Structure Music Structure and Human Movement* John Baily Io Musical and Cognition Edited by INTRODUCTION music as though it were a UniversityDepartmentPETER College of HOWELLPsychology London London perceptionpurelymusicstructure acoustical is ofonly through music one or and whichaspectsonicThe the phenomenon:perceptionof cognitivestudy musical of musicrepresentations cognition;is The and cognitionof usually treats mediated. But the auditory perception of central issues are seenequal to interestbe the and importance is of the parameters of music Department ofThe Music CityIAN University CROSS London ationvocalthemovement cognition music,of synthesised mechanical ofin performance.relationship music, music, the to Leavingand theactivity the active possibilities aside of music now surface of a musical instrument, re- the special cases of singing and making involves patterned available for the gener- ROBERTInstitute WEST of PsychiatryDe Crespigny Park London gardlessaction.throughcussed, of Looking or whichwhether made musical toat the soundthings instrument patterns inin somethis are isway other blown, produced: opens way. bowed, up Human two Music is the sonic product of possibleplucked,movement lines concussed, of is inquiry. the process per - First,havethosesound.cognitively there certainof Second, consciousis aby needintrinsic the since to performercontrol), studythe modes motor the which asof way apparatuspatterns operation, together that musicalof and movementwe its patterns may constitute the sensorimotor system, need to controlconsider mechanisms the extent (including to rather than as patterns of be represented 1985 whichethnocentricglected18 the chapters creationin the intellectual isstudy ofon musical the of It performancetheendeavour. is, psychology structuresperhaps, In of hardlyDeutschis music, ofshaped music, surprising (1982),that by that matters of whichby sensorimotorperformance is, after Sloboda.all, factors. have a highly been And ne-it is also notfor example, only one of (Harcourt Brace ovanovich, ACADEMIC PRESS San Diego Publishers) New York Belfast.Blacking The and present the author, paper at wasThisthe Departmentwrittenresearch while was of supportedthe Social author Anthropology, by was a research a grant from the Social Science Visiting Research Fellow at the The Queen's University ofResearch Council to John London Toronto Orlando Montreal Sydney Tokyo BlackingLaboratoryMUSICAL and ofSTRUCTURE PaulExperimental Berliner AND forPsychology,COGNMON their comments University on an of earlySussex, draft in of 237 Copyright CC 1985, by Academic Press Inc. (Domdon) Ltd. 1983 -1984. I wish tothis thank paper. John 10. Music Structure and Human Movement 239 havenomenawithout238 not significanceonlyis called tended Music tothat use Perception.a fornew their journal researches Practitioners addressed those to ofkinds the the studyofpsychology music of musicalthat ofare music mostphe- John Baily conceptualaresearch prominent on Africanlinkfeature between inmusic. the performancemusic There andcan bedance of little many is doubt very thatclose. overt According body movement to is kinds of music in Africa, and the Kubik teachersaboutproceedhighly the of valuednature music,in the ofin absencefor musicWestern it must put of society besomeforward said set butthat by ofhave researchwestern assumptions also onmusicians.implicitly music about and adopted musicologists, the cognition nature certain ofcannot musicandviews whichinAfricanbecause(1979), the Igboare languages,therethe thought languageelement is an ofthe oldof theas samedancelike viewinseparable term word that "egwu" movement is"African usedcomponents embraces for inmusicboth performance music, ofmusic is a performancenot andsong, sound isdance; so alone"strong. (p. dance and drama, of for"music." example, In some 227) soundsultimatelystudyitself. Aof -from commonthe irrelevant motor single Western control sine toIt the iswaves view toof central ethnomusicologymusical regards to extended issue, performancemusic which musical as that primarily is the maystructures. taskperception bea sonic ofinteresting inquiry phenomenon; of musical into but the is nature of music has theaswhich the nature relationshiphe discussed of African between what vocalIn were 1928, polyphony. to vonbecome Hornbostel[ and major the issues published a seminal paper on speech tone and melodic contour in tonal languages, organization of polyrhythm. Von in the later literature, such African music in closernomusicologistsneededfallen, theyfor to onlydistinguish come ethnomusicology whoto specifying havebetween pursued universals thehas cultureaccessthis line in to -specific music, ofthe inquiry necessary the and morehave the cross- theyrealiseduniversal. culturalare dealingthat data the Eth- aries,wasobserveHornbostelinsights, th' or directlyexplorers. andnever onethe visited Despite performanceof them Africa these concerned of and,limitations, African as the far music as von we -movement phonogram, usually recorded in the field by music. The source of his information Hornbostelknow. hadhad some no opportunity inspired to anthropologists, mission- issue. In discussing a forseveralnomusicologybeingwith the phenomena (Harwood, studyareas ofwhere andmusic that 1976; theirthe are and psychology rootedKolinski,interests cognition in overlap.the isof psychophysiologicalnot music simplyThe are importance that different, it brings ofnature but ethnomusicology into this of the the research human 1967; Meyer. 1960). The goals of eth- is one of motility,tions,therecording beaters and regarding of concludes:is xylophone controlled its audible "[Themusic,by spatial player]quality he suggestsrelationships ratherrealizes that as a ratherparallelmelody than motion by abovemusical ofside the -issue, allhands considera- as although anwith act of a desirable thestudyprinciplesarena architects ofa wealthmusic unknown of -making ofthe seemingly anthropologicalor unused as a process exotic in Western insteadapproach data frommusic, of injust musicalethnomusicology but music also systemsas that a product. it emphasises organizedhas Asput oneit: the"At onof one"work,made (p. in49).Blacking its performance made Onewhat was of hecarried the called first out analysesmusical by ofand a piece of African Blacking (1955). In this pioneeringmusic in terms of the movements the Congo). Throughphysical experi- analyses of eight relevantandbiological.some it level to ofanpsychological, analysis, explanation all musical sociological,of musical behaviour sound" cultural, is (Blacking, structured, or purely 1973,whether musical p. in17). processes; relationis the to task of the ethnomusicologist to identify all processes that are recordedpatternsplaying(1955)mentation tunes was ofthe with fingering ableplayedmusic. a fourto onreconstruct Hewhich,-holed the found Butembo flutecoupled thatthe similar fingeringsthewithflute tomusic (from that andwas varying degrees of overblowing on the used for the recordings, Blacking blowing techniquesconstructed used from in repeated fieldnexttionshipethnomusicologists sectionresearch between of that this movementinvolved chapter. shouldGiven aThehave andthiscomparison section emphasismusic.had some followingSome of on twointeresting the of types processesthis that workof discusses insights plucked of is musicreviewed into thekite making, results thefound in rela- the ofinit is to be expected that theinstrumentspatial tunes, properties and to obtain he suggested upperof theBlacking partials,instrument. that the seemed(1961) shape producedto generate a fuller analysis and of the music was influenced by the discussion of the music -move- the melodic sequences of aspectsAfghanistan. of musical In the cognition final section, are briefly certain discussed. relationships between sonic and motor commonment issue type with of referenceAfrican instrument'Erich to the von Nsenga Hornbostel was one of the major figures consisting of a set of flexible keys (usually kalimba, a form of lamellaphone, a forin comparative psychologists musicology, to reflect that as conyeth- sonic patterns of music Theand insightshuman movement that ethnomusicologists have come about have mainly had about through the relationship between MOVEMENT PATTERNS IN AFRICAN MUSIC distinguishedindirectorshipparativenomusicology the Phonogram musicology of colleagues Carlwas Archive. knownStumpf. was worked first up Researchestablished establishedto therethe 19505. on until atmusic at thethe Itthe is institutewas1930s. Institute interesting based on the in 1902. Vonfor Psychology Hornbostel in and Berlin, a group then of under the analysis of field recordings placed 242 John Baily 10. Music Structure and Human Movement 243 I. There is a recognition of the importancemovementsoundconvertingused for pattern playing pattern.movementof studying (its an microstructure) instrument. patterns the movement into A sounddepends musical patterns patterns. oninstrument the The characteristics exact is nature of of thethe a transducer, termsTheof theintrinsic relationship interactionmusicof a thirdstructure played factor, betweenbetween andon it. themodes the an human structuresinstrument of operation. sensorimotor of andthe In humanits particular, music system, body has it andwhich isto necessary thebe examinedstructure to look of in the at It is to this problem that we now address ourselves. has its own 3. The physical characteristics of analevelWhen motor instrument of a movement,corpusgrammar. influence, of instrumental suggesting to a varying thatpieces performance extent, is analysed, is unity in some may sense emerge based at theon newinstrument.found musical in Afghanistan. instrument,The the The research,14- music stringed culture carried Herati of out Afghanistan in 1973 -1974, is very investigated different the development of a dutár, a type of long- necked lute Middle East, from 4. In musical performance, the cognitivethecertainment musicstructure representationmay musicalmay beof betheconstructed requirements.said music in to terms beplayed to generated suitof whichon particular it infrom the such themotor a instrument.way patterns that those in Or order aspectsan instru- to fulfil of withCentral,thatthemusic ofno new Africa, harmonicAsia we instrument are and with considering the framework traitsIndian was ininvestigated subcontinent.consists common and no of chord with afrom single The sequences.other several music melodic musics isangles modal Thus,line. of theand in orderThe to development establish of the instrumental monophonic, the performance of musicA pointis not that unique merits to Africanclarification music. isditoryperformer thatThus, the one. although importance operates Kubik may of motional be a movement patterns representationin rather than an au- factors:sion,culturalhowing the the it, thefactorsinvention andrelationship morphology the that structural actually made of of central this occurredthe characteristics possible.instrument, interest and For to is the explore ofthethe movementthe interplaypurposes music patternsamong the more general social and produced. The questionof the present discus- usedthree in sets play- of the(1979)relation movements states to the that of sonic performancein Western result (Kubik musicare an1979, theissue p.movements in228), AWestern pianist Blacking who onlymusic plays (1955) have too: the a isEtudes meaning confident of Chopin in that or many pieces by Liszt cannot help being sorimotoringlookunder in at considerationthem the system? movements that can Can isbe inthis:we related relationship identify If we to disregardthe any toinherent sensorimotor the instrument,the sonic aspects do we organisation of the human sen- factors that help to explain of the musicfind any and pattern- consciousinstrumentclassicalmusic grows of music, the for out sheer which whereof thephysical it physicalwasthe musicalwritten. pleasure movement.... (p.form of 52) numerous is much We find influenced passages, numerous andby examplesthe noticing properties ofhow Western ofthe the characteristics?why(Baily, a particular 1976; kind 1977). ofThe musicMy results data is played derive, of this on researchin an part, instrument fromhave been published in a recordingsdifferent and analytical form elsewherethat has certain spatial influencedoutweElsewhere, analyzeharmonic manyBlackingthe procedures music of his givesof chordHectorAlthough onan aexample sequences" Berliozguitar, it does ofandit isthis seem(p. thatuseful process21). theto tobe structure know thein Western case that ofthat he the music. oftenmusic instrument "Whenin Africa is more movement - worked out,(withfromfilms although mynativemade own toteachers) my showexperiences analysis movement the does and suggestpatternsresultant certain from introspections a sample duteir and rubáb. No experiments as such were carriedtestable hypotheses. Comparison changes in the presentationof 10 from learning to play durar players and concludeorientated thatthan African music in music manyIf motional isother in any parts patterns sense of the "primitive." canworld, be itshown would to be be quite of significance wrong to in the most sonic of haverepertory,of the been presentargument; adopted.2and essay certain I have with changes selected Baily (1977) in a the better conventionsreveals sample certain of tunes to durcir of the musical transcription represent the rubáb canmusics be usefully-the Western studied classical in these tradition terms. -then it seems probable that all musics literally,a much smaller "two strings two- stringed,").The At2The 14-an inappropriatenessintermediate stringed Herati stage of Western in this staff notation for non -Western long-developed necked in the lute period of the from same 1950 name to (it1965 means, from transformation,music a three is a much - -discussed is the notion that the spatialOne ofproperties the most of interesting an instrument lines mayof thought influence to emerge the shape from the work reviewed A STUDY OF THE HERAT( DUTARAND THE AFGHAN RUBAB problemsharpstypesthe particular in and ethnomusicology,Afghan flats. characteristics urban This ismusic, also and of theI varioustheadopt convention music the solutions conventionto be for represented. havewriting of been Indian In writing in the key of C with the use of various orderoffered, to deal each with usually themusic. variety appropriate of scale for 242 lohn Baily 10. Music Structure and Human Movement 243 I. There is a recognition of the importancemovementsoundconvertingused for pattern playing pattern.movementof studying (its an microstructure) instrument. patterns the movement into A sound dependsmusical patterns patterns. oninstrument the The characteristics exact is nature of of thethe a transducer, theintrinsictermsTheof the interaction relationship musicof structure a third played between factor, betweenand on modes theit. the anstructures humanof instrument operation. sensorimotor of the andIn human particular, its music bodysystem, it hasand is whichnecessary tothe he structure examinedhas to its look of own the inat It is to this problem that we now address ourselves. 3. The physical characteristics oftheaWhen motoranlevel structure instrument a ofcorpusgrammar. movement, of of theinfluence, instrumental music suggesting playedto a piecesvarying thaton it performanceis inextent, analysed, such a way unity is inthat maysome those emerge sense aspects based at the of on instrument.thatfoundnew musicalof in Africa, Afghanistan. instrument, with Thetraits The the research, in music14- common stringed culture carried withHerati of out Afghanistanother in 1973 musics -1974, is of very the investigated differentMiddle East,from the development of a dutair, a type of long- necked lute 4. certaintheperformerInment music musical musical may may beoperatesperformance, berequirements.constructed said may to be thebe to generated asuitcognitive movement particular from representation representation themotor instrument. patterns in terms rather in Or order ofan than which instru- to an fulfil theau- howthemusicwithCentral, new theno we harmonicAsiainventioninstrument are andconsidering the frameworkactually was Indian investigated consists occurred subcontinent. and ofno anda fromchord single to The severalexplore sequences. melodic music anglesthe is line. modalmore Thus, inThe generalorder and the development monophonic,instrumental to social establish and of (1979)the performance states that of in music Western Ais pointnot music unique that themerits to movementsAfrican clarification music. only Thus,isditory thathave althoughthe one.a meaningimportance Kubik in of motional patterns in culturalunderingfactors:sion, it, factorsthe considerationand the relationship the morphology that structural made is of this:this of characteristicscentral the possible.If weinstrument, interestdisregard For of the isthe thethe thepurposes movement musicsonic interplay aspects produced.of thepatterns among presentof the The used three music discus- question in sets play- and of therelation movements to the sonic of performance result (Kubik are 1979, an issue p. consciousA228), pianistin Western Blacking who of the plays musicsheer (1955) the physical Etudestoo: is confident ofpleasure Chopin ofthat or numerous many pieces passages, by Liszt and cannot noticing help how being the whysorimotoringlook in aat particularthem the system? movements that kindcan Can beof inwe musicrelated relationship identify is to played the any toinherent sensorimotor onthe an instrument, instrument organisation factors do that we that ofhas find the helpcertain anyhuman to pattern- explainspatial sen- weElsewhere, analyze Blackingthe music gives of Hector an example Berlioz of it this is classicaluseful processinstrumentmusic to music,grows inknow forWestern outwhere which that of the the he itmusic. physicalwas musicaloften written. workedmovement.... form (p. is 52) much We influenced find numerous by the examples properties of of Western the When characteristics?fromfilms(Baily, mymade 1976; own to 1977).showexperiences movementThe My results data and derive, patternsofresultant this inresearch from part,introspections a from samplehave recordings been of from 10published learning and analyticalin a to different play form elsewhere dutär players and influencedoutconcludeorientated harmonic many thatthan procedures African musicof his inchord musicAlthough manyon a sequences" guitar, isother in it any doesparts and sense seem(p. ofthat the21). "primitive." theto world, be structure the it case would ofthat thehe music quite instrument wrongin Africa to is more movement - ofout,(with the although nativepresentargument; teachers) myessay 1analysis have with the selectedBaily dutärdoes (1977) suggestand a better reveals certain sample certain testable of tunes changes hypotheses. to represent in the Comparisonpresentation the rubáb rubäb. No experiments as such were carried canmusics be usefully-the Western studied classical in theseIf motionaltradition terms. patterns can be shown to be of significance in the most sonic of then it seems probable that all musics literally,ahaverepertory, much been smaller "two adopted.'and strings certain two- - ").stringed, changesThe At I4-an intermediate stringedlong-in the neckedconventions Herati stage lute durcir inof of this thedeveloped the transformation,same musical name in transcriptionthe (it period means,a three- from 1950 to 1965 from is the notion that the spatialOne ofproperties the most of interesting an instrument lines ofmay thought influence to emerge the shape from the work reviewed A STUDY OF THE HERATI DUTARAND THE AFGHAN RUBAB typestheproblem sharpsparticular in Afghan in and ethnomusicology, characteristics flats. urban This music. is also of2TheI andadopt the the variousinappropriatenessmusic conventionthe convention to solutions be represented. for of writinghave ofwriting Western been InIndian in orderoffered, the staff music. keyto notationdeal eachof C with withusually for the the non variety appropriateuse -Western of variousof scale for music is a much -discussed 244 John Bally 10. Music Structure and Human Movement 245 A Bb B Rubab C' Db' E B, CF DbF+r DG EbAb , , , 14- stringed , , 1 Dutar 1 , / , G, Figure 2. B, C Spatial layout of notesDb on rubdb and 14- stringed dinar. D Eb E F F# G Ab A b Bb B C Db and 14-stringed stringed dutar. dutdr was commonFigure I. but is disregarded in the following discussion. In The three instruments under discussion: From left to right, two- stringed dutar, rubdb, freediscussedmusic.folk rhythmmusic This in with on Bailygenre the certain (1977).3scale provides Theideas and naghme melodic borroweda better -ye- characteristics sample from kashal Hindustani offollows rubdb of the a (Northmusicset mode, form: Indianthan played First, the classical) withoutthere pieces is an extemporisation in stringedmusic.wasrowedbecoming intentionally fromIn dutdr a the sense, another 14-and stringedthemodifiedthe kind 14-rubdb, stringedof instrument, in lute,for order it the dutdrcombines toAfghan the enablecan dutar be the rubdb, regardedit wasgeneral to be givenand used asshape in certaina thistofusion of perform way, the features of dutdr the rubdb dutartwo withbor- - therhythmrhythmicplayedlater &stir, withcompositions, ataccompaniment.is aplayeddrum faster accompaniment. manytempo. variously times ThenA good over, calledfollows exampleThe with antara,first a aseries ofcompositionvariety bhog,a naghme of fixedof and rhythmic -yein sanchari,compositions the kashal sequence, variations. arecomposition shorter in called strict The and is thework)sympatheticmodea octave),new system(seebeing the Figure strong played,additionof fretting 1).for anda of special to sympathetic agive protuberance right the musical-hand strings technique on scale tunedthe of bridge calledtheto the rubdb simkdri toscale raise (12 -type (metal semitonesthe ofshortest stringthe to - instrument,compositionsChurchshown in modes). Figure it hasin 12 The 3,not differentin generatedsample theDefining mode modes of a musiccalled newrepertory (see repertory forYemen Baily, thefor rubdb the 1981).