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Stadium Coltan Stadium Coltan Artisanal Mining, Reforms and Social Change in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo Claude Iguma Wakenge Thesis committee Promotor Prof. Dr Dorothea J.M. Hilhorst Professor of Humanitarian Aid and Reconstruction Wageningen University & Research Co-promotors Prof. Dr Koen Vlassenroot Professor of Political and Social Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium Dr Jeroen G.R. Cuvelier Researcher, Conflict Research Group Ghent University, Belgium Other members Prof. Dr Bernd M.J. van der Meulen, Wageningen University & Research Prof. Dr Gavin M. Hilson, University of Surrey Business School, UK Dr Théodore Trefon, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium Dr Dirk-Jan Koch, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague, The Netherlands This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School Wageningen School of Social Sciences Stadium Coltan Artisanal Mining, Reforms and Social Change in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo Claude Iguma Wakenge Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus, Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Wednesday 21 June 2017 at 8:30 a.m. in the Aula. Claude Iguma Wakenge Stadium Coltan. Artisanal Mining, Reforms and Social Change in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, 2010 pages. PhD Thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands (2017) With references, with summary in English, French and Dutch ISBN: 978-94-6343-456-0 DOI :http://dx.doi.org/10.18174/416721 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I began, developed and completed this thesis like many artisanal miners organise their work when they extract minerals in my study area—the Tanganyika province in northern Katanga (in south-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, DRC). Miners rarely dig for minerals alone. Instead, they always work in a team, organised in groups of two or more people, depending on the workload, tasks to perform, social relations among the team members and their expectations from their work. Miners’ teams are ingeniously organised. From the onset of the digging operations to the sale of the minerals, each team member performs specific tasks, according to his or her capabilities and role in the mining operations. For instance, the team leader—often known as shaft owner—organises financial arrangements with state agencies such as the Service d’Assistance et d’Encadrement du Small-Scale Mining (SAESSCAM, Assistance and Training Service for Small-Scale Mining) or with the customary chief (mwami) to obtain the mining shaft. The team leader also selects a number of miners (known as mercenaires) on the basis of many criteria, including social ties, the mercenaires’ experience with mining, their commitment and endurance as it relates to completing the work and, most importantly, the trust relations among the team members. The team leader makes financial arrangements with the miners regarding their payment. He also organises and supervises their everyday work and provides various kinds of support, ranging from financial to technical assistance—for instance, when the team leader provides mercenaires with the equipment needed for extracting minerals, such as shovels and pickaxes. Importantly, the team leader provides the mercenaires with daily food rations and advises them regularly, for instance on how to avoid accidents occurring in the shaft or how to reach promising mineral veins. The team leader rarely works alone. He cannot reach the promising mineral veins or obtain minerals without the help of mineworkers. Moreover, he must be patient, because digging operations may last several weeks or months. The team leader is also connected to and has good relations with other people. For example, when he lacks money for paying for the mercenaires’ food rations, he can acquire loans from the local traders (sponsors or middlemen known as négociants). He can also ask these traders to finance the ongoing digging operations in exchange for in-kind payments of minerals or other forms of payments. To achieve a high level of production or to avoid accidents, the team leader and mineworkers also ask people like the mwami or pastors to bless the shaft. For their part, miners are the daily workers entering the shafts. However, they may be confronted with risks, because these shafts are deep, sometimes extending more than 30 metres underground. In this situation, some miners—or other local experts—are good at building up protective devices to avoid accidents. All of these arrangements, this cooperation and the web of relations have the purpose of obtaining minerals as the final outcome. This thesis can also be compared to the miners’ everyday lives. Despite the risky character of their activities, miners display an uncommon sense of hope. After a long stay in the mines, they hope to return home with something of value in their hands. Thus, miners rarely give up, unless their working conditions