents Declaration ...... I Abstract ...... II Abstract in Arabic language ...... III Dedication ...... V Acknowledgments ...... VI Table of Contents ...... VII List of Tables ...... IX List of Figures ...... X List of Appendixes ...... XIV Chapter i introduction ...... 1 1.1 Overview ...... 2 1.2 Objectives ...... 4 1.3 Problems ...... 4 1.4 Significance ...... 4 Chapter II Literature Review ...... 6 2.1 Definition of Biodiversity and Street Trees ...... 7 2.2 Benefits of Street Trees and Shrubs ...... 7 2.2.1 Environmental Benefits: ...... 8 2.2.2 Sicioeconomic ...... 9 2.3 Balance Between Native and Exotic Street Tree Selection: ...... 11 2.4 Irrigation: ...... 11 2.5 Structural Soils: ...... 12 2.6 Tree Selection Depending on the Tolerance of the Urban Environment and other Criteria ...... 13 2.7 Pest Control and Pruning of Street Trees ...... 15 2.8 Street Trees Problems of Urban Environment ...... 16 2.9 Previous Studies ...... 16 Chapter III Methodology ...... 23 3.1 Materials and Methods ...... 24 3.1.1 Historic Palestine ...... 24 3.1.2 Study Area ...... 25 3.1.3 The Targeted Streets in the Gaza City ...... 25 3.1.4 Field Survey and Identification Tools ...... 27 3.1.5 Questionnaire Design and Application ...... 27 3.1.6 Photography ...... 28

VII 3.1.7 Data Analysis ...... 28 Chapter IV Results ...... 29 4.1 Species Recorded ...... 30 4.2 Gymnosperms vs. Angiosperms ...... 30 4.3 Native vs. Exotic Species ...... 31 4.4 Fruit vs. Non-fruit Species ...... 36 4.5 Frequency of the Recorded Species ...... 37 4.6 Tree and Shrub Species and their Counts per Individual Street ...... 41 4.7 Notes on Median Trees and Shrubs ...... 48 8.4 Qur'anic Species ...... 72 4.9 Questionnaire Results ...... 75 4.9.1 Personal profile of the research sample ...... 75 4.9.2 Knowledge aspects of median trees and shrubs of Gaza city streets: ..... 77 4.9.3 Threats facing the median trees and shrubs ...... 85 4.9.4 The rule of median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements ...... 93 4.9.5 Management and conservation of median trees and shrubs ...... 96 Chapter V Discussion ...... 100 Species Recorded ...... 101 Questionnaire Survey ...... 105 Chapter VI Conclusion and Recommendation ...... 111 6.1 Conclusions ...... 112 6.2 Recommendations ...... 113 References ...... 114 Appendixes ...... 126

VIII List of Tables

Table (4.1):‎ Street tree and shrub species recorded in the Gaza city ...... 32

Table (4.2):‎ Numbers and percentages of the recorded species of street trees and shrubs in the Gaza city ...... 37

Table (4.3):‎ Street trees and shrubs mentioned in the Holy Qur'an...... 72

IX List of Figures

Figure (1.1):‎ Street median in Gaza City ...... 3

Figure (3.1):‎ Map of Gaza Strip ...... 25

Figure (3.2):‎ Map of the targeted streets in Gaza City ...... 26

Figure (4.1):‎ Orders of street trees and shrubs recorded in the current study...... 34

Figure (4.2):‎ Families of street trees and shrubs recorded in the current study [Others: Cyperaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Tamaricaceae, Sapindaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, Rhamnaceae, Bignoniaceae, Verbenaceae, Myoporaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Nyctaginaceae, and Pittosporaceae] ...... 35

Figure (4.3):‎ Gymnosperm vs. Angiosperms (Monocot. and Dicot.) of trees and shrubs of Gaza city streets ...... 35

Figure (4.4):‎ Native vs. Exotic trees and shrubs in Gaza city streets ...... 36

Figure (4.5):‎ Fruit vs. non-fruit trees and shrubs in Gaza city streets ...... 36

Figure (4.6):‎ Numbers and percentages of the recorded species of street trees and shrubs in the Gaza city...... 40

Figure (4.7):‎ Tree and shrub species and their counts per individual street ...... 41

Figure (4.8):‎ Median trees and shrubs in Al-Jalaa Street ...... 43

Figure (4.9):‎ Median trees and shrubs in Jamal Abdel Naser Street ...... 44

Figure (4.10):‎ Median trees and shrubs in Al-Shuhada Street ...... 45

Figure (4.11):‎ Median trees and shrubs in Al-Aqsa Street ...... 46

Figure (4.12):‎ Median trees and shrubs in Street- 8 ...... 47

Figure (4.13):‎ Order of Pinales, A: Evergreen Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), B: Monterey Cypress (Cupressusmacrocarpa) ...... 49

Figure (4.14):‎ Order of Arecales, A: Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), B: California Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera) ...... 50

Figure (4.15):‎ Order of Poales, Umbrella Papyrus (Cyperus alternifolius) ...... 51

X Figure (4.16):‎ Order of Asparagales, A: Spanish Dagger (Yucca gloriosa), B: Mother-in-Law's Tongue (Sansevieria guinensis), C: Aloe (Aloe succotrina) ...... 52

Figure (4.17):‎ Order of Gentianales, A: Oleander (Nerium oleander), B: Yellow Oleander (Cascabela thevetia), C: Large Num – Num (Carissa bispinosa) and D: Apple of Sodom (Calotropis procera) ...... 54

Figure (4.18):‎ Order of Fabales, A: Acacia (Acacia cyanophylla), B: Royal Poinciana (Ponciana regia), C: Lebbeck (Albizia lebbeck), D: Rosewood ( (Tipuana tipu and E: Weeping Wattle (Peltophorum africanum ) ...... 57

Figure (4.19):‎ Order of Violales, F: Nile Tamarisk (Tamarix nilotica) ...... 58

Figure (4.20):‎ Order of Malvales, A: Flame Tree (Brachychiton acerifolius), B: Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa- sinensis), C: Sea Hibiscus (Hibiscus tilliaceus), D: Sleeping Hibiscus (Malvaviscus arboreus(, E: Lagunaria ( Lagunaria patersonii)...... 60

Figure (4.21):‎ Order of Myrtales, A: Callistemon (Callistemon citrinus), B: River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) ...... 61

Figure (4.22):‎ Order of Sapindales, A: Hopbush (Dodonaea viscose), B: Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), C: White Cedar (Melia azedarach) 63

Figure (4.23):‎ Order of Rosales A: Weeping Fig (Ficus nitida), B: Rubber Fig (Ficus elastic), C: Benjamin Fig 'Starlight' (Ficus benjamina starlight), D: Fig Tree (Ficus carica), E: Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus), F: Red Mulberry (Morus rubaram) and G: Christ's Thorn Jujube (Zizyphus spina-christi) ...... 66

Figure (4.24):‎ Order of Lamiales; A: Jacarand (Jacaranda mimosifolia), B: Wild Olive (Olea oleaster), C: Common Olive (Olea europaea), D: Golden Dewdrop (Duranta erecta), E: Boobialla ( (Myoporum serratum, F: Butterfly Bush (Buddleja americana) ...... 69

Figure (4.25):‎ Order of Malpighiales, Pencil Tree (Euphorbia tirucalli) ...... 70

Figure (4.26):‎ Order of Caryophyllales, Veranera (Bougainvillea spectabilis) ...... 71

Figure (4.27):‎ Order of Apiales, C: Japanese Pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira) .... 72

Figure (4.28):‎ the characteristics of the research sample (N=180) along the five streets in the Gaza city: A (Sex); B (Age frequency); C (Educational level); D (Marital status) and E (Profession) ...... 76

XI Figure (4.29):‎ The nearest main street to respondents' houses ...... 77

Figure (4.30):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the importance of trees and shrubs for human ...... 78

Figure (4.31):‎ Some people utilize the shade of the trees for sitting and getting rest ...... 79

Figure (4.32):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the importance of trees and shrubs for environment...... 80

Figure (4.33):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the fruit median trees and shrubs ...... 80

Figure (4.34):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the prefer planting trees and shrubs in median streets ...... 81

Figure (4.35):‎ The fruits of the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) may increase the level of waste in street medians if not harvested in a proper way ...... 82

Figure (4.36):‎ The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is a fruit tree grown in many Gaza streets ...... 82

Figure (4.37):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the economic importance of the median trees and shrubs ...... 83

Figure (4.38):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the medical median trees and shrubs ...... 84

Figure (4.39):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the damage caused by median trees and shrubs on the street infrastructure...... 86

Figure (4.40):‎ Trees clog sewage lines as a result of secondary roots growth ...... 86

Figure (4.41):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the role of median trees and shrubs in causing traffic accidents ...... 87

Figure (4.42):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on risks threatening median street trees and shrubs ...... 88

Figure (4.43):‎ Cutting off of water pipes and solid waste disposal threaten median trees and shrubs ...... 88

Figure (4.44):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on notice the solid waste beside the median trees and shrubs ...... 90

Figure (4.45):‎ Garbage containers are put in street medians ...... 90

XII Figure (4.46):‎ Droppings of animals pollute the vicinity of median trees and shrubs ...... 91

Figure (4.47‎ ): The accumulation of leaves and other waste items distort the urban view ...... 91

Figure (4.48):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) concerning the pests attacking median trees and shrubs ...... 92

Figure (4.49):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the aggression made towards median trees and shrubs ...... 93

Figure (4.50):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on attracting animal biodiversity elements of median street trees and shrubs ...... 94

Figure (4.51):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on benefits of organism ...... 95

Figure (4.52):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on risks of organisms ...... 96

Figure (4.53)‎ : Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the municipal make protection and pruning for median trees and shrubs...... 97

Figure (4.54):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on support using treated sewage in irrigating median trees and shrubs ...... 98

Figure (4.55):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the most common ways in irrigating median trees and shrubs ...... 98

Figure (4.56):‎ Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the fertilizers used for supporting of planting median trees and shrubs ...... 99

XIII List of Appendixes

Appendix 1: Questionaire ...... 127

Appendix 2: Facilitate the task ...... 134

Appendix 3: Questionaire Arbitration ...... 135

Appendix 4: Questionaire Analysis ...... 140

XIV

1 Chapter I Introduction

Chapter I Inoduction

1.1 Overview

Street trees and shrubs have been an integral part of the urban landscape. They occur commonly as individuals but also, of course, in lines or small groups (Dandy, 2010). Street tree planting is a very significant component in the appearance of streets and is a critical factor in the overall impression one has of the public domain. Wooded or tree-lined streets provide much-welcomed aesthetic beauty and visual relief in city settings, and supply a range of psychological, social and economic benefits (Wolf, 2005). Wooded streets constitute the most accessible green spaces for the vast majority of low to medium income city dwellers who lack access to other green spaces in residential and commercial areas, thus playing an extremely significant and irreplaceable role in urban lives (Heynen et al., 2006).

Selecting appropriate trees that are remain healthy, safe, and functional is particularly important. Species that grow too tall or broad should not be planted under power lines or near sidewalks where branches will cause conflicts, However, large maturing trees should always be advocated for unconfined spaces because they most effectively produce canopy cover and provide the greatest long-term return on planting investment (Virginia Tech. Department of Forest Resources & Environmental Conservation, 2010). There is still an urgent need to increase the number of professional landscape architects, arborist, landscape designers, and town planners. This will foster a greater appreciation of green elements and promote research, technology and the professional practice of tree planting and landscaping as a whole (Sreetheran et al., 2011).

Trees and shrubs growing in streets and park strips are exposed to a barrage of hazards including road salt, heat radiation from surrounding surfaces, trunk damage from mowing equipment and automobiles, vandalism, heavy pruning for traffic and power lines and limited crown and root areas. Although most of the obstacles that plague street trees are caused by the site itself, proper species selection can assuage

2 some of these hurdles and increase the potential for survival (McPherson and Peper, 1995). The street median is a raised surface landscape with softscape or hardscape. It is located in the roadway between two opposing directions of travel as shown as in (Figure 1.1). While medians appear to be rather unremarkable street features, they are an important asset for aesthetic, environmental, and mobility purposes (Parks et. al., 2013).

Figure (‎1.1): Street median in Gaza City

The perceptions and attitudes of urban residents regarding street trees and vegetation in their communities have been researched by using visual simulation methods and questionnaires asking residents about street trees in front of their homes. These studies have consistently shown that urban residents have a very positive view of trees, and that the annoyances of trees are outweighed by the benefits they provide (Schroeder et al., 2006).

In the Occupied Palestine, Shashua-Bar et al. (2010), the studied the importance of urban trees in alleviating the heat island effect in a hot and humid summer. In the Gaza Strip, work on flora and other vegetation elements seems to be limited (Bolous, 1959; Madi 2001 and 2005; Madi et al., 2002; Ali-Shtayeh and Jamous, 2000, 2002, 2006; Abd Rabou et al., 2008; Abou Auda et al., 2009; Abou Auda, 2010, 2011, 2012). For example, Abd Rabou et al. (2008) studied the common flora of Wadi Gaza ecosystem in the middle of the Gaza Strip. They provided notes on the possible

3 uses of floristic species by the Palestinian community. Recently, El-Hissi (2012) studied the effect of tree shade on the thermal performance of residential buildings in the Gaza Strip. According to her study, the best tree configurations (trees geometries, crown size, locations near building, and numbers) have been targeted to achieve thermal comfort in both summer and winter seasons.

No previous studies regarding the survey, diversity and assessment of median trees and shrubs were known to be carried out in the Gaza Strip. Hence, the current study can be considered the first of its kind locally.

1.2 Objectives

Main Objective: The current study aims at surveying and assessing of median trees and shrubs as an urban biodiversity component in Gaza City, Palestine.

Specific Objective: a) To identify the various species of median trees and shrubs in five targeted streets in Gaza City. b) To investigate the public awareness towards median trees and shrubs through meetings, discussions and questionnaire application.

1.3 Problems

a) There are no previous studies dealing with urban plant diversity in the Gaza Strip. b) The management and conservation of processese median trees and shrubs in Gaza City are weak. c) The ecological awareness of local people towards median trees and shrubs seems to be weak.

1.4 Significance

The significance of the current study comes from the fact that it will be the first attempt of its kind in the Gaza Strip. It will identify and give useful information

4 about the status of street plants in the Gaza city. Moreover, the results of the current study will be of utmost priority to both officials and people in terms of knowledge, management, uses, protection and possible future research.

2 Chapter II Literature Review Chapter II Literature Review

2.1 Definition of Biodiversity

Street and park trees and shrubs are a vital component of urban biodiversity. Generally the term biodiversity applies to plants and animals but it also applies to insects, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity. There are three levels of biodiversity: Genetic diversity – the variety of genetic information contained in individual plants, animals and microorganisms; species diversity – the variety of species, and ecosystem diversity – the variety of habitats, ecological communities and ecological processes (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010).

2.2 Street Trees Street tree is a tree located next to or within a public road. More precisely, a street tree is a tree located on land forming or adjacent to a „highway‟ which affects, in some way, those using that highway (Dandy, 2010). As far as median trees and shrubs are concerned, they are known to provide such vial benefits. They beautify the street with attractive landscaping, establish a sense of and/or serve as a gateway to a community, absorb storm water and decrease the burden on existing storm drainage, improve air quality, calm traffic speeds by creating a narrower-feeling street, and provide a mid-block refuge for pedestrians crossing streets (Parks et. al., 2013).

2.3 Benefits of Street Trees and Shrubs

Trees and shrubs play an important role in the functioning of cities and other urban areas and provide a series of ecological, environmental, economical, aesthetical, cultural, psychological, medical and social benefits. In long term, they often create a very real „sense of place‟ and enhance the public domain. Trees are living things that work all day, every day, for all of us to improve our environment and quality of life. The list of benefits provided by street trees and shrubs is long and diverse as compiled from various literature and publications.

7 2.3.1 Environmental Benefits:

Trees and shrubs have significance importance to the environment that act as natural pollution filters that removing atmospheric pollutants, reducing heat island effect and increasing biodiversity. 1. Improved air quality: Urban vegetation, particularly trees and shrubs, helps keep the air clean by removing atmospheric pollutants – mainly generated by traffic and industry – such as ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and particulate matter. Trees and shrubs act as natural pollution filters that produce oxygen, an element essential to life on Earth, and also absorb (carbon

dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide, ozone and nitrogen oxide) from the atmosphere through the stomata in the leaf surface. As the years go by, trees store large

amounts of CO2 in their tissues and in this way reduce greenhouse gases involved in global warming by a significant amount. They also capture and help remove particulate matter and dust from the air (McPherson et. al., 2007; Nagendra and Gopal, 2010; Boroondara City Council, 2010; Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; Ulrich, 2011; Woollahara, 2014). 2. Improving water and soil quality and regulation of the water cycle in the city: Trees and other plants help remediate soils at landfills and other contaminated sites by absorbing, transforming, and containing a number of contaminants. Trees divert captured rainwater into the soil, where bacteria and other microorganisms filter out impurities. This reduces urban runoff and the amount of sediment, pollutants, and organic matter that reach streams (Alliance for community tree, 2011). Each part of a tree, and the permeable soil below it, retains significant amounts of rainwater. The roots also fix the soil and thus prevent erosion. The leaves, trunks and roots of trees retain pollutants and therefore reduce their concentration in waterways (Boroondara City Council, 2010; Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011). 3. Climate control and reducing heat island effect: Vegetation, particularly trees, tempers climatic conditions and modifies the urban microclimate, mainly by cooling through shade and transpiration. In addition, the reflection of sunlight by the leaves lowers the temperature in pedestrian areas and the shade protects people from the sun, especially during the hottest months. Selected

8 tree species must be able to a make significant contribution towards providing essential shade, reducing glare and ultra-violet radiation. Trees that have a wide, dense, summer canopy perform this function most effectively. Additionally, the evapo-transpiration of the leaves provides a cooling effect of the air surrounding the trees. Broad leafed species are more effective in this regard due to the larger surface area of the leaves (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; US EPA, 2015). 4. Reduction of noise pollution: Trees, and plants in general, help to attenuate noise pollution in several ways: by absorption, diversion, reflection and refraction of sound, which reduce the reverberation caused by the noise of cars on the facades. They also have the particularity of muffling annoying sounds while making agreeable ones (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; McPherson et. al., 2000, 2001). 5. Increase in biodiversity: The planting of different species of street trees, especially species bearing fruit at different times of the year, increases urban vegetal biodiversity and provides food and shelter for many animals, especially birds (Nagendra and Gopal, 2010; Boroondara City Council, 2010; Alliance for community tree, 2011; Farley, 2013; Moro, et al. 2014).