(cf. but dutar theis consists used Lydianis a tolittle ofplay of more12 the a such variety Westerndifficult; astai of although it is a new (seethreenotedutdr) Figurepositions melody and the 2). strings, are rubdbThis arranged fact withisAn that has theimportantin the implications anote single former positions difference row has (aboth onlymappedlinear betweenfor one array),stopping across melody the whereas themI4- the string, stringed strings (a the tiered so rubáb withdutdrthat array) hasthe (hereafter referred to as consistedseemstringedpreexistingWhen to havedutár themainly types two beenwas of -stringed of formerlyvery the music, melodiesfew dutar- usedpurelyincluding inof was instrumentaltheHerati naghmeplayedvillages folk as songs. to -yecompositions aplay solokashal. Most instrumental instrument, ofAlthough thesefor the music,songs old the durar. twoare there in - its repertory tunesleft hand that and can, for in plucking some sense,The them methodology be with regarded the right foras hand. thethis traditionalkind of study repertory requires of one the to isolate a repertory of Rezakhdniwasa single fretted melodic gat in type, such usedmode, a way in Afghanistantoday that3For onlyusually example, for this the called mode Ahirgenre Bhutan, Bairami,naghmecould andbe -ye andplayed.4Bhupoli kldsik. the whereas (Bally,two- Because 1977) the examplethese are really are in Indian compositions of the stringed dutár regardedalthoughated.musical In instrumentthe asthey thecase are national of certainly under the instrumentrubáb investigation; not and tightly dutar,of Afghanistan, bounded.one such with repertories which Thus, is used it ithe is to canhabitually rúbdb,play be aidentified, varietywhich associ- ofis exampleMadhubantithe instrument in Bairami is an instrumental to is, a onsingle the other scalepiece4The hand. type,for fretting radio although,an astaioforchestra the for twowithin a composed-stringednaghme this scale, -yedut5r, by kashal. Ustadseveral which Mohammad yieldsmodes various can Omar. be neutral derived The seconds ( Baily, 1976), limits comparisonalmostnaghmetypes of certainly -yeAfghan with kashal the composedmusic, dutdr,(stretched including I have on -out the selected instrumental folk,rubáb, popular, a which genre piece) combinesofand instrumental aart type music. elementsof Afghan For music purposesof art calledAfghan music, of equivalenttopurposesthrough a single the of to mode,the selection the present Indian which, ofcomparison Rag differentin ternis Bhairavi. tonesofwith the the asmodes rubdb, the finalis of the Afghan two (cf. -stringed Westernurban music.dutar Church may is identified bemodes). regarded Butas asBairami, for limited the W. Music Structure and Human Movement 247 246 John Baily "Mullah Mahnrad Jan" Bairami Rekap VERSE ,4síáì /..1t.a7r1'I'aA'.a.rlrl.^.'r+.^I [ [ 1 I 1 1[ 1 1 1 1 1 I \il t y!'MAAl t AAÌM.ararlrlrrlrl 1 rl -_r1---. ___ - 1r1_--IM t 1 lA.'A+!'.Ar11 1r1-+--a---1 )_-1 .rrrrrrrl 1 1`[ . rr.-I t l 1 . ".'.1. Mal, IJIIJr11 l i/.- 1tlñalrl...armlr l Antara A`...i t...aA+/'A. REFRAIN 1 l 1 TAr.'1a . -.r1!1 17.- .-ra _ _r1-r--_ rI n -NE Ar.t 1 ` 1a,--__.. arl.t/++.,/rr--.=_.rrlrm^^^. J a-'_a---.__._-M-_-11 ..w.9PIaÌi "Eirt Zamau" YI.I i:rra 1 IBairami 1.41..rtu.i Rekap VERSE . --- . r11=--111.---r=UM `M..I Bhog -- e -- -. r !==a-==alar--. -----` ----r--wAwArlr1. I rra 1i: a rA. A-aaJS r- _ .i rl .1r N=11Aa-.r ' A/M.rr11aa1 la ! ./AM11r í% - a Aa REFRAIN Sanchári - - l . W11111i I I ll 11Vi ..11=a I I1Yi I i w11s: l ra = AMEN L.glrrMIN/ f== s r Figure 3. Naghme -ye kashál in Yemen mode. .-r-1_'PP:-sla1Ps==:C.C-WI/IRK .! !lra.r. - - -Yi . I A Il _ r -:I Irrrrarra aa`11111a.aa+laM1A._raMal .!"Moghol Dokhtar" Bairami Rekap A...aM. all,song although melodies, they they may were have not been. necessarily In a sense, composed this does not matter, h a with reference to the for it is clear dutâr at r..s 1[ l I rr.NlLt REFRAIN rrMrMM.r1Ta--a--a NMArr11Arr.a!!!aa 1 1 -A .WM -OM -1a . -_-_/ that they became habitually associated with the dutár. The sample of music for ,' a--- - I ari aaa.li mode. Many of Figure 4. Three Herati tunes. rrlrlrAMAr rr1 the dutár consists of 13 such song melodies, all in the Bairami ..1 L rYi rAr. I !"E I- -. -C_--.a -- 1 ástáitranspositionthese melodies Bairami are in two Rekap parts: (with The D antara rather is than the melodyC asfor the thefor finalis). refrain.the verse, Three dotar melodies are shown in Figure 4, notated for the and the r.lÑ.lrl r ÌArl.l The Comparison of Rubáb and Dutár Music rubeib compositions have a considerably wider ambitus stepwise,shownSize of in Melodic Tableproceeding l Intervals. between adjacent tones of the scale. . In both rubdb An interval frequency count for the twoand samples is dutdr music,duiñr melodic movement is mainly Ambitus.seventhrangecertainthan of sections inthe ambitus first ascend string and toofoften the fallfifth within of the thehigher range octave. ofdutár a played in tunes. TheyIn aregeneral, usually framed within the range rubñb. Ducar tunes are rarely more than a minor fifth. of the octave, but the unfretted Bairami,Varietydistinctcontrast, of which scale Scalethe relates types.Types. to The the numberway in which of melodic the two modes -stringed that dutár can bewas played on naghme -ye kashal The tunes in the exists in a variety of modes, most of which have repertory are all in one mode, fretted. In the 248 John Baily 10. Music Structure and Human Movement 249 Table I Bairami Rekap FREQUENCY OF ASCENDING AND DESCENDING INTERVALS IN SAMPLES OF TRADITIONAL REPERTORY OF RUBAB AND DUTAR Size of intervals in half -tone steps I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total Rubdb DescendingAscending 4238 5351 1613 18 8 6 6 3 I 2 I 2 I 137124 Figure 6. Cluster patterns for "Mullah Mahmad Jan." Dutár 34 128 16 21 14 - - 8 221261 rubäb is large, but analysis shows that about eight modes are in common use Ascending 1 (Baily, 1981). Descending 68 199 4 16 - - 509288 kashälmode.scalar,Shapein Figure ofThisthat Melodic is,5.feature running Movement. is not sequentially especially up prominent and down in the the notes example of the of scaleshown of the in Figure 3 but is clearly evident in much of this music, as shown The melodic patterns of rubäb music tend to be naghme -ye Ásá wellingthe ofmovement by descending the antara back series (verse) Dutcirto theof cluster sectionfinalis. patterns. ofThisfourth "Mullah kind Many or offifth Mahmad structuresuch above tunes Jan." theis start shown finalis, Analytically, with particularly followeda leap up this byto a gradual,tunes, convoluted in contrast, descend- exhibit a very different kind of organization, consist- f .1-- thirdtune cancluster readily returns be brokenthe melodic up into line three to the overlapping finalis (D). clusters An even (see more Figure elementary 6). The Kumáj structureFiguresectionand geometrical 7). often so clearly, played manifestation butbetween "Mullahbinary the of structures Mahmadsongthis structure sections are Jan" quite is ofas shown Heratia common.song byfolk melody an melodiesThe instrumental is tune unusual (see"Eh in showing a tertiary /....mr,m r. .. NI- =MM..11.. ..- MI.MMINIIMMMINIMil ..MI ` MEMII...MMi showsZamán" the can clusters be analysed of in in terms of the cluster sequence of Figure 8. Figure 9 Bairami Rekap Moghol Dokhtar. Pilu I - - - =MO - ...... ° Figure 5. Examples of three ñstñi compositions for rubdb. Figure 7. Cluster patterns for a typical instrumental section. 250 John Bally 10. Music Structure and Human Movement 251 Figure 8. Cluster patterns for "Ei Zaman." 477 J77 rn --, Figure 9. Cluster patterns for "Moghul Dokhtar.'' J'?? 3 punteadotechniqueRhythmic (single- hasOrganization. beenstring devised style) with for athe plectrum. rubáb, basedA highly on ansophisticated imbalance right between -hand the Both the rubdb and the 14- stringed duteir are played Figure 10. .-- Common sequence of rhythmic patterns in Dadre. ,F3J 3 .rJ? AVA7 down (V) and (A) strokes. The former is stronger and heavier, is aimed towards impactingthe(u skin belly on theof the belly. instrument, A stroke and pattern has thesuch added as Example percussion (I ) of the right hand v stringedfingeredthese are duteirwith shown the (as inleft in Figure hand.Figure 11. Duteir 4), While but tunes it thisis alsomay strum commonbe playedis maintained, to in articulate this way the onmelodythe the metric 14- is has a somewhat different sonic result to Example (2) 4.15=4 A = downstroke upstroke Astructure Spatiomotor of the song Analysis being played. affectsThis (2)is thean obviousmicrostructure example of theof howmusic. the A exact further structure refinement of the of rubdbmotional technique: pattern .955 4599 or enttiereddifferences principles arrays? in of the organization,Do music theThe differingbe comparison correlated although spatial withof they rubdb properties the share spatial and certain dutdr characteristicsof the tunes features. two shows kinds ofCan thatlinear of these theyarray and are based on differ- (a) suchusing as the Example plectrum (3). to strike the shortest sympathetic string to produce patterns inencourage performance? the use of someThe kinds fit between of movement the two patterns instruments and tendand their to inhibit respective others repertoires is revealed ^ ^ A=A = stroke= stroke on onmain shortest string sympathetic string thiswhen analysis, we look at the transfer of a repertory from one instrument to the other. In it is the left hand that is of particular interest, especially the patternspatternrunIn playing through for are theone useda varietydstai round to sectionbuild of thethese up ofcomposition, larger rightthe.I.I naghrne -handstructures;. thenstroke -ye changingkashtypically, patterns. 1, the to in usuallyrubdb a a new sequence player pattern.maintaining tendsof These such to a revealing.therelationshiping music rubdb played. between music This tothe relationshipthe movements dutdr. The is of illuminated theright left hand, hand by althoughandthe difficultiesthe melodic of interest, of contour transfer of - is less triplethroughaccelerationpatterns, time a there rhythmic(called of the is antempo,Dadre) cadence. increase togetheris shown Ain common the building in density Figure sequenceup 10.aof rhythmic strokes of right tensionper -handtime that unit patterns is releasedand anin DadreGede whichthe rubáb, relatesthe usual but to for thepractice playing traditionalThe was dutdrright to manner maintain -hand tunes, oftechniques a astrumming simpler constant for technique stroke the the two 14- pattern. -stringedstringed is normally Examples dotardutar, used, have for of been borrowed from Figure 11. MogholiThree strum patterns for two- stringed dutdr. 252 John Baily 10. Music(a) Structure As and Human Movement 253 EDEE- dutdr. ( b ) Yemen Figure 12. Layout of notes for Bairami mode on rubdb and formerSpatial operates, Mapping in of part, NoteLeft in termsPositions. Hand of movements made In playing the dutar or rubdb, the per- within a spatial framework rubáb)instrumentdeterminedpatternskinesthetically, constitute arethat by planned thehave a orlayout set totactually; andbeof ofstoppedtarget experienced the the instrument. positions. (andspecific the openmodality For does not in relationship to this internal representa- These might be located visually, thepositions left hand, of the the frets strings on onthe the matter; movement representation.tionmode of the Bairami fretboard's Figure on the spatial 12 two shows instruments. properties. the layout Hence of the I refer to this as a spatiomotormain tones for playing the = note usedused in descending melodic movement in ascending melodic movement patterninway two that dimensionsand is lessto keep confusing rathertrackAs of than a where spatial in one. you configuration, Itare is easier the rubdb presents does the dutar, because the positions are mapped within a sequence of positions around thelocatingboth positions to apprehend the for positions Bairami this of spatialin target a movement, these are more easily rendered on the Figure I3. f o = open string Layout of three more modes on rubdb than on the doter.rubitb On the and dutdr. whichFigureownthenotes factthe scale come 13 motorthat shows type, throughthe pattern rubáb whichthe asnote isrepertory errors givesorganised. positions inrise performance.is to composedforMistakes a three more inin a distinct configuration of target positions. This difference is compounded byvarietymodes of onmodes, the two each instruments. with its adjacentrubáb,fasterfingers" the andhand notes (see more positions, Baily,of accuratethe 1981,main using than octavep. finger 30). hand canIn movements. movements general, be covered it seemsHereand from require the thatone notes or, at finger movementsless are attentional con- "fall underthe the most, two oftheThe naghmeview tiered variety of array -yethe of kashdl leftspatialthan hand, on repertory.5 patterns the the linear rubáb is array;more is the easilythis easier helps to remembered and apprehendedinstrument on on which to play the explain why, from the point andwhereas,ments.Scalartrol. controlWhen patternsOn on the rubdbaccurate the rubdb,now dutar, tunes require movements the visual are left ascendingplayed handinformation of canonthe and theoperateleft descendingisdutar, hand. more theThus, likely sequences to be within a tactuokinesthetic field, situation is very different.scalar motional patterns required to planof hand move- terised,Cluster in and some Scalar degree, Patterns. by scalar passages (see As already explained, rubáb music is charac- eight common modes for the rubdbFigures share a 3 and 5). As patterns of constraintfit less well of onthe the linear dotar arrayIt canthan is be onminimised. seen the thatrubáb. dinarI have music already is structured in such a way referred to the fact that that this particular itbutcommon is invalidatewith often bothunderlying played theminor present in andtonalthe majortransposition line framework5This of sevenths. argument argument Bairami Bairami (see is Baily,Rekapa issimplification, one 1981). on for seven of the which corresponds approximately to the Western major mode that does not fit neatly ontoboth the dutdr rubdb; and rubdb, but this does not scale positionthedutdra cluster cluster tunes or patternfrom canpattern be two consistsanalysed is adjacent to use of in the handa terms series first, positions. of of cluster finger The patterns.operations most efficient way to second, and third fingers as independent At the level of action, from a single hand perform 256 John Baih 10. Music Structure and Human Movement 257 Sometionshipmusicalrubáb dutár and, thatinstrument tunes for emerges thisrequire reason, imposes from changesIn thisdo the constraints not particular ofprevious fitstring well on worksections,on onto the musical that I suggest certain ways in which the layout is primarily between theupstroke spatial when played oninstrument. the performance. The rela- of a adoptsand the a conscioushierarchical control modelAlthough of performanceperformance, couchedspecificappropriate in that itterms gives performance motor that preeminence actionsavoid mode wouldthe being questionto then usedthe be audito- (voice, determined of subjective instrument, by reference etc).experience (p. to knowledge480) about the is clear that Sloboda implicitly researchstructuresrelationshiplayoutfor dutárof seem a that keyboard andthat to mediate demonstrate rubábcan and be tunesbetween readilythe melodic theseem explainedshapingthem. to contour fit in terms wellThe onto two their instruments respectiveinfluence selected instruments. of the forspatial this layout clearly, of the music produced from it, a of inherent sensorimotor abstractsentationmanipulatedry representation. performance is clearly as auditory Accordingsubordinate. plan" imagesIn (i.e.,fact, to at thisSlobodaathe plan idea,cognitive conceived gives musical level, a number inpatterns and auditory the of are,examplesspatiomotor terms) or where repre- "the existence ofshould a highly be, does not structuresinstrumentWhetherterial, thefor can to musicboth have be readilypossibilities canbeen be adopted produced said toassume haveor designed beenthe presence so by patterns of movement, is perhaps generated from the instrument or the that certain preexistingof human factorsmusical that interact imma- beexplain taken the into facts, account and where (p. 482). a "knowledge ofstancesWhat specific they or accomplishment,suggest motor is a hierarchy performance of levels plans of abstraction can exist suchat a that, according to higher or lower level in the actions" has also to circum- constraintswithAfghannecessarily the spatial data: imposed present Playinglayout byinsurmountable ofnaghme a the particular instrument. -ve kashál layout on are difficulties. This much is cleardotal- from was the invented preciselyBut so that it is thethis important dotar may to bestress more that difficult than only tendencies; they do not the imperfect mastery (lackIn of other musicianship). words, reliance Themobilizehierarchy. development on thethe In higher,spatiomotorgeneral, of more what abstract we representation would levels call in "musicianship" a wide variety ofseems circumstances. to entail the ability to is symptomaticperformance of skill (p. 482) andplayinginhelps other learning dutárto genres clarify tunes,to play ofwhat butrubáb a istechnicallythe involved music 14- stringed anddifficult reveals genre could be performed. The spatiomotor the achievement of the dutár players for their instrument. analysis articulatehearstheauromotoron an musician orinstrument experiences imagined coordination to reproduce could sounds as be auditory(by interpreted isimmediately analogy the Western images. with as musical composer,Perhaps patterns most leading to the developmentvisuomotor of coordination)a kind of that allows who ideally treats composi- skilled at the abilitythat to he or she either (1928) idea that "melodyIn isthis realized section, as I anaddress a different SPATIAL REPRESENTATIONSOF MUSIC STRUCTURE problem, encapsulated in von Hornbostel's act of motility" (p. 49), and consider thesymbolstion transfer as a purelywritten of musical mental on paper. skill operation,The fromissue one istranslating complex instrument andthe to streamsone needs to take into account many another and differentinstrumental levels of skill. But it is of imagined music into factors, such as thearraysensorimotorIn relative the is preceding important roles system of auditory section,for operates and and how it understanding some of the melodic I argued that an understanding spatiomotor representations of music structure. interacts with particularthat the kinds performer of spatial operates within a characteristics of dutar of how the human performancesound.beauditoryclear attended that Auditory, and what encountered to spatiomotor by is thekinesthetic, remarkable performer in representations the and aboutacquisition both visual asmusical a ofinformationpattern ofmusic an of structure; movement may performance is the integration of all be involvedthe in same the pattern canand as a pattern of andperformancewhetherquestionspatial rubáb framework music. itnow is, takesor is Thecanwhether and,place. be,analysis aat thishigh some representation assumes-level level, process represents at is a low -level cognitive processwhich or the conscious theplanning task as of a spatial one. The componentplanningauditoryimages and are inand feedbackmusicaltranslated spatiomotor cognition control into soundmodes of as the a patterns lower ofpattern. musical -level called Instead cognitionprocess music, of as viewingit maythrough the be spatiomotorbetter which to treat auditory of potentially equal legitimate and In discussing the natureWeaction,intensity couldof performance absolutetake of eachthe performer's valuesnote is of specified these plan dimensions relativeto be a to other notes. would listneed of to items he assigned in which to the the pitch,plan. andduration the andplans, Sloboda (1982) states: Before such a plan could result in maycalcommonlyimportance. performance, often consistused The modeand spatiomotorof deliberatelyjust of asmusical creative mode findingthought, as can the newthen auditoryused waysbe to regardedinstigate mode, as a to move on the instrument, for creativity andin music to control musi- which258 are then be assessed, and further creative acts, guided by the aesthetic John Baily importantevaluationmotorsystem, grammars ramifications, ofinto the the resultant debatemayThis forcontrol novelabout approachit raises sonic certainthe the nature introducespatterns. possibility.aspects of musical of the thepreviously human patterning cognition. body, mentioned. of Thatas music. well step that asThe has the human auditory Auditory Feedback of the Voice 11 comparisonculture.ethnocentricof the motor Only of the because grammarsa tinylinear proportión it andThe that tiered psychologyare of utilisedarray musicians reveals for of playingmusicin certain the worldas the constraints we dureir- use know written and thatit the arenotation r-ubòb. parts in is founded on data drawn from our own literate music in the Western world is overly in Singing*Peter Howell performance.asincludesspecific a sonic recognitionto event, Ifthe the universal, studyas wellof ofthe as, music thenpossibility of course, aand wider cognition that a approach music is mayto mustproceed be asbe much adopted,from athe motor cultureone event that social fact. It is important for a singer to understand the process INTRODUCTION of speech production. Baily, J. Recent changes in the dutar of Herat. Asian Music. 1976, 8(1), 29 -64. REFERENCES howstandSong people andspeech speech perceive apply are to intimately songsinging in orderas related, well. to appreciateIt and is necessary the the techniques developedhears. toFinally, under- understanding differencesfor a singer betweento understand what Bally,Baily, J. AMovement system of patternsmodes used in playing in the urban the Herati musicthe 1-39.char.ofbody. Afghanistan. in New J. Blacking York: Ethnomusicoloes Academic ('Ed.), The Press. . 