become unbearable. First and foremost, I would like to thank the sponsoring organisation, the WOTRO Science for Global Development programme of the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, which funded our research programme, entitled ‘Down to Earth: Governance Dynamics and Social Change in Artisanal and Small-scale Mining in DRC’. My PhD project was part of this broader programme. WOTRO also made possible the collaboration between Wageningen University and the Institut Supérieur de Développement Rural (ISDR) in Bukavu (DRC)—where I teach—in implementing the Down to Earth programme. My sincere and warm thanks go to my team of supervisors: Professor Dorothea Hilhorst, Professor Koen Vlassenroot and Dr Jeroen Cuvelier. Since 2012, these individuals have provided me with supervision much like the miners’ team leaders. Dear Professor Hilhorst, more than being only my supervisor, you have also been like a mother to me. You always translated this PhD study from an academic exercise into real social life. When I travelled to the Netherlands for the first time to begin the PhD programme, you helped me with many aspects of my life. Your guidance throughout the entire process has been crucial to my successful completion of this programme. Your attention and insightful advice made it possible for me to become integrated into the academic life at Wageningen University, especially in the Special Chair for Humanitarian Aid and Reconstruction. I learned a lot, starting from the very onset of this study. During our first meeting in Wageningen in early 2012, you advised me that, ‘The more you publish, the better you will do into the academic world’. These words have since resonated in my mind as an impetus to work hard and keep this goal in mind. Dank je wel! Professor Vlassenroot, you have always been a source of inspiration for me. I remember our earlier meeting at Coco Lodge in 2010 in Bukavu. I was coordinating the national programme of the Life & Peace Institute, a Swedish NGO established in DRC. You asked me whether I was eager to continue my studies, and I promptly responded ‘Yes’. After my selection as a PhD candidate, I benefited a great deal from your academic experience. Dr Cuvelier, asanti mingi sana (thanks a million) for your patience. You provided good literature recommendations, guided my everyday work, read everything I wrote— whatever form this was in—and gave inspiring advice on everything from my worst drafts to the ready-to-be-published articles. I was fortunate to be supervised by someone like you, who dedicates so much time, attention and care to the work of a student. I could never forget Professor Dennis Dijkzeul, to whom I am lacking words to express my thanks. What I remember most is the many things we have done together during the last decade. In 2010 and 2014, we published two interesting articles on the perceptions of NGOs and on proselytising peacekeepers in eastern DRC. These articles were a solid foundation for my career as an academic researcher. You made time to read and comment on every piece of my PhD work. Visiting your family in Germany and in the Netherlands were important moments than I remember fondly. My gratitude goes to all of my colleagues at ISDR. In particular, I think of Professor Bosco Muchukiwa, Professor Murhega Mashanda, Pierre-Célestin Mumbu, John Kadjunga, Kimengele Uledi, Bugeme Zigashane and Emery Mudinga. Many thanks for your collaboration during this study and for your sense of sociability. My gratitude goes also to my fellow-student colleagues in the Down to Earth programme: Jose Diemel and Marie-Rose Bashwira. We were part of the same miners’ team, full of hope like the miners and fulfilling the different tasks necessary for completing our respective PhD projects. Supporting each other, travelling together and discussing our projects were great sources of inspiration that facilitated this achievement. This also gave me the sense that this exercise was not solitary. I also think of colleagues participating in other programmes in the Special Chair for Humanitarian Aid and Reconstruction: Bodille Arensman, Gloria Nguya, Aembe Bwimana, Teddy Atim, Carlos Morales, Luna Ghimire, Annisa Srikandini, Gayathri Halinne Lokuge and Raimond Duijsens. It was always a great time being together in our office. In the same vein, I would like to thank Gemma van der Haar as a member of the Down to Earth team, Jennifer Barrett as our inspiring editor and Adriaan Ferf who coordinated the research uptake agenda. Regarding your respective roles, you were the crucial experts who advised the miners on how to avoid accidents. In 2012, I was fortunate to meet Lucie van Zaalen and Wendy Ömerköylu, the secretaries in the department formerly known as Disaster Studies. Both were of great help for making financial and housing arrangements, booking tickets and so forth. When Wendy became the office manager of the Special Chair for Humanitarian Aid and Reconstruction, she did not change the ways in which she supported me.
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