2.3.2 Sicioeconomic Benefits Trees and shrubs have many cocioeconomic values as follows: 1. Economical Benefits: Trees (especially large ones) help to make the city more beautiful and increase the value of homes. The shade and microclimate generated by street trees reduces the amount of energy consumed by air conditioning in adjacent buildings and, as a direct result, the cost of air conditioning in homes, especially on the lower floors. Also, increasing the attractiveness of businesses and tourism areas; So people typically linger, shop and dine longer in tree-lined streets, shops, apartments and housing in well planted areas usually attract higher rents and sale prices (Maco and McPherson, 2003; McPherson et. al., 2003, 2007; Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; Alliance for community tree, 2011; Boroondara City Council, 2010; Woollahara, 2014).

9 2. Social and Psychological Benefits: Trees contribute to good mental health by improving people‟s quality of life and well-being and establishing links between people and nature. Park users report lower levels of anxiety and sadness after visiting parks. Exercising in natural environments is associated with greater feelings of revitalization and positive engagement, decreases in tension, confusion, anger, depression, and increased energy. Hospital patients, for example, are shown to recover quicker and with fewer complications when in rooms with views of trees. Workers and students are also shown to be more productive when their environments have views to trees; Trees create individual landscapes and contribute shapes, colors and seasonal variability that help define streets and even whole neighborhoods. Moreover, trees are a reminder of the city‟s history (Nagendra and Gopal, 2010; Boroondara City Council, 2010; Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; Woollahara, 2014). 3. Connection to nature and the human senses: Urban street trees provide a canopy, root structure and setting for important insect and bacterial life below the surface; at grade for pets and romantic people to pause for what pets and romantic people pause for; they act as essential lofty environments for song birds, seeds, nuts, squirrels and other urban life. Indeed, street trees so well establish natural and comfortable urban life it is unlikely we will ever see any advertisement for any marketed urban product, including cars, to be featured without street trees making the ultimate dominant, bold visual statement about place (Burden, 2006). 4. Decreasing asthma and obesity: Trees filter airborne pollutants and reduce the conditions that cause asthma and other respiratory problems (Ellaway, et. al., 2005; Alliance for community tree, 2011). 5. Roads and traffic benefits (safety value): Traffic calming and accident reduction that generate significant public costs savings, and boosted pedestrian use of urban arterials, Trees improve driving safety that crash rates across urban arterial and highway sites after landscape improvements were installed and tree shade has been proven to reduce pavement

10 fatigue, cracking rutting, shoving and other distress, saving on repair costs (McPherson et.al., 2005; Alliance for community tree, 2011).

2.4 Balance Between Native and Exotic Street Tree Selection:

There is much debate about the use of locally indigenous species, that are originally grew within the area. Whilst locally indigenous species may be the most appropriate for local environmental conditions, the growing conditions within the urban environment are often now very different, particularly in a street situation. Disturbed soil profiles, compaction, higher nutrient status, altered drainage patterns and paved surfaces are just a few of the problems with which urban trees must contend. When addressing this issue, a more useful division may be to view this point three ways: Locally indigenous natives; natives from other parts of the country and exotics trees being from outside of the country (Moro et al. 2014 and Woollahara, 2014).

Local natives have the advantage of being climatically suited and live in some equilibrium with native pest organisms such as insects and fungi. Use of local natives promotes biodiversity and creation of wildlife corridors, reinforces sense of place, and can be very drought and exposure resistant. Exotics may be almost completely free of native pests and diseases but run the risk of being devastated if other exotic pests are accidentally introduced. An important advantage of exotics in the urban context is that they include many useful deciduous trees which provide greater solar access to the streets through the winter months. Some natives are deciduous but generally in spring or early summer (Moro et al. 2014 and Woollahara, 2014).

2.5 Irrigation:

The method and amount that is applied may vary depending upon soil composition, heat, wind, planted in turf or ground cover, and periods of abnormal rainfall or in poorly drained soils (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; SDOT, 2014 and Wikipedia, 2015). There are many watering methods used for street trees and shrubs as follows: 1. Automated watering system: refers to the operation of the system with no or just a minimum of manual intervention beside the surveillance. Almost every system (drip, sprinkler, surface) can be automated with help of timers, sensors or

11 computers or mechanical appliances. It makes the irrigation process more efficient and workers can concentrate on other important farming tasks. On the other hand, such a system can be expensive and very complex in its design and may needs experts to plan and implement it. 2. Drip loop system: also known as trickle irrigation is an irrigation method that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is done through narrow tubes that deliver water directly to the base of the plant. 3. Hand watering systems: is the simplest and most common irrigation system that is a garden hose or a portable sprinkler that use a nozzle to control the flow. When water stops being absorbed into the ground, move to another location, wait an hour, and then plunge a long screwdriver or space into the ground to check that the soil is moist. 4. Flood watering: is an ancient method of irrigating crops. It was likely the first form of irrigation used by humans as they began cultivating crops and is still one of the most commonly used methods of irrigation used today. Very simply, water is delivered to the field by ditch, pipe, or some other means and simply flows over the ground through the crop. Although flood irrigation is an effective method of irrigation it is certainly not efficient compared with other options. 5. Soaker hose: is a porous garden hose. Water flows through the hose and seeps slowly out through the walls.

2.6 Structural Soils:

Structural soil is basically a mixture of gravel and soil and should meet two requirements; the gravel fraction should provide a skeletal structure that transfers loads from paved surfaces to the subsoil, and the soil fraction in the voids between the stones should provide the possibility of root growth. In addition to opening up soil volumes under paved surfaces for root growth, structural soils were also thought to reduce sidewalk damages caused by shallow root systems because they would enable roots to explore deeper soil layers (Kopinga, 1994, Nicoll and Armstrong, 1998).

12 2.7 Tree Selection Depending on the Tolerance of the Urban Environment and other Criteria

In spite of the fact that trees have a vital contribution to make towards the creation of a healthier physical environment within cities, there are a number of factors which influence the selection of tree species in any given location within cities. Selected tree species must have a high level of tolerance/adaptability of the following: 1. Sustainability: Each tree species offers a series of environmental benefits. Examples are the selection of species for large avenues capable of retaining large quantities of dust and other pollutants produced by traffic, or the choice of shade trees that cool the air in summer, especially in areas with a lot of pedestrians. Increasing the diversity of trees in the city and making sure that the selected species do not exceed 15% of the total number of street trees not only makes for a greater biodiversity of trees but also of associated fauna. And an increase in tree diversity in the city reduces their vulnerability to pests and diseases (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; Sadeghian et al., 2013). 2. Public-friendliness: It is important to choose species that do not cause any inconvenience. Trees that have thorns, cause allergies or break easily are best avoided (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011). 3. Climate: In addition to the prevailing climate, there are particular microclimatic conditions that exist within the urban environment – wind tunnels, constant shade from buildings, radiated heat and glare from concrete and paved surfaces, and humidity (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011; Sadeghian et al., 2013; Woollahara, 2014). 4. Soil: Soils that are highly modified or disturbed, with low nutrient content and water-holding capacity. Paved surfaces and soil compaction also result in low levels of oxygen being available to the tree roots (Sadeghian et al., 2013; Woollahara, 2014). 5. Atmospheric pollution; particularly in areas of high vehicular traffic. In general, deciduous species are considered to be more tolerant than evergreen species (Sadeghian et al., 2013; Woollahara, 2014).

13 6. Tolerance of pests and diseases: This implies that chemical control is kept to minimum. It is also recognized that it is important to have a diversity of tree species to reduce the impact of a particular pest or disease on any one species (Sadeghian et al., 2013; Woollahara, 2014). 7. Wildlife habitat: In areas where there is significant wildlife, selected tree species will help to support that wildlife with regard to habitat, shelter and food source. This function is best performed by local indigenous species. It is recommended to select street trees that create a more diverse landscape, with more variety in shapes, scents, colors and tones of both the leaves and the flowers, which help to attract associated fauna. Indigenous and local species are best planted where they are considered to be most appropriate, for instance, along streets that are identified as wildlife corridors/eco- zones (Woollahara, 2014). 8. Low risk of becoming an environmental weed: Species which pose the danger of becoming environmental weeds are not recommended to be considered (Sadeghian et al., 2013). 9. Aesthetic issues: It is worth mentioning that the ability for trees and shrubs to enhance the visual amenity of a streetscape or area is respected (Boroondara City Council, 2010; Virginia Tech. Department of Forest Resources & Environmental Conservation, 2010; Sadeghian et al., 2013). 10. Tree longevity: The longer a tree is allowed to grow in a certain site, the greater the benefits to the landscape the tree will have (Boroondara City Council, 2010). 11. Availability: Street tree species selection needs to consider their commercial availability in order to provide the desired numbers and size for tree planting programs (Boroondara City Council, 2010; Virginia Tech. Department of Forest Resources & Environmental Conservation, 2010). 12. Functional and spatial issues include the trees ability to be pruned so as to provide required clearances. It also relates to the trees root system and its limited impact on adjacent infrastructure. Certain species have been identified as more problematic than others in causing pavement damage (Boroondara City Council, 2010).

14 13. The surroundings: The available space determines how trees grow. Depending on how close they are to buildings, the width of the street and the pavements, the volume of vehicle and pedestrian traffic and so on, appropriate species are selected in terms of the size of the tree. This cuts down on the need for pruning and lengthens the life of the tree (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011). 14. Seasonal variations: The seasonal changes in trees can be aesthetically pleasing and also help to identify the place where they grow. For this reason, the selection process takes into account flowering time, whether species are deciduous or evergreen, changes in leaf color, textures, bark patterns and colors, and also the smells trees give off (Sadeghian et al., 2013 and Woollahara, 2014).

2.8 Pest Control and Pruning of Street Trees

Trees are living organisms subject to constant pressure, particularly in urban areas. The problems of monocultures, soil compaction, poor drainage and aeration, high soil pH, road salt and limited rooting space are common to numerous sites and can have severe consequences on tree growth (Bassuk et al., 1988 and Nannini et al.1998).

During the different stages of their life cycles, street trees have to deal with numerous attacks, some more serious than others. Their intensity and duration inevitably affects the health of the tree. Trees are sometimes affected by physiological changes (caused by the weather, nutritional deficiencies, poisoning, burns, physical injuries) or may be attacked directly by pests and diseases (viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, mites, etc.) (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011).

It is common to treat pests and diseases affecting urban greenery using chemicals in the same way as crops. However, integrated pest management (IPM), is commonly used worldwide especially in the developed world. It considers not only economic criteria but also ecological and toxicological ones. IPM rejects the principle of

15 eradication of populations and tolerates the presence of insects, mites and other pathogens at a low level, while they do not reach a level (the economic threshold) where there is the threat of financial loss (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011).

Pruning of street trees is usually required to minimize obstructions with other transportation infrastructure (streetlights, traffic signals, signs, etc.) while ensuring the health and natural growth habit of street trees. According to Ajuntament de Barcelona (2011), major pruning means removal of branches two inches in diameter or greater; removal of roots two inches in diameter or greater; or removal of branches constituting more than 15 percent of a tree‟s foliage–bearing area.

2.9 Street Trees Problems of Urban Environment

Although trees present benefits, they may also present problems, costs and risks, particularly if poorly planned, planted or managed. The most common problems including street trees are: cracking and lifting of pavement and walls; clogging of pipes and services; obstruction of views; obstruction of pedestrian and vehicle access and street signage; dropping of leaves and fruit; attraction of animals and birds that may cause mess and irritation; shedding of larger branches and excessive shading or blocking of sunlight. Appropriate maintenance and pruning can often alleviate most concerns, and appropriate repair or redesign of infrastructure can also be undertaken with little impact to the tree and the tree can continue its valuable contribution for many decades (Hauer et al., 1994 and Woollahara, 2014).

2.10 Previous Studies

Studies concerning street trees and plants worldwide are enormous. Many of them are concerned with the attitudes of the different parties toward the plantation, diversity and conservation of these urban biodiversity elements. Some are concerned with wildlife and other environmental interactions. Studies in the United States of America (U.S.A.) are very advanced and numerous. Kalmbach et al. (1979) surveyed the resident social attitudes toward selected characteristics of street tree plantings in five Midwestern cities of Michigan and

16 Illinois. The study indicated that trees are aesthetically desirable in urban settings and that street trees over twenty-five feet tall area esthetically preferable to smaller trees. Gorman (2004) conducted a questionnaire-based study on 676 residents of State College, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. in order to determine whether there was a difference of opinion on the value of street trees among urban residents depending on whether residents had a street tree planted directly in front of their house. McPherson et al. (2005) studied the effects of street tree shade on asphalt concrete pavement performance in Modesto, California, U.S.A. Statistical analyses found that tree shade was partially responsible for reduced pavement fatigue cracking, rutting, shoving, and other distress. Raupp et al. (2006) studied street tree diversity in eastern North America and its potential for tree loss to exotic borers. Introduced pests with broad host ranges may be capable of killing or forcing intervention on large numbers of trees. Merse et al. (2008) studied street trees and urban renewal in Baltimore, U.S.A. They showed that investing in “green infrastructure” not only contributes to a healthy ecosystem but offers economic and social benefits as well. This study actually examined how the lessons and challenges of the past may help Baltimore realize its ambitious goals for the future. Prioleau (2010) studied if mature street trees can pose a greater hazard risk across socioeconomic lines in three northern New Jersey suburban neighborhoods: Montclair, Teaneck, and Englewood. The results of the study suggested that some of the tree hazard and hazard potential do vary based on socioeconomic conditions of the three towns evaluated.

Vila-Ruiz et al. (2014) studied Plant species richness and abundance in residential yards across a tropical watershed in the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico.They gathered information on vegetation composition and abundance of woody species (i.e., trees, shrubs, palms, ferns) and large herbs (>2 m height), species origin (native vs. introduced), and species uses (ornamental, food, and medicinal plants). A total of 383 woody species were recorded, with shrubs being the most abundant plant habitat. Moroa et al. (2014) evaluated how much the treescape in Fortaleza (the fifth largest city in Brazil) is aligned with the policy of valorization of native biodiversity. To account how much of the native flora was present in the surrounding treescape, the

17 researchers made an inventory of the trees in streets, squares and backyards around the vegetation and compared with the native flora of the vegetation fragment.

In Australia, Frank et al. (2006) studied street tree population of greater Melbourne, Victoria, Australia at the beginning of the 21st century. A total of 922,353 trees, comprising 1127 taxa, were captured in this superset of data. Australian native plants made up the majority of the trees with 60% of the total. Lucke et al. (2011) studied, assessed and quantified the permeable pavements to promote street tree health, to minimize pavement damage and to reduce storm water flows in Australia; Three separate paving configurations were used in the field trials; two pavements were constructed as permeable pavements and the third was constructed as a typical impermeable pavement. Initial experimental results suggested that trees planted with permeable pavement surrounds generally have a higher growth-rate than trees planted with impermeable surfaces.

Different studies regarding street plant were carried out in Europe. In Spain, Noe et al. (2008) studied monoterpene emissions from 11 widespread ornamental tree species (three conifers and nine angiosperms) in urban areas of Barcelona, Spain. They found significant monoterpene emissions in all studied species, with normalized emission potentials. Jimenez et al. (2012) studied the genetic characterization of the available germplasm Fig tree (Ficus carica) in southern Spain. The aim of the study was the recovery and conservation of possible local varieties for ecological production.

Bühler et al. (2007) studied the growth of street trees in Copenhagen, Denmark with emphasis on the effect of different establishment concepts. The results provide evidence that vitality of recently established street trees in Copenhagen generally is on an acceptable level. Gerhardt (2010) studied and surveyed the urban tree management in local authorities in Germany through the application of an e-mailed online questionnaire. The results revealed a little developed level of planned and strategic urban tree management in German local authorities. Calin and Bala (2013) studied the effects of different rooting substrates and rooting growth

18 enhancers on the rooting of Ficus benjamina cuttings in Romania. The conclusion of the study showed that rooting and development in Ficus spp. depended mostly on both the quality of the culture substrate and the amount of assailable nutrients in the culture substrate.

As far as Asia is concerned, many studies regarding plant species diversity and assessment are available. For example, Corlett (2005) studied the interactions between birds, fruit bats and 29 exotic plant taxa in urban Hong Kong, South China. Most interactions involved frugivory. The fruiting phenologies of the exotic species differed considerably from those of the local flora, with fruit of some species available for the majority of the year. Nagendra et al. (2010) studied the density, diversity, composition and distribution of street trees in Bangalore, India. They find the density of street trees in Bangalore to be lower than many other Asian cities. Species diversity is high, with the most dominant species accounting for less than 10% of the overall population. Older trees have a more diverse distribution with several large sized species, while young trees come from a less diverse species set, largely dominated by small statured species with narrow canopies, which have a lower capacity to absorb atmospheric pollutants, mitigate urban heat island effects, stabilize soil, prevent ground water runoff, and sequester carbon. This was found to have serious implications for the city‟s environmental and ecological health. Sreetheran et al. (2011) studied street tree inventory and tree risk assessment of selected major roads in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The survey was conducted to collect comprehensive information on tree structure, species composition, species diversity, and tree defects and disorders. Sadeghian and Vardanyan (2013) studied the criteria for selecting trees and shrubs in urban parks of Isfahan.The study pointed out that the trees in the urban environment are subjected to a number of stresses which are very different from those suffered by trees in typical rural conditions. The stresses listed in this study should be a basis for the selection criteria used in urban tree improvement programs. Al-Mana and Ahmad (2010) studied the trunk's deformity of date palm trees used in street landscape in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in order to investigate their cases and to identify factors contributing to their distortion. The study showed that date palm tree

19 trunks used in the landscape of the streets were affected by damage and deformity at different heights on the trunk. Several fungal species were isolated and identified to be the causes of such deformity. The occurrence of these problems was attributed to some irrigation systems that were used improperly and resulted in water reaching directly to the palm trunks.

In Egypt, Fahmy et al. (2010) studied the best criteria in choosing the position and type of trees to be planted in urban areas in Cairo, Egypt in order to test the improvement of microclimate in two urban sites either for pedestrians or for indoor inhabitants without source data for its foliage characteristics. El-Ansary and El- Ansary (2013) studied the genetic diversity and biochemical activity of leaves and fruits among nine Ficus spp. (Ficus retusa, F. dejentle, F. golden, F. religiosa, F. trigonata, F. carica, F. sycamorus, F. elastica and F. benjamina) using 15 RAPD primers. The results showed high polymorphism among all primers. The analyses of biochemical activities showed the Egyptian grown Ficus spp. is a rich source of antioxidants for human health and pharmaceutical industry. El-Ghani et al. (2013) studied the weed flora in the reclaimed lands along the northern sector of the Nile Valley in Egypt. They recorded 150 species in the monitored 19 sites. Redundancy analysis demonstrated the effect of soil organic matter, coarse sand, fine sand, silt, and soil saturation point on the spatial distribution of weed communities.

In the occupied Palestine, Shashua-Bar (2010) studied microclimate modeling of street tree species effects within the varied urban morphology in Tel Aviv. The study indicated the importance of urban trees in alleviating the heat island effect in a hot and humid summer. The tree cooling effect was found to be strongly related to the built form geometry.