1977. anthropology of 1981, 25(1), voiceassessvocalisationsingers on whether themselves the andbasis the the ofsinger hearperception what and makes is heard.what of soundthe audience (including the alterations intended to improve control of the voice) are necessary to of vocalisation and Berliner,Blacking, P. F. J. TheEightHowPatterns soul musicalflute ofMbira.of tunes Nsenga Is man?from Berkeley: kalimba Butembo,Seattle: music.University University East52. African Belgian of of California WashingtonMusic, Congo. 1961. AfricanPress. Press. 2(4). 1978. Music. 1973.3 -20. 1955. 1(2). 24- significancetiesauditory of vocal perception ofsound these andand studiesThe howdiscuss aim forlisteners theirextendingof the implications perceivepresent vocal chapter such for is to describe the processes different from listeners'technique are then are outlined. Factors sound aresinging. considered. First, theThe proper- Heise,Harwood,Deutsch, G. D. A.,D. The L.and Universalspsychology Miller, G. in ofA. music: music,An experimental A London: perspective Academic studyPsychology, from1976, of cognitive Press,auditory 20(3), 1951, 1982. 521 psychology.patterns. 64, -534. 68 -77.American Ethnomusicology, Journal of thatdescribed. amake singer singers'These receives factors perception can are be then used of discussedtheir as a voicesbasis to assess for controlling performance. whether auditory feedback Kubik,Kolinski, G. M. ThePattern Recent phenomenon perception trends in of ethnomusicology andinherent recognition rhythms African .in Ethnomusicology,inliinohomoku African East Music, and music. Central 1962.(Eds.). In1967, African3(1), Blacking The //(1), 33performing -42. and arts. The Hague: Mouton Publishers, 1979. instrumental music. I -24. J. W. Kea - PROPERTIESBY OF THE AIRBORNE PERIPHERAL VOCALISATION AUDITORY SYSTEMAND TRANSDUCTION OF SOUND Sloboda,Miller,Meyer, G.L. J. B.A.,A. UniversalismMusicand Heise. performance. G. and A. Therelativism In trillD. Deutsch threshold. in4(2), the (Ed.), study 491950, Journal -54. The of 22, ethnicpsychology of 637 the -638_music. Acoustical of Ethnomusicology. music. Society London: of America, Academ- 1960, examplesource of arises a source from of alterations energyAll used made in singingto is vocalisation (including singing) can be modelled as a source the air flowing into the vocal tract. One voiced excitation, which arises and filter. The von Hornbostel, E. M. African Negro music. Africa,ic Press, 1928, 1982. /, 30 -61. MUSICALKingdom STRUCTURE and the Central AND COGNITION Research FundThis of researchLondon University. was supported by grams from the Medical 259 copyright 0 1985, by Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd. Research Council of the United IN THE MUSLIM CHILDREN CHILDREN IN AFGHANISTANbyDEVELOPMENT VeronicaPATTERNS Doubleday OF and MUSICAL AMONGJohn Baily l:I)ITEI) l3Y LI.I7. Ali 1:1 II \X!ARNC)CK FERNEA VIIDDL: ,AST theirchildrenThe purpose musical and, ofmoreskills. this specifically, essayOur data is to describe to examine musical the were collected during the seventies in the city way in which childrenperformance acquire among Afghan enceKabul.thetheand past, on Iranianenvirons Since Herat poor the border,communicationsand of thirties Herat,other Herat provincial thethe hascentralthird kept strong -largest centers. Herat historical city in government has exerted increasing influ- culturally distant from the capital, Afghanistan.links with PersianSituated culture. close to In hasAfghanistaninvasion made it ofimpossible as 1979 a whole. there to However, have beenWhile radical our specificchanges data derive from Herat, carry out detailed research within Afghanistan, but we would point out that since the Soviet our general analysis appliesin Afghan to society. Civil war stroyed;Afghanistanlife,we know including numerous that has therethe been musical inhabitants has devastated been activities considerable have by been of adults killed, disruption in all war. Parts of Herat city have been de- and children. Much of westernand many have become refu- aspects of Afghan abeen responsetogees. changeadapted We to wouldvery andstimulation little,transformed. expect but patternsand clearlyChildren encouragement ofsome musical do forms not developmentlearn of musical music in isolation; their -or censure and discourage- development is very much expressionamong social will havegroups ment. Our account of musical learning focuses This is än expanded version of a paper originally presented by John Baily on the social environment of UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS PRESS 'v'A U S F I N at a conference on music and child development, under the "Children's Music in Afghanistan." tide wethe Afghandescribe child the generaland its crucialsocial contextimpact onof musicalmusic in performance. Herat and then In this examine essay VERONICA DOUBLEDAY & JOHN RALLY licgroup world of of educated men. The women vast livedmajority unsecluded of lives, moving openly MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFGHANISTAN in the pub- patternsciansmusicalprofessional and ofdifferences betweensocial and and amateur boysbetween musical and backgrounds theenculturation.girls. children This developedexamination of Respectively, professional very demonstrates different andboys amateur and levels girls distinct musi- fromof mu- work.Girlsdayworked Boysoutside were and helped expected thesocialized house. with to certain The withinrun separationerrands chores the domestic forand of their later gender women wore a veil in public andsphere.mothers Men spent and most help ofwith the house-often becameroles apprenticed began at inan early age. socialthesicalHerat expectations competence life, the including traditional with according the which Muslimperformance to they theMusic separation grew richness of has up. music. beenof of their theAnother recognized sexesmusical important affected environmentas a sensitive allfactor aspects wasand indicator of of cultural values. In levelcouldplayeda trade of attend together, oreducation joined mosque many inwas agricultural schools ofrather their restricted,for work. butAlthough girls' male and female games were gender -linked.a period Both boysof religious and girls education. The general attendance at secular school children achievementssignificancethatthe orthodoxhereditary of religiousof genderprofessional Afghan and prejudice children. professionalism musicians against were instrumentalwas stigmatized clearly reflected music, for their inwhich the work. musical meant The was far lower than boys'. THE PLACE OF MUSIC IN HERATI SOCIETY phenomena.of velopment.thismusical we can enculturation We Thisextrapolate can in analyzeturn helps theilluminates Beyondinformationhow us to cognitive understand the intrinsicnaturenecessary schemata musical of anthropological musicality for are understandingsystems built and up as allowsandinterestcognitive their from us ofde- to these findings, the study tion,"differenttweenThe and eminent societiesmusic music asethnomusicologist as categorizea acultural human assystem,capacity, special John defined "ansymbol Blacking innate, as something "which systems and madekinds ofa useful social distinctionac- species be- -specific set of cog- members of ciallydifferentiate generated. between innate biological components and those that are so- vironmenthuman71).communicationnitive In and capacity,looking sensorythat relates atand but children'scapabilities forwe to making alsomelody, musicalinclude which sense rhythm, humaneverythingdevelopment, of their and beings dance.environment" in the Herati children's en-are predisposedwe examineto use for music as a (Blacking 199o: wasAfghan no governmentsociety was provision-andTHE is- firmly for PLACE health based care uponOF or CHILDRENthe care home of the and aged, family. IN HERATI There SOCIETY and mem- ments,viewcertain of especially waysmusic from was melodic Europeannarrow: instruments. music orIt American is(nlusigi) important Thus many to realize activities that which the Afghan definition was producedconcepts byof music.musical The instru- Afghan of "music" differed in are intrin- wereberswomenin ofextendedhighly the and extended aware girls.-family of Women familykinship households. supportedborerelationships many Child one children andcare another obligations was and inthe the many exclusive ideal ways. was domainPeopleto of and usually lived have a theing,fellsically frame outsidesuch musical, drum as thethe Afghan callaccording to prayer, definition. to a women's scientific Singing singing, view of (daireh), and children's singing and drumming was not musigi, so religious sing- even whenmusic accompanied as a human by capacity, were not werelargeandbabies greatlyfamily. were they regularly valued.The were infant swaddledBabies sung mortality lullabies were forChildren treated severalrate and was rocked with grewmonths, high, the up to whichutmost insleep.slept a secure meantnext Theycare. to and werethat their physically children not mothers, left to intimate environment. As notAfghanthought considered conceptof as music. real of instrumentsmusic.) (See SakataInstrumentsThe ( Sakata 1983,seclusion 1987:played Ch. of 86). bywomen had important consequences for musical4, for furtherperfor- discussion of the women and children were drenforcry, two butwere years. always treated Toilet picked with training considerable up and was comforted,In a Heratrelaxed affection. there process.and was they strict Generally were segregation speaking, of men chil- and women. Only a very small usually breast -fed andprinceregated:'Outsidemance. womengirls occasion or-menAll gathered social for theand singing, occasions, theater, separately,women dancing, with toapart makeoften its fromand courtesan inmusic playing intimateneighboring singers, musical family itgatherings, together. At weddings -the houses. Thereinstruments were -menwas rare for boys were seg- ments,importantinherited repertoires, differences by children. and between knowledge men's of musicand women's theory. musicalThese were styles, gradually instru- VERONICA DOUßLEDAY & JOHN 19AILY still1977,learning unknown music through in education Herat. songs After andmay actionthe seem to have been incorporated MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFGHANISTAN communistgames. This government use of music came in education to power in was mullahscelebrations,though it (Hanafi was it conceded was Sunni) generally preached that musicdisapprovedMusic that played occupied the playing of an by appropriatean religious ofambiguous musical authority. role instruments place in rituals Orthodoxwithin wasand the Herati value system. Al- Indianghanistan,school curriculum. but was jealously guardedA formal by theory of music known sawn' system of oral and written notation (comparable as the science of music existed in theAf- male sazandeh. It included the more intoin many the ways artistry,lowa worthlesslarthe status. andorthodox they Sufi Althoughand were traditions puritanical even also sinfulmusicians despised which disapproval activity. emphasized andwere stereotypedThe sometimes of professionmusic its positive was as admired bad ofcounterbalanced spiritual musicianMuslims. for their values occupied However, skill byand popu-and con- a childrennaryknowledgeto parentstonic by solwerea took sazandeh, -fa). the the Themale unusual but only offspring this step children of of arranging male who had instrumental direct was very rare. sazandeh. In certain cases, ordi- access to this formal tuition for their sideredtinctionfor devotional music between to bepurposes. foodmale for amateur the soul.The players low In certain status and ofcontextsprofessional the music music professionplayers was even (see resulted used Baily in an important social dis- A full description of the variety of musical styles THE PERFORMANCE OF MUSIC played respectively by men, Theycalledding1979). parties played In andHerat for concertsthemselves city, music was and performed at forpublic friends, orby semipublic hereditary and strove professionalgatherings to disassociatesazandeh. such musicians them-as wed- Male amateurs were known as shaligi (literally "enthusiast "). thestrumentsplayedwomen, by and malewhich children sazandeh required in Afghanistan specialized istechniquesat/lab given by andBaily (1988). (a short- necked lute) and was technically the most complex. They played in- tabla (a drum pair imported from India). exact tuning, such as The music musicselvesfession.their fromfor sons its(See the would own derogatorySlobin sake, not 1976:become not sazandeh in 23 order musicians -24 label.forto earn further Theyand money. this discussionemphasized was They not also oftheir that the stressed inheritedthey term played that pro- shaugi.) sicalchildrenWhile art music. part played, of their they repertoire alone playedIn duplicated Afghanistan what most musical instruments kelasik, the technically sophisticated clas- male amateurs, women, and becauseplayedprofessional music they musiciansplayed at home. for Female (alsostrangers knownAmong sazandeh and as womenreceived sazandeh) had therean payment. unambiguously and was ordinary an They obvious wore women low andveils status whoclear in -cut distinction between malealso(-hang,only usedwomenprofessionals two played other during instrumentsthe women's the past of frame fiftyIndian years: drum was also played by women in some other regions.) Female origin which had been adopted by thecalledwere harmonium gender -typed.and tabla. In Herat(In daireh. (The jew's harp, sazandeh modesty.public,aticourtesan sazandeh but They ingirls theirkinship were who work stigmatized sanggroup they and and wereactedReligious are as "easynot unableat the considered attitudes women,"theater to observe didhad in if thisnot notother the conicstudy.)prostitutes. proper restrictive from rules the (The effects Her-of upon the status of music. Frommale.instrumentsIndia (Forathe the outset, discussion tablasuch isaschildren viewedwind of gender- instruments adoptedas typing their and a male instrument.) Other specifically Afghan or lutes were viewed as exclusivelyrespective musicalmusic, seegender Koskoff roles. 1987: 1 -23.) strictlyandtionalIn prewar religious or opposed secular Afghanistan education toschool instrumental instrumental curriculum.to young music. boys The music andNor mullahs played girlswas musicatwho nothe impartedpart mosquetaught in either as basicschools a subject the literacy tradi-were in distinctinstruments.dairehSmall music boysas a girl'sparticipated culture instrument. of their in domestic GirlsUnlike music- children in some other societies, Herati own. Among the Venda of Southnever Africa, showed for any interest in playing male making sessions but shunned the children did not have a theeducationplacegovernment aegis in schools, ofwas foreignschools. in abut fledgling advisors, neverThe singing accompaniedstage: and amusicof few schools wasby musical exploited liad opened instruments. as a inuseful Kabul Nurserytool under for tarara, rousing group songs, did take didtheredren'sinstance, not was compose sangs little John inand Blackingthenew that way children ofa (1967) specific composed found children's that songs, although they did sometimes adapt the new allsongs children themselves. learned In special Herat chil- musical repertory. Children texts of adult songs. A variety of children's games have been documented in Af- VERONICA DOUBLEDAY & JOHN BAILY MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFGHANISTAN notmusicalghanistan sung. element. (van Oudenhoven Some did have 1980),By texts contrast, but which these children's didwere not chanted appear musical rhythmically to performancehave a strong but centered around the imitation tablapossesstheir drumsown a daireh, or with under girls wouldChildren, particularly an upside -down washing howl the supervision of older little girls, played this use a metal tray. They might females. If the familykind of andmusic bucket. Improvised even imitate the as a game, on did not in- weddingandof theiradult dancing highmodels. rituals emotionalthey inThey saw their playedat chargeplay weddings. songsdemonstrates and heard continuousThe fact from that that adults music-wedding children and making celebrationscopied tended -were the to singingact experi--with out ingchildrenstruments sessions, did likeand theserhythms Drumming and clapping not normally possess instruments were characteristic of children's were learned at an earlyplayed an integral role of their own. in these singingage. Little and girls weremusic- making because danc- en- girlswomen'sternisenced or theby women. domestic childrenmusic children as music, powerful playedand veryand was dramaticoften no differentchildren social played fromoccasions. what music weIn withstructural may older call granted.thisdairehtimes somethingcouraged called Girlsclearly learnedtoon requireddance almost to be deliberatelyto display learned: their precocious it talents to executesome performancethe various daireh skill, but as soon as they could walk, and was a skill that was taken for in womenfront of didn't guests. consider The they were some- itsbabiesto children.most or basic, young The the lullaby,children singing which to consisted sleep,It was is also wassung of significant the anby extendedonlywomen manifestation that as repetition therethey vigorouslywas of ofno this thelarge sort.phraserocked body At of songs for adults to sing musicandothers. wasoften gradually developed discouraged.Before reaching puberty, a passion for this pastime. As they girls had a good deal While music was of timeseen for as playing harmless for chil- rhythms by watchinggrew older, playing music doubtedlythereligious"Allah rocking Hu," and an butcradle oftenimportant very andplaintive often the early women trancelike in musicalnature. sang state Closelyaexperience long before selection associated sleep, common of the verseswith lullabyto the virtuallywhich rhythm was were un-all of hood,instance,way.dren, There loud it girls was domesticwere would other general seen to be unseemly for older music-quiet making down. wasIf there avoided had restrictions: when the girls to express themselves been a death in theout of sympathy for those in men were at home, for neighbor- in this distinctHeratitarytween children.musician categories children families. from of children, ordinary It is distinguishingnecessary We(nonsazandeh) will nowto point betweenexamine families out that girls the and the processand those number boys from of and ofsazan-learning heredi- be- music by looking at four flippanttheremourning. wasand achildish valid As girls approached puberty, cause for celebration. They realizedand that they had they played much less to grow out of it. They that music was music, except when strove to be- seen as indeh this in case.a city like Herat was very small, about thirty females and twenty males interpretedspectivesooncome be daughtersmoremarried as responsible, and-in -law. that older modest, a sign of flightiness and reluctance A strong interest in musical women wereand already hardworking. judging They to work hard. The desire performance could be knew they would them as pro- to women'sHerati girls domestic in nonsazandeh music. This families consisted learned ofsinging, to perform either andsolo participateor in a group, in GIRLS FROM NONSAZANDEH FAMILIES neverandchanceplay themusic received to fact progress. had that formal girls training to be curbed and therefore girls'Given the very lowcould not take paid lessons in music. status of female sazandeh frommusical men, talentsordinary had little musicians girls onrhythmsusuallyGirls happy usually accompaniedofa occasions number joined ofdistinctconnected inby eagerly the daireh. dances. withwith weddingsmusic-This Women drum making, performed or was the clappingalso birth this used of kind ina tonewtime playof baby.musicwith the the Boys from nonsazandeh BOYS FROM NONSAZANDEH families were also exposed to women's domestic FAMILIES fordeddairehmusic andideal -making joining circumstances with in the rifted choruses for and girls motivated andto listen, refrains adult learn, of performers. songs.and actively Such occasionsparticipate af- in 015010thesic anddancing, .singing participated whilebut did in notat play work the in daireh. the fields, itIn to the where some villages boysextent. They sang, clapped, or took could sing as loudlythere was a tradition part in mu- as Athey seasonal liked, exercisingoccasion for their boys' voices group and singing building occurred up a repertoire during theofsung evenings poetry. of VERONICA DOUBLEDAY & JOHN BAIL? though their fathers often followedHere we another examine profession. girls whose These mothers MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFGHANISTAN were professional musicians, al- ingRamadantheir special own (the verses toy month instruments. and ofbegging theJust fast), Infor as Herat whentreats.girls improvisedtheboys This chief wentsinging instrument fromdrums was house fromfun of and to common male house rowdy. amateurs sing- domestic objects, boys made inwhichfrom athese world the reinforced professional same which kinship wasthe richness bandsdominated group were of and theirbyrecruited lived the musical performance in through life. Allkinship of one particular area of the city, the girlsmusic. who They worked all came or marriage, and girls grew up ofwerefromawas wooden the the expensive,tin hands dutar cans. spoon of (aFew children. localdelicate, fitted boys type with had and oflong- stringsaccess even necked slightly toor real rubber lute), musicalshameful- bands. which instruments thereforeDrumscould be could becauseimitatedkept bewell made theywith out onsinging.they the all grounds acquiredNo girl of from anbeing acceptable that unmusical. kinshipA woman's level group of bandwas barred usually from had playingfour or five members, playing harmonium, competence ill daireh -playing and in a band twelve,proud(Baily of1976) and the learnedfact. showed They by that normallycopying theyResearch usually anotherbegan on claimedplaying performerthe way theto adultbe dutar (generally self dutar at -taught, the players agea relative and of acquired about were or their instrumental skills lifesiciansties.andtabla, went traditionalThese took and on: celebrations theironemothers songs ordaughters, more tocould lasted entertain dairehs. breast babies, for severalwomen -feedThey and their hours performedyoungat weddings babies children danceand and with them. or overnight, so women mu- musicolder and girls popular mindedengagement par- Family andfriend)step.usuallytiously then withoutBoys practicewhen an wereold therevealing instrument inoften owner private. discouraged waswhat boughtThey out they of often werebythefrom their house. borrowed doing.the relatives dutarAcquiring They anmaker, from instrumentwould a learningdutar was listen, anof surrepti- music,one'simportant watch, own, be- in professions.theirthethe smallworkplace prospective children. Normally for profession. aIt year was children oralso two,In a convenientofthe at about themusic same nine profession, time absorbing apprenticeship much followed way for these girls to learnor aboutten performed menial tasks a pattern similar to other impor- sicaltheingtype dutar.told knowledge. of it learningwas sinful. Groups situation They of had friendswhich Asto overcome they involvedwould grew get participation. manyolder, together obstacles boys to had play The tomore music, coordinationlearn freedom to a newplay than girls to extend their mu- of tenedzandehlearningsaidtant informationthat to girls, the toboys weave: music minding who about andthey constantly theirdancing. thealready skillsyounger sawunderstood they adults siblings were at the to the learn. loom For had instance, at weddings, watched process.and lis- In the same way sa- no difficulty in weavers addedamateursanythingvarious and melodic encountered mightmore rarelyandplay rhythmic in dutarthe women's rubab. and instruments drumsAdomestic few amateurtogether; wasmusic- a moremusicians themaking. harmoniumcomplex Atook group process formal could of young paidthan be girlsgiftsdance of acts theirmoney. at age, weddings Far sazandeh from and being girls wouldAt discouraged aboutwere be actuallyrewardedten or fromeleven, rewarded by music- their sazandeh for making being girls like began performing solo patrons with small song -and-outgoing other andlessons, to find usually out something from hereditary about musicmusicians, theory. to learn particular compositions wasinglyand organized confident given opportunities flexibly performers. so that to They anyplay membercompeted the daireh could for and attention dropsing outwith andto the rest band, or feed which were increas- a While in some sazandeh families both men and women vvorkedGIRLS as musicians,FROM FEMALE SAZANDEH FAMILIES correctdrumsbaby when withIndian necessary. their style own and rather used The simplecrude next technique.flat task -handed was toThey strokes. master theTheir tabla. drums The female sazandeh played were ignorant of the thesewere femaleofnoin strictothersthespecial family sazandeh. purdah. only encouragement were the Those men at pains whosefollowed to to develop fathers distinguish this butmusicalprofession not their mothers skills. women and On theirwere thefrom womensazandeh contrary, the low- were receivedthe status keptmen thewasof poor band,men'sin musically quality, remaining quality. effective, and inSomethey the in made subordinateAgirlsmany few neverno waysgirls attempt becameroleprogressedthe women's ofto singer good from tablaandenough tabla daireh playing to harmonium.player. fell short of They taught themselves, tune them. Thus, although it to play tabla in dancewithpicking the pieces; outleft. familiar In later the sheearly tunes learned stages with tothe the use novice right the harmonium handharmonium and pumping to player accompany might the instrument play VERONICA D O U B L E D A Y & JOHN GAILY her sing- only sixslept,brought a boythey their showed said small the asounds sonslively to of interestsit music with inthem M U S I C A L DEVELOPMENT were still absorbed. If at the agea particularof five or instrument, he wouldon the be bandstand.I N Even if the child A F G H A N I S T A N sheprograming. couldA talented of be music an girl accomplished by could the leadage ofmusiciana In band,about contrast selectfourteen, and to independentsongs, the male and sazandeh, structure band athe female sazandeh did not and by sixteen or seventeen leader. place greathalf -hour estfaults.wouldtheallowed andinstruments Thisencourage motivation. to wasexperiment awere psychologicallywhat Boys too theywith valuablefrom saw it. those Of assound to correct, familiesbe left butwith in tended which 5111111 the women course, parents supervised this process -strategy, reinforcing the child's inter- to avoid pointing out children. Parents tion.ultimatelyfromemphasisand Whilethe play correctionon motivation femalethe technical daireh, sazandeh of wasfinessefaults.they left recognizedexpected Womenas to instrumentalists.the individual,any encouraged that girl the to tablabewho There andable learnedand praised towas harmoniumjoin no learners, tuition, were apart through imita-in the singing butin- women'sdingmusicians engagements bands. had the additional when young. experienceBy theThey age of goingabout withtwelve, their when mothers amateur boys even occasionally played tabla in the were starting to learn an were also to wed- strumentsdaymore 1988.) detailed that had account to be of learned the lives through of women musicians in Herat, see Double- the musician's own efforts. (For a Aan youngreerinstrument,opportunity as singera member the to-harmonium developyoung of a band. male more player Assazandeh advanced soon of twelveas was he skills wentready might through out be regularly able playing in with a band others. he had to begin his professional ca- to lead a band for Boys raised in musician families grew up in a musically more BOYS FROM MALE SAZANDEH FAMILIES complex world. andment,Althougha set this of they songs was musicians often taken and played byas werethea sign age other normally of ofWithin musical aboutinstruments identified malesixteen maturity. sazandeh -thoughcould be families, not a full usually -time some inbandleader. boys public did as players ofa particular instru- women,WhileOneclassical ofmale they the music sazandehalsodistinguishing performedof India played and features various Pakistanthe popular ofgenres the which male music female sazandeh's repertory sazandeh repertory was of art music closely related to the didperformed not know. by and tais music berganizedwascouraged of not full asbecause -timefamily to go professional theybusinessesinto weresome unmusical, other andmusicians. there profession. was but (For work because Sazandeh for onlythey bands chose tended not become musicians. This a rather small num- or were en- to be or- - theory,beof(melodic thetransmitted.learned essentially master- modes through student However, anda variant the metric relationship medium ofdespite cycles). Hindustani of these through notationMale ideals,music sazandeh which and ittheory seemsemphasized musical believed with that its that rags knowledgeboys should learned mu-the importance music should male musicians in Herat, see Baily 1988.) DISCUSSION a fuller account of the lives of sicsounds in much of the music, same imitation way as sazandeh of musical girls: performance, by ear, through and exposure a individual trial and familyto the tenceWe have between demonstrated children ofthat sazandeh there was and a ordinarystriking contrastfamilies. in Sazandeh musical children compe- tomembers.error session.learn in Hindustani There was music,no formal and musicMale little musicians notiontraining, no had exercises some interesting ideas about musicality social environment in which they were encouraged by of sitting down for a practice of the type used and its devel- learning.tinctionskillsdeveloped and One between knowledge more could advanced whatnot reallyof one repertory. musical mighttalk about term abilitiesThis music formal difference in education termsand informaldid of cognitive modes and of not arise from a dis-or musical training motormusic thoughtopment.musicthem burstthisTheywas had especiallyinto recognized to flame. be nurtured, important Theythat some believedlike in blowingindividuals the that development onearly smolderingwere exposure of to naturally musical musicaland ability, and embers to make the sounds of sionalhardry.thein 1964.:,i46)-thethis context,background, case foramong deliberatethese Herati Herati tenors children intentsazandeh. imply to learneda create"directed Whether music learningfrom in much process" the (Merriam a learning situation -which was an amateur or profes- sanie way, through imitation and participation, in what one might describe as a course VERONICA DOUBLEDAY & JOHN EAILY as "a setup for learning behavior of very complex and specific MUSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN AFGHANISTAN types" (Gillin, environments.groupsof entself in -pacedof their children respective instruction.The mustlearning havefamily The situations been lives.difference caused and bythein theirthe learning musical exposure processes abilities to were different social of the two inher- andcontrastcited women's by inMerriam the access data: 1964: theto material variation 162).Gender This goods between principle relations and boys inand Herat girls. were clearly manifest in musical terms. Girls' information was considerably is clearly shown by a second re- training"firsting music. step," is requiredMerriam to say that to was become"special surelyImitation a skillwrong real requires musician" tohas see not specialthe received(Merriam role training," the attention or it deserves as a of imitation as simply a 1964:method 147, i so). for Inlearn- that "formal Imitation didformers,zandehstricted. not play men Women the the andwomen genres womenplayed ofknew artvirtually music.virtually only Differences nothing were marked. Although they were professional one instrument, the daireh, and they about formal music theory in knowledge between sa- per- or Herat,issystematizedthingimplies often imitation itself. necessarylearning Acquisition forseems pedagogicin to ato seesituation have howhas purposes. been not things in beencentralwhich are Visual separated donetheto the childinformation in learning order as attempts a course to process. is veryto important; it understand how to of instruction,reproduce the byandphonesspecialized male rhythm, andsazandeh. techniques did the notmusic know such they how as playedThese tuning gender instruments. differences in to tune their tabla drums. In terms of melodywas structurally simpler than that played They did not play chordo- betweenself;doavailable them. there sazandehImitation are to nohe imitatedsystematic childrenrequires and andtheexplanations. the childother way tothatchildren work imitationThe things differencelay in was out in terms encouraged.the musical resources for himself or her- of ability thanhavetent,balanced tomaleexamined, women's by amateur the fact anddomestic performers thatalso allthe music. children in ThisHerat. was We the simplest of most widespread; thereaccess were to far musical more female knowledge were counter- were exposed, to a greater or lesser ex- see women's domestic music as the adult styles we child. A earliestnumber1. There age. of wasfactors frequent enriched exposure the musical to environment the sounds of music from the of the sazandeh popularmusic.the main Fromand enculturatingtraditional this children song experience learned repertory.The close Herati for relationship Herati rhythms, between women and children was reflected in their children, the basic reservoir of dances, and the basic with2. 3.There Thereaccess was wereto strong musical models encouragement instruments. for emulation, to engage frequent in musicalopportunities play activities, to watch basicwithlullaby.domesticmusic themodels single-making. Rhythmical music for most musical fromIn important structural rocking, whatlearning, children earlytermssinging, all experiencedmusical thereplayed. drumming, was little to distinguish Womenwomen's alsoexperience provided children in the form of the and clapping constituted andperformance4.and question There to observe were adults of regular closelymusic and other byopportunitiestheir skilled siblings instrumental adults. playing to skills. musical instruments, participate actively in the sional,children.atained type byofwere music-Theconstant anticipated separate making contact worldsin sanctioned thebetween musical of bylife religion, of the child and therefore men and women,women of amateur and children. and profes- Moreover, this was within the home and main- at home. From an early suitable for Theseent differencesdifferences in themusical musicality environmentseemed5. Sazandeh of to be are what children sufficient life was grew to all up about, in a not a matter for inhibition. sazandeh and ordinarysocial children.world in whichThere playingis music explain the appar- adultage life. the child learned to conform to the role that awaited ACKNOWLEDGMENTS him or her in factors.noreproduces need to look what for is explanations going on aroundLearning him by or imitationher. This hasis an important consequences; couched, for example, in terms of genetic inevitably the childexample of culture VeronicaJohnAnthropolögy,Sciencé,Research Baily's Doubleday research The Council collectedwas Queen's supported while the University data he by relating of Belfast, was a research fellow in the Departmenta postdoctoralof Social research grant from the Social to women's music in Herat. 1973 - 1975. During that period VERONICA DOUBLEDAY & JOHN BALLY REFERENCES Baily, John. 1976. "Recent Changes in the dutar of Herat." Asian Music 8(1):. 29 -64. 1979. "Professional and Amateur Musicians in Afghanistan." World of ,14usic Blacking, John. 1967. Venda Children'scompanying21(2):Cambridge Songs.46 -64. audio Johannesburg:University cassette. Press. UniversityCambridge of Studies Witwaters-.1988. in Music Ethnomusicology. of Afghanistan: Cambridge: Professional Musicians in the City of Herat. With ac- rand Press. . Koskoff,Doubleday, Ellen. Veronica. 1987. 1988. "An IntroductionThreemann,Posed Women eds.,by to o_fHerat. EthnomusicologicalWomen, Musk and London:Music Child and JonathanDevelopment Research."Culture." Cape. In (St. In Koskoff, FrankLouis, R. Mo.: Wilson 199o.MME). and "Music Franz in L.Children's Roeh- Cognitive and Affective Development: Problems Sakata,Merriam, Hiromi Alan Lorraine.P. 1964. The1983. Anthropology MusicAfghanistan.versityed., inWomen the Press. Mind:of andMusic. With TheMusic two Evanston,Concept in accompanying Cross of Ill.:Music-Cultural Northwestern and audio Perspective Musician cassettes. Uni- in (New Kent, York: Ohio: Greenwood Kent State Press). Uni- calversity Tradition." Press. In Ellen Koskoff, ed., Women and. Music it: Cross-1987. Cultural "Hazara Perspective Women in Afghanistan: Innovators and Preservers of a Musi- VanSlobin, Oudenhoven, Mark. 1976. Nico. Music 1980. in the "Common Cultureopment."cations(New ofYork: inAfghanNorthern Afghanistan Anthropology, Greenwood 'Street' Afghanistan. Journal GamesPress). No. 54.7 Viking (4):and Tucson: 126- Child Fund 138. University Devel- Publi- of Arizona Press. VOL. 43, No. 1 ETHNOMUSIC)LO( ;Y WINTER 1999 VERONICAWomen,The Frame DOUBLEDAY Musical Drum / University Instrumentsin the of Brighton Middle East: and Power IntroductionIn many parts of the Middle East frame drums are strongly associated with ciallymusicformedEurope playedand andby women men,sub by -Saharan women not in Middlewomen. offersAfrica Easternwomen,' Given a for rich instance- Muslim fieldthe This situation is remarkable because highly contestedfor the status investigation of bothdrummingcultures, of gender is an traditionally instrument per- espe- in many other regions - ingonof andframegender from power. drums, the and Eastern musical and (2) Mediterranean, instruments. based The MiddleMy aim in this article is twofold: (1) on this data, to offer theoretical conclusions Egypt and the Arabianto contribute peninsula, to the ethnography East covers an area stretch- In(Judaism, ofthroughthis ancient setting Christianity Turkish, civilisations the frame Arab and and drum(e.g.Islam), Persian Mesopotamiahas it is landsThis is a general survey of the frame a long and significanta region history. of great historical importance.to Afghanistan. Being the andbirthplacedrum, Egypt), not and an exhaustiveof monotheisms study. andtyEasternfancy, Scholarlyand have partlyseclusion and created Westernunderstanding through have difficulty conventions.androcentric contributed of of Middle Muslimtocultural the Eastern invisibility access for research. Among Western schol- ideologiesbiaswomen's entrenched about music female in isboth still modes- Middle in its in- of women's traditions ciplinesed towardsars'in Koskoff concern and male also 1989:1)about musical present an and "unbalanced practices"my others. own first Ihas draw picture -hand beenThe Middle Eastern frame drum is portable, onof voicedworldsources music, by from Nettl heavily a (1983:334,variety weighted ofdata dis- quot- from Afghanistan.2played with the bare hands, ©and 1999 features by the Board in a ofwide Trustees variety of the of University musical 101 of Illinois settings. As a generic type, it is single-702 headed. Its frame is of variable size, usually round, and sometimes Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 en often enjoy the privilege of all -women Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle Last 103 westerndiscs).modified Its regions), withskin maypercussive duff be painted./def additions (Turkey, (bells,Iran Theand rings, furthermost chains, common east), cymbals, däireh names /döira/ metalare duff (principally applied in Arabia and strictionsmaking.the power inof manyfemale domains, solidarity including and providesIdeologies about female submissiveness music (see below). But, as Tapperspace, a settingthe whichprincipal facilitates contextand for modesty music have caused re- - doiraandtionedsometimesmany (Middle bendir local in this confused,(North variantsEast article and African). and areasCentral noted thetof terminology(Hebrew),For Asia),in furtherIraq and (Hassan mazhar,details tarfor (Arabia).frame 1980:38).; regarding riqq drums and These Otherghirballinguistic, is imprecise terms terms (Arabic), havehistor- men- and aspectsmalenotesingobserves, considerable superiority that of male-across inequality ascendancy,(1989 power culture :13).of within status -womenMiddle holding "doesthe Eastern household"sometimes not preclude able women from wield- women may privately condemn "connive"(1991:104). with notions Koskoff of also Frameical and Drums geographical and Women aspects of terminology,Middle see PochéEast scholars (1984:616). have noted close associations between frame powersMusical are Instruments invested in andmusical Power instrumentsBefore examining Middle Eastern frame an inner sense of power and worth. generally.drums, Their let us powers consider may what drumsstressing(1995:159).and andduffin the women. asits Arab Tourna"theancient Shiloah worldregion's connects roots, (1980:535), makes most especially the a characteristically drumgeneral and withwith linkrefers ArabEgyptian between to women's the feminine and womendoira, Israelitedance tar,instrument"and traditions, bendirframe women statesbetweenspiritlages,relate possessionorthat tohelpthe ofhealing, worlds allwith musical and family physicalof exorcism, the instrumentsproblems, strength, thefarming drum seen and the unseen (DeVale 1989:107). Cirlot or serve as vehicles for communicationand musical instruments and hunting, safeguarding vil- may facilitate drumsexclusivelyen(1977:107). (1975:142), extends playedIn as Turkishinto do by MuslimMorris women, folk andmusic and usually Rihtman Muslim- Picken in (1984),private." associatesinfluenced who Women's thesay regions drum the usedefis withbeyond of frameworn- the "almost andmystic may possessideas (1971:89). supernatural Drums powers, accompanyIn Siberia, thehis shamanverses but of also,the Chuckchec by holding it in front are widely used in rituals and ceremonies, as Jenkins describes: people uses the drum not only to is the most pregnant with of his mouth, to modify Caucasus,Middlerights East over and (e.g. any the NorthtypeBalkans). of Africa, musical the instrument, IndianSome subcontinent, even general the framefeatures Central drum emerge Asia, itself, the regarding as gender. Women lack exclusive gentine,yardsacredthe ... sound that In the some an Matacoof escaping his places voice, people criminala fordrum usegreater theis granted drumeffect. may have a great many functions. In the Ar- In parts of East Africa,to frighten the drumsanctuary away is spirits if he reachesassociated the drum so - baijanofistan.drumnoted membranophones, Inis in"the one Iraq,Iraq only of (Hassanwomen the instrument few traditionally including1980:94) indigenous allowed andthe play instruments frameAfghanistan.into only traditional drum idiophones women (duff) In women's some (ibid.:94).play,and areas a aslimitedsurroundings in the InAfghan- frameAzer-range We shall examine an impressive eralpeoplealsowith magicaluse beau death it to itinstrumentanimate andalso disease at burialthe (1977:41 good and ceremonies spirits -42). of andhurricanes, range of powers residing in Middle East- so as to ensure a good harvest. The same at girls' puberty rituals. It is a gen- tempests and drought. They etedarcmusicalhoweveris the traditionally gender clef' instruments. be (Kerimova bias,stressed reserved which Atthat 1996:4). theis elite forclearly same men. womenNo time demonstrated doubt These ahave considerable there phenomena had are inaccess otherother number point to examples.aspects a wider ofto instrumentsa of range ItMiddle must, of multifac- Musicalern frame Instruments drums. in Islamic ThoughtIdeas expressed by the Muslim religious establishment have had a cru- relationshipsgreatlyEastern accordingculture is (seecentral to Ahmed class (see and Beck1992). region. and Keddie Women'sThe status, 1978). role rights, Middle in family privileges Eastern and and socialworn- powers of Middle Eastern women vary distinction(giroin this,ciala separate át) impactthey is isconceptually focussed andoften in theless made region. uponblameable distinctbetween musical The category.fromlegists "musical instruments, have "music." In Muslim cultures, instruments"In generallyparticular, condemned andQuranic "singing." recitation music. This Inleaving unaccompanied a broad song 104 Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 areis truely synonymous related for Afghanistan, to reading with "musical and where speech wordsinstrument," (Baily for music1996:147 and (Persian singing -48; Sakata (khândan)sâz; Greek 1983:46 is musiqi) close- -48). obliteratedsomepressed early awareness frommagico- cultural of religiousthe pre -Islamic attributes because of musical it Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East memory. The reed- flute's sacred ethos dates from was un- Islamic. Accordingly, instruments have been 105 exception,tionandly been toof women'sthe recorded. scriptures.the source exclusion This Theof relates many Prophetfrom to hadiths the Mohammad's realmandrocentric (PropheticThe of views public wife biastraditions) of debate MuslimAishaalready and is and women noteda interpreta-significant acknowl- above, regarding musical instruments have rare- displaydoxhasdeity"ancient beenMuslim by possible forgotten.accompanying Anatolia, Yazidis traces Venerationofwhere ofIraq the Mithraism, thewould spoken flute of also epiclesis Mazdaism, -player's sacredmusical function instruments was to "call the seem to predate Islam. Their beliefs (Schimmel 1994:138), but this Manichaeism and Zoroas- among the hetero- hascalbelow).edged instruments,sometimes as a prominent percolatedsaying authority they into cause theon human thepopular Prophet's beingsBroadly consciousness. tolegacy lapsespeaking, afterinto In sin. histhe Afghanistan death Thismale view (seelegists ascribed negative powers to musi- usescal1980:183trianism, instruments of musical -93).and in instruments they Middle hold Eastern both for religious the flute andModern frame scholars drum have probably underestimated cultures, as Hassan observes for Iraq: "The purposes are incomparably more religious uses of musi- as sacred (Hassan fromtract,summarisedBailyties, work,thusinterviewed especially distracting (3) their the ideas.sexa powerrange peopleand Music ofimbibingto people leadfrom possessed people prayer, (necessarily"wine," astray, (1) (2) and the the all indulging(4)power power men) the topower onto engrossin deflectthis illicit to point, bring andpeopleactivi- and at-peo- many(ibid.:11).numerous religious An and and excursion diverse supernatural thaninto ancientprofane connections. sources uses, and also far less well known" relating to frame drums reveals pipelawciallyple into andof regarding thecontact successor, devil" withthe (Farmer shawm.is Satan reported 1929:26). (Baily Abu toBakr, 1988:146 have Satan the called ConceptualProphetmay -47). italso mizmâr Mohammad's be links linked al- exist shaitân,with father between sexual- "the-in- Satan and musical instruments, espe- ofnium Thedrum B.C.E. Early in the For region,History always of Frame The Middle Eastern frame drum dates many centuries it seems to have been the principal closely connected with women. Drums back at least to the third millen- type monlyGenerally,(shawm)ity: villagers applied the though, "devil'sin westernto musicalin penis"the Afghanistan Muslim instruments.