In Palestine, different studies have been reviewed regarding the plant and floristic surveys in the West Bank. Jaradat (2005) studied ethnopharmacological survey of natural products in Palestine, where the herbal products used in the Palestinian folk medicine were investigated and recorded. The study pointed out that the reservation of endangered medicinal plant species as well as clinical investigation of these plants

20 is highly required. Adam (2007) studied the effects of different vegetation cover on runoff and soil erosion in Hebron city of the West Bank of Palestine. The results showed that a forestation and natural vegetation dominated with S. spinosum have a key role in preventing or decreasing the risk of runoff and soil erosion. Although, two years are insufficient time to evaluate the influence of removing S . spinosum on water runoff and soil erosion, due to high climatic variability and complex relationship between the factors that affect the amount of water runoff and soil erosion, but the result, herein constitute the first step toward more detailed and future comprehensive studies to the benefit of the inhabitants at the study. Kaileh et al. (2007) studied the indigenous Palestinian medicinal plants for potential anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity, where organic extracts of 24 selected plant species used by Palestinian traditional healers to treat different illnesses and diseases, were tested for their anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities. Alkowni and Sawalha (2012) studied biotechnology for conservation of Palestinian medicinal plants; using MS-media with specific plant growth regulators. Protocols for enhancing callus culturing, organogenesis and micropropagation of these tentatively threatened wild plants were developed and optimized during the succeeding stages of this study.

Studies on flora and ornamental plant in the Gaza Strip seem to be few. Abd Rabou et al. (2008) studied the common flora and its uses in Wadi Gaza, Gaza Strip. They identified 70 plant species belonging to 32 families and 24 orders. Many of which have been used as street plants in the Gaza Strip (Personal Observations). They pointed out that the natural flora of Wadi Gaza was commonly used in different ways as a food source, herbal medicine, fodder for grazing animals and timber and fuel production. Abou Auda et al. (2009) studied the flora and plant life forms of Wadi Gaza area, Gaza Strip. They recorded 219 plant species belonging to 167 genera and 55 families. The most abundant family was the Compositae, which comprised 34 plant species (15.5%). El-Hissi (2012) studied the microclimatic effects of trees on thermal performance of residential buildings in the Gaza Strip. The study concluded that choosing the optimum trees configuration depends on many factors including site orientation, building shape, soil type, tree shape and foliage, and the number and

21 location of trees. The study showed that the choosing the optimum trees number and locations can reduce annual energy consumption by about 10%-18%. Hamad and Mousa (2013) did a recent and modest study on the ornamental plants prevailing in the main campus of the Islamic University of Gaza (IUG), Gaza Strip. They recorded 38 species, with the Rosales family representing 21.1% of the species encountered. The study recommended the enhancement and sustainable management of plant life in the IUG. El-Kichaoui et al. (2013) carried out a study aiming at optimizing and applying a reliable molecular marker protocol for genotyping and identification of six date palm cultivars in the Gaza Strip using random amplification of polymorphic DNA.

3 Chapter III Methodology

Chapter III Methodology

3.1 Materials and Methods 3.1.1 Historic Palestine

The total area of the historic Palestine is 27,009 km². The area of the West Bank is 5844 km² and constitutes 21.6% of the total area of the land of the historic Palestine. The Gaza Strip, an area of 365 km², and constitutes 1.35% of the total area of the historic Palestine.

Gaza Strip is a small area lies on the Eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, at 31°25′N 34°20′E. As shown in Figure (3.1), the Strip borders are; 51 km border with the Occupied Palestine, and an 11 km border with Egypt, near the city of Rafah. It is about 40 km long, and between 6 and 12 km wide, with a total area of 360 km2 (Ministry of Local Government, 2004). The Gaza Strip is one of the most populated areas in the world, with an estimated population of about 1.9 (Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics – PCBS, 2014).

The study area has a typical semi-arid Mediterranean climate; hot in summer and cold in winter. The average daily mean temperature ranges from 25ºC in summer to 13ºC in winter, with the average daily maximum temperature range from 29ºC to 17ºC and the minimum temperature range from 21ºC to 9ºC, in summer and winter respectively.

The daily relative humidity fluctuates between 65% in daytime and 85% at night in summer and between 60% and 80% respectively in winter (United Nations Environmental Program – UNEP, 2003).The average maximum wind speed velocity is about 3.9 m/s. In winter, the prevailing wind direction is southwest with an average speed of 4.2 m/s and during summer the prevailing winds are from the north-west sector. The average annual rainfall is 335 mm. The mean daily evaporation in December is about 2.1 mm/d, rising to a maximum of 6.3 mm/d in July (MedWestCoast, 2003).

Figure (‎3.1): Map of the Gaza Strip

3.1.2 Study Area The Gaza City is the largest city in the Gaza Strip. The total area of Gaza city is 56 km2, making it one of the most densely populated cities in the world. It has a population of about 700 thousand of people, making it one of the largest cities in Palestine (PCBS, 2014).

3.1.3 The Targeted Streets in the Gaza City Five main streets in the Gaza city will be surveyed for the median trees and shrubs. These are as follows (Figure 3.2): 1. Al-Jalaa Street: It extends from Salah Khalaph Street to Jamal Abd El-Naser Street. It has a length of about 2990 m and a width of about 30 m. The median is a softscape with a width is 4 m.

25 2. Al-Shuhada Street: It extends from Al- Kannal Street in the east to Al- Majdal Street in the west. It has a length of about 1355 m and a width of about 26 m. The median is a softscape with a width is 3 m. 3. Al-AqsaStreet: It extends from Jamal Abd El-Naser Street in the north to Awni Al-Shawa Street in the south (Street 8). It has a length of about 1700 m and a width of about 30 m. The median is a softscape with a width is 4 m. 4. Jamal Abd El-Naser (Al-Thalatheny) Street: It extends from Al-Rasheed Street in the west to Asqola Square in the east. It has a length of about 3170 m and a width of about 30 m. The median is a softscape with a variable width of about 1-4 m. 5. Awn Al-Shawa Street (Street 8): It extends from Salah El-Deen Street in the east to Al-Rasheed Street in the west. It has a length of about 3730 m and a width of about 30 m. The median is a softscape with a width is 4m.

Figure (‎3.2): Map of the targeted streets in Gaza City

26 3.1.4 Field Survey and Identification Tools This survey carried out on five major streets in Gaza City; namely; Al-Jalaa Street, Al-Shuhada Street, Al-Aqsa Street, Jamal Abd El-Naser (Al-Thaltheeny) Street and Awn Al-Shawa street (Street 8). The various trees and shrubs species growing in the medians of these streets were surveyed, counted and identified through frequent site visits, observations, and discussions with local people and municipality officials (Appendix 2). A specialized designed sheath was used to record the required data in the field. A variety of texts and guidebooks (Karim and Quraan, 1986; Madi, 2001 and 2002; Ali-Shtayeh et al., 2003, 2012) referred to in order to identify median trees and shrubs species in question; Expert determination; That ask someone else, preferably an expert in the group in question and image comparison; These are usually obtained from books, although webpage images have now become a very useful resource.

3.1.5 Questionnaire Design and Application A questionnaire (Appendix 1) was designed and applied in February 2016 in Gaza City. The target group was the local people inhabiting along the five streets in question. One hundred and eighty (180) people interviewed throughout the course of this survey. The respondents individually interviewed and their responses was recorded in the questionnaires. The validity of the questionnaire was tested by five specialists in agricultural and environmental sciences to make the necessary adjustments before its application (Appendix 3). The questionnaire piloted and the questionnaire was further be modified to capture the concerns raised by the respondents during the pre-test survey. All interviews conducted face to face by the investigator himself. This will build trust between the interviewer and respondents and minimize the source of error or bias. Most questions were yes/no and multiple choice and open questions. During the survey, the interviewer explained to the respondents any of the questions not clear to them. The questionnaire included relevant information on personal profile of respondents, age, gender, education, length of residence, type of residence and other vital questions.

27 3.1.6 Photography A professional digital camera used to take photos regarding the different aspects of field visits. These photos covered the existing tree and shrub species in the main streets of Gaza City, problems facing them, in addition to the public use and attitudes regarding the trees and shrubs in question.

3.1.7 Data Analysis Data will be statistically analyzed using Exceland SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences Inc, Chicago, Illinois) computer programs. Means will be compared by independent-sample t-test. Probability values (P) will be obtained from the student's table of "t" and significance was at P < 0.05. Graphswill be plotted using the programs in question.

4 Chapter IV Results

Chapter IV Results

4.1 Species Recorded

Gaza Streets harbors a mix of vascular plant species (ornamental, agricultural and wild) belonging to the Divisions Coniferophyta (conifers) and Magnoliophyta (flowering plants). A total number of 45 tree and shrub species were identified and recorded in the targeted five streets of Gaza City involved in the current study. These species belong to 25 families and 15 orders as illustrated in Table 4.1. The Rosales was the biggest order and comprised 16% of the recorded species. The second biggest order was the Lamiales which comprised 13% of the recorded species then the Malvales and the Fabales where each of them comprised 11% (Figure 4.1). The Moraceae was the biggest family and comprised 13% of the recorded species. The second biggest family was the Malvaceae and comprised 11%of the recorded species. These were followed by the Fabaceae and the Apocynaceae where each of them comprised 7% (Figure 4.2).

4.2 Gymnosperms vs. Angiosperms

Gymnosperms were the first plants to have seeds. They are often referred to as having naked seeds because they do not have flowers, and their seeds develop on the surface of the reproductive structures of the plants rather than being contained in a specialized ovary. In contrast, angiosperms or the flowering plants are the largest group of plants on Earth. They include all plants that have flowers and account for approximately 80% of all known living plants. Flowering plants are divided into monocots (or monocotyledons, i.e. having seeds with one cotyledon) and dicots (or dicotyledons, i.e. having seeds with two cotyledons) (Gibson and Gibson, 2006). With regard to this categorization, only two species (4.44%) of the currently recoded trees and shrubs belong to gymnosperms, while 43 species (95.56%) are angiosperms. Based on the seed status, only six species are monocots, while 37 species are dicots (Table 4.1 and Figure 4.3).

30 4.3 Native vs. Exotic Species

Native plants are ones that occurs naturally in a particular region, ecosystem, or habitat without direct or indirect human intervention. In contrast, exotic plants are any plants that do not naturally grow in an area. They find their way to an ecosystem from a completely separate area, often via animals or human intervention (Gibson and Gibson, 2006). With regard to trees and shrubs of the current study, only eight species (17.39%) are described as native, while the rest species 37 (80.43%) are exotic (Table 4.1 and Figure 4.4).

Table (‎4.1): Street tree and shrub species recorded in the Gaza city

Fruit

Dicot. - Scientific

Order Family io Name Common Name

bicName

Ara

NitaxE io EvitaN io NitaxE

Monocot. Fruit or Non or Fruit Italian Cypress dAa Cupressus سشّ Evergreen G* E NF sempervirens Cypress

سشّ Pinales Cupressaceae ل٘وًْٖ أّ Cupressus Monterey Cypress G* E NF سشّ macrocarpa هًْز٘شٕ Phoenix ًخ٘ل الجلخ Date Palm M E F Arecaae dactylifera Arecales Washingtonia California Fan ّاضٌطًْ٘ب M E NF filifera Palm Cyperus NF الوظلخ Poales Cyperaceae Umbrella Papyrus M E alternifolius NF الْ٘وب Yucca gloriosa Spanish Dagger M E

Asparagaceae Sansevieria Mother-in-Law's NF جلذ الٌوش M E guinensis Tongue Asparagales صجبس Aloe NF )صجشح Xanthorrhoeaceae Aloe M E succotrina هشح( الذفلخ – Nerium NF Oleander D N الذفلٔ oleander دفلخ لوؼ٘خ- Cascabela NF Apocynaceae Yellow Oleander D E دفلخ thevetia صفشاء Gentianales Carissa NF الىبسٗسب Large Num–Num D E bispinosa الؼطش أّ - Apple of Sodom Calotropis NF رفبح الجذش Asclepiadaceae Rubber Bush D E procera الو٘ذ أوبس٘ب Acacia NF Acacia D E األدشاش cyanophylla Leguminosae Ponciana Royal Poinciana - NF ثْاًس٘بًب D E regia Gulmohar ألج٘زس٘ب – naibibd Lebbeck - Lebbek NF D E اللجخ Fabales abiibel Tree Rosewood and NF رجْاًب TbiTdAd ubiT D E Fabaceae Pride of Bolivia سٌظ Peltophorum NF أفشٗمٖ Weeping Wattle D E africanum )ثلزفْسم(

Fruit

Dicot. - Scientific

Order Family io Name Common Name

bicName

Ara

NitaxE io EvitaN io NitaxE

Monocot. Fruit or Non or Fruit Tamarix NF األثل Violales Tamaricaceae Nile Tamarisk D N nilotica Brachychiton Illawarra Flame NF ثشاخخزْ٘ى D E acerifolius Tree or Flame Tree وشوذَٗ Hibiscus rosa- NF صٌٖ٘ – Hibiscus D E sinensis أدوش

وشوذَٗ

الجذش, Hibiscus NF وشوذَٗ Sea Hibiscus D E Malvales Malvaceae tilliaceus السبدل أّ الطبطئ وشوذَٗ Malvaviscus SabbibAS Hibiscus NF D E الٌْم arboreus Lagunaria NF الجًْبسٗب Lagunaria D E patersonii فشضبح Callistemon NF Callistemon D E الضجبج Myrtales citrinus Myrtaceae Eucalyptus NF وٌ٘٘ب River Redgum D E camaldulensis Dodonaea NF دٗذًّ٘ب Sapindaceae Hopbush D E viscose

فلفل Schinus Sapindales Anacardiaceae Brazilian Pepper D E F ثشاصٗلٖ terebinthifolius

Melia White Cedar- NF صًضلخذ D E Meliaceae azedarach Chinaberry Tree- ف٘ىس Rubber Fig- Rubber NF Ficus elastic D E إلسزىب Tree Weeping Fig F-icus NF ف٘ىس ًزذا FbeTi Abubad D E Tree ف٘ىس Ficus Benjamin Fig NF ثٌجبهٌ٘ب – Maedebdb benjamina D E 'Starlight' هجشلص starlight ر٘ي Rosales Ficus carica Fig Tree D N F Ficus جو٘ض Sycamore Fig D N F sycomorus Morus رْد أدوش Red Mulberry D N F rubaram سذس- ًجك- Zizyphus Rhamnaceae Christ'sThornJujube D N F دّم- روْس spina–christi Jacaranda Jacarand- Blue NF جىشًذا Bignoniaceae D E mimosifolia JacarandaB- lack

Fruit

Dicot. - Scientific

Order Family io Name Common Name

bicName

Ara

NitaxE io EvitaN io NitaxE

Monocot. Fruit or Non or Fruit Poui صٗزْى Lamiales NF Olea oleaster Wild-Olive D N ثشٕ Oleaceae صٗزْى Olea europaea Common Olive D N F Golden Dewdrop- Duranta NF دّسًزب Verbenaceae Pigeon Berry- sky D E erecta flower MmaiaeTy NF ثضسّه٘ب Myoporaceae Boobialla D E ibeeduTy Buddleja Butterfly Bush- NF الجذل٘ب Scrophulariaceae D E americana Summer Lilac صجبس أم Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia Pencil TreeP-encil NF Malpighiales D E اللجي tirucalli Cactus

Acalypha Philippines NF أوبل٘فب D E hispida MedusaF-ox Tail جٌِو٘خ Bougainvillea NF Caryophyllales Nyctaginaceae Veranera D E )هجًٌْخ( spectabilis Pittosporum Japanese NF ثزسجْسم Apiales Pittosporaceae D E tobira Pittosporum

Figure (‎4.1): Orders of street trees and shrubs recorded in the current study.

Figure (‎4.2): Families of street trees and shrubs recorded in the current study [Others: Cyperaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Tamaricaceae, Sapindaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, Rhamnaceae, Bignoniaceae, Verbenaceae, Myoporaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Nyctaginaceae, and Pittosporaceae]

Figure (‎4.3): Gymnosperm vs. Angiosperms (Monocot. and Dicot.) of trees and shrubs of Gaza city streets

Figure (‎4.4): Native vs. Exotic trees and shrubs in Gaza city streets

4.4 Fruit vs. Non-fruit Species

In horticultural usage, the term "fruit tree" is limited to those that provide fruit for human food. As many as seven species (15.56%) of the currently recorded trees and shrubs are fruit ones in the sense that they can provide food for humans (Table 4.1 and Figure 4.5). Species that may provide fruits as food for animals are not considered here.

Figure (‎4.5): Fruit vs. non-fruit trees and shrubs in Gaza city streets

36 4.5 Frequency of the Recorded Species

Table 4.2 and Figure 4.6 illustrate that a total number of 4060 trees and shrubs were recorded in the five streets of the Gaza city involved in the current study. The Oleander (Nerium oleander) was the most common species in the targeted streets. Its frequency constituted 38.23% (n = 1552) of the occurrence of the recorded species. This was followed by the River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), California Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera), Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), Hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa) and Weeping Fig (Ficus nitida) which constituted 14.95% (n = 607), 9.95% (n = 404), 7.54% (n = 306), 5.27% (n = 214) and 4.14% (n = 168) of the occurrence of the recorded species respectively. The frequency of the rest of species recorded varies from 0.02% to 2.54%.