(Baghban Middle apparently 1977, EastWhen quoted sexual sometimesapplied, in symbolism Baily however, called1988:146 is thenot (to sornâcom--47). my twoandMesopotamia womencategories playing translated the drums as "drums" andArtefacts from Mesopotamia (Jenkins 1977:40).(Iraq) from Sumerian c.3000 texts B.C.E. refer show both men "tambourines" (Wolkstein and to knowledge)posedsianthought. culture the The connotationslegists, (e.g., notion westernand of some aremusic Afghanistan, always upheld as "spiritual negative. the Positiveseelawfulness food"Baily ideas 1988:152finds and ofsacredexpression instrumental -55). potentiality Sufis in Per- op- music are also apparent in popular ofplayingattested. mayKramera bowl distinguish "small Babylonian dated1983:26, framec.2100 differently 99). statuettes drums" B.C.E. In the sized (Jenkinsabsenceshows from frame c.2000 of 1977:41), drums, and and the any other type of drum, these drums B.C.E. show men and women widely varying sizes are carved fragment poetichallowedreedstrumentsof musical -flute work status in(ney)instruments of their their deriveshas religious thirteenthalways (seefrom beenrituals,below). the century associatedopening evenSome founder, veneratinglines brotherhoods with ofJalaluddin Mevlevi the themMathnawi used ritual.Rumi) as sacred.musical Part(the in which ofgreat The in-its B.C.E.).cottaly largefemale From frame figurines that drum period from(Postgate dancers Ur in 1992:124 the used the frameBlades and Anderson link frame drums with a maleneo- drummer Sumerian beating period an (c. extreme- 2150fig. -1850 6, 11). women, baseddrum on rather terra- than clap- developed(Nicholsonit symbolisesuncivilised; a1978:29). construct "thethey soulstyled of emptied historyit Jâhelia ofwhich (self "Days andlabelledIt ofisfilled Ignoranceimportant the with pre the -Islamic ").to DivinerememberThis projectperiod Spirit" that sup-as Islamic legists, thinkers and writers inafter toreligiousperslaments bloodthe "in goddess ritualsacrificesfor ceremonies the performances"Inanna dead ( Wolkstein and(ibid.:53,61,69): describes parades (1984:974).and a Kramer(Postgate the Frame drums parade: the drums resound dramatically 1983:99).1992:124).lamenter Drums A Sumerian "circledwere played hymn the house were featured in 106 Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 Doubleday: The Franze Drum in the Middle East 107 religionof tothe her gods" (cf.people below).in a of circumambulation Uruk (ibid.:26). The ritual drum thatLinks was is with Inanna are significant: in a Sumerian text used in the sacrednotable marriage in Middle Eastern she bestows drums 89).infierce childbirth, His and image grotesque and appeared was dwarf associated on -like bedroom household with furniture, music god,In and another Bes.watching dancing He link protected (Hall with 1994:88-women, the frame drum was an attribute of the over childbirth, women ing(Ochsbornthousandicdrama and the priestly (hierosgoddess years 1990:22). gamos) accounts, tobestowed assure By of means prosperitythis Inannakingship was of and performedsexual to and Ishtar'sthe fertility intercourse,king. cult; A to the a continuously for at least two nude erotic scenewidely depict- attested in poet- priestessland and represent- its people (TeeterHebrewdishmothers a 1993:68). knife andBiblical and new Forbeat -born Sources ana frame illustration, babies drum (Robins to see ward Wosien1993:85). off evil (1974:plate andBes figurines often scare away evil spirits 25). bran- sexualaed lyre on a andcongress. clay a plaquefemale Williams fromholding Larsa -Forte (and (c.2000 comments: -1600Tambourines B.C.E.) arc usually held by nude female figures shaking ?) a frame drum while they have and, inshows one instance, a male playingon alem.texts.toph) InPsalmto theaccompany early68 is aperiod processional their they own used singing hymn, sacred sungand Thespace dancingas Hebrewthe within ark in Biblethevarious temple describes women playing the frame drum was carried into the ritual con- (tof /top/at Jerus- culta cylinderers,strument of butthe sealprovidegoddess. is associated from joyful ThusMari, withmusic theby thetwosexual and figures eroticlove, seenwith goddess Ishtar /Inanna. Accordingly, the in- dancing as an accompaniment to and seduction, and perhaps withhere theare not secular perform- (1983:195 -96). of amongingtemplethe theHebrews (Alexandertheminner playingsanctuary, the sanctuary 1973:341). on "attambourines its was Verses head reserved the 24[i.e. singers,-27 tof, to describe Levitespl. next toppim]." and priests, After the exile a processioncome penetrat- minstrels, girls with Egyptgamos,(For this below). illustration, see Wolkstein and Kramercelebration of a cult ritual, perhaps the sacred marriage 1983:101. Also see hieros estwerespoilswomen writings performed of excluded battle of theand with(Mays Hebrew spread frame 1968:464), news Bible, drums: of is victories athe victory SongIn with the psalm of dayspsalmsDeborah, (Alexander of (ibid.:464).the one judges of1973:221- the (c. old- 1220 -1050 B.C.E.) women divided the These tianious(khener) New1993:148 lutes, Kingdom directed lyres, -49). dynasties Flutes,The by drumswomen oboes, (c.1570 (both used two -947rectangular typesthe PlentifulB.C.E.). drum of harp, and in evidence attests that women played frame round) accompaniedFemaletemple var- musical ritualsand troupes (Robins other idiophones drums in the Egyp- thedancetidings22). prophetess Psalm in are triumph 68:11-12a Miriamgreat after host. playsrefers crossing Kings the to victorytof, of the armiesand Red psalms: women Sea.flee,Female "Thetheyjoin family herwomenflee." to sing,himembers that Exodus publish welcomed heroes home with songs, dancing drum and 15:20, the depictincludingkingship.mentalists. various the The Forsistrum scenes middle instance, (Teeterof registerthe wall important 1993:79). carvings of the sedcarvings inSometimes festivala shows to womenrenew a playing circular frame drums were fourteenth century B.C.E. tomb procession headed the sole instru-the pharaoh's withcoming.es.herand "' fatherdrumming. frameThis Rituals typeon drums return of ofIn performance leavetakingJudgesand from lyres a 11:12, military [kinnor], forprobably theJacob mission daughter probably extendedin Genesis "with of the toJephthah tambourines31:27 any province auspicious of home- were performed came to greet and danc-women. perbyan two fourregister ox women femalesacrifice) men playingdancers dance (Robins and frameand 1993:105clap; three drums men, and threeFemale women musicians and dancers also provided the lower is concernedfig. with38). offerings and possibly also dancing. (In the up- royal entertainments: clapping, followed womenCanaaniteMeyers's with biblical the/Phoenician frame research drum. -Cypriot supports The earliest Artefacts these pointsSmallare Palestinian, (1993:58terra cotta -62).from figures e.1000 produced at widely scattered sites connect playedBladesclassesandprovides gender byand ofwomen" further Andersonobjects of musicians informationat as New statewell Kingdomrepresentedasthat written on rectangular the banquets sources.instruments on temples, frame drums "were(1984:974). always Teeter (1993)(includingtombs, frame drums)stelae and other figures7thousB.C.E. andthan Figures of6th men. women centuries of women,holding B.C.E. somethe (Meyers lyre, holding double 1993:49 frameLater flute drums,-58). production( aulos) These and depict flourished frame standing drum. in Phoenician Cyprus, particularly in the are far more numer- Male108 figurines play the cymbals. Depictions of three women playing a frame Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 ogy of musical genres, and Doubleday: The Frame Drum on close connections between musical in the Middle East instru- 109 chardite)instrumentaldrum, orchestra." (1975:fig.lyre and combination Fordouble 31). illustrations, flute is commonlyappear see onMeyers highcalledProduction status(ibid.:60, the "Phoenician artefacts; offig. terracottas 3 andthis (or 4)women's Canaan- orcontinued Prit- into the Hellenistic period (second top')duffments with(Farmer of allthe three Babylonian-1929:xiv). cultures. Assyrian For the frameFrame drums were used in devotional terni adapu and the Aramaic- Hebrew drum, he matches thesinging Arabic and dancing (tahlil) term ac- Religiouswithcentury the B.C.E.), double Cults flute,and in framethe lyre Greek anddrums cymbals and were Roman played (Lawler inEmpires pre-1965:54, classical 56). Greece, along panimentdefinestheticcompanying centresPhoenician- tahlil "especially devotedas the a "magicCypriot circumambulation byprincipally women" incantation"terracotta to goddess worship. Farmer linksonartefacts frame discusseddrums (1971:14 above of -15).5(ibid.:8). the KaabaConnec- at Mecca andand other "religious dance," with tahlil with accom- Jargy cul- Asia."wild"ity andContemporary andof the "screaming," vine, accountsrevered performing all describe over the Dionysian"frenzied WomenGreek Empire, used dances" women frame including (oreibasia)(maenads) drums westernin connectionasover with Dionysus, god of fertil- "houseIsraelitescumambulationclosetions of withto (Gibb God" Hebrew the and(beitullah).ofwider the tahalaKramers Middle"house (psalm 1961:586). Easternof or song ofgod" praise) occurred (Fohrer in 1973), Sumer, and and region are evident. The term tahlil The Ka`aba is still known among the as the cir- is importancebodies,godframemountains had drums and actually and of controlling(tympana) Greekthrough entered ecstatic woods,and their into double cultsactions" theseat night, in-flutes women,understanding (ibid.:75 in (aulos). the takingdead -76). People of later over winter.Rouget believedSufi their Some trancestresses minds that played prac- "the andthe blearrival.drums and when Theis probably tradition singing ancient. improvisedresembles the In the Prophet Mohammad's time, Several instances occur in the blessings to honour songs of hospitality in the Hebrewwomen, Bi- girls and slaves used frame an eminent person's Islamic Tradi- skins,oftices thongs (1985:187 giving hanging a percussive -88). from theireffect. rims; For anpresumably illustrationIn Dionysian these on a vaseimpacted scenes from painted Stamnos,upon theon terracotta ware, the drums have sets anothercongratulatedNajjar;greetedtions ofoccasion what the Prophet,Prophet a them blessingwomen on (Hadith).singing greetedtheirit is performance with to be a neighbour of the Prophet!"Once, some girls in the his arrival, singingthe duff and "We drumming are girls of the (Roy Choudhury 1957:66) streets of Medina -and he tribe of On Athens,"c. 4201957:385).tal dirge 13.C.E. "screamed for AdonisseeAdonis, Wosein from was with the (1974:116a itsdying house dinning vegetation -tops -17) drums, byorFrom aLawler god,frenziedknown the "equivalent (1965:77).Greeks, to female" fifth thecentury in(Henderson Romans spirit [B.C.E.] to inherited the Adoniasm, the "famous orien- ageously),homethe warriors rooftops Arabian with to drumming(Farmer victory.women 1929 playedAt (Poché the :27). battleframe In the Prophet Mohammad's time 1984:617).Also, once a slave promised drums in(and battles, probably singing for some time to welcome him to encour- previ- from andB.C.E.,Cybele,LinkedEgyptian Cyprus withshe the Osiris, (Frazer became Phrygianthe goddessPhrygian 1978:126). an motherextremely Aphrodite, Attis Frame-goddess. and important Greek he drums was After Dionysus" Romanparticularly were the alsoseconddivinity. (Leeming usedworshipped Punic Her in 1990:96 the priests war cult in in Syria -97).used of204 oferdrumming emy,1929:10).sexual a rewards woman"war Hamam songs namedto suggests theand victorious.6 lamentsHind that bint sometimes Utba, for the slain" at the battleof Uhud (625 C.E.)The lamentthe Prophet's (marthiya) and led the women in singing Arabian women sang offers of 13adr (Farm- elegy and en- Arabiantythe in frame Rome anddrum, (Scott Persian double 1957:405). Cultures flute and cymbals, which attained great populari- ofArabiandrum (nawh)slave accompaniment.' descent,social for heroes life often during were Greek the Specialised "singing -girl" musicians, prerogative of women,pre also -Islamic performed period (ibid.:10 -11). They gainät, were "an integral part" to frame were of cultsFarmerthe Israelites, was argues very it similar.that was the principally Hismusic evidence of playedArabian, is basedThe by Assyrian womenframe on the drum in andcharacter a variety(duff)Hebrew andprobably of religious etymol-genres. has ancient roots in Arabia. As among althoughframedates roughly drumsits use and hasfrom otherbeen the suggestedopeninginstruments. There is little evidence of the or Persian, and their place inof Arabian the Christian culture era (ibid.:3 -4).frame drum (e.g.in ancient During Persian 1993:561). According They used music, to 110 Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East 111 Farmer,thebyElamite threeother the relief musicians, earliestinstrument of Kul Persian two -i-as Firawn. aplaying monumentframe It drumharps. shows depicting is Farmer priestsdoubtful musical offeringadmits (n.d.:2784). thatinstruments a sacrifice, identification assistedis the of ofimportantMusic the core and social Islamic Women changes discourses inrelating Islam The advent and rapid spread were founded and elaboratedto gender. in Arabia The dominant,of Islam prescriptive in the Middle East precipitated at theterms (ibid.:2785nûmeh,strumentscompaniment. based cited-86). Nor inSasanianon Ferdowsi'sis oral the framerocktradition carvingsmonumental drum and mentioned at acceptedTaqFarmer eleventh -i Bustan among considers as century (westerna the crucial thatnumerous epic, Iran)the source Shûh-Zoroastrian date in- magi sang without musical ac- lahinterpretation.Despiterise hath of its madeIslam, message Oneone and of versein of themIraq equality, states: in the theimmediately to excel the other" (Sura IV, verse 34). The "Men are in charge of Holy Quran was open to misogynistic ensuing period (Ahmed 1992:3). women, because Al- Qu- (1938:76,inspection,huntfrom showsthe seventh see Farmer's musicians fig. century13). tentative playing C.E. identification A a depictionvariety of ofinstruments, Kinga frame Khusrau drum mainly is II's questionable royalharps. deer On periodandCowran Persian also (eighth"), and states empires thusto thirteenththat unfit that women to came perform centuries) are under unclean ritualThe when early caliphs and legists inherited Muslim control.Islamicprayers During law (al- was 13ukhari the fixed Abbasid 6.22).and codified, a male bias from the Byzantine menstruating (Sura II "the SummarydegreeEgypt, andof continuity probably the across Arabian traditions peninsula, andFrame but through not drums Persia. time have Aemerges. ancientconsiderable rootsThis in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean, phrase"closureroastrianismcomponentsreaffirming -men and established "patriarchal alreadydiminution"of the socioreligious in placeascendancy. family of women's(Ahmed and visions female 1992:4).subordination"power Inand a consistentfreedom thatThey -to trend coulduse towards Ahmed's take up to four wives,of Judaism, Christianity and. Zo- were key framewereallwasdrum- early invested linked drumsapparently traditions with withoccupied the considerabletheexamined. idea sole primary of drum kingship. Some powers.roles in ofthe in Inthese region Itthethe was cultures(e.g.early usedfor Sumerian period a inconsiderableconcerned religious rituals and Egyptian)featuring-inrituals time Inan- in - musicaltrolThroughand overhad performance. preferential femaleconcepts sexuality relating rights and with all Women were not veiled to honour,or male secluded heads in of early families Arabia, but a hundredregardaspects to divorce of women's and patrilineal behaviour, descent. including exerted con- Dionysustemplena'sten cult, in at connectionin andJerusalem, the Adonis) Egyptian with for appear sed instance.dancing. kingship as more TheLater ceremony, "peripheral." contexts examplesIn many includedor traditions the(e.g. procession women's (1) frame temple intocults drums rituals, the of were primarily played by women, of- lisedinforms, lishedfiftymost from generally yearsechelons over communal aftera wide characterisedof the society. area Prophet'sworship, (Levy Women death by1957:130). the seclusion Purdah andexpected segregation practices to took pray in a special werethe "purdah" gradually system excluded or margina- was fully estab- of cornerwomen ordifferent and (2)tainindrummedat victory battle-royal -tops and banquets, fields,and and battle through danced in streets,songs, and woods.in (5) (3)theoutside ecstaticfamilyopen homes, air and trance -in tribal on temple roof cults. rituals, -tops, processions, Women (4) and entertainments even often at on shrines, moun-sang, Lawfulbilitieswerebalcony discouragedMusic of-like communal gallery from of religious the gathering communally, mosque or at home (Schimmel 1994:51 -53). music -making (see Ahmed 1992:115 which inhibited the possi- -16). They traditionsiteclusivepropose women use that (e.g. (1991:19).by frame womenin ancient drums However,and Mesopotamia). wereeunuchs exclusive men in evidentlyEgypt, Montagu Someto women. and scholarsplayed probably(1984) Edwards the( moree.g. alsodrum Tourna assertscautiously by in Israel- some 1977:107, ex- Blades and Anderson 1984:974) Choudhuryemerge:sources regarding (1) 1957:65, there theis Farmerno lawfulness pronouncement 1929:22); of musicRoy Choudhury (1957) and Farmer (1929:20 (2) the Hadith attests that the Proph-against music in the Quranin Islam. (Roy Some important facts -38) have examined the ity,raelitebystates women," in that anymen thecase, (1993:60). and duff isMeyers andprescriptive tofThe concludes were evidence and"frequently, thatexceptions could tof wasnever though occur.occasionally be not conclusive. exclusively, played Exclusiv- playedby Is- referredtralmusicmusic-et place listened derive makers to in in the fromtheto (Roy music debatesayings Aisha, Choudhury and about ofwife enjoyedMohammad" lawfulness,of 1957:66 the it,Prophet; women at that time-70); being (3) the many chief traditions (Pochéregarding 1984:617)."among the instruments(4) the duff occupied a cen-most Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East etof112 announcedweddings (Roy "Publish Choudhury the marriage 1957:70). and InThe beat a wellframe the -known ghirbell drum hadith,was (round accepted the Proph- as lawfulEthnomusicology, and desirable in theWinter context 1999 tambou- Muslimswomen's seekinginstrument. to impose Relatively new defenceless,standardsThis of socialis evidence of zealotry against women, and against the duff as a girls were easy targets for behaviour. Asim ibn 113 former1957:68).themusiciansrine)!" occasion Amr(Farmer At to ibn whichhisa wedding Umayyu 1929:22).daughter would sheDhamari Fatima's Aishahave had been arranged;records played marriage sung thethat withhe toframe thecomposed Ah, the Prophet drum,a duff celebrated (Roysomeand personally became Choudhury versesmale per-"pa- sent for mentscomehismusic),Hubaira, feet, me played never he but couldwho this"saw at livedcourt nota (ibid.:32). duff breakin which withoutthe it,Abbasid He wereand breaking was said: protected Golden powerless "Not it. In Age byold tothe attack musical one of their devils has (reputedover- for its fine courtage, trampling one with caliphs. The legists' instru- sacredandmusic.tron musiciansaint ground,She of recorded tambourine to since perform thethat players"Prophet'sfor the her Prophet at (Farmer home.home once andAisha'sThis1929:38).8 invited the performance mosque hadiths an Abyssinian shared provided took theplace acrobat samesignificant on support for the lawfulness of againsttantwentcondemnation female the-and corrupt goSufis -handof Umayyadin music the in early hand. and and Islamicrestriction Abbassid period, of caliphates.The women's but Sufi movement There freedom evolved largely as a spiritual and political reaction by the late tenth century were impor- apparently politicallawfultenedcourtyard to at musicopposition festival(Roy by Choudhury timethe to professionalAli (Farmer ibn 1957:69). Ali 1929:26 Talib, singing Aisha Shiahs -27). -girls attested However,revile (gained) becauseand upheld she it as herthat as anthe enemy Prophet and lis- their disap- led musiclimstroveSufism Empire into had theirexclude (Schimmelbecome all -male women. organised spiritual1975:82), Their and rituals. influence and consolidated theyIn a tract into about musical audition Majd al -Din al- Ghazali begangrew to in use every frame part drums of the and Mus- brotherhoods which (d. 1 126) argues Acceptabilityprovalreject her of musicscriptural of more Music authority, fully (Roy which Choudhury allowedFarmer 1957:88). them states to express that after the death of the Prophet, women's "command- and"sound"demnsfor miznzûr) the musicallawful badiths but use explicitlyinstruments in ofal- music, Bukhari upholds of but "diversion"and solely the Muslim frame in the(such (Robson drum context of Sufi ritual. He asjank,con- rabûb, `ud, barbat as lawful,1938:111). based Majdon two al -Din erinundering the1929:44). position" handsthe caliph of Prominent in the Uthmanthe women realm Muslims (644 -folkof music-56). and campaigned Untilslave declined. then-girls "music,against Afor the asgreater a profession, part" (Farm- was radical change occurred music. This period lessberequiringalso a youthsexpresseswindow that are through"no concern among beardless which them,about youth theypossiblewomen sitshould behind cansexual belookBy theamong distractionsthe men" thirteenth them, nor century, should with there the close of the Abbasid at them; but if pious beard- (ibid.:112). at Sufi gatherings, rule, the legists ofmarked mother.Littlenath),women" the Peacock""an He(ibid.:45). first effeminate accompanied appearance (632 The -710), class first ofhimself ofwhobrought the these maledyed on was up aprofessionaltheir insquarethe the famoushands house duff and singer,musician whichof Arwa, Touais,he (mukban-carriedthe caliph's affected the habits "The in a ouswomenmusichad particular failedhad and disappeared music to cultures stamp (and outof fromthe the "unlawful" frame Middlepublic drum) life.East. developed types of music, but amateur women's Thereafter, practices relating to differently in the vari- aboutbagthroughMasud or piousin his (d. which Muslimsrobe 652 (ibid.:52women-54), to patrolled support needed-53).9 itsgateways to case.pass,A Anand polemicof early enclosedhe and converttract his residential against companions to Islam, music quarters Ibn by pub- Ibn abi -1 Dunya (823 -94) uses stories ropeananwealthylimited gânurt imports settings andcircumstances. `ud, such women the as Persianthe might Theviolin havetûrframe and and access piano.drum kamâncheli toBroadly remained instruments orspeaking, -for likethe women elitethe Arabi- continued to make music within their widely available. In -Eu-more Muslims"(d.728):inGhafala,licly which tore "The theis(Robsonup a Prophet'sanytambourine tambourine frame 1938:31 contemporary- drums (duff)" -32).does "girls" not-and pertain the"Thehad. famous Theangelsat all tract ascetic,to do quotes not Hasanenter a the practice of the Suwaid ibn al -Basri house IslamicThe Frame Middle Drum Eastern (Dâireh) thought, andin Afghanistan the frameAfghan drum discourses has on gender and musical instruments are founded in a long history in andthe114 region. is not taken However, as "representative" Afghanistan lies of onthe the Middle cross East.-roads of Asian culture, Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 twoFigure women 1. Detail playing from frame drums Doubleday: The Frame a Persian miniature painted in (bottom right) and others Drum in the Middle East Shiraz, 1581, showing dancing in the 115 aboutworld,Evidence musicalbut theyin Persian containpractices Miniaturenaturalistic of the fifteenth Paintingsdetails ofandPersian everyday sixteenth miniature life centuries.'" and paintings provide Theyclues depict a fictional or mythological poetic Bodleianmarriage Library,chamber University of King Khusrau of Oxford. and Shirin. Ms Elliott 239 folio 243 ", assembledlyandshow male nuptial the context frame circle, celebrations. for drum with musical- played music making. infrom Sufi two Typically, religious frameThe drumsgatherings,severalpaintings and Sufis depict one courtly dance or ecstatic two insidesettings, flutes Sufi an religious gatherings as an exclusive- ofand(ney), 1993:561)celebrated men. a combination The male(for memoirs illustrations, musicians frequentlyof the of emperor see the During mentionedfifteenth Babur, In1991:173, centurycourtly Büburndmeh, in Persian Timurid musical200). poetry provide courts,settings, (During whomnames the frame drum is played by both women aallsibly(1988:12Baily consort -male hadconcludes or-13).aor lower mixed guests, We to status. have-playing indoors been noThe informationfor orservantspaintings aoutdoors. prince of show aboutorthe Women king, court, small women usually not dance,ensembles musicians;people in sing, the of -all-company nobleplay they female, frame birthpos- of anshownlutes,drums all- and femaleandheld the other against settinghammered instruments: the (apart face, dulcimer from theused theharp (santur).as presence a(chang), resonatorTwo The of variousminiatures the frame for bridegroom). the boweddrum voice." from is and sometimesthe They plucked Bodleian both collection illustrate nuptial rituals in paintedframeattendantsdepict drumthe inin consummation 1500 1581,nearby. and -1501,flute shows One (the shows a sitsof largelatter the at Khusrau themarriagenumberpossibly end and of ofofadded the ShirinwomenKing bed later). Khusrau in whilearound bed, The with theand otherthe others Shirin.three nuptial miniature, female play One, bed a rhythmicfifteenthto(see the Fig. accompaniment and1).instrument Three sixteenth female of ofcenturies courtly two dancers frame and emerge: holding religiousdrums (1)Several playedhandkerchiefs themusic, frame byhypotheses excluding women.12 drum dance was about idiophones in the a Persiancircle only music performance practice in the region."Recent With History regard to It is unclear when frame courtly music, frame drums drums ceased to be used fell out of use with the in Sufi rituals in this mentstextbyused men of by inmarriage; (usuallydancers; prestigious with(2)(4) insettings.at the Suficourt, flute); rituals, women (3) the women musicians frame used drum played frame was played adrums variety exclusivelyin of the instru- con- darbclassicalmusicthe adventor tabla tonbak" (Baily music drumsof Indian1988:25). (During in as the thecourt 19th Nearby,principal musicians to Kabul in the 1860s.1993:561).and 20th centuries, "doubtless in Iran, the framerhythmic drum disappeared instrument of They establishedAfghan eclipsedclassical by the from 116 Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East 117 becoming(Bailytarium of1988:82). more Afghanistan's open Thus, to Western nationalin the nineteenth radioinfluences. orchestra,The and midIn twentieth the frame -twentieth extensive drums century century were not saw a period of secularisation, Afghanistan instrumen-the drum's used playandmale frame would authority, drums.'8 be disturbed. they It is incumbent Weddings provide the most significant lawful say it is "bad" (bud) to play when men on the bridegroom's women to context for women to are at home drum, frame.1slybyuse assettled became Jat /Ghorbat, The or considerablysemi drums -nomadicwho are also of limited varying makegroups andwooden sizes,with it lostoutsider sometimesFrame sieves prestige. drums statuswith fitted an today with are iron common rings, all over Afghanistan.14 They are made known derogatori-identical style of weddingWomenrolesing forand processions them. dance,may evenInhibitions unless (seeplay they Doubleday the and hire drum ideas femaleThe drum facilitates the in public space,of modesty albeit are 1990: photoprofessional 21). musicians to fulfil that temporarily forgotten. fully veiled, in eringpainted,pelletsold treebells, publicly; sometimes of or life metal generallycommon left jingles plain. thein to Designswomen's enhancemakers paintedgo theembroidery. from sound. on door the The toTheskin door in residential ar- skins are sometimes drumsinclude are the rarely flow- accompaniesbetweenandpanies her songs close the bridal bride ofrelatives; blessing processions, and whose and advertises groom's(2) women's families; music (3) the and drum dancing marriage process in many verses give emotional the marriage to the supportannounces to theways: bride arrivals,(1) it accom-promote bonding neigh- ationmusic,eas, selling stating: played them "In principally Afghanvery cheaply. lifeby girlsthere and is a women. clearNowadays distinction Slobin the summarizes of frame musical drum roles is solelyby an instrument of folk and popular the situ- atspacesphere thebourhood; springfor suitable drumming equinox (4) for music the is offered highly eventualand dancing restricted. UntilApart from wedding processions, consummation provideof marriage. a "boiling hot" (porjush) women's legitimate use of recently, New Year festivities public atmo- andchildren).exceptsex. generallyIn mostfor Men, the cases shun tambourineon thewomen the other women's do andhand, not the instruments"masterplay jew's or a even harpAgreat pronounced (1980:137).handle(the variety of ideologylutes and offiddles, gender separation is defined and imposed latter is also played bymusical instruments Herat,Inwidely celebrations1972 Sakatacelebrated at the observed mass connected in Persianwomen's women's with -influenced a notable opportunitygreeneryspring for and outdoor renewalgathering music. are in oftheopen ancient Gohar -air music- origin,Shad making,Park an activity permis- regions (Doubleday 1990:62 -67).19 These at fromfolkgender,severalby male music playing ways:(2)authority mento almost be(1) dominate shared (seevirtually all Doubleday musicalwith religious, all women, musical instruments. forthcoming). classical and activity (3) and men is This radio segregated have affects music, inhibited accordingleaving women only to musical life in longerallyorthe siblewhich accompaniment makeplayed only theyand outdoor at sellpurchase that them" oftime music tambourines in(1983:19).of theat the year: "Small groups of women sing and dance park from gypsy -like women who tradition-called dairamass whichBy springthe they mid- picnics, 1970s, inhibited in Ilerat womenby male bring with them no to (apartstrument;women,common from men instrument, (3) the andit isjew's children;the playedonlyharp);' traditional(2) by(4) it the throughis thelargest instrument only Theits body connection frame ofto performers,drum'sbe played status by including iswomen somewhat particular: (1) it is by far the most self- sufficient non -melodic in- with the Arabian drums,Evaluationsguards, Rao although collected of thethey a mythDrum confirmed about thethatIn her fieldwork among Jat /Ghorbat groups who make sieves and frame music- making had been their custom. duff,tionsprincipalcalmusic; itinstrument haswith (5) instrumentsignificance illicitbecause is sexuality." questionable; of for its in effecting acceptabilitythe religious (6) the used marriage to debate within some aboutwomen'sjurists,process; its (7)quarters, status as it a is the the lawfulness of it has connec- musi- hisdrumtimeh,ancestors daughter, positive in Medina, making andvalue, itsfor the useuse first inat thea frame drum for invoking the sanctity and prestige of the wedding (Rao 1982:67).lawful contextThe myth of marriage. origin of the drum. It describes their the Prophet's daughter, Bibi Prophet and gives the Fa- Contexts(sâ'attir:) for in Performancethe privacy of their all -womenWomen domestic use space. the frame drum for informal musical entertainment Inhibited by IknownTheHerawi, make drum asa a religious dâirehfemale was the-dust professional vow tool ( "drumto of "make her -in-musician Those who make or use the drum trade: in the past myfemalehand fingers "). Asflow" my on teacher, the drum.2O Zainab This vow ofJatprofessionally origins, was give one itsuch value. Zainab entertainers were suggested person. linked118 her instrument with a venerable Sufi shrine frequented by the great- Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East 119 estsary(sawâb) master for musicians celebratory(Doubleday of Kabul,festivities1990:181). and andshe saidvaluable it wouldAfghan bring women me religious generally merit cherish the drum as "a good thing," neces- for entertainment. They say broadtionssexuality.Sexuality betweencategory, From andsex outlining a andPower global dance. perspective, She HannaThe Middle Eastern frame drum several types of which the first identifies "aphrodisiachas important links with dance emphasises multiple associa- dancing" as a and cilitate(jinn)lowingdrumfestivities itself.(ibid.:144 thea birth, have exorcism They religiousthey -45). attribute playof People spirits merit, it certain in believe (ibid.:200).2'festivities but apotropaic I neverthat thatmusic heard wardproperties (especially them off claimmalevolent to thedrums) merit drum. forspiritscan Fol- the fa- line of enquiry: apart,(where1. for courtshipDance the opposite in settingsoften sexoccurs)- with or for whether their own courtship opportunities and at wedding women and men dance togethersex or -encourages culturally licit two relate to our parties womenclassicalit as a women's do or notradio "knowinstrument. music, anything" and The male drum about professional has music Afghanno part theory. musicians inmen prestigious hold Another scathingly a more genres negative negative saylike view of the drum and some deride This analysis is useful for the including2.dancersprocreation. Dancing prostitution of high may A group's or be low(1988:46 for status. ownthe members-47). modernpurpose era, ofbut alluring a prc- or extra -marital may dance, or it may hire professional affair, aspectarywomenoutsider1988:34, tipsof the and status. drum141 boys,gifts -42).Some is fromwith its Further, connection Jatdancingthe /Ghorbat bridegroom's professional as withan groups erotic Jat family women/Ghorbat lurepractised (Rao musicians groups, 1982:28the prostitution collect -29, custom-Baily of in the drum, behaviour who have erasedityernit" sexual in culture.from temple culturalunion service. in or outsideHistorically The region has an ancient marriage did nothistory always of apply non -monogamousin Middle East- female remote, it was transmuted and largely concepts of "licit" and "illic- sexual- tionedaswhich toa musicalhis isvarious ownalso instrument.seendâireh Herati as accompaniment. shamefulmale In informants a range (Doubleday of Two abouttestsBaily theological1990:189, of a recordingsound (1996) perception,201 discoveredstudents of -2). a man did hesingingthat not ques- some con- men resisted classifying the dâireh Embodyingriageimportantin the ritual third thecharacteristic (bierosgamos)millennium goddess, the of inpriestessInanna which /Ishtar- frame memory. It appears to have originatedB.C.E., with in Sumer the worship of the (hierodule) actively "summoned" theAstarte'sdrums cult were was featured the sacred (see goddess Inanna. An above). (Iraq) mar- iswouldderstandingsider not thissinful. seem to betoofMusic run"music"the asdrumis sinful,follows: (musigí). as lawfultherefore "The Their anddrum this upheldjudgment issound not in sinful,is was thenot Hadith. musicbasedtherefore andon Their a itsthe pre sound drumlogic -un- forwithindleking "love Eastern to feasts thisher embrace"Danceritual for the (1983:17 of whole(Long the Seven 1992:133).For many centuries the hieros -23).22 community" through sacred sexualVeils" intercourse was an aphrodisiac gamos fertility drama was an occasionBuonaventura suggests that the Mid- "welcome" dance sons.tiallyis notsec Perhapsclaimed athe musical drum becausethe instrument."as dâireh a "proper" it iswas normally not instrument. a musical playedAnother byinstrument,But unskilled when informant, he butwomen, remembered Gada Mohammad, a professional musician, also ini- for different rea- he did not that a tarteservicegoddess(Long as and"temple worship,1992:132), its associated harlots" and probably biblical or with writers and ceremonies, denigrating"prostitutes. priestesses "23 of Ishtar drumming and dancing. Judaism commentators reviled temple opposed -As- authority.thechangedprestigious drum his according malemind singer (ibid.:69 to preconceived had -70). played All theideasthree dâireh informantsabout on music Radio sought as Afghanistan,defined to categorise by male he daysForwassexuality at women,sanctioned great within financial weddings as marriage. an expense. integral Women's featureFrame drums of"aphrodisiac"Under Judaism, Christianity and are highly significant rites, usually held Islam, religiousMiddle laws controlled Eastern wedding female celebrations. often play an important role. dancing and drumming over several overCertainthepal the rhythminstrument centuries. other instrument uses of In women. arethe connected pastof prestigious Itsit was most with intrinsic important courtly shamefulTo summarise,to Sufimusic. use illicit rituals is Today in sexuality.in wedding Afghanistan rituals. uses of the frame drum have changed and the princi-it is primarily Ziegler(1995:159).plex (1990);rhythms Hassanand on for tars (1980)Afghanistan, (frame provides drums) informationShiloah mentions "large female ensembles" (`adid)Doubleday who (1990)."beat At weddings,at weddings in the Persian Gulf" on Iraq; for Turkey, see out com- girls andfemale120 women corporeal typically beauty. perform Arab solo dancing, dance withimprovisations its emphasis focussing on pelvic upon move-Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 stigmatised.assertion, and In independence eighteenth and threatened nineteenth the status Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East century Egypt, ghawazee danc- quo and led them to be 121 Outsideentertainmentandments, wholesome is the implicitly context in ethos. palaces, oferotic, marriage, harems,and -within legists cabarets, defineitsErotic lawful brothels it dancingas context illicit. and to Buonaventura's-has theother rhythma positiveplaces. of frame drums has a long history as an capitatedtoand"seldomers Egypt wereupper for admitted inGypsy classes"causing 1798 women fourto trouble(Buonaventura respectable hundred who among performed harems the soldiers, and in the ghawazee women were captured1983:41). and de- During Napoleon's expedition frowned upon by the religious open air, social outcasts pearsboys(1983)Middle dancing as historical a Easternsexualised with study frameand "stage Northcontains drums prop"African in six Egypt inillustrations women, and Turkey.24 especially of women photographs or transvestite (see Orientalist erotic constructions of The drum also ap- sonationnectionsreveals their withby boys vulnerable sieves, are common.frame status drums, asThe outsidersMany related Gypsy /Rom performance traditions dancing,Afghan prostitution Jat /Ghorbat and groups female have imper- (ibid.:7). a barbaric incident which survive today. Con- strong GrahamwhoseOutsider -Brown traditions Status 1988, setand Alloulathem Gypsies apart. 1986, /Rom As and outsiders, Fig. Professional2). their subversive female power, dancers self- often belonged to Gypsy communities lar)relatedgroupsoccupational play frameinto norththe linksdrums"European -west with (delbek) India, Gypsies Gypsies" Pakistan, at wedding(see Sakata andIn south-Iran 1983:79 have western outsider Turkey, Gypsy women professionals (delbekci kalin- (Qureshi 1980:105). festivities. These Gypsies live -83). Similar musician status and are lection.cardFigure titled 2. Use "Chanteuses of the Frame arabes." drum Egyptianas an erotic postcard, "stage prop"ca. 1920, author's col- in a studio post- tusWhetherindecencyments:outside of these this "Theirtowns,and women, is they simply role "never are or as spokenan musicians regarded accusation of by is Turkish which men presents some degree of truth remains to be estab- as full members of society." Zieglerclosely connected with the flavour of underlines the ambiguous sta- as the village prostitutes. com- Malekans,strumenttolished" the Control Gypsy frame (1990:89).25 of women musicianofdrum: Sexuality "NotofSimilarly, ill only-repute Pickenis itli.c. a women's groups also use frame drums (1975:144).26 notes thatGypsies]." "some stigma" Further is west, attached in the Bal- instrument, it is also an in- Beckdlewith East and active unbridled Keddie female 1978; female sexuality. Ahmed As in all Accusations of "harlotry'" and " sexuality was seen as potentially dangerous 1992). prostitution"male- reflect dominated male discomfortcultures, in the Mid- (see stancontrollingencent completely and Afghan music. the historyrefugee prohibitedDuring this camps the was music. jehâd of reflected the ( "holynorth in -westAnxieties Frontier increase when there is conflict They invoked the customary moratori- wartight "), restrictions Afghan Resistance relating to leaders wom- or political instability. In re- Province of Paki- wasfectivelycampstoum thebe on mainly incontrol allbanning a musicstate contained of of women's-makingwomen's permanent women followinguse sexuality. of mourning. andthe death,framechildren, With drum. so theAn authorities declaring the Afghan community the men away fighting, the underlying concern were ef- servativeed122 schoolgirls members in Kabul of the to dancepublic on as television,an actBy ofcontrast, flagrant a move the Afghan communist regimeEthnomusicology, promoted Winter 1999 whichdebauchery. shocked con- Fatimamusic and recruit- TheMen, Power Music of andthe SacredPower Doubleday: The Franze Drum in the Middle East 123 weretenGailanimunist-on no placedtheir more states: controlledown inthan " seclusion, piety.