Table (‎4.2): Numbers and percentages of the recorded species of street trees and

shrubs in the Gaza city

Naser

- Relative Arabic

Scientific Name Total Abundance

Aqsa

Jalaa - Name -

Precentage

Shuhadaa

street 8 street

Al -

Al Jamal Abdel Jamal

%0.12 5 3 0 0 0 2 سشّ Cupressus sempervirens سشّ ل٘وًْٖ %0.10 4 4 0 0 0 0 أّ سشّ Cupressus macrocarpa هًْز٘شٕ %7.54 306 101 81 3 88 33 ًخ٘ل الجلخ Phoenixdactylifera

%9.95 404 142 1 4 78 179 ّاضٌطًْ٘ب Washingtonia filifera

%0.07 3 0 0 0 0 3 الوظلخ Cyperus alternifolius

%0.62 25 0 0 19 2 4 الْ٘وب Yucca gloriosa

%0.27 11 0 0 11 0 0 جلذ الٌوش Sansevieria guinensis

صجبس )صجشح Aloesuccotrina 0 0 0 0 12 12 0.30% هشح( الذفلخ – Neriumoleander 483 237 107 290 435 1552 38.23% الذفلٔ دفلخ لوؼ٘خ- Cascabela thevetia 2 28 0 0 1 31 0.76% دفلخ صفشاء

Naser

- Relative Arabic

Scientific Name Total Abundance

Aqsa

Jalaa - Name -

Precentage

Shuhadaa

street 8 street

Al -

Al Jamal Abdel Jamal

%0.15 6 0 6 0 0 0 الىبسٗسب Carissa bispinosa

%0.07 3 3 0 0 0 0 الؼطش Calotropisprocera أوبس٘ب Acacia cyanophylla 0 0 2 0 2 4 0.10% األدشاش

%0.86 35 2 0 0 13 20 ثْاًس٘بًب Ponciana regia ألج٘زس٘ب – Albizia lebbeck 1 0 0 0 7 8 0.20% اللجخ

%0.05 2 0 0 0 0 2 رجْاًب Tipuana tipu

سٌظ أفشٗمٖ Peltophorum africanum 27 24 8 2 13 74 1.82% )ثلزفْسم( %0.12 5 4 0 0 1 0 األثل Tamarix nilotica

%0.15 6 0 0 0 0 6 ثشاخخزْ٘ى Brachychiton acerifolius وشوذَٗ %2.54 103 2 0 90 2 9 صٌٖ٘ - Hibiscus rosa- sinensis أدوش وشوذَٗ الجذش Hibiscus tilliaceus 6 0 5 0 0 11 0.27% أّ الطبطئ

%0.05 2 0 0 2 0 0 وشوذَٗ الٌْم Malvaviscus arboreus

%1.08 44 5 0 0 33 6 الجًْبسٗب Lagunaria patersonii فشضبح Callistemon citrinus 8 2 9 0 0 19 0.47% الضجبج %14.95 607 80 134 152 60 181 وٌ٘٘ب Eucalyptus camaldulensis

%5.27 214 51 49 0 0 114 دٗذًّ٘ب Dodonaea viscose

%2.44 99 60 0 0 35 4 فلفل ثشاصٗلٖ Schinus terebinthifolius

%0.54 22 15 0 0 0 7 صًضلخذ Melia azedarach

%0.10 4 0 0 0 0 4 ف٘ىس إلسزىب Ficus elastic ف٘ىس %0.02 1 0 0 0 1 0 ثٌجبهٌ٘ب – Ficus benjamina starlight هجشلص %4.14 168 25 12 3 56 72 ف٘ىس ًزذا Ficus nitida

%0.02 1 0 0 0 0 1 ر٘ي Ficus carica

Naser

- Relative Arabic

Scientific Name Total Abundance

Aqsa

Jalaa - Name -

Precentage

Shuhadaa

street 8 street

Al -

Al Jamal Abdel Jamal

%0.39 16 13 0 0 0 3 جو٘ض Ficus sycomorus

%0.22 9 9 0 0 0 0 رْد أدوش Morusrubaram

%0.12 5 1 0 0 2 2 سذس Zizyphus vulgaris

%0.02 1 0 0 0 0 1 جىشًذا Jacaranda mimosifolia

%0.20 8 4 0 0 0 4 صٗزْى ثشٕ Olea oleaster

%1.40 57 24 0 8 0 25 صٗزْى Olea europaea

%2.64 107 0 0 95 7 5 دّسًزب Duranta erecta

%0.05 2 0 0 0 2 0 ثضسّه٘ب Myoporum serratum

%0.02 1 0 0 0 1 0 الجذل٘ب Buddleja americana

صجبس أم Euphorbia tirucalli 0 2 0 0 1 3 0.07% اللجي %0.10 4 0 0 4 0 0 أوبل٘فب Acalypha hispida

%0.05 2 0 0 2 0 0 ثزسجْسم Pittosporum tobira

جٌِو٘خ Bougainvillea spectabilis 0 54 0 0 0 54 1.33% ()هجًٌْخ 1214 728 524 575 1019 Total 4060 100% 59.13% 42.86% 34.69% 16.33% 53.06%

Figure (‎4.6): Numbers and percentages of the recorded species of street trees and shrubs in the Gaza city

40 4.6 Tree and Shrub Species and their Counts per Individual Street

With regard to the streets investigated throughout the current study, the number of tree and shrub species and their counts were variable. Table 4.2 and Figure 4.7 illustrate that the Al-Jalaa Street had the highest number of species (29) which represents 59.18% of the whole species recorded in the targeted streets. The second street in terms of species occurrence was Street 8 which harbors 26 species which represents 53.06% of the whole species. In terms of the number of trees and shrubs counted, the Al-Jalaa Street had the highest number of trees and shrubs (1214), while Street 8 had 1019.

Figure (‎4.7): Tree and shrub species and their counts per individual street

As far as the commonest tree and shrubs species per Individual Street are concerned, the Figures 4.8, 4.9, 4.10, 4.11 and 4.12 display such occurrences. The figures in question show that:

1. Al-Jalaa Street harbors 29 species of trees and shrubs with the Nerium oleander scores the highest occurrence (483 = 39.79%). This was followed by Eucalyptus camaldulensis (181 = 14.91%) and Washingtonia filifera (179, 14.74%).

41 2. The Jamal Abdel Naser Street harbors 21 species with the Nerium oleander scores the highest occurrence (237 = 32.55%). This was followed by Phoenix dactylifera (88 = 12.09%) and Washingtonia filifera (78, 10.71%). 3. The Al-Shuhada Street harbors 17 species with the Eucalyptus camaldulensis scores the highest occurrence (152 = 29.01%). This was followed by Nerium oleander (107 = 20.42%) and Duranta erecta (95 = 18.13%). 4. The Al-Aqsa Street harbors only 8 species with the Nerium oleanderscores the highest occurrence (290 = 50.43%). This was followed by Eucalyptus camaldulensis (134 = 23.30%) and Phoenix dactylifera (81, 14.09%). 5. Street 8 harbors 26 species with the Nerium oleander scores the highest occurrence (435 = 42.69%). This was followed by Washingtonia filifera (142 = 13.94%) and Phoenix dactylifera (101, 9.91%).

Figure (‎4.8): Median trees and shrubs in Al-Jalaa Street

Figure (‎4.9): Median trees and shrubs in Jamal Abdel Naser Street

Figure (‎4.10): Median trees and shrubs in Al-Shuhada Street

Figure (‎4.11): Median trees and shrubs in Al-Aqsa Street

Figure (‎4.12): Median trees and shrubs in Street- 8

47 4.7 Notes on Median Trees and Shrubs

Evergreen Cypress, Cupressus sempervirens The Evergreen Cypress is a coniferous evergreen tree which is very common in the eastern Mediterranean region including Palestine. The plant is tolerance to drought, strong wind, and maritime exposure. Itis planted as an ornamental tree along roads in the Gaza Strip (Figure 4.13, A). It may reach a length of about 35 m. It is very long- lived species, having scale-like leaves and ovoid or oblong seed cones. The male cones release pollen in late winter. In spite of its low counts (n = 5), the plant in many localities in the Gaza Strip seems to attract many bird species such as the Hooded Crow Corvus corone.Green belts of the species were seen bordering agricultural orchards to function as wind-breaks. The species is known to decrease air pollutants as claimed by Gazans. The species is under actual threat due to continuous cutting by the locals for different uses. Said et al. (2002) mentioned that the fruit is used medicinally for diabetes and nervous system illnesses.

Monterey Cypress, Cupressus macrocarpa Monterey Cypress is a medium-sized coniferous evergreen tree that is rarely seen in Gaza streets (n = 4). The needle-like foliage grows in dense sprays which are bright green in color and release a deep lemony aroma when crushed (Figure 4.13, B). The species has been widely planted as an ornamental plant in various locations including institutions, home yards and public parks in the Gaza Strip.

Figure (‎4.13): Order of Pinales, A: Evergreen Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), B: Monterey Cypress (Cupressusmacrocarpa)

Date Palm, Phoenix dactylifera The Date Palm has long been one of the most important fruit crops in the arid region of the Middle East. Dates are a main income source and staple food for Palestinians. Many local, national or even regional food industries are dependent on dates of the Gaza Strip. It is a resistant crop in terms of having minimum water demands. It tolerates harsh weathers and high levels of salinity. Accordingly, the Ministry of Agriculture established many projects in the Gaza Strip in order to propagate the cultivation of Date Palm (Ministry of Agriculture, 2010). The Date Palm is a tree of about 15-20 m in height. It has straight and non-branched stem and long pinnate leaves that have visible spines (Figure 4.14, A).The species is a common tree among street plants (n = 306). Many bird species have been found to use the plant in different ways including nesting, resting, perching, foraging and feeding. Gazans usually suffer from the attacks made by the Egyptian Fruit Bat Roussettus aegypticus to their fruity trees including the Date Palm. The long leaves, which are called locally as Sa'af or Jareed, are used as cleaning tools or in roofing recreational or residential places. The trunks are usually used in building purposes or industry. Date seeds have been used locally in the manner of coffee beans, or as an additive to coffee. In medicine, the plant is known to be used to cure many illnesses such as fevers, cystitis and edema. The ripen fruits enhance the contraction of the uterus during delivery and hence mentioned in the Holly Qur‟an (Abd Rabou et al., 2008).

49 California Fan Palm, Washingtonia filifera Similar to the Date Palm, the California Fan Palm is a very common found everywhere in the Gaza Strip including the targeted study streets (n = 404). It is planted as an ornamental tree in streets, parks and parcels (Figure 4.14, B).It tolerates salinity and drought. It grows up to 20 m. It has a sturdy columnar trunk and waxy fan-shaped (palmate) leaves that attract many bird species including sparrows and doves.The fruit is small and hard, but has a thin sweet pulp that tastes somewhat like dates.

Figure (‎4.14): Order of Arecales, A: Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), B: California Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera)

Umbrella Papyrus, Cyperus alternifolius The Umbrella Papyrus is a perennial evergreen plant that is commonly used as an ornamental plant, with only three individuals have been recorded in Al-Jalaa Street (Figure 4.15). The flowers of the plant grow on the edge of the leaf as an umbrella.The plant favors moisture and as a result, it requires a wet environment. Local people claimed that the problem with the species comes from its attraction to flying insect.

Figure (‎4.15): Order of Poales, Umbrella Papyrus (Cyperus alternifolius)

Spanish Dagger, Yucca gloriosa Spanish Dagger is an evergreen, perennial, shrub or tree cultivated as an architectural or ornamental plant in Gaza Streets (n = 25). The plant is found locally to be widely grown in yards, gardens, parks, cemeteries, and streets (Figure 4.16, A). It was recorded throughout the study to grow up to 1 m though it is known to grow to heights up to 5 m in its native lands. It is caulescent, usually with several stems arising from the base. The leaves are straight and very stiff, growing to 30–50 cm long. No pruning is needed for the plant other than the removal of its dead leaves.

Mother-in-Law's Tongue, Sansevieria guinensis Mother-in-Law's Tongue is a stemless, evergreen, succulent and perennial plant with leathery leaves that are variegated with grayish white transverse markings. It is rarely seen in the targeted study streets (n = 11) though it is common ornamental plant in homes, offices and other institutions due to its beauty value and its role in improving indoor air quality as claimed by many inhabitants (Figure 4.16, B).

Aloe, Aloe succotrina The Aloe plant is a common plant species in Gaza cemeteries and other wild areas. As many as 12 individuals have been recorded in Street 8. Its leaves are large, thick and fleshy (Figure 4.16, C).The plant is known to produce a tall raceme, bearing

51 shiny red flowers that are pollinated by birds.Traditionally, the plant was used in the past as a weaning or ablactating promotion agent. Medicinally, Gazans used the plant for treating various skin conditions, such as cuts, burns, and eczema, as well as sunburn. The plant is also used as a laxative.

Figure (‎4.16): Order of Asparagales, A: Spanish Dagger (Yucca gloriosa), B: Mother- in-Law's Tongue (Sansevieria guinensis), C: Aloe (Aloe succotrina)

Oleander - Rose Bay, Nerium oleander Oleander is an evergreen shrub that grows with erect stems and narrow lanceolate leaves to a height of 2–8 m. It is used as a very common ornamental shrub in Gaza streets (n = 1552). The flowers are white, cream, yellow and pink to red (Figure 4.17, A). They grow in clusters at the end of branches. The plant is unpalatable by grazing animals. It is known locally as a highly poisonous to humans and animals. Its ingestion may cause nausea, vomiting, cardiac arrhythmias, hypotension (low blood pressure) and death as stated by Kirtikar et al. (1999).

Yellow Oleander, Cascabela thevetia Yellow Oleanderis an evergreen, ornamental shrub that reaches to 5 m tall. The plant is recorded in three of the targeted streets (n = 31) and known locally is poisonous. The leaves are linear-lanceolate and the flowers are fragrant yellow and

52 funnel-shaped which are attractive to birds and insects; especially butterflies (Figure 4.17, B). Like the previously mentioned Oleander, all parts of the plant are toxic to humans and animals.

Large Num–Num, Carissa bispinosa A very few number of the Large Numhas been recorded in Al-Aqsa Street (n = 6). The recorded shrubs have been seen to reach 0.5 m in height, though they were seen elsewhere to grow up to 3 m. The branches of the plant are thorny and contain a milky sap, while the flowers are small, white. The plant is popular as decorative shrub as well (Figure 4.17, C).

Apple of Sodom - Rubber Bush, Calotropis procera The Apple of Sodom or Rubber Bush is a very rare plant species in the Gaza Strip, while it is common in the West Bank of Palestine. Only three individuals have been recorded at the end of Street 8. It is a shrub or small tree up to 4 m high. The stem is branched and thickly, while the leaves are large, decussate and obovate. The inflorescence is multi-flowered. Fruits are ovoid and the seeds are light-brown, broadly ovate, with silky hairs. A white milky sap is exuded from any wound part of the plant (Figure 4.17, D).The plant seems to be very toxic as cattle often stay away from it because of its unpleasant taste and its toxic characteristics. Finally, the species was known to have antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytostatic properties, and the leaf, stem and root are utilized in traditional medicine for treatment of wounds, sores and skin diseases, diarrhea, sinus and fistula (Kumar and Arya, 2006 and Moronkola et al. 2011).

Figure (‎4.17): Order of Gentianales, A: Oleander (Nerium oleander), B: Yellow Oleander (Cascabela thevetia), C: Large Num – Num (Carissa bispinosa) and D: Apple of Sodom (Calotropis procera)

Acacia, Acacia cyanophylla The Acaciais a small, dense, spreading tree with a short trunk and a weeping habit. It grows up to 5 m tall (Figure 4.18, A). Although it is rarely recorded in the targeted streets (n = 4), the species among others is known to be extensively planted for stabilization of sand dunes that characterize the west belt of the Gaza Strip (Abd Rabou, 2011a and b). The yellow flowers appear in early spring and late winter. The fruit is a legume, while the seed is oblong and black in color. Shepherds have been noticed to graze their sheep and goats on the plant everywhere in the Gaza Strip. In

54 many occasions, goats were seen to attack the green buds of the plant in many streets of the Gaza Strip. The shrubs were exploited as a fuel material by Gazans. The use of leaves for medicinal purposes was also stated by locals to treat gastrointestinal troubles or stomachinflammation (Abd Rabou et al., 2008).

Royal Poinciana, Ponciana regia The Royal Poinciana is an exotic species that has been planted all over the world. It is a deciduous and spectacular tree that is planted by Gazans as an ornamental tree everywhere especially near human dwellings and in parks, though as many as 35 individuals have been recorded in the medians of the targeted streets of the Gaza city. The plant may grow up 15 m in height. The canopy of the tree likes an umbrella. The individual flowers have four spoon shaped orange-red petals (Figure 4.18, B).The extensive, shallow root system makes it a good soil binder and suited to soil conservation and erosion control. The plant is tolerant to drought and salty conditions of the Gaza Strip as a coastal zone of the Mediterranean. Many bird species are known to rest or nest on the plant such as the Yellow-vented Bulbul and the House Sparrow.

Lebbeck, Albizia lebbeck The Lebbeckis similar to the Royal Poinciana in being planted along roads and in home gardens as an ornamental and avenue tree in the Gaza Strip. Only 8 individuals have been recorded in the targeted streets. Itgrows up to 10 m tall. It has bipinnate leaves and white flowers. The fruit is a pod 10–20 cm long, containing six to twelve seeds (Figure 4.18, C).The species is valued for its shade, quality hardwood, fuel- wood, honey (source of nectar and pollen), and erosion control. The various parts of the plant are used in the treatment of leucoderma, itching, skin diseases, piles, asthma, allergic disorders and bronchitis. Moreover, the many parts of plant are recommended for the treatment of snake-bite (Sharma and Dubey 2015).

Rosewood, Tipuana tipu Rosewood is a deciduous tree that resembles the Lebbeck in leaf style in that the leaves are pinnately compound. It grows up to 3 m in height. Although the

55 Rosewood is a beautifully ornamental shade tree that is usually planted in streets worldwide, only two individuals have been recorded in Al-Jalaa Street (Figure 4.18, D). The flowers are bright yellow in color and the fruit is a legume (pod) with the seeds lie at one end. The plant can withstand a very wide range of growing conditions of salty soils and drought.

Weeping Wattle, Peltophorum africanum Weeping Wattle is a common semi-deciduous to deciduous tree in the targeted streets (n = 74) that has been found to grow up to 15 m. The leaves are similar in shape to that of Poinciana, but they are yellowish at tip of branches. Flowers are bright yellow with crinkled petals on the ends of branches (Figure 4.18, E).The tree makes a good shade for both livestock and humans. The leaves and pods of the tree are eaten by livestock, while the wood is good for fuel.

Figure (‎4.18): Order of Fabales, A: Acacia (Acacia cyanophylla), B: Royal Poinciana (Ponciana regia), C: Lebbeck (kaiabai aEiiENA), D: Rosewood (TaiTiai taiT ( and E: Weeping Wattle (Peltophorum africanum )

Nile Tamarisk, Tamarix nilotica Nile Tamarisk is an evergreen shrub that grows to 3 m in height and forming dense thickets. Although it is very common in the Gaza Strip; particularly in Wadi Gaza, the species is rarely recorded in the targeted streets (n = 5). It usually grows on saline soils. The leaves are scale-like and overlap each other along the stem (Figure 4.19). The flowersappear in dense masses and have pink to white colors. In many occasions, many people have been seen collecting the branches of the plant for fuel purposes.

Figure (‎4.19): Order of Violales, F: Nile Tamarisk (Tamarix nilotica)

Flame Tree, Brachychiton acerifolius Flame Tree is a semi-evergreen tree that is only recorded at the junction between al- Jalaa and Jamal Abdel Nasser Streets (n = 6). The plant has simple palmate leaves and bright red bell-shaped flowers (Figure 4.20, A). The trunk stores water, which may make the plant resistant to drought.