[Refugee tents. Kabul, Meanwhile, Men thewomen] attractive morewere werein obviousof young the restricted women to another form of exploitation, in Com- opinion thatit the would more be women that this reflected and girls were picked out their own homes, of- interprethaspower. significantly sacred Male textsdominance affected and codifymusical in the religious life.religious,In political,SexualityJudaism, Christianityis not the only and domain Islam, in which Middle Easternmale men legists wieldlaw. reserved Similarly, the musical right knowledge and economic spheres to andmusiconof schoolstelevision" announcers was andbanned (1996:60).27 colleges were from summarily andthe radioInforced 1992, dismissed.and to television,perform and women when Islamist leaders took control, patriotic songs and dances news -readers ingonpil.tisedwas thestates:Within zikrguarded as chains themritual within frame ofof thepower, male drums Kurdish preserves.with acquired Qadiriknowledge The dervishes Sufi brotherhoods esoteric significance. Commentingtransmitted from master to pu- of Sanandaj (Iran), Dur- were systema- outsiders.imbuefemale it sexuality, with subversive and how power, the frame especially drum'sThese in close the examples demonstrate how male authorities seek to containhands of "prostitutes"links with and sexuality may sameto playmonsThe effect. mastersthe energies dap An affirmin effect,similar the handsthat probablyto therethose of a isexploitedprofane, obtained in through martial a secret to the art of daf- playing, which even a virtuoso, it doesn't have the arts ... only a dervish is able the spiritual disciplines sum- SinceilyFiguremusicianinstrument entertain 1993 3. Women almostlocal the adopted author authoritiesfrom all ofby an ather woman's Afghantheir life.have home. Her prohibitedJat/Ghorbat bands daughter, Gohar, in the women onKauki, late 1930s) professional musician fam- Indian harmoniumplays (an the framefrom drum. practising mu- has worked as a Amongcle-initiationthrough(moderate workers, Sufis their andpassed gnosticsbut heterodoxtaxing assiduous), on andfrom moral saints sects,the demands,the great (1994:22). framezeal charismatic (himmat) and also thanks to an unbroken line menand theof thefaith past, of themystics, dervishes, mira- of sic as a profession. Photo by Veronica Doubleday, Herat, 1994. isapart, hungrendered (2) from endowed exclusive the walls with in of asacred numberthe takia symbolism, of (religious significantSufi frame drums are usually kept within drums havesacredand (3)been space.physically hallowed In Iraq, modified. andways: thegathering duff (1) protected place) when and set out et'sofdedicated andofRif birthday, use lcannot and (Hassan ( consacreQadiri burials be 1980:173).used Sufi andto outside brotherhoods,a healing saint In religiousArab culture ... It is reserved forceremonies" religious music: (Touma the 1977:108). zikr Likewise, and other festivalsceremonies: such in as fact the eachProph- miazhûrthe is ìnazhdr "stays in the mosque toPochéorders" inbestow Turkey, 1984). and blessings, "never the nzczzhar usedand isin highly issecular "reserved protected. forThe Iraqi heterodox Yazidi sect hold music" (K. Reinhard 1969, quoted in the duffthe asMevlevi very sacred. and other It is usedreligiousMembers of the sect may not sanancian," supposedtouchinstrument, 1980:183- wrapped it except to 84).28 rise.and in to cloth.Grantedwas kiss told Whenit a init brief wouldrespect, he examination, have and passes everyone seated in the cafés is it is carried by ato "religious be purified musi- with water Hassan(Has- inadvertently touched 124 Attributions of sacred symbolism may Ethnomusicology,express androcentric Winter ideas. 1999 In 1984). Its name, context of performance Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle East 125 sagebothPersian1993:561). ofthe thisculture heavens kind: Majd the and alframe -Din's the drum'sassembled tract onround Sufi circle shapeaudition of symbolised[male} contains mystics" an "the important image (During ofpas- instrumentsdenotedniques a reserved special, are shared highit for withstatus. male Male professional musicians use, andwomen. mother -ofAt weddings-pearl inlay in decoration Turkey, Ursula sometimes assert priority of rights and specially transmitted tech- whenRein- also al-thealanutlaq), butun)tambourinedescentskin which upon theof divine strikingisis general afitted reference visitations whichon existence to to ittakes theis (wen-idea) a cycleto referenceplace bring of on existing forthfrom the to general tambourine thethe things thingsinnermost existence (diz'ira pertaining is a arcana referenceal- (al-wujud akwizn); to(bátin the to justclefaccompanyto as hardconcede Whenhappily noted the their their onthat instruments ainstruments songs"professionalpot with theto and goblet semi- drum are needed at the moment by the men when required: "The women mostly professional" women musicians had delbek, or the tambourine, men, they play toenceessence themeansifate to appearance theranks,of of theprophetical these andinterior realitiesofthe the imamateto ranks, thedivine in exterior, the ranks,revelations heartssaintly the and of ranks,rive theirthe and small saints the combinedunrestricted apostolic bells and (lalâjil)the sound ranks,peopleknowledge isarc thea of areference perfec- by refer-khal- "women'smen.professional" instruments." may imply In Afghanistanlack of Male professionals sometimes or a serving- tray" (1990:101).i1 The payment or lowassert payment their comparedascendancy with by downgrading the dâireb is partially reduced term "semi- Theserelate ideas, to a malecouched communal in terms spirituality. of a hierarchytionPhysical (Robsonof male modifications 1938prophets :9S -99). and tosaints, instruments may bestow an exclusive sacred degradedculture:alsoa "non see -instrument," Notemale the 16).productsartists Feminist and denied of the female jew's harp isThese examples demonstrate how art historians notewomen similar access patterns to their in profession, and creativity.3' derided as a toy (Sakata 1980b:144, European then to Allah)chainwhichidentity.101 symbolise facilitatenamesmay In Iraq,be of painted ecstaticGod.chainsthe four Sacred on attachedunion poles the names drumwith (qutb) to the God.andskin of Sufi inscriptions the(HassanThe duff Sufi four produce orders,1980173)29 links such in orpercussiveas each 101"Yd Gender linkspercussive Alta' effects recallb" bias (Oh techniquesand status over of enforcement. women with relation to musical instruments, usingmen various have asserted superior rights gender,maySecular not andbe consciouslyPower the qutb and (pole) applied,Knowledge is the but male it is there:leader Allah's of the namesSufi hierarchy. are in the male invariously instruments,Conclusionsfolk, popular, viewed played classical as lawful, in privateand sinful Today frame drums have a wide religiousrangeor public of uses,traditions. performance with Playersor without contexts other whichor meritorious. The drums are featured are of differing are vatoriesexcludedwomenprotect male ormusicians from cafés. economic spaces In wereBaghdad, where interests. stigmatised, music in the In was firstMiddle while transmitted, halfDivisions Eastern of"respectable" the twentieth of suchcultures labour as musicwomen century, professionaldeeming conser- were each certain work as "unsuitable" for women Middleappearearlyage and sources toEastern status, have show playedwomenboth women male them and playingrarely. female, Some Evidence points to a broad historical no longer publicly play frame drums in frame drums in many contexts, and amateur and women'sprofessional. traditions have beenshift lost.in relation to gender. The men caféenandcame had were musical like music unwelcome. "schools" techniquein the evenings where were ideas discussedand about early magâni morningsand appreciated (the before classical (ibid.:110).work: modal cafés Wom-be- system) drumsdeclinedpublicmyand knowledge, victoryfeature religiousor disappeared. songs,in exclusively theyceremonies. or dotheir Onnot modern male theplay frame Drumming as a ritual of hospitality hasother hand, in equivalentsmore recent such times as military parades. drums in elegies for the dead, battle songs frame or inalso To 1âr.Arabicnineteenthretical The knowledge. classical riqq century, was takbt taught They a smallensemble, inheld conservatoires, frame exclusive its drum name control called inMaledistinguishing a virtuoso theof hereditary many riqq playing becameinstruments. it professionalfrom style part the (Poché oflargerIn thethe hierarchies guarded technical and theo- theframerituals Prophetic drumsand classical intraditions. traditional ensembles). Playing settings. However, several factors have helped techniques could be transmitted Theor drumsmale- dominatedwere protected traditions (e.g. Sufi maintain women's right to play as lawful byinformally. 128 Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 Doubleday: The Prame Druid in the Middle East 129 widespreadthetaboos "sacred on musical flutes"exclusivity ofinstruments Papua technique New pose Guinea,entails threats-of sexual see Chenoweth punishment identification 1980). or withdeath Another musi- (e.g. ICTMNotes Study Group on Music of the Arab World, OxfordI. 1996.This article is an expanded version of a paper presented Thanks to the following peo-at the 2nd ;Meeting for the caltheyphysical instruments usually violence. lack(in various the It ispower rare ways toof findtooenforcement. complexthese techniquesExclusivity to Our be planeteasily employed depends summarised).is male- by upon dominat- women: enforcement, sometimes with threats of lationsLong,ly,ple, Margaret fromwho Martin haveFrench Bir,cy, Stokes, given material Abdttl- valuable Lou Taylor,are Ilamid advice,mine. BruceHamant, encouragement Wannell, Scheberazade Owen 2.send I Wright,Hassan,undertook fieldwork in Herat city in 1973 -1977, in partnership support for my research: John Bai- andNancy Wim Lindisfarne, van Zanten. Asphodel Trans- with my husband culturesnomic,ed. Equality sexual -women between or religious have the few sexesascendancy musical is not instruments isthe rare. norm, This andexclusively may female explain political, of why their -across own.eco- Johntar, Baily. ntazhar, I have tirydl and shrug-0929:21D. 4.3. FarmerJephthah's(1994). notes unfortunate the following daughter terms usedwas rewardedin the Abbasid for her period: subsequently worked on Afghan music in London, New York, welcoming song with death. duff, gbirbdl, banclair, Pakistan, and Theimportantpower Importance struggles points of aboutand Sexuality impinges sexuality upon and musical musicalAs we performance: life.have Koskoff seen, male"Sexuality control both of female sexuality underlies gender outlines three sacred(HamamtureHer dancehefather 1996:7 saw (Schimmel had on -8). arrivalvowed The 1994:104; homeIslamicthat if (Judges he ritual Farmersucceeded 11:30of seven 1929:8). -40). in circumambulations battle However,5. he Pre- Islamic tahlil is "the song performed as pilgrims danced would sacrifice the first living crea- tahlil is complicated because (tawdJ) has its roots in around the Kaaba" behavior,(1)self- performance and other such -defined,that environments music affects becomes musicmay a provide metaphorperformance a context for insexual three for relations;sexually important explicit (2) ways: the Ilamam'sit was apparently textual research performed indicates both around that nubile the deities girlsmore"On6. performed andHamam the than around day providesa ofhundred at- Tahaloq the years following [a old, war arrived translation between with two from his tribes], twoIbn ul daughters. al -Kalbi -Fand The first tahlil in the latter context.sacrificing stones(d.819): (nusb).az- Zamani, an old man one took off pointstuses;actualthe separationandorapply perceived (3) equally cultural of loss or to beliefs restriction musicalof sexuality in instruments, women's upon may women's change inherent as the women's activities" sexualityMiddle roles Eastern (1989:6).may and materi-/or Thesesta- motivate TheHowWar,victory]:her clothes second war,lovely, war, andone how war! startedalso lovely, Thetook singing fire tooff be ofher withto war clothesthe isthe tribes glowing victorious and of sang: Shaiban and Bakr at dawn! [to encourage them to controltionsal demonstrates. of femalethe frame sexuality drum with is intimately women, dancinglinked(1) withMusic and restrictionssexuality. as a metaphor The on women'sdesire for sex. to This point recalls the close associa- ButAndIfWe if prepareyou you walkare light desertthe onbeds daughterswe'll carpets we'llfor embrace you abandon of'l'ariq[ ?I you you" thoseuseedmonotheistic of sexualwho musical defy rituals instruments religionsthose is alsorestrictions). towards notable. in the polytheistic Middle Historical East goddessreligious (and the worship opposition and byassociat- the stigmatisation of al mournerswhoThis diedlatter (ndihdt)at verse Badr is (Robsonwere well ofknown a1938:75)- high and musical commonly In the standard seventh quoted (Farmer7. In(e.g. the Glubb Prophet's presence some "little girls" played frame drums century, weekly concerts by female ritu- 1929:53). In fifteenth century 1971:207). and lamented heroes andexpanded menopause. to include In the the Middle whole femaleEast the life- attainment(2) cycle, Loss through of sexuality puberty, andand fertility losschange of of musical role. This point may be (AhthisCairo, female professional mourners usedme frame drums8. I have been unabletivit to trace details about1992:y Amr ibn Umayyu Dhatnari was 19 Prohibited by orthodox Islam and periodically banned by to accompany their laments, although the authorities strumentsperformanceexperiencevirginity (at may severe marriage) (Doubleday decline restrictions areas and theyhighlighted. Baily relatingage, inhibited1995). Nubileto veiling, Women's by or conventions newly education, access married to andof musical dignity.girls musical may in- lege"legetheAmr Prophet undoubtedlyIyar), implies the (1929:38). a "patron special accorded saint" orIt ispossibly onpossible of accountthe drum.sacred that of Accordinghe statushis was being which 9.to 7-oumaFarmer, describes Touais as the first man having a eunuch (see Note 9). a eunuch" (1977:107). The term "privi-reservedaccess the drumto the forframe women, drum, but a "privi- he was a male companion of (also Baba Amr or mentsmakingrecurrent according according theme toof to gender. thisthe purdaharticle, system, evidenced and(3) assignmentby Separation the segregation of and musical restriction of instru- of women's activities. This has beenmusic a - theedTourna's in staff miniature whoevidence facilitated paintings for this thishoused is work.unclear. in the Bodleian Library,11.10. Oxford ForIn 1978 the drum I undertook as resonator a complete for the survey voice, andsec Msanalysis Ell. 239:904, of musical (as yet unpublished). I thank painted by Mohammad instruments depict- 131 regionHossein130 of Herawi northern at AfghanistanShiraz (1581). (1980a:32). This use of the drum 12.was The noted miniatures by Sakata arc in (respectively) Ms U.Ethnomusicology, 194:676, in Turkmen Winter 1999 style with Indian re- the Wakhan for ress.may"peace," beThe a derogatoryuseddancer's as a name, welcome remodelling Salomé, greeting) of may this refer(Buonavcntura myth to and Ishtar's its ritual, "dance casting of welcome" Salomé Doubleday: The Frame Drum in the Middle 1983:18). as a wicked(shalom: tempt- Hebrew East rhythm(nowwithtouching several destroyed from (1500 singerstabla -1); by drums Mswar) and Ell. noandmusicians 239:913, musical large percussion playedpaintedinstruments. allby stones instrumentsMohammad At identifiedthe13. Chishti BailyHosseinof byAfghan shrine foundSlobin Herawi classical of thatas Kharabat gairitq atin Shirazwestern Afghanistan the Sufis performed zikr (also music,called (1976:277). jahr)with in Kabul(1581). cians,turyvants drawing, hadone highplaying p.7); status. a a frame troupe Hammurabi's drum of Egyptian (nineteenth code female of laws dancers gave24. them23. These In privileges contrast arc: two with Gypsy modern ghawazee connotations in Cairo, of with "prostitution," century. French lithograph, p.36); some Cairean accompanieda male by daffeight player women (nineteenth musi- cen- Ishtar's female temple ser- (Long 1992:11 -33). beSlobin(Sakata:1980a:31;culturally taken estimated down distinct for that regionvanfestivities" most den overlapping urbanBerg, (1976:265). householdspersonal Afghanistan communication).In in Herat northern andwomen14. Tajikistan.Afghanistan The alwaysDuring frame Therehadhis possesseddrum access is termed toa a ddireh in all areas of Afghanistan except fieldwork (1967 -68) it is termed duff Badakhshan, a dátireh "to drum - pantedfemaledrump.40);bare- players frameby breasted transvestite three drum(Turkish male ghawazee, player buffoonframe miniature, (p.57); accompanieddrummers boy Sarnia dancersp.50); (still Gamal, Turkish byaccompanied from chengicinema by a veiled female doff player and male lutenist (1762, renowned Arab dancer of the 1950s, accom- male musicians(female includingfilm, dancer) p.99) three accompanied frame by a eitherareinstrumentsproperty, theirGharibzadeh, own, not in individuallyor Afghanistan Chelu,that of and a neighbouring owned. Ghorbatis currently No (see reliable available,Raohousehold. 1982; information butBally Frame they15. aredrums Jatabout certainlyis a were thegeneral less derogatory common. term applied to a variety of different groups. 1988). Similar groups producing frame distribution of musical usually communal Other terms was(Pettantutes, directed but 1996:38). particularlythey were In Greece,labelled against Yiftoitheiras such. women's Gypsy musicians"libidinous"26.25. dance The "framefemale(Brandi drumprofessional couple" musicians is one of theof Heratthree principalwith whom use frame drums; deep -seated prejudice Balkan Gypsy ensemble typesI worked were not prosti- Centralthedrums 1976:273gypsies" and Asia sieves who(see-76). specializeLevinexist Sakata in 1996:155 astates: widespreadas sieve "Generally, -56). -makers, inarea Afghanistan (e.g.theblacksmiths Afghans the nomadic its16. andusedo The nottinkersis Kouli confined jew'sseriously (Wulfftribe harp to ofconsider (chang/chang- Iran, the gobuz) is notable as a solo instrument of women 1966:234the north -36)). (Slobin "kinsfolk of chang as in Pakistan.HerprovocativeRom information community Thanks dance" isinto reliable,Skopje,calledAnthony chochek Macedonia,backed Hyman (Silvermanup for by makedrawing and 1996:66,69)- play27. frame Fatima Gailani is the daughter of l'ir Gailani, leader my own observations and recorded interviews in my attention to her article. of a "moderate" Resistancedrums, group. and perform a "sexually 1996:26 -27). A large embarrassed,menta musical1960s, for girls instrument.when saying and Lubtchansky women. only Instead, women Indeed, recorded they and feelmost children athat soloof the on playjaw'sperformers jew's the harp harp, instrument.17. arethe Another female"male Uzbek group performer who used wasthe drumvery before the civil war were fully grown is a toy or an instrument of amuse- (1980b:144). In the semi- trans- outhealer's 1996:243).washing frame himself drum, or the saying owner a special angrily prayer: told him the drumhe 29.had would 28.For Levin an have illustration reports a of similar calligraphy case in on northern a Kurdish Tajikistan. Sufi sinned by touchingdrum, see the During drumWhen with-(1994:back he touched cov- a male baxshi to be reconsecrated (Levin andfrominvestite ways lorrywomen's passers eunuchs that depot. were -by.shawls, (isak), Some They considered drumming outsiders workedfrequented deeply as byand tea an virtue singing-houseshamefularea ofof theirwaiters,Kabulcomic and indeterminate old"unmanly,"verses and city they in near the possibly sexualwearing Darwazestreet organs.asalso long hair,they Lahori,make collected -up by thetips bus offered servicesThey behaved where1997:captioneder). to SufisThese their remove drum.Kurdish to PlateAnother snares Sufis 21). from applyexample the the benefit-, of same physical numerological seeking modification30. It is unclear whether by "just as happily" Reinhard to avoid their "sensual effect"symbolism (Langlois to percussive tochains frame add- drums occurs in Morocco,means that the women do not Tapperinheritanceof a sexual (1991). nature. prescribe Thanks patrilineality. to Nabi Misdaq For further for this details information.18. on19. Marriagemarriage, New Year in see Afghanistan festivities areis not a widespread necessarily andpatrilocal, ancient but feature Quranic of the Persianised world. lawsDoubleday of divorce (1990); and architecturalonmind 1860:trays. men Any"Male making projects, musician genius prior monumentalhas prefers claims nothing toon play tothe sculpture, fear instruments,a good from instrument. andfemale elevated31. See for instance, this quotation from a French article in the Gazette des Beaux Arts, taste. Let ormen whether of genius they conceive play just of as great proficiently forms of painting. in a word, let Avesta.isAli'sThe syncretisedhonour cityshrine Shcof (Rahimi Persepolisat had Mazar with a celebrated 1977:24;that -i inSharif, ofsouthern Anahita, Lee nearshrine 1996).Iran Balkh, goddessat wasBalkh In is built thethe ofwhere latenational theas a 1960s,Oxus site"licentious focus for river,at New Newof aNewrites" Year majorYear, Ycar wererituals. Slobin In deity extolled in the festivities.performed His cultnoticed in herheaps of Afghanistan the(quotedwithmen mullahs, those busyin Parkertypes adherentsthemselves of and art Pollock theyof with the have 1981:1). brotherhoodsall alwaysthat has preferred, to and do withthe 32.population great Hassan quotes Salim al- Tikrit (1973:156 -57): "At Tikrit, when such as pastels, portraits or miniatures" art. Let women occupy themselves meet after the Friday leoni- there is a lack of rain, herwomen'swereframe children painted drums embroidery urged beingin red mesold and (see to around green reveal Paiva withthe herand central trueaDupaigne symmetrical identity, square 1993). ofsince flowering 20.Ali's Inshe shrine Three is treenow (1976:265). Women unfortunately of HeratThe i gave Zainab Herawi the pseudonym of life symbol common in Shirin, but in 1994 drum skinsdead. ingmunalj poems, prayer. begging They Godmake to a grantpopular his processiongrace in the form out of the village, beating the daft and sing- of rain." andan nervousKramer item of distress1983; personal Pritchard especially adornment. 1975). found The At among biblical each women.of story the sevenof See Salome''s22.21. Doubledaygates inThe Afghanistan of dance the (1990:101 mirrors possession the goddess by jinni, Ishtar's known descent as maraz to ("the the Underworldillness "), aphrodisiac dance for King Herod Underworld, she sheds is a state of mental (see Wolkstein-114;128 -38). Alloula,Alexander,Ahmed,References Malek. Leda. David 1986. 1992. and The Women Pat. Colonial 1973. and Harem.The Gender Lion Minneapolis: Handbookin Islam:New Hislorical Haven and London: Yale University Press. to the Bible. Oxford: Lion Publishing.University of Minnesota Press. Roots of a Modern Debate. Baily,132 John. 1988. Music of Afghanistan: Ethnomusicology, Winter 1999 Professional Musicians in the City of Herat. Cam- Hamm, Abdul Hantid. 1996. "The Roots of Bedouinpaper Singing." presented Unpublished at 2nd meeting manuscript of the Studyof Group for Music of the Arab World, IC'l'M, Doubleday: The Frunze Drum in the Middle East 133 28:147bridge: -173.Cambridge. University1996. Press."Using Tests of Sound Perception in Fieldwork." Yearbook for Tra(I:I,nnal Music I Ianna, Judith Lynne. 1988. Dance, Sex and Getzder. Oxford.Signs of Identity, Dominance, Defiance, Beck,Blades, Lois Jamesand Nikki and RobertKcddie, Anderson. eds. 1978. UniversityMusical Press. Instruments, edited by Stanley 1984. "Frame Drums." in The New GroveWomenthe Music in the of Muslin' Greece. World. Role and Cambridge: Function." Sadie. London: Macmillan Press. Dictionary of The World Harvard Henderson,I (assail, Isobel.Schehcrazadc 1957. "Ancient Qassim. Greek1980. LesMusic." Instruments Inlaand The sociétéEtudes Desire. Newde Musiquetraditiozzelle. en Oxford Chicago Sciences enHistory and IrakSociales. Paris London: et of -Laleur Music: Haye. rôleUniversity I,dans -New York:of Chicago Mouton Press. Editeur and Ecole des Hautes Brandt,Chenoweth,Buonaventura, Rudolf M.Vida. Wendy.1996. 1980. The 1983. "Melanesia 'Yiftoi' Belly and Dancing.5: Papua of Music,Music 1:7and -32. 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JOHN BAILY