Hibiscus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Hibiscus or Red Hibiscus is a large ornamental shrub that grows up to 3 m tall. The toothed leaves are arranged alternately on the branches and are ovate in shape. The red flowers are very large which are attractive to butterflies, bees, and humming birds (Figure 4.20, B). The plant is common in the targeted streets (n = 103), and is well-known and loved by Gazans due to its distinctive red flowers. For this reason, it is highly planted in streets, yards, parks and open areas. Many bird species; especially passerines are usually found exploiting the plant for different purposes. Examples are the Graceful Prinia (Prinia gracilis), Chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita), House Sparrow or Dwiri (Passer domesticus), Greenfinch (Caruelischloris) and the Yellow-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus xanthopygos). The flowers are used internally in the treatment of arterial hypertension.

58 Sea Hibiscus, Hibiscus tilliaceus Sea Hibiscusis an ornamental tree that is planted in streets in various locations in the Gaza Strip; especially the coastal areas facing the Mediterranean. Only 11 individuals have been recorded in the targeted streets. It grows up to 3 m tall. Leaves are large heart-shaped. The flowers are bright yellow with a deep red center upon opening (Figure 4.20, C).Over the course of the day, the flowers deepen to orange and finally red before the sunset. Medicinally, the plant is used against hypertension and it has an antidepressant activity.

Sleeping Hibiscus, Malvaviscus arboreus Sleeping Hibiscusis a good ornamental shrub that grows up to 2-3 m. Only two samples have been recorded in Al-Shuhadaa Street. The flowers are bright-red and hibiscus-like, but they are never fully open (Figure 4.20, D).Traditionally, the fruit and flowers have been used to treat diarrhea.

Lagunaria (Pyramid Tree), Lagunaria patersonia Lagunaria is an evergreen tree or shrub with a columnar to pyramidal shape that grows up to 3 m, and is ideal for coastal and windy locations. The leaves are oval and the flowers are pink to white that are of typical hibiscus shape. The flowers are followed by brown capsules containing a number of black seeds (Figure 4.20, E). The capsules contain white fibers, which can be very irritating if they get on the skin. As many as 44 individuals have been recorded in the targeted streets.

Figure (‎4.20): Order of Malvales, A: Flame Tree (Brachychiton acerifolius), B: Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa- sinensis), C: Sea Hibiscus (Hibiscus tilliaceus), D: Sleeping Hibiscus (Malvaviscus arboreus(, E: Lagunaria ( Lagunaria patersonii)

Callistemon, Callistemon citrinus Callistemon is woody aromatic shrub that is globally grown as garden, street trees or ornamental plant due to its decorative flowers (Figure 4.21, A). As many as 19 individuals have been recorded in the targeted streets, though the species is commonly grown locally in yards of houses and different governmental institutions. The leaves are lanceolate in arrangement and very aromatic. The flowers, which are attractive to many bird species due to their richness in nectar, are borne in spikes with prominent red stamens.

River Redgum, Eucalyptus camaldulensis The Eucalyptus is a huge evergreen plant species that may grow up to 30 m tall. The species is favored by Gazans because of its elegance and shade provision and hence

60 planted everywhere in the Gaza Strip including the streets in questions (n = 607). The tree has a large, dense crown of lanceolate and dull blue-green leaves (Figure 4.21, B). Ecologically, the plant supports many bird species to nest, rest and forage including the Syrian Wood-pecker (Dendrocopos syriacus), Hooded Crow (Corvus corone), House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), Laughing Dove (Streptopelia sengalensis) and Yellow-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus xanthopygos). Many raptors have been seen monitoring their preys from the large canopies of the Eucalyptus. The timber of the species is used in furniture industry and coal production and for fuel purposes as well. Green belts of the Eucalyptus are good windbreaks. The nectar of the plant is beneficial to honeybee for the production of the best honey in the Gaza Strip. The plant may be used to produce anesthetics and other medical products (Abd Rabou et al., 2008).

Figure (‎4.21): Order of Myrtales, A: Callistemon (Callistemon citrinus), B: River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)

Hopbush, Dodonaea viscosa Hopbush is a shrub growing to 1–3 m tall (Figure 4.22, A). It is very common in Gaza streets including that in question (n = 214). The leaves are ovate, sessile and alternate in arrangement. The flowers are yellow to orange-red.Gazans mentioned

61 that the species is favored because of its high tolerance to salinity, drought and pollution. It is usually planted as a decorative shrub in various locations including parks, hospitals and universities. Its high tolerance to strong winds makes it an excellent windbreak element as well.

Brazilian Pepper, Schinus terebinthifolius Brazilian Pepper is a small tree that grows to 3-7 m. It is very a common ornamental plant in Gaza parks and streets including that in question (n = 99). The leaves are pinnately compound, while the flowers are small white. The fruit is a small, red and spherical, carried in dense clusters (Figure 4.22, B). Many passerines usually feed on its fruits. Worldwide, the seeds can be used as a spice, adding a pepper-like taste to food. Locally, the species is favored because of its high tolerance to salinity, drought and pollution. Many Gazans have been seen utilizing the shade made by this tree for rest purposes.

White Cedar, Melia azedarach White Cedar is a tree that may reach up to 10 m in height. The plant is common in the Palestinian environment including parks, gardens and streets. As many as 22 individuals have been recorded in the targeted streets. Current visits to many Gazan cemeteries revealed that the plant is common and is preferred by Gazans due to its attractiveness to songbirds. The leaves of the White Cedar are long-petioled and the flowers grow in clusters. The fruit is a drupe and light yellow at maturity (Figure 4.22, C). The fruits of the plant are similar to that of the Christ's Thorn Jujube which is known locally as Sidr or Nabaq. The fruits may be poisonous to humans if eaten in quantity as told by locals. Birds utilizing these fruits may spread the seeds in their droppings.

Figure (‎4.22): Order of Sapindales, A: Hopbush (Dodonaea viscose), B: Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), C: White Cedar (Melia azedarach)

Rubber Fig, Ficus elastic Rubber Fig is an ornamental plant that is commonly planted in the Gaza Strip, though only four individuals have been recorded in Al-Jalaa street. It may reach a height of about 15 m (Figure 4.23, A). Aerial roots usually develop in the plant in order to anchor it in the soil and to help support heavy branches. Its broad oval leaves are a characteristic feature of the plant. The plant needs little pruning and does well under extreme environmental conditions such as high temperature and limited water supply. The big crown of the tree harbors many passerine species like sparrows and bulbuls. The plant is so named because of its yield of milky white latex that was formerly used to make rubber. The latex is an irritant to eyes and skin and may be toxic if taken internally as said by locals.

Benjamina Fig 'Starlight', Ficus benjamina starlight Benjamina Fig is an evergreen ornamental shrub that has been recorded in many localities in the Gaza Strip, though only one plant has been recorded in Jamal Abdel

63 Naser Street. The shrub reaches a height of 2-5 m. with the leaves are simple, oval and glossy leathery (Figure 4.23, B). Many passerines usually feed on its fruits. The plant is tolerance to drought and other environmental conditions.

Weeping Fig, Ficusnitida Weeping Fig is an evergreen tree that reaches 10-15 m in height. It is very a common ornamental plant in Gaza parks and streets including the streets in question (n = 168) (Figure 4.23, C). Leaves are a glossy green color. The fruit is a small yellowish green rounded nut. The crown of these plants is a refuge to many passerine species that use it for different purposes such as resting, nesting, feeding, and protection. This tree needs continuous pruning due to its fast growth. Ficus roots are known to grow very shallow and thus damaging pavements and foundations.

Fig Tree, Ficus carica The Fig Tree is a deciduous shrub that is planted much in the whole Gaza Strip. Only one sample has been recorded in Al-Jalaa Street. The plant grows to 5-10 m in height, with smooth white bark and fragrant leaves (Figure 4.23, D). Commonly, the fruits are edible in the sense they can be eaten fresh or dried, and used in jam- making. The fruits are also an important food source for many faunistic species including passerine birds and the Egyptian Fruit Bat (Roussettus aegypticus). The Fig Tree is a Qur'anic tree that is favorable by Muslims all over the world. From a medicinal point of view, Ali-Shtayeh and Jamous (2008) pointed out that Ficus carica is used for treating urinary system, nervous system, digestive system, respiratory system, gall bladder stones, laxative action, anemia, mouth ulcers, skin diseases, hair diseases and stinging.

Sycamore Fig, Ficus sycomorus Sycamore Fig is a historical tree in the Palestinian environment that can grow up to 20 m in height. The plant covers many areas in the Gaza Strip especially the sand dune ecosystems. As many as 16 individuals have been recorded in Al-Jalaa Streetand Street 8. The leaves are heart-shape and dark green in colour. The ripen fruits are edible by both humans and wildlife such as birds and fruit bats (Figure

64 4.23, E). The plant harbors many wild species such as the Agama (Stellio agama), Egyptian Fruit Bat (Roussettus aegypticus) in addition to many passerine species. The Sycamore has wide-spreading branches and affords shade and soil and water conservation. Dry branches of the species are commonly collected for fuel purposes. Medicinally, the plant is used for treating skin diseases and digestive system (Said et al., 2002).

Red Mulberry, Morus rubaram Red Mulberryis a historical tree in the Palestinian environment that can grow up to 10 m in height. Only nine individuals have been recorded in Street 8. The leaves are deeply and intricately lobed (Figure 4.23, F). The fruits are sweet and very popular to Gazans. The ripen fruits are also edible by different species of birds and fruit bats. Leaves could be used to feed livestock. Medicinally; the fruits are used to treat constipation, diabetes, fever, headache and sore eyes.

Christ's Thorn Jujube, Zizyphus spina–christi Christ's Thorn Jujube is an evergreen shrub that has short spines along the branches (Figure 4.23, G).In spite of its common occurrence in local cemeteries and orchard borders, the plant is rarely planted in Gaza streets including the targeted ones (n = 5). Leaves are alternate and oval. Flowers are small yellow-green. The fruits are very sweet and edible. Many elderly person have been seen selling the ripen fruits to people in markets and in front of children schools. The fruits are an important source for many bird species that usually eat the whole fruit and regurgitate seeds intact, expanding the seeds in the best conditions for germination (ornitochory).

Figure (‎4.23): Order of Rosales A: Weeping Fig (FaNTi aataii), B: Rubber Fig (Ficus elastic), C: Benjamin Fig 'Starlight' (Ficus benjamina starlight), D: Fig Tree (Ficus carica), E: Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus), F: Red Mulberry (Morus rubaram) and G: Christ's Thorn Jujube (Zizyphus spina-christi)

66 Jacarand,Jacaranda mimosifolia Jacarand is an ornamental deciduous or evergreen tree that reach to 5-10 m tall.It is widely grown in urban areas worldwide. Only one sample has been recorded in Al- Jalaa Street. Its main distinguishing feature is its spectacular lavender blue blooms which have led to its popularity as an ornamental and shade tree (Figure 4.24, A). Leaves are twice-pinnately compound. Flowers are beautiful, lavender blue, tubular, appear in dense terminal clusters. The fruit is round, flat, reddish brown and woody capsule that contain numerous small winged seeds.

Wild-Olive, Olea oleaster Wild Olive is superficially similar to short domesticated olive trees. Their leaves are slightly smaller and can tolerate cold, drought and diseases. As many as eight individuals have been recorded in Al-Jalaa Streetand Street 8 (Figure 4.24, B).Wild Olive has small fruits. The plant is still planted in the Gaza Strip.

Common Olive, Olea europaea Common Olive is a historical evergreen tree in the Mediterranean region including Palestine and the neighboring countries (Figure 4.24, C). It is a holly Qur'anic tree that has been mentioned many times in many Suras. Olive trees are symbolic of Palestinians‟ attachment to their land. Because the trees are draught-resistant and grow under poor soil conditions, they represent Palestinian resistance and resilience. The fact that olive trees live and bear fruit for thousands of years is parallel to Palestinian history and continuity on the land. Many varieties are grown in vast areas in Palestine, and hence the Gaza Strip; especially the Surri and K 18. As many as 57 individuals have been recorded in the targeted streets. Leaves are oblong silvery green in color. Olive fruits are widely used as a relish and flavoring for foods. The olive oil is a mono-unsaturated fat and its regular consumption is thought among the Palestinians to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. The oil is also used internally as a laxative and to treat peptic ulcers. It is used externally to treat purities and burns. Nowadays, there is a strong belief among the Palestinians that the leaves of the plant are a good hypoglycemic agent which can reduce the blood sugar to reasonable levels. From an ecological point of view, many bird species have been

67 recorded in the olive orchards prevailing in the Gaza Strip. These include the Graceful Prinia (Prinia gracilis), Olivaceous Warbler (Hippolais pallida), and Olive- tree Warbler (Hippolais olivetorum). It is worth mentioning that many nests of the Palestine Sunbird Nectarinia osea containing three white small eggs were found hanging among the small leaves of olive trees in olive orchards in many areas of the Gaza Strip.

Golden Dewdrop, Duranta erecta Golden Dewdrop is an ornamental shrub that grows in parks and streets in the Gaza Strip. The plant grows to 4 m in height and can spread to an equal width. As many as 107 individuals have been recorded in the targeted streets of the Gaza city. The leaves are light green, elliptic to ovate and the flowers are light-blue produced in tightclusters (Figure 4.23, D). Fruits are small globs and sometimes noted eaten by songbirds. It is often used as a specimen shrub or in a hedge or windbreak.

Boobialla, MtiiioT iEooitTm Boobialla is an ornamental shrub that is locally noted to reach 2 m in height. Only two plants have been recorded in Ansar Square in western Jamal Abdel Naser Street. The plant is found to be grown in ornamental nurseries in the Gaza city. The leaves are egg-shaped, thick and smooth (Figure 4.24, E). White flowers with purple spots appear in clusters. The plant may be used as a fast-growing hedge or a windbreak which withstands coastal winds and drought.

Butterfly Bush,Buddleja americana Butterfly Bushis a wonderful ornamental woody shrub that grows to 2–5 m in height. It is the most widespread of all the Buddleja species native to the Americas. Only one plant has been recorded in Ansar Square in western in Jamal Abdel Naser Street. The plant is found to be grown in ornamental nurseries in the Gaza city. The leaves vary greatly in size and shape (Figure 4.24, F).

Figure (‎4.24): Order of Lamiales; A: Jacarand (Jacaranda mimosifolia), B: Wild Olive (Olea oleaster), C: Common Olive (Olea europaea), D: Golden Dewdrop (Duranta erecta), E: Boobialla ( MtiiioT iEooitT (, F: Butterfly Bush (Buddleja americana)

Pencil Tree, Euphorbia tirucalli PencilTree is an ornamental, many-branched, succulent and cactus-like milky tree that is devoid of spines. It can grow to 3-5 m tall. Only three individuals have been recorded in Jamal Abdel Naser Street and Street 8. The branches are cylindrical,

69 smooth and glabrous-green, and less than 1 cm in diameter (Figure 4.25). The bushy and spineless branches of the plant are used for nesting and roosting of many passerine birds. Gazans mentioned that the plant can be used to treat asthma, cough, rheumatism and toothache.

Figure (‎4.25): Order of Malpighiales, Pencil Tree (Euphorbia tirucalli)

Philippines Medusa (Red Hot Cat's Tail), Acalypha hispida Philippines Medusa is an ornamental shrub that reaches 3 m tall. Four plants have been recorded in Al-Shuhadaa Street only. The leaves areevergreen, oval and coarsely toothed. The female plant bears pistillate flowers which range in color from purple to bright red.

Veranera (Great Bougainvillea), Bougainvillea spectabilis Veranera (Great Bougainvillea) is an ornamental vine or shrub growing to 3-10 m. The plant's growth habit and beautiful showy bracts make it a popular plant for different landscapes in the Palestinian environment. It is commonly planted everywhere in the Gaza Strip including homes, gardens, parks and streets (Figure 4.26). In the current study, the species has been only recorded in Jamal Abdel Naser Street (n =54). The leaves are green and heart-shaped and the stems are pubescent. The flowers are small, tubular and white, typically in clusters of three, surrounded by three papery bracts. These bracts vary in color from magenta and purple to orange, white and yellow.When growing as a vine, the plantuses its thorns to cling to and climb up trees. The plant usually prefers full sun but it can grow in

70 half shade. It needs light watering which is fit to the situation of the Gaza Strip which suffers from water shortage crisis. The plant can be locally used as a hedge and people can shape it over time until it takes the form they need. From an ecological point of view, the plant can attract both birds, e.g. sunbirds and insects, e.g. butterflies, for nectar and pollination purposes. Finally, regular pruning is necessary to shape the plant and direct its growth because the shoots often grow vigorously.

Figure (‎4.26): Order of Caryophyllales, Veranera (Bougainvillea spectabilis)

Japanese Pittosporum, Pittosporum tobira The Japanese Pittosporum is a beautiful evergreen shrub which can reach 2 m tall. It is commonly planted in different locations in the Gaza Strip such as gardens, parks, hospitals, universities and streets. Only two plants have been recorded in Al- Shuhadaa Street. The leaves are oval in shape, leathery and hairless. The inflorescence is a cluster at the ends of branches. Flowers are gray-green and cream (Figure 4.27). The fruit is a hairy, woody capsule that contains black seeds. This shrub is known to be tolerant to drought and salinity as told by nursery owners.

Figure (‎4.27): Order of Apiales, C: Japanese Pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira)

4.8 Qur'anic Species

More than 20 plant species (trees, shrubs and herbs) are mentioned in the Holy Book of Muslims, the "Qur'an", of which 19 are medicinal plants (Al Hadi and Baraka, 1998). These include: Camphor, Date palm, Fig, Ginger, Grape, Garlic, Lentil, Olive, Onion, Pomegranate, Summer squash, Sweet basil, Athel tamarisk, Tooth-Brush Tree (Arak), Mustard, Acacia, Cucumber, leek, and Cedrus. Of the 45 species of trees and shrubs recorded in the current study, only five (11.11%) are Qur'anic plants. They are as follows:

Table (‎4.3): Street trees and shrubs mentioned in the Holy Qur'an.

Scientific Verse NameCommon Surah Verse Name No.

ُ َّ َ ْ َ َ َ ْ ْ َ ) َْٔ َٕ ان ِزي أَض َل ِي ٍَ ان َّس ًَا ِء َيا ًء فأخ َشجُا Date Palm* Phoenix Al- 99 تِ ِّ َثَا َخ ُك ِّم َش ًْ ٍء فَأَ ْخ َش ْجَُا ِي ُُّْ َخ ِض ًشا dactylifera Anam َُ ْخ ِش ُج ِي ُُّْ َحثًّا ُيتَ َشا ِكثًا َٔ ِي ٍَ انَُّ ْخ ِم ِي ٍْ َط ْه ِعَٓا قِ ُْ َٕا ٌٌ َداٍََِحٌ َٔ َجَُّا ٍخ ِي ٍْ أَ ْعَُا ٍب َٔان َّض ٌْتُٕ ٌَ َٔان ُّش َّيا ٌَ ُي ْشتَثًِٓا َٔ َغ ٍْ َش ُيتَ َشاتِ ٍّ ۗ ا َْظُ ُشٔا إِنَ ٰى ثَ ًَ ِش ِ إِ َرا أَ ْث ًَ َش ٌََٔ ُْ ِع ِّ ۚ إِ ٌَّ فًِ ٰ َرنِ ُك ْى ٌَََا ٍخ نِقَ ْٕ ٍو ٌُ ْؤ ِي ٌُٕ(.

72 Scientific Verse NameCommon Surah Verse Name No.

And it is He who sends down rain from tky, and We produce thereby the growth of all things. We produce from it greenery from which We produce grains arranged in layers. And from the palm trees - of its emerging fruit are clusters hanging low. And [We produce] gardens of grapevines and olives and pomegranates, similar yet varied. Look at [each of] its fruit when it yields and [at] its ripening. Indeed in that are signs for a people who believe.

َ َ ْ َ َ ْ ْ َ َ ْ ْ ْ )فأع َش ُضٕا فأس َسهُا َعهٍ ِٓ ْى َسٍ َم ان َع ِش ِو Tamarisk Tamarix Saba 16 َٔتَ َّذ ْنَُاُْ ْى تِ َجَُّتَ ٍْ ِٓ ْى َجَُّ َت ٍْ ٍِ َر َٔاتَ ًْ أُ ُك ٍم َخ ًْ ٍظ .spp َٔأَ ْث ٍم َٔ َش ًْ ٍء ِي ٍْ ِس ْذ ٍس قَهٍِم(. But they turned away [refusing], so We sent upon them the flood of the dam, and We replaced their two [fields of] gardens with gardens of bitter fruit, tamarisks and something of sparse lote trees.

) َٔانتٍِّ ٍِ َٔان َّض ٌْتٌُٕ(. Fig Tree Ficus At-Tin 1 carica

73 Scientific Verse NameCommon Surah Verse Name No.

By the fig and the olive.

) ِع ُْ َذ ِس ْذ َس ِج ا ْن ًُ ُْتََٓ ٰى(. Christ'sThorn ** Zizyphus An- 14 Jujube spina– Najm christi At the Lote Tree of the Utmost Boundary.

) ََّّللاُ َُٕ ُس ان َّس ًَا َٔا ِخ َٔا ْْلَ ْس ِض ۚ َيثَ ُم َُٕ ِس ِ Olive*** Olea Nur 35 َك ًِ ْش َكا ٍج فٍَِٓا ِي ْصثَا ٌح ۖ ا ْن ًِ ْصثَا ُح فًِ europaea

ُص َجا َج ٍح ۖ ان ُّض َجا َجحُ َكأََََّٓا َك ْٕ َك ٌة ُد ِّس ٌّي ٌُٕقَ ُذ

ِي ٍْ َش َج َش ٍج ُيثَا َس َك ٍح َص ٌْتُٕ َ ٍح ََل َش ْشقٍَِّ ٍح َٔ ََل َغ ْشتٍَِّ ٍح ٌَ َكا ُد َص ٌْتَُٓا ٌُ ِضً ُء َٔنَ ْٕ نَ ْى تَ ًْ َس ْسُّ َا ٌس ۚ َُٕ ٌس َعهَ ٰى َُٕ ٍس ۗ ٌَ ْٓ ِذي ََّّللاُ نِ ُٕ ِس ِ َي ٍْ ٌَ َشا ُء ۚ ٌََٔ ْض ِش ُب ََّّللاُ ا ْ َْل ْيثَا َل نِهَُّا ِط ۗ َٔ َّ َّللاُ تِ ُك ِّم َش ًْ ٍء َعهٍِ ٌى(. Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The example of His light is like a niche within which is a lamp, the lamp is within glass, the glass as if it were a pearly [white] star lit from [the oil of] a blessed olive tree, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil would almost glow even if untouched by fire. Light upon light. Allah guides to His light whom He wills. And Allah presents examples for the people, and Allah is Knowing of all things.

* Date Palm is the most common plants mentioned in the Holy Qur'an (20 times). ** Christ'sThornJujube is mentioned four times in the Holy Qur'an. *** Olive is mentioned seven times in the Holy Qur'an.

74 4.9 Questionnaire Results

The present data were collected using questionnaires applied on 180 inhabitants living along the five streets selected in the current study. The tables of the data are illustrated in Appendix 4.

4.9.1 Personal profile of the research sample

Table 4 (Appendix 4) and Figure 4.28 illustrates the characteristics of the research sample (N=180) along the five streets in the Gaza city. The sex showed that 58.9% of the interviewed people were females and 41.1% were males. The age frequency showed that 21.7% of the interviewed population were less than 20 years, 42.8% from 21 to 40 years, 16.7% from 41 to 50 years and 18.9% were more than 50 years. The analysis of the educational level showed that the majority of the interviewed people 72.8% had Bachelor degrees, 7.2% had Diploma degrees, and only 1.1% had Master degrees. The rest had secondary levels or less. For marital status, the survey pointed out that 56.1% of the interviewed population were married, and the rest 43.9% were single. In general, 51.1% of the interviewed people have children. With regard to profession, about one-third of the interviewed population (33.3%) were university students, 32.2% were employees, and 18.9% were unemployed. The rest was either practitioners or workers.

75 A B

C D

E Figure (‎4.28): the characteristics of the research sample (N=180) along the five streets in the Gaza city: A (Sex); B (Age frequency); C (Educational level); D (Marital status) and E (Profession)

76 4.9.2 Knowledge aspects of median trees and shrubs of Gaza city streets:

Table 5 (Appendix 4) illustrates the knowledge aspects of median trees and shrubs of Gaza city streets (N=180).

4.9.2.1 The nearest main street to your house: Table 5 (Appendix 4) and Figure 4.29 showed that 22.80% of the interviewed people are living near Al-Jalaa Street, 22.20% near Jamal Abd El-Naser (Al-Thaltheeny) Street, 21.8% the near Street 8, 17.3% near Al-Shuhada Street, and finally 16.2% near Al-Aqsa Street.

Figure (‎4.29): The nearest main street to respondents' houses

4.9.2.2 The importance of median trees and shrubs for human: The results showed that 96.7% of the interviewed population believed that there is an importance of median trees and shrubs for humans (Figure 4.30). They claimed that the median trees and shrubs have the following importance: 1. People may benefit from the shade made by the canopies of median trees. During the field work, the researcher found people utilize the shade of the following trees for sitting and getting rest (Figure 4.31): Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus), Weeping Fig

77 (Ficus nitida), Red Mulberry (Morusrubaram), Royal Poinciana (Ponciana regia) and Weeping Wattle (Peltophorum africanum). 2. Some trees are utilized for their fruits as a food source: Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), Fig Tree (Ficus carica), Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus) and Christ'sThornJujube (Zizyphus spina-christi). 3. Some trees have medical importance by treating certain diseases: Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), Fig Tree (Ficus carica), Lebbeck (naibibd abiibel(, River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and Pencil Cactus (Euphorbia tirucalli). 4. They help in breaking and minimizing the impacts of cars' lights in the two opposite sides of streets. This, in turn, will help organizing the traffic and reducing road crashes. 5. Median trees and shrubs have aesthetic and psychological values by giving nice views through their green colors, nice flowers and bird attraction that links between people and nature.

Figure (‎4.30): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the importance of trees and shrubs for human

Figure (‎4.31): Some people utilize the shade of the trees for sitting and getting rest

4.9.2.3 The importance of median trees and shrubs for the environment: The results showed that 96.7% from the interviewed people believed that there is an importance for median trees and shrubs for the environment (Figure 4.32) as follows: 1. Trees and shrubs purify air from toxic gases by absorbing them on leaf surface e.g. carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. 2. Trees and shrubs can capture particulate matter and dust from the air. 3. Trees and shrubs can increase the proportion of oxygen. 4. Trees and shrubs control the climate by their cooling characteristics through shade and reflection of sun light. 5. Trees and shrubs increase the biodiversity level of the urban environment by providing food, nesting and resting sites and shelter for many insects, birds and other animal categories. 6. Trees and shrubs reduce noise pollution. 7. Trees and shrubs maintain soil fertility; insects, bacteria and fungi. These organisms have a vital role in decomposing wastes and retaining the resulting elements to the soil. 8. Roots of trees and shrubs have a vital function in fixing the soil and preventing soil erosion.

Figure (‎4.32): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the importance of trees and shrubs for environment

4.9.2.4 Fruit trees and shrubs in median streets: The results showed that 55.6% of the interviewed population claimed that there are many fruit trees and shrubs implanted in the median streets and can be harvested by local people (Figure 4.33). The example they mentioned included the Common Olive (Olea europaea), Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), Fig Tree (Ficus carica), Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus), Christ'sThornJujube (Zizyphus spina-christi), Red Mulberry (Morus rubaram) and Brazilian Pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius).

Figure (‎4.33): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the fruit median trees and shrubs

80 4.9.2.5 Preference of planting median fruit trees and shrubs: The results showed that 72.8% from the interviewed population did not prefer the planting ofmedianfruit trees and shrubs, and 27.2% of them prefer this (Figure 4.34). Those who did not prefer such a planting mentioned the following reasons for their thoughts: 1. The fruits of median trees and shrubs may be polluted with various road pollutants. 2. The fruits may attract insects, rodents, bats and livestock, thus causing nuisance to people and traffic. 3. Fruit trees and shrubs may increase traffic accidents when people; particularly children, try to catch the fruits. 4. Fruit trees and shrubs may increase the level of waste when the fruit fall down on the ground (Figure 4.35). While those who preferred the planting ofmedianfruit trees and shrubs mentioned the following reasons for their thoughts: 1. Fruit trees and shrubs are a food source for human, livestock and birds. 2. Fruit trees and shrubs may be used medically to treat many illnesses. The examples are Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) (Figure 4.36), Aloe (Aloe succotrina), Fig Tree (Ficus carica), Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus) and Christ'sThornJujube (Zizyphus spina–christi).

Figure (‎4.34): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the prefer planting trees and shrubs in median streets

Figure (‎4.35): The fruits of the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) may increase the level of waste in street medians if not harvested in a proper way

Figure (‎4.36): The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is a fruit tree grown in many Gaza streets

4.9.2.6 The economic importance of the median trees and shrubs: The results showed that 73.9% of the interviewed population did not believe in the economic importance of the median trees and shrubs; while the rest (26.1%) believed in such an importance (Figure 4.37). Those who believed mentioned the following economic importance of many tree or shrub species as follows:

82 1. Common Olive (Olea europaea) can be consumed in olive, olive oil, soap and cosmeticsproduction. 2. The River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) can be a source of timber and wood. The species is a good source of nectar for Honeybees as well. 3. Decoration trees; People said that used for decorating streets, attractive view, woods and reduction of accidents. 4. The fruits of the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) are commonly eaten fresh. The fronds are commonly used in building and decorative purposes. 5. The wood of the Evergreen Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) may be used as a fuel source. 6. The leaves of Ficus spp. may be used for feeding the livestock.

Figure (‎4.37): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the economic importance of the median trees and shrubs

4.9.2.7 The medical importance of median trees and shrubs: The results showed that 51.1% of the interviewed population believed in the medical importance of median trees and shrubs, and 48.9% did not believe (Figure 4.38). They claimed that median trees and shrubs have the following medical importance: 1. The leaves of the Common Olive (Olea europaea) can be used as antibiotics and for treating cough and heart attacks. The olive oil is traditionally used for massage and curing skin diseases.

83 2. The leaves of the Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus) can be used as antibiotic and in treating diabetes and cough. 3. The leaves of the Red Mulberry (Morus rubaram) can be used in curing cough and diabetes 4. The Fig Tree (Ficus carica) can be used as an antibiotic or a laxative. It can be used in curing skin diseases, diabetes, grain and wounds. 5. The leaves of the River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) can be used in curing cough, respiratory diseasesand fever. 6. The leaves of the Evergreen Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) can be used in curing dysentery and as antiseptic for wounds. 7. The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) traditionally can be used for easy delivery to pregnant women and for the treatment of constipation. 8. The leaves of the Aloe (Aloe succotrina) can be used for curing skin diseases, and against sun burns. 9. The leaves and fruits of the Christ'sThornJujube (Zizyphus spina-christi) can be used for curing cough, and face and hair problems 10. The leaves and flowers of Royal Poinciana (Ponciana regia) can be used for curing diabetes

Figure (‎4.38): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the medical median trees and shrubs

84 4.9.2.8 The most important features preferred by local people for median trees and shrubs 1. Trees and shrubs that tolerate salinity and the lack of water. 2. Trees and shrubs that is configurable in different forms. 3. Long trees like palm trees, river red-gum tree (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and Evergreen cypress (Cupressus sempervirens). 4. Trees and shrubs that is decorative and always green. 5. Trees and shrubs that are endemic to Palestine such as Olive (Olea europaea), Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus), Fig Tree (Ficus carica) and Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera). 6. Trees and shrubs that have nice flowers such as the Hibiscus sp., Callistemon (Callistemon citrinus), Boobialla (MmaiaeTy ibeeduTy), Butterfly Bush (Buddleja americana) and Pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira). 7. Trees and shrubs that have shadows such as Ficus tree species.

4.9.3 Threats facing the median trees and shrubs Table 6 (Appendix 4) illustrates the threats that face the median trees and shrubs (N=180).

4.9.3.1 Damage caused by median trees and shrubs on the streets infrastructure: The results showed that 66.1% of the interviewed population did not believe that median trees and shrubs cause damage on the streets infrastructure, and 33.9% of them believed (Figure 4.39). Those who believed claimed that median trees and shrubs can cause damage to the infrastructure as follows: 1. Median trees and shrubs can break down water and sewage lines. 2. They may clog sewage lines as a result of secondary root growth (Figure 4.40). 3. They can cause cracks in the earth's sidewalks because of their root growth.

Figure (‎4.39): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the damage caused by median trees and shrubs on the street infrastructure

Figure (‎4.40): Trees clog sewage lines as a result of secondary roots growth

4.9.3.2 The role of median trees and shrubs in causing traffic accidents: The results showed that 50.6% of the interviewed population did not believe that median trees and shrubs can cause an increase in traffic accidents, and 49.4% of them believed (Figure 4.41). Those who believed claimed that median trees and shrubsmay obstruct vehicular light traffic, obscure the visibility between drivers and pedestrians, and increase clash and run over accidents.

Figure (‎4.41): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the role of median trees and shrubs in causing traffic accidents

4.9.3.3 Risks threatening median trees and shrubs: The results showed that 68.9% of the interviewed population believed on the risks threatening median trees and shrubs (Figure 4.42) as follows: 1. Median trees and shrubs are sometimes tampered and destroyed by citizens. 2. Children sometimes destroy and uproot median trees and shrubs. 3. Overgrazing on median trees and shrubs caused by livestock in times pastures are lacking in the Gaza Strip. 4. Median trees and shrubs are not irrigated continuously. Some of the irrigation pipes were found cut off (Figure 4.43). 5. The environmental pollution enhanced by automobile exhaust, garbage burning and solid waste disposal (Figure 4.43). 6. Salinization of both water and soil which is considered as a vital problem in the Gaza Strip. 7. Mismanagement of median trees and shrub by the responsible municipalities. 8. Some street trees and shrubs were completely uprooted or destroyed by the missiles shot by the Israeli army. 9. Weakness of environmental and ecological awareness among citizens.

Figure (‎4.42): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on risks threatening median street trees and shrubs

Figure (‎4.43): Cutting off of water pipes and solid waste disposal threaten median trees and shrubs

88 4.9.3.4 Watching of Solid wastes surrounding median trees and shrubs: The majority of the interviewed population (79.4%) claimed that they usually see different sorts of solid wastes accumulating beside median trees and shrubs (Figure 4.44). According to the respondents, the source of these wastes is: 1. Municipal wastes coming from houses, restaurants, factories and shops. In many places, the containers of solid waste collection were put in the street medians (Figure 4.45). 2. Dropping or manure of animals standing beside median trees and shrubs (Figure 4.46). 3. Wastes representing the accumulating leaves and fruits of trees and shrubs (Figure 4.47).

The hazards of solid waste accumulation in street medians are collectively summarized as follows: 1. Solid wastes usually attract dogs, cats, rodents, and insects. These animals may represent an actual source of epidemics and diseases 2. Solid wastes usually pollute the surrounding environment including streets. 3. Solid wastes can distort the urban view and make the streets smelly (visual and olfactory pollutions). 4. Solid wastes may damage or hinder the growth of trees and shrubs if these wastes are hazardous or containing harmful chemicals. 5. Solid waste; if burned may cause fires and harmful impacts on vegetation.

Figure (‎4.44): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on notice the solid waste beside the median trees and shrubs

Figure (‎4.45): Garbage containers are put in street medians

Figure (‎4.46): Droppings of animals pollute the vicinity of median trees and shrubs

Figure (‎4.47): The accumulation of leaves and other waste items distort the urban view

4.9.3.5 Pests attacking median trees and shrubs: The results showed that 70.6% of the interviewed population believed on the agricultural pests attacking the median plants and shrubs (Figure 4.48). The followings are examples of such pests: 1. Worms and snails can destroy leaves and fruits and damage roots. 2. Harmful insects e.g. Aphid can destroy leaves, and cause growth retardation and bad smell for trees. 3. The Red Palm Weevill (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus) decays Palm trunks and cause loss in Palm numbers. Nowadays, this insect pest attack causes great

91 losses in Date Palm trees in the Gaza Strip and many efforts have been adopted by the responsible parties to combat it. 4. Termites can destroy leaves and fruits of many median plants. 5. Downy Mildew can destroy leaves of many median plants. 6. Birds and mammals sometimes attack the leaves and fruits of median trees and shrubs. Examples are: The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), Yellow- vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus goiavier), and the Egyptian Fruit Bat (Roussettus aegyptiacus).

Figure (‎4.48): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) concerning the pests attacking median trees and shrubs

4.9.3.6 Aggression towards median trees and shrubs: The results of the current study showed that 62.8% of the interviewed population believed on the aggression made by people towards median trees and shrubs (Figure 4.49). They mentioned many species of trees and shrubs attacked or aggressed as follows: 1. The Date Palm trees (Phoenix dactyliferaa) are usually attacked because of its fruits and leaves or fronds (Sa'af). 2. The River Red-gum trees (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) can be attacked to get its timber to be used for fuel.

92 3. Sycamore fig (Ficus sycomorus), Mulberry (Morus rubaram), Olive trees (Olea europaea) and Christ‟s thorn- Jujube (Zizyphus spina-Christi) can be attackedbecause of their fruits, leaves and woods. 4. Rose Trees can be attacked for fun and beauty such as the Hibiscus sp., Callistemon (Callistemon citrinus), Boobialla (MmaiaeTy ibeeduTy), Butterfly Bush (Buddleja americana) and Pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira).

Figure (‎4.49): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the aggression made towards median trees and shrubs

4.9.4 The rule of median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements

Table 7 (Appendix4) illustrates the rule of median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements (N=180).