While engaged in research on the long -necked lute calledHerati dotar in 1974, I was frequently told about a virtuoso dutñri ( dotar player) who had dieda few years earlier after a fight with a gang of 'thugs' in the city of Kandahar.His name was Amin -e Diwaneh. The Persian word diwaneh means 'crazy', andwas applied to people who (in terms of Western psychiatry) might be classedas 'insane', though the cause of insanity was usually attributed to spirit possession. Diwanehwas also a description for individuals who were particularly erratic in their behaviour,and was often used affectionately. Amin the dutari was such a person. Amin -e Diwaneh was said to have been a remarkable dotar player;in his hands the dutar'talked', or 'shouted', it sang likea crazy spirit. He was said to have a special gift from God (bakshislr -e Khodai). He was describedas the best dotar player in Afghanistan; no other dutari could 'play in front of him'. Althoughhe was a self - taught musician it was claimed that he played better than the hereditaryprofessional musicians (sa_andeh), who received musical training froman early age. He was very eccentric, certainly in terms of Afghan norms of behaviour. Hewore his shirt front undone, exposing his chest, a degree of public nakedness whichwas considered quite unusual, and he wore metal amulets (tawiz) around his neck. He alwayscarried his dotar around with him, whereas other musicians concealedtheir instruments in public, for they were often criticised by orthodox Muslims for engagingin 'the work of Satan'. Amin would play anywhere, in teahouses,even in the bazaar. He was said to be 'deep' in his life; although he moved in this world heseemed to be in another. Many people were frightened by him and his reputation for beinga diwaneh, a madman, but he appealed to the 'Majnun types', those whorejected the norms and conventions of society at large, and who, like Majnun (in the famous tale of Leyli and Majnun) wanted to get away, to be alone in the desert.Such people, described as having complexes about life, sadnesses, dissatisfactions- who rejected the world of material things- they liked him and called him Diwaneh out of respect and admiration. And he liked such people and responded to them. Hewas a charsi, a habitual smoker of hashish (or chars as cannabis resin is called in Afghanistan)and he could be very aggressive. Towards the end of his life hegave up living in the city and became an itinerant amongst the zit /arats, the shrines of Sufi saints which aboundin the Herat valley. He was then likened to a malting, a type of religious mendicantwho inhabited such places. These were the kinds of comments made about Amin-e Diwaneh by other dotar players. Herat, where Amin lived and died, is the third largest city in Afghanistan, and is located in the west, 80 miles from the border with Iran, and far from Kabul, Afghanistan's capital, situated in the east. Herat was a provincial city, which since the 1930s had in musical terms been orientated towards Kabul, although Herat's 134 John Baily urban music was based on older types of Kabuli music and had not come under the influence of the latest developments in popular music, notably a softer and more relaxed singing style, with Western instruments (such as electric organ, electric guitar, trumpet and trap drums) used for accompaniment. Some of the relationships between Herat and Kabul in terms of popular music have been discussed by Baily (1981). The dutdr is a type of long- necked lute, an ancient form of instrument in this part of Asia. The name means literally 'two strings', and until the late 1940s the version of the dutdr played in the villages of Herat had only two strings, made of gut. Beginning in the late 1940s a series of changes were made to the dutdr and a three -stringed instrument with metal strings and played with a metal plectrum was established by 1950. By 1965 a much larger kind of dutdr with fourteen metal strings was being played. Most of the added strings were sympathetic strings with tuning knobs along the side of the neck, and the shortest also served as a high drone string. A full account of the changes in the dutd r is given by Baily (1976). The new dutdr was a 'neo- traditional' instrument, in that the plucked lute models which guided its develop- ment, the short -necked rubdb and the long- necked tanbur, were themselves tradi- tional Afghan instruments. Although the groundwork for this innovation was laid in the city of Herat, the perfection of the design of the fourteen- stringed dutdr was usually credited to the Herati musician Karim Dutari, who worked for seventeen years as a dutdr player at Radio Afghanistan in Kabul. Karim Dutari wanted to improve the dutdr, formerly regarded as a rural instrument, so that it could hold its own in an urban music ensemble. It did not take long for the new dutdr to be adopted in Herat, where it soon became the predominant instrument of music- making in that city. The dutdr was traditionally played by amateur musicians in the villages, but in the process of becoming an urban instrument some players of the dutdr became professional musicians, and a few joined groups of hereditary professional musicians, who worked in bands with a singer accompanied by harmonium, rubdb and tabla drums. The hereditary musicians never played the dutdr themselves, and regarded it with some disdain as an amateur instrument, a point we shall return to later. People in Herat first became aware of the new instrument from hearing it played by Karim over the radio, both in radio ensembles and as a solo instrument. Amin -e Diwaneh was one of the first to play the new instrument in Herat. He perhaps saw Karim's new dutdr in Kabul. He travelled about a good deal and at one period in his life worked as a kalirar (from the English word 'cleaner'), a lorry driver's assistant, whose duties include cleaning the lorry and handling the massive wooden chock used to prevent it from slipping backwards on steep hills. He certainly had the opportunity to visit Kabul frequently, and could have been one of the first people to bring back to Herat a precise description of the kind of instrument that Karim was playing. By all accounts it was Amin who created the style for playing the fourteen - stringed dutdr which was adopted by other dutdris in Herat. It differed from Karim's style in one important respect: Karim developed a right -hand technique in which the main playing stroke was an upstroke flick of the index finger wearing a metal plectrum over the finger tip (see Baily 1977, pp. 294 -5). Amin devised another technique, in which the metal plectrum was held between the forefinger and the thumb and the downstroke was the main playing stroke (as on the rubdb). This allowed for a faster and more 'aggressive' style of playing, and was less fatiguing Amin -e Diwane{: the musician as madman 135 than Karim's upstroke style -a very important consideration. It was this aspect of Amin's playing that was adopted by virtually all other dutñris in Herat. My main sources of information about Amin -e Diwanehwere two other amateur musicians who had grown up with him and often played with him when they were young. One was Bacheh Matari,2 who played the zirbaghali,a single - headed goblet drum made of pottery, the usual drum played with the dutár by amateur musicians. He later became a good friend of mine and helped me greatly With my research. He had in his possession the only photograph of Amin-e Diwaneh that I was able to find, much creased, wearing two of his famous metal amulets, and with his shirt unbuttoned. The other source of information was Qasem Asiawan (asiawan means 'miller'), who also played the dutñr, and was a few yearsyounger than Amin -e Diwaneh. He was said to play the dutdr very much in the style of Amin, and to emulate his behaviour, though in both respects he apparently could not quite match his friend and mentor. I only met him a few times. The first occasionwas in the house of a wealthy young admirer and dutiir enthusiast who had arranged forme to record Asiawan in the company of a few friends. As Asiawan did not have his fourteen- stringed dutñr with him he played on a three -stringed dutár that was to hand.3 He also recorded some lengthy reminiscences about Amin,as recounted below. From the accounts of Bacheh Matari and Qasem Asiawan the following brief biography has been constructed. Amin -e Diwaneh was born in the region of the Herat Valley called Ziyaratja, some miles south of the city, and seems to have been an only child. His father was from Herat, while his mother came from Kandahar, Afghanistan's second city, located in the south. When he was young his family moved to the village of Qafaslan, very near the Kandahar Gate of Herat's old city. As a boy he worked on the land, and it seems likely that his father was an impoverished share -cropper; he died when Amin was young. Amin probably began playing the dutár when he was thirteen or fourteen, initially the old- fashioned two -stringed dutár with gut strings, which he was said to play very fast, with a lot of riz, the fast tremolo that is the hallmark of this instrument. Later he obtained a three -stringed dutdr. He had already acquired the nickname of Diwaneh and Bacheh Matari described their friendship of that time, when they used to play dutiir and zirbaghali together. At one period, when they had a job cleaning pistachio nuts, they would go off to a teahouse for an hour or so after work to play music before returning home. The teahouse they favoured was run by Salam Nazan, who was also from Qafaslan. Bacheh Matari described Amin -e Diwaneh as the best friend he had ever had; since his death he had never found another friend like Amin, whom he also referred to him as his master (khalifeh). Sometimes they would quarrel and fight, then a few minutes later they would make it up and embrace and kiss each other. Occasionally they would be asked to play at parties, or weddings, in the area round the Kandahar Gate. Bacheh Matari recalled how they had met Asiawan, who as a boy worked as a miller, and used to ride from his village into town with a string of donkeys laden with flour. He would come to the teahouse and watch and listen to the two of them play. One day he took Amin -e Diwaneh's d utñr and played himself. 'I saw that his fingers were moving on the dutdr very well, like Amin's fingers. I told Amin, "He's got the idea, he will become a good dutñr player. "' They often saw Asiawan in their teahouse and for two or three years they played music there together, becoming very good friends. Amin -e Diwaneh had been working in a sweet shop near the Kandahar Gate, 136 John Bail),

4

Fis 4 Figure]. The only known photograph of the virtuoso dutár player, Anno -e Dneaneh. Amin -e Diivaneh: the musician as madman 137

Figure 2. Karim Dutari playing the fourteen -stringed dutár at his home in Herat. Photo: John Baily. 138 John Baily

-4

Figure 3. Bacheh Matari playing the zirbaghaliat a spring fair. Photo: John Baily. Amin-e Dituaneh: the musician as madman 139

Figure 4. Qasetn Asiawan planing the three -stringed dutár on the occasion when he recorded his reminiscences of Amure Dáoanch. Photo: John Bally. 140 John Bally

e -

Figure 5. Qasem Asiawan playing the fourteen -stringed duthr ina teahouse. Photo: JohnBaihl.

but then he went off to Kandahar and startedhis intermittent residence in that city. He probably had relatives there. Heseems to have liked Kandahar because the people were 'more Oiluch' than the peopleof Herat. Pñiluch means 'barefoot' and describes a type of ruffian or gangster,a professional thief or robber. The pñilucliñ (pl. of pñiluch) of Kandahar were bands ofimpoverished young men from thepoorer classes, who maintained theirown criminal subculture. The pñiluchñwere apparently much given to homosexuality(patronising glamorous youths in this connection), and to smoking chars. Amin likedthe criminal underworld, and felt more at home with such people, though his friend Asiawanwas at pains to deny that Amin was homosexual. While in KandaharAmin used to work on the lorries, especially on the run to Spin Baldak,a border town on the frontier with Pakistan and a major centre for smuggled goods. When Amin was called up for his militaryservice, he served it- for at least some of the time- in Herat. He was in a dutñr orchestra organised byone Naleh, the military band -master in the Herat barracks,at the time when the five- stringed dutñr enjoyed a brief spell of popularity. BachehMatari played zirbaghali in this orchestra, even though he was not in the army. Towards the end ofhis two years of military service Amin -e Diwaneh deserted fromthe army. This was thecause of much trouble for him, for accordingto the current law this meant he had tostart another two years' period of service. Again hedeserted after some months. The final outcome is unclear but it is possible that hewas excused further service on medical grounds: it appears that the diwaneh sideof his personality becamemore prominent after his experience of militaryservice. Alternatively, he may have remainedon the run from the authorities, which could be whyhe chose later on to live out in the ziyñrats of Herat. Amin -e Diwaneh: the musician as madman 141 By this time Amin -e Diwaneh was playing the fourteen -stringed dutñr and forging the style that was to become so influential in Herat. He made his own modifications to the instrument. In Karim's version of the dotar, made by a master instrument maker in Kabul, the sympathetic strings were supported above the neck of the instrument by small bone bridges sunk into the wooden neck. Amin devised another way of doing this, with the top halves of needles driven into the wood, so that the strings passed through the needles' eyes. Both Asiawan and Bacheh Matari claimed to have been with him when he undertook this experiment and it is quite possible that he modified more than one dutar in this way. They said it gave a very clear sound, as one might expect. At my meeting with Asiawan in 1974, when he recorded his reminiscences of Amin -e Diwaneh, he told us a number of revealing anecdotes, most of which I reproduce here in précis form. We started off asking why people called him Diwaneh?

'Well, he was diwaneh! If someone offered him ten thousand afghanis to go and play at a wedding party he wouldn't go. He'd rather buy some chars and go off to the ziyarats to smoke it with the ntalangs and play the dutar for them free. He smoked a lot, but he wasn't a bachelt biz ( "boy player "), he wasn't homosexual, though he had plenty of opportunity. He had a huge moustache, wore a long turban and went round with his shirt open, exposing his chest. He had blue tattoos all over his body, on his hands, his back, and his chest. On his hands was tattooed Ya Shir -e Khoda, "Lion of God ". He was very strong and practised body building. He could break bricks by hitting them with his head. When he was fighting with the Kandaharis, at the time of his epic battles, he attacked them with his head. One blow from his head was enough to put you out of action. If he punched a dried mud wall with his fist, then his fist would sink into it. When he was unhappy or sad about something he used to hit himself, punching himself or knocking himself against a wall. He always carried a short stick (like a cosh) tucked away in his baggy trousers. 'In the world of dotar playing people are very jealous. On one occasion some people took Karim Dutari in a jeep to Qasr -e Shirin, a village in the direction of Badghis, to play at a party at the Hazrat's place. Amin was invited too, but he went there on foot. Karim played the fourteen -stringed dutir for them. Late on in the evening someone said, "Let's give the dotar to Amin and see what he can do." Karim said, "Amin can't touch this dutir, he doesn't know how to play it." Amin was very angry and upset about this and started punching himself and hitting his head against the wall. Later he asked the Hazrats, "Won't you let me play ?" and they said, "Yes, you take the dotar, Diwaneh." And he played and played and played so that everyone was marvelling at how good he was and they forgot about Karim. Then Amin said, "With your permission I will cut all the frets off this dotar and play it without frets," which he did, and the people liked it very much.` Later he said, "Karim, this is your dotar, I've got some nylon in my pocket and I can tie the frets back on, or if you like you can play it like this." But the people said, "No, you must play," and so he played till morning. In the morning they took Amin back to Herat in the jeep and Karim had to walk home - they wouldn't give him a ride. It was after this that Amin went to Kandahar and put in the needles as bridges for the sympathetic strings. Later he told Karim, "You have made this fourteen -stringed dutir and now I am going to make another kind of dutar; I am the Diwaneh of God." 'Many people liked him. They were always inviting him to go and play at 142 John Baily weddings and at parties but he wouldn't go. Late on in the evening he'd search for a get- together of dutar enthusiasts, the kind of people he liked, and he would arrive unexpectedly, with his dotar and his turban and his stick. As he made his entrance he'd growl, "Diwaneh has arrived," and he would play for them and do his special act. People liked him very much for his playing, for his talking and his acting. He communicated with them. He played the old tunes, new songs, filmi tunes [from Indian films], any kind of song and tune he heard. Sometimes he made up his own tunes. He never went to the cinema or theatre. If people asked him to go with them to the cinema he'd say, "I don't want to go, my spirit (del) and fingers are cinema enough for me. India, Pakistan, Iran, they are all under my fingers. I don't need the cinema, why should I go and spend my ten afghanis?" If he were still alive he would be very famous and would have everything. One time when he was playing in the evening at Chisht -e Sharif [a Sufi shrine to the east of Herat] the nightingales flew down and perched on the tuning pegs of his dotar and sang with the music.5 'Amin was not after money, but sometimes people gave him a lot. He never told people in advance how much they should pay him. It's sinful to ask in advance, if people want to give you money it's okay, if they don't, then it doesn't matter. When someone gave him some money he'd go off and spend it. He'd buy a kilo of chars and an expensive turban, some metal amulets, these things. Then he'd go and smoke the chars and when it was finished and he didn't have any money he'd go and sell his new turban or those things he'd bought for himself. If he'd bought the turban for a thousand afghanis he'd sell it for five hundred and buy more chars. 'He was always going to the ziyarats to play his dutar and smoke chars with the malangs. One night he'd be in Gazergah -e Sharif, the next night at Sayed -e Mukhtar [two shrines close to