4.9.4.1 Rule for trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements:

The results showed that 86.7% of the interviewed population believed that there is a rule for median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements (Figure 4.50). In this regard four of organisms were attracting median trees and shrubs as biodiversity elements as follows:

93 1. Mammals: such as Sheep, Goats, Cats, Rats, Mice, Donkeys, Horses, Mules, Dogs and Bats. 2. Birds: such as Pigeons, House Sparrow, Barn Swallow, Wild Birds, Atlantic Canary, Woodpecker and Owl. 3. Reptiles: such as Turkish Gecko, Mediterranean Chameleon, Snakes and Lizards. 4. Insects: such as Ladybug, Mosquitoes, Flies, Bees, Beetles, Locusts, Gnat, Ants, Worms and Cockroaches.

Figure (‎4.50): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on attracting animal biodiversity elements of median street trees and shrubs

As far as the benefits of biodiversity element are concerned, the results showed that 76.1% of the interviewed population believed that there are benefits of the organisms that attracting median trees and shrubs (Figure 4.51) as biodiversity elements as follows: 1. The Bees helped for pollinate flowers or transfer pollen and absorb nectar. 2. These organisms increase the environmental biodiversity. 3. The birds are tweets in different sounds. 4. These organisms eliminate some of harmful insects as biological control. 5. These organisms exchange food through the symbiotic relationship. 6. The manure of these animals was used as a fertilizer for median trees and shrubs.

Figure (‎4.51): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on benefits of organism

With regard to the risks imposed by these biodiversity elements, the results showed that 54.4% of the interviewed population believed that there are risks from those organisms, and 45.6% did not believe (Figure 4.52). There are many risks that attract median trees and shrubs as biodiversity elements they mentioned as follows: 1. Some of organisms transfer of contagious diseases and epidemics like Cats, Rats, Mice, Mosquitoes and Flies. 2. Some of organisms can cause an environmental pollution 3. Some of organisms can cause impeded or crisis traffic specially Sheep, Goats, Donkeys and Horses. 4. These organisms distorted the landscape of plants. 5. These organisms feed on leaves and fruits that cause damage and weaken in the growth of trees and shrubs like Bats, Beetles, Locusts, Gnat, Ants, Worms and, Snakes and Lizards.

Figure (‎4.52): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on risks of organisms

4.9.5 Management and conservation of median trees and shrubs

Table 8 (Appendix 4) illustrates the management and preservation measures adopted by Municipality of Gaza toward median trees and shrubs (N=180).

4.9.5.1 Municipal management of median trees and shrubs The results showed that 54.4% of the interviewed population believed that the municipality plays a good role in protecting and pruning of median trees and shrubs as follows (Figure 4.53): 1. It supplies median trees and shrubs with water lines to ensure good irrigation. 2. It replaces the damaged trees and shrubs with new items. 3. It makes fences around median trees and shrubs for further protection. 4. It prunes median trees and shrubs. 5. It controls the pests infecting trees and shrubs with pesticides.

Figure (‎4.53): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the municipal make protection and pruning for median trees and shrubs

4.9.5.2 Use of treated sewage in irrigating median trees and shrubs: The results showed that 60% of the interviewed population believed in irrigating median trees and shrubs using treated sewage (Figure 4.54) due to the following reasons: 1. Treated sewage often contains significant amounts of organic and inorganic nutrients (nitrogen and phosphate) as a fertilizer source. 2. The use of treated sewage in agricultural irrigation can reduce the pressure imposed on groundwater. 3. Treated sewage can offer a non-conventional water resource in the Gaza Strip in times the Gaza Strip suffers from water shortage and mismanagement.

The 40% of interviewed population who did not support the use of treated sewage in irrigating median trees and shrubs claimed that: 1. Treated sewage is studded with pathogens (viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminthes). 2. Treated sewage may contain trace contaminants and heavy metals that may damage the trees and shrubs. 3. The salinity and pH of treated sewage can damage both the soil and the median trees and shrubs.

97 4. Treated sewage can attract harmful and annoying insects such as mosquitoes, flies and cockroaches.

Figure (‎4.54): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on support using treated sewage in irrigating median trees and shrubs

4.9.5.3 Most common ways in irrigating median trees and shrubs: The results in (Figure 4.55) showed that 42.8% and 28.9% of the interviewed population believed in using dripping and water cars respectively in irrigating median trees and shrubs, while 26.1% believed in using both methods.

Figure (‎4.55): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the most common ways in irrigating median trees and shrubs

98 4.9.5.4 The use of Fertilizers for median trees and shrubs: The results showed that 92.8% of the interviewed population believed that fertilizers have never been used for median trees and shrubs (Figure 4.56). The rest ensured the use of manure, compost and other chemical fertilizers.

Figure (‎4.56): Response of the surveyed population (N=180) on the fertilizers used for supporting of planting median trees and shrubs

4.9.5.5 Maintenance of median trees and shrubs Finally, when asked on how to maintain a good health for median trees and shrubs, the majority of interviewed suggested the following measures: 1. To avoid tree and shrub cutting by local people. 2. To avoid tree and shrub grazing by livestock. 3. To surround the fruits of many trees like Date Palm by suitable nets 4. To adopt regular and organized irrigation and pruning methods. 5. To use eco-friendly fertilizers and pesticides. 6. To plant new species that suitable for street and Gaza Strip environment. 7. To allow people to plant and take care on median trees and shrubs.

5 Chapter V Discussion

Chapter V Discussion Species Recorded Different assemblages of median trees and shrubs species have been encountered during this study in the targeted five streets of Gaza City. A total of 4060 individual trees and shrubs belonging to 45 species and 25 families were identified and recorded (Table 4.1). A similar study pointed out that a total number of 2291 individual trees and shrubs belongingto 35 species and 16 families were recorded in five major roads in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Sretheran et al., 2011).

The majority of the currently recoded trees and shrubs (43 species; 95.56%) were found to be Angiosperms, and only two species (4.44%) were found to be Gymnosperms as shown in(Figure 4.3). Angiospermsare usually prefered because of their nice flowers and fruits. They provide food to humans, livestock and wildlife. Their hardwood can be used in many different ways and for different purposes. In contrast, Gymnosperms which form the conifer group are commonly used for their lumber only (Moro and Westerkamp, 2011).

The current study prevailed that eight species (17.39%) of median trees and shrubs were described as native, while the rest species 37 (80.43%) are exotic (Figure 4.4 and Table 4.1). These figures may coincide with a study that was conducted by Moro et al. (2014). They pointed out that exotic species represented 61.8% of all individuals sampled in public spaces as an ornamental or fruit plants in Fortaleza, Brazail, while the native species were represented by 38.2%, where most of them were described as spontaneous or self-established. A study carried out by Ferrini and Fini (2011) showed that the native species may not be the best choice for urban planting because of altered environmental conditions within the town. Native species have advantage of being climatically suited and live in some equilibrium with native pest organisms such as insects and fungi. The use of local natives promotes biodiversity and creation of wildlife corridors, reinforces sense of place, and can be very drought and exposure resistant. Exotics may be almost completely free of native pests and diseases but run therisk of being devastated if other

101 exotic pests are accidentally introduced. An important advantage of exotics in the urban context is that they include many useful deciduous trees which provide greater solar access to the streets through the winter months (Moro et al. 2014 and Woollahara, 2014).

The result of the current study (Figure 4.6 and Table 4.2) showed that the Oleander (Nerium oleander) was the most common species in the targeted streets, followed by the River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), California Fan Palm (Washingtonia filifera), Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), Hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa) and Weeping Fig (Ficus nitida). The value of the Oleander comes from its evergreen foliage and as a result, it is commonly and extensively used as an ornamental plant in land scapes and parks, and along roadsides as well. It is tolerant to many environmental conditions including poor soils, drought, air pollution and water shortage (Huxley et al., 1992). The species produces secondary metabolites, some of which are of pharmacological interests (Zibbu and Batra, 2010). The plant is unpalatable by grazing animals as it is known locally as a highly poisonous to humans and animals.

The planting of the River Redgum in streets and other places in the Gaza Strip comes from the facts that its timber is an excellent source of fuel wood and charcoal (Boland, 1984). The plant has a fast growth rate, and its flowers are a good source of nectar for honey production (Abd Rabou et al. 2008). From a medical point of view, the essential oil from the leaves has been used for treating coughs. The species has antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant activities in addition to its importance in repelling some species of mosquito.

California Fan Palm is growing any where its germinated seed ends up. The species requires very little water to get started, and once established require very little water to grow. This is one of the most drought tolerant palms one can grow in cultivation (Stein; 2010). These facts are very important to location like the Gaza Strip which suffers from water shortage and salinity. Staying with Palms, the Date Palm is highly versatile. It tolerates harsh weathers and high level of salinity. In addition, it

102 can increase the biodiversity level in the Gaza Strip because it attracts many wildlife species for nesting, restingand feeding purposes (Abd Rabou et al. 2008).

Hopbush is a highly variable evergreen shrub or small tree with several subspecies and varieties. Many characteristics of the species may stand behind its selection to be planted in roads and green spaces in the Gaza Strip. This species prefers well- drained soils. It can tolerate part shade, dry conditions, rocky soils, salt spray, windy areas, and drought conditions.The species needs little maintenance (Australian National Botanical Gardens (ANBG), 2006).

Weeping Fig is the most beautiful and versatile trees for streets. Lush, dense foliage provides dense canopies of shade from strong softwood branches. It is easily pruned into any shape and size from patio trees and hedges. This tree can increase the bird diversity level in areas of its planting because it attracts the species for nesting, restingand feeding (Gilman et al., 1993).

In the current study (Table 4.3) only five (11.11%) are Qur'anic plants that mentioned in the Holy Qur'an that have many medical importance and many advantages to peoples, animals and environment. These plants are Date Palm, Tamarisk, Fig Tree, Jujube and olive. These plants are respected by Gazans and their plantation usually gives spiritual feeling to Muslims everywhere. In this regard, municipalities should be encouraged to plant such Qur'anic plants like Camphor, Athel tamarisk, Acacia, Cedrus …etc.

As many as seven species (15.56%) of fruit trees and shrubs were recorded throughout the study (Figure 4.5 and Table 4.1). They can provide food for humans. Date Palm, Brazilian Pepper, Fig tree, Sycamore Fig, Red Mulberry, Jujube and Olive are recorded fruit species. Further more, these species are beneficial in increasing wildlife biodiversity, urban vegetal biodiversity and in providing food and shelter for many animal species, especially birds (Nagendra and Gopal, 2010 and Moro, et al. 2014). In contrast, many local parties including people did not prefer the planting of fruit trees and shrubs because the fruits can pollute roads; attract insects,

103 rodents, bats and livestock. Many may increase the level of waste when the fruit fall down on the ground. These results are consistent with results of other studies (Barker, 1986 and Ferrini and Fini, 2011).

Selected tree species must have a high level of tolerance/adaptability to the environment. The unique environment of the Gaza Strip which is characterized by population explosion, crowdedness, aridity, tense atmosphere, traffic pollution, promotes the selection of species capable of retaining large quantities of dust and other pollutants produced by traffic, increasing biodiversity, reducing their vulnerability to pests and diseases (Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2011). The selection of street trees that create a more diverse landscape, give a more variety in shapes, scents, colors and tones of both the leaves and the flowers, and help to attract associated fauna is a priority in urban environments (Woollahara, 2014) and the Gaza Strip in not excluded from this ecological scenario.

In terms of the number of trees and shrubs counted (Figure 4.7 and Table 4.2), the Al-Jalaa Street had the highest number of trees and shrubs (29 species), and Street 8 had 21 species. These streets are the longest streets in Gaza City and have wide medians and human dwellings that promoted the municipality and local people to plant many plant species. In contrast, Al- Aqsa Street, which is the shortest, has the lowest number of species (only 8 species) and narrow medians.

The Moraceae was the biggest family and comprised 13% of the recorded species (Figure 4.2) that contains Ficus sp. The second biggest family was the Malvaceae and comprised 11%of the recorded species that contain Hibiscus sp. These were followed by the Fabaceae and the Apocynaceae where each of them comprised 7%. The trees and shrubs of these families are considered as very suitable in street medians. These plants like Ficus benjamina starlight, Jacaranda mimosifolia, Buddleja americana, Duranta erecta, lagonaria patersonili and Myoporum serratum have many advantages to the environment and humans which have excellent aesthetic features, suffers from water shortage and salinity, have strong crown structure, used as fast growing hedge or a windbreak, limited competition

104 with infrastructures, minimal litter of leaf and fruit and resistant to attack by pest and disease.

Questionnaire Survey Personal profile of the research sample: The proximity of the selected streets to most of universities and colleges and governmental and non-governmental work places in the Gaza City made most of the people interviewed to be of diploma or university degree holders in addition to employees. This, in turn, made the highest percentages of good knowledge towards median trees and shrubs (Yassin et al., 2002).

Knowledge aspects of median trees and shrubs of Gaza City streets: According to present data, there was a good knowledge of people towards the importance of median trees and shrubs for humans (Figure 4.30), where 96.7% of the interviewed population assured that. Most of the importance highlighted by the interviewed population were found to be more or less similar to that reported by many studies (Malavasi and Malavasi, 2001; Maco and McPherson, 2003 and Nagendra and Gopal, 2010). They mentioned that street plants provide shadow, food for people and animals, medical importance by treating certain diseases, and psychological values by giving nice views. From an environmental point of view, the importance of median trees and shrubs to the environment was highlighted by respondents as well. They can purify air, capture particulate matter and dust from the air, increase the proportion of oxygen, reduce noise pollution, control the climate by their cooling characteristics through shade and reflection of sun light, prevent soil erosion, and increase the biodiversity level of the urban environment by providing food, nesting and resting sites and shelter for many insects, birds and other animal categories. These benefits of trees and shrubs to the environment seem to be consistent with other related studies carried out by McPherson et al. (2007), Dearborn and Kark (2010) and Nagendra and Gopal (2010).

105 The mix origin of median trees and shrubs may be advantageous. Exotics may be almost completely free of native pests and diseases but run the risk of being devastated if other exotic pests are accidentally introduced. In contrast, native trees and shrubs promote biodiversity, reinforce the sense of place and can resist drought and other climatic conditions (Moro et al. 2014 and Ferrini and Fini (2011). So the medians must have the both origin to have maximum advantages and low risks. With regard to fruit trees and shrubs in the medians, 55.6% of the interviewed population ensured their presence. The harvest process of fruit trees and shrubs by local people can be dangerous in term of exposing them and other to different problem including traffic ones. Moreover, fruit trees and shrubs are known to pollute roads and grounds, attract insects, rodents, bats and livestock. Many may increase the level of waste when the fruit fall down on the ground. These results are consistent with results of other studies (Barker 1986 and Ferrini and Fini 2011).

About one-quarter (26.1%) of the interviewed population in the current study believed in the economic importance of the median trees and shrubs. The examples that were mostly mentioned by locals included the Common Olive (Olea europaea) and the River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis). They can be in different ways including food, oil, timber and wood. The River Redgum is a good source of nectar for Honeybees as stated by Abd Rabou et al. (2008). Other direct or indirect economic uses of street trees and shrubs were pointed out by Maco and McPherson (2003). They reported the economic importance of trees and shrubs as they help to make the city more beautiful and increase the value of homes. The shade and microclimate generated by street trees and shrubs reduce the amount of energy consumed by air conditioning and increase the attractiveness of businesses and tourism areas.

The results showed that 51.1% of the interviewed population believed on the medical importance of median trees and shrubs. Traditionally, dozens of the Palestinian flora and plants have been stated to be of medical importance (Abu-Shanab et al., 2004; Elmanama et al., 2011; and Husein et al., 2014). The examples mentioned in the current study, like Common Olive (Olea europaea), Sycamore Fig (Ficus

106 sycomorus), Fig tree (Ficus carica), Red Mulberry (Morus rubaram) and River Redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) are respected much by the Palestinian community.

The criteria preferred by respondents regarding the selection of median trees and shrubs were more or less consistent with the studies of Harris et al. (2004) and Schutzki and Tripp (2008) in the sense that they must tolerate salinity and lack of water, configurable in different forms, give nice flowers and have shadows. They also must have strong crown structure, rapid growth rate, deep root, limited competition with infrastructures, minimal litter of leaf and fruit and resistant to attack by pests and diseases.

Threats facing the median trees and shrubs: Although 66.1% of the interviewed population did not believe on the damages caused by median trees and shrubs on the streets infrastructure (Figure 4.40), many studies carried out by Hauer et al. (1994),Gorman (2004), and Prioleau (2010) confirmed such damages as they may break down water and sewage lines, clog sewage lines as a result of secondary root growth and cracks in the earth's sidewalks because of their root growth. Although about 50.0% of the interviewed population believed that median trees and shrubs can cause an increase in traffic accidents, the rest 50.0% said the opposite. All types of roadside treatments positively affected vehicle safety outcomes and some research showed decrease in crash rates across highway sites (Mok et al., 2006).

The risks threatening median trees and shrubs (Figure 4.43) as indicated by 68.9% of interviewed population were the logging and uprooting are the most famous problem to the trees and shrubs that destroyed or cut for wood and timber production as mentioned for Tamarisks, Eucalyptus and other plants by citizen that have bad impact to the environment. So citizen must increase environmental and ecological awareness by municipalities. Although, overgrazing by livestock could harm or destroy trees and shrubs and could be detrimental to the sustainability of median trees and shrubs (Belsky et al. 1999). Salinization is another harmful and

107 vital problem in Gaza Strip to trees and shrubs that is reduces water availability for plant use. High salt levels hinder water absorption. The soil may contain adequate water, but plants roots are unable to absorb inducing physiological drought in the plant (Ali et al. 2014).

The results showed that 79.4% of respondents (Figure 4.45) Shaw different sorts of solid waste coming from houses, restaurants, factories and shops accumulating beside median trees and shrubs. Besides potential health hazards, these wastes may enhance people; especially children to make fires and some explosions, which in turn, result in vegetation damage, unpleasant odors, landfill settlement, air pollution and global warming as pointed out by El-Fadel et al. (1997). The accumulation of solid wastes in street medians is a suitable environment to attract annoying insects, rodents, cats, dogs, and as a result pollutes the streets and threatens the public health. Insects and other pests can badly damage plant roots, stems, leaves, flowers and seeds. As claimed by 70.6% of interviewed population (Figure 4.49) numerous of agricultural pests as various species of aphids will attack most trees and shrubs that massed on stems and flowers as well as leaves. Some pests will either eat holes in the leaves or eat part or all of the leaf like slugs and snails are a particular problem in mild weather. Although, earwigs are especially fond of dahlias, chrysanthemums and clematis, causing ragged holes to appear in the petals. Also, people claimed that ants and mice causing damage to seeds especially fruit trees and shrubs. The worms which can cause extensive damage and boring holes into the roots of plants. So the risks of these pests are mentioned in the study of North, and Barkley, (2014). Although, Weevil larvae can excavate holes in the trunk of a palm trees, there by weakening and eventually killing the host plant. Finally, Egyptian Fruit Bat attack fruity trees including the Date Palm.

The aggression made by people towards median trees and shrubs was apparent. All trees are commonly targeted. Special aggressions have been known to be concentrated on Date Palm trees (Phoenix dactyliferaa) and River Red-gum trees (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) because of their fronds, fruits or timber to be used for fuel as was pointed out by local studies carried out by Abd Rabou et al. (2008).

108

The role of median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements Median trees and shrubs can attract different biodiversity categories as indicated by 86.7% of interviewed population (Figure 4.51). Many studies (Fernandez, 2000 and Schutzki and Tripp, 2008) pointed out similar findings, where different species mammals, birds, reptiles and insects, along with their benefits were described. The benefits stated were the dispersal of seeds and pollen in addition to aesthetic and beauty values. Some of these attracted animals are known to cause environmental pollution, diseases transmission to trees and shrubs or humans (Schutzki and Tripp, 2008).

Management and conservation of median trees and shrubs: In the light of municipal procedure to protect median trees and shrubs that make fences around some of trees and shrubs or fences around there fruits for protection (Ferrini and fini; 2011) and prune some of trees and shrubs like weeping fig. In other side there extension and replace water lines in the medians of streets.

The use of treated sewage in the irrigation of median trees and shrubs has advantages and disadvantages to the plant itself, environment and public health. Many nutrients found in treated sewage are beneficial to the plants. However, the probable presence of pathogens and heavy metals in such treated sewage may restrict such uses as claimed by local people. The studies of Pescod (1992) and Harris et al. (2004) supported the use of treated sewage in irrigating different plants with care should be paid to the health risks due to the possibility of the presence of pathogens. Many of the ions which are harmless or even beneficial at relatively low concentrations may become toxic to plants at high concentration. In general, the potential for plant injury caused by water or treated wastewater deficits or excess can be minimized by identifying and meeting plant needs (Ferrini and Fini, 2011). Although fertilizers are rarely used to support the growth of median trees and shrubs in the Gaza City, many studies pointed out that the mulching with compost is a useful practice to improve plant growth, leaf gas exchange and leaf chlorophyll content. In addition, it has

109 beneficial effects on soil physical properties (Watson, 2002; Ferrini et al., 2005 and Ferrini et al., 2008).

Local people claimed strategy to maintain median trees and shrubs by put fences around trees and shrubs or its fruit, regular irrigation and pruning, use organic fertilizer and pesticide and raise citizen awareness on correct methods for caring trees and shrubs. Also they suggestion to choose new species of trees and shrubs, continues management to median trees and shrubs by municipality, increase awareness to local people about the important and methods for maintain median trees and shrubs.

110

6 Chapter VI Conclusion and Recommendation

Chapter VI Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1 Conclusions

The present work is composed of two parts: field and questionnaire-based surveys of median trees and shrubs in five selected streets in Gaza city, Gaza Strip. The following conclusions were reached at the end of the present work: 1. The five selected streets of Gaza city showed a considerable variation and diversity of median trees and shrubs. A total number of 4060 trees and shrubs belonging to 45 species, 25 families and 15 orders were identified and encountered. 2. The Rosales was the biggest order and comprised 16% of the recorded species. 3. Both exotic and native species of median trees and shrubs were encountered. Native species comprised 17.39%, while rest species (80.43%) were exotic. 4. The Al-Jalaa Street had the highest number of species (29) which represents 59.18% of the whole species recorded in the targeted streets. 5. The Oleander (Nerium oleander) was the most common species and constituted 38.23% of the occurrence of the recorded species. 6. The questionnaire-based survey ensured that most respondents believed on the importance of median trees and shrubs for humans and environment in addition to their vital role in attracting animal biodiversity elements, especially birds. 7. The threats facing median trees and shrubs are diverse. Destruction by citizens, overgrazing by livestock, poor irrigation, garbage disposal and burning, and mismanagement by the responsible parties are clear threats. 8. Local people showed good attitudes and advices toward conserving median trees and shrubs.

112 6.2 Recommendations

In the light of the above conclusion, the following could be recommended: 1. There is a need to increase the diversity and numbers of median trees and shrubs in streets and road of the Gaza Strip due to their vital environmental, ecological and economic values. 2. The selection of median trees and shrubs that are suitable for the local environmental challenges is recommended. Species that are tolerable to salinity and water shortage are preferred. 3. The role of municipalities and other responsible parties concerning with street trees and shrubs should be enhanced, i.e. good management tools and practices should be followed up. 4. Particular places for garbage disposal in Gaza streets should be allocated and controlled in order to protect street trees and shrubs. 5. The public environmental and/or ecological awareness to the citizens towards median trees and shrubs. 6. The environmental and ecological awareness of local people should be enhanced and motivated. . 7. Planting of both endemic and exotic trees and shrubs is recommended in order to increase biodiversity and to lower pest attacks. 8. The role of governmental and non-governmental institutions (municipalities, ministries, universities and NGOs) that can deal with horticulture and urban plantations should be encouraged and respected. 9. Creation of herbaria, botanical gardens and public parks is recommended in times the Palestinian Territories are living in tense political and military atmospheres.

113

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123 Perez-Jiménez, M., López, B., Dorado, G., Pujadas-Salvá, A., Guzmán, G. and Hernandez, P. (2012). Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Southern Spain Fig Tree (Ficus caricaL.), and Reference Materials as A tool for Breeding and Conservation. Hereditas 149: 108–113. Lund, Sweden. Eissn1601-5223. Pescod, M.(1992). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Wastewater treatment and use in agriculture - FAO irrigation and drainage paper 47, ISBN 92-5-103135-5. Prioleau, D. (2010). Do Mature Street Trees Pose a greater Hazard Risk across Socioeconomic Lines?MiddleStates Geographer, 43, 16-25. Purdue University (2003). Trees Could Affect Land Use, Reduce Skin Cancer. San Diego Earth Times. Raupp, M., Cumming, A. and Raupp, E. (2006). Street Tree Diversity in Eastern North America and Its Potential for Tree Loss to Exotic Borers. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 2006. 32(6), 297–304. Sadeghian, M. M., Vardanyan, Z. H. (2013). Criteria for Selecting Trees and Shrubs in Urban Parks of Isfahan. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences, IJACS/2013/6-8/424-427, ISSN 2227-670X. Said, O. Khalil, K. Fulder, S. & Azaizeh, H. (2002). Ethnopharmacological Survey of Medicinal Herbs in Israel. The Golan Heights and the West Bank Region. Journal of Ethnopharmacology (83),251-265. Schroeder, H., Flannigan, J. and Coles, R. (2006). Residents‟ Attitudes Toward Street Trees in the UK and U.S. Communities. Arboriculture & Urban Forestry 2006, 32 (5), 236–246. Schutzki R.E. & E.H. Tripp., (2008). Sustainable Plant Selection. The Michigan Landscape, June:55-61. SDOT= the Seattle Department of Transportation (2014). Street Tree Manual, Seattle.Washington, 59 PP. Sharma G. k. and Dubey N.(2015). Review of Shirish (Albizia lebbeck) Therapeutic Properties. International journal of ayurvedic & herbal medicine 5(1), 1683- 1688).

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125

8 Appendixes Appendix 1: Questionnaire

الجامعة اإلسالمية بغــــزة كليـــــــــــــة العلـــــــــــوم قسم العلـــوم الحياتيــــة ماجستير نبات وفطريات

رقم االستجبنخ

إستجبنخ حىل ثيئخ أشجبر و شجرياد

جزر الشىارع كعنصز تنىع حيىي حضزي يف

مذينخ غزح– فلسطني

أخي المواطن / أختي المواطنة: إن الهدف من هذه االستبانة هو جمع المعمومات من المواطنين في مدينة غزة لتقييم الوعي البيئي والمعرفي لديهم حول المنزلة الحالية و سبل اإلدارة ألشجار وشجيرات جزر الشوارع الرئيسة في مدينة غزة. لذا أرجو منك أخي المواطن/أختي المواطنة التكرم بملء هذه االستبانة بموضوعية، مع العمم بأن المعمومات المتحصل عميها ستبقى سرية وستساهم في إنجاز رسالة الماجستير الخاصة بي المتعمقة بالبيئة النباتية إنشاء اهلل تعالى ... أشكركم لحسن تعاونكم. التاريخ: ______

127 الجيبنبد الشخصيخ

الجٌس: الؼوش: الوسزْٓ الزؼل٘وٖ: الوٌِخ: الذبلخ االجزوبػ٘خ: ػذد األّالد:

2016

أوال: جىانت املعزفخ ثجيئخ أشجبر وشجرياد شىارع مذينخ غزح

1. هب اسن ألشة ضبسع سئ٘سٖ ٗطل ػلَ٘ هٌضله? ------2. ثبػزمبدن, ُل رْجذ أُو٘خ ألضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع لإلًسبى? ) أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب رله األُو٘خ? ------

3. ثبػزمبدن, ُل رْجذ أُو٘خ ألضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع للج٘ئخ? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب رله األُو٘خ? ------

4. ثبػزمبدن, هب أصل األضجبس ّ الطج٘شاد الوْجْدح فٖ جضس الطْاسع? )أ( هزْطٌخ أّ ثلذٗخ )أصلِب هي فلسط٘ي( )ة( دخ٘لخ )أصلِب هي خبسج فلسط٘ي( )ج( والُوب

128 5. ُل ْٗجذ أضجبس ّضج٘شاد هثوشح فٖ جضس الطْاسع? ) أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب ُٖ أًْاع األضجبس ّالطج٘شاد الوثوشح الزٖ رؼشفِب? ------6. ُل رذجز صساػخ األضجبس ّ الطج٘شاد الوثوشح فٖ جضس الطْاسع? ) أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن( أّ )ال( – فسش هي فضله? ------

7. ُل رؼزمذ ثْجْد أُو٘خ الزصبدٗخ ألضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, اروش أًْاػب لزله األضجبس ّالطج٘شاد هغ روش أُو٘زِب االلزصبدٗخ? الطجشح أّ الطج٘شح األُو٘خ االلزصبدٗخ

8. ُل رؼزمذ ثْجْد أضجبس ّضج٘شاد طج٘خ فٖ جضس الطْاسع ? ) أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب أًْاػِب? ّ هب أُو٘زِب الطج٘خ? الطجشح أّ الطج٘شح األُو٘خ الطج٘خ

9. ثبػزمبدن, هب أُن هو٘ضاد األضجبس ّ الطج٘شاد الزٖ رفضل صساػزِب فٖ جضس الطْاسع? ------

129 ثبنيب: املهذداد التي تىاجه أشجبر وشجرياد الشىارع

11. ُل رؼزمذ ثأى أضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع لِب ضشس ػلٔ الجٌ٘خ الزذز٘خ للطبسع? ) أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب ًْع الضشس الزٕ رذذثَ ُزٍ األضجبس ثبلجٌ٘خ الزذز٘خ? ------11. ثبػزمبدن, ُل رزسجت أضجبس ّ ضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع فٖ صٗبدح الذْادس الوشّسٗخ? ) ة( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, اروش أهثلخ ػلٔ أًْاع الذْادس? ------

12. ثبػزمبدن, ُل رْجذ هخبطش رِذد أضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فبروش أهثلخ لزله الوخبطشرجؼب ألُو٘زِب? ------

13. ُل رطبُذ ًفبٗبد صلجخ ثجْاس أضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع ? ) أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب هصذس ُزٍ الٌفبٗبد الصلجخ ثبػزمبدن? ّ هب ُٖ هخبطشُب? ------

130 14. ُل رؼزمذ ثْجْد آفبد رص٘ت أضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فأروش أهثلخ ػلٔ اٙفبد ّالوخبطش الزٖ رسججِب لألضجبس ّالطج٘شاد? اٙفخ الوخبطش

15. ثبػزمبدن, ُل ٗزن الزؼذٕ ػلٔ ثؼض األضجبس ّالطج٘شاد هي جضس الطْاسع? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(,اروش أًْاع األضجبس ّالطج٘شاد الزٖ ٗزن الزؼذٕ ػلِ٘ب? ّلوبرا? األضجبس أّ الطج٘شاد سجت الزؼذٕ

ثبلثب: دور أشجبر وشجرياد الشىارع يف اجتذاة عنبصز التنىع احليىي احليىاني

16. ُل رؼزمذ ثْجْد دّس ألضجبس ّضج٘شاد الطْاسع فٖ اجززاة ػٌبصش الزٌْع الذْٕ٘ الذْ٘اًٖ? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )رؼن( فبروش أهثلخ لؼٌبصش الزٌْع الذْٕ٘ الزٖ رجززثِب? الىبئٌبد األًْاع الثذٗ٘بد الطْ٘س الضّادف الذطشاد

17. ُل رؼزمذ ثْجْد هٌبفغ لزله الىبئٌبد الذ٘خ? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )رؼن(, فوب الوٌبفغ الزٖ رمذهِب ُزٍ الىبئٌبد الذ٘خ? ------

131 18. ُل رؼزمذ ثْجْد هخبطش لزله الىبئٌبد? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب الوخبطش الزٖ رلذمِب ُزٍ الىبئٌبد? ------

راثعب: إدارح وصىن أشجبر وشجرياد جزر الشىارع

19. ُل رزخز الجلذٗخ إجشاءاد لذوبٗخ ّ رمل٘وأضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فأروش أهثلخ للطشق الوزجؼخ فٖ رله? ------21. ُل رؤٗذ اسزخذام ه٘بٍ الصشف الصذٖ الوؼبلجخ فٖ سٕ األضجبس ّ الطج٘شاد فٖ جضس الطْاسع? ) أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن( أّ )ال( – فسش هي فضله? ------

21. هبُٖ أوثش الطشلطػْ٘ب فٖ سٕ أضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع? ) أ( طشٗمخ الزٌم٘ظ )ة( س٘بساد الو٘بٍ ) ج( والُوب )د( أخشٓ: ------

22. ثبػزمبدن, و٘ف رم٘ن ػول٘خ سٕ أضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطْاسع? ) أ( سٕ دائن ّ هٌزظن )ة( سٕ هزْسظ ) ج( سٕ ضذ٘خ ّ غ٘ش هٌزظن

23. ُل رسزخذم األسوذح ّ الوخصجبد لزذػ٘ن صساػخ األضجبس ّالطج٘شاد فٖ جضس الطْاسع? )أ( ؼًن )ة( ال إرا وبًذ اإلجبثخ )ؼًن(, فوب أًْاع األسوذح الوسزخذهخ هغ روش أهثلخ لِب? )أ( ػضْٗخ: ------

132 )ة( و٘و٘بئ٘خ: ------)ج( أخشٓ: ------

ػ .24لٔ الصؼ٘ذ الطخصٖ, و٘ف ٗوىٌه الذفبظ ػلٔ أضجبس ّضج٘شاد جضس الطبسع? ------

25. ُل لذٗه إٔ رؼل٘مبد أّ همزشدبد أّ رْص٘بد أخشٓ؟? ------

شكراً لحسن تعاونكم

الباحثة / آيات صبد الحميد صباس

133 Appendix 2: Facilitate the task

134 Appendix 3: Questionaire Arbitration

135

136

137

138

139 Appendix 4: Questionaire Analysis

Table 4: The characteristics of the research sample (N=180) Variable Frequency Percent (%) Sex Male 74 41.1 Female 106 58.9 Age Less than 20 years 39 21.7 From 21 to 30 years 48 26.7 From 31 to 40 years 29 16.1 From 41 to 50 years 30 16.7 51 years and more 34 18.9 Educational level Secondary and less 34 18.9 Diploma 13 7.2 Bachelor 131 72.8 Master 2 1.1 Career Employee 58 32.2 Worker 8 4.4 Practitioner 20 11.1 University student 60 33.3 Unemployed 34 18.9 Marital status Single 79 43.9 Married 101 56.1 Children No. From 1 to 5 children 56 31.1 6 children and more 36 20.0 Have no children 88 48.9

Table 5: Knowledge aspects of median trees and shrubs of Gaza city streets (N=180) Variable Frequency Percent 1. The nearest main street to your house Al-Shuhada Street 31 17.2% Al-Jalaa Street 41 22.8% Jamal Abd El-Naser (Al-Thaltheeny) Street 40 22.2% Awn Al-Shawa street (Street 8). 39 21.7% Al-Aqsa Street 29 16.1% 2. The importance for median trees and shrubs for human Yes 174 96.7% No 6 3.3%

140 3. The importance for median trees and shrubs for environment Yes 174 96.7% No 6 3.3% 4. The origins of median trees and shrubs Endemic (From Palestine Originally) 45 25.0% Invasive (From outside Palestine) 5 2.8% Both. 130 72.2% 5. Fruit trees and shrubs in the median Yes 100 55.6% No 80 44.4% 6. Prefer planting trees and shrubs in the median Yes 49 27.2% No 131 72.8% 7. Believe in the economic importance of the median trees and shrubs Yes 47 26.1% No 133 73.9% 8. Believe that there is a medical trees and shrubs in the median Yes 92 51.1% No 88 48.9%

Table 6: Threats that faces median trees and shrubs (N=180) Variable Frequency Percent 10 Median trees and shrubs cause any damage on the median infrastructure Yes 61 33.9% No 119 66.1% 11 Median trees and shrubs cause increase in traffic accidents Yes 89 49.4% No 91 50.6% 12 Risks threat median trees and shrubs Yes 124 68.9% No 56 31.1% 13 Solid waste beside the median trees and shrubs Yes 143 79.4% No 37 20.6% 14 Lesions afflict the median trees and shrubs Yes 127 70.6% No 53 29.4% 15 Median trees and shrubs get attack Yes 113 62.8% No 67 37.2%

141 Table 7: The rule of median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements (N=180) Variable Frequency Percent 16 Rule for median trees and shrubs in attracting animal biodiversity elements Yes 156 86.7% No 24 13.3% 17 Benefits from those organisms Yes 137 76.1% No 43 23.9% 18 Risks from those organisms Yes 98 54.4% No 82 45.6%

Table 8: Management and preservation of median trees and shrubs (N=180) Variable Frequency Percent 19 The municipal make protection and trimming procedures for median trees and shrubs Yes 98 54.4% No 82 45.6% 20 Support using treated sewage in irrigating median trees and shrubs Yes 108 60% No 72 40% 21 The most common ways in irrigating median trees and shrubs Dripping 77 42.8% Water cars 52 28.9% Both 47 26.1% Other 4 2.2% 22 Evaluate the median trees and shrubs irrigation procedure Organized and continuous irrigation 35 19.4% Medium irrigation 92 51.1% Unorganized and niggardly irrigation 53 29.4% 23 The fertilizers used for supporting of planting median trees and shrubs Yes 13 7.2% No 167 92.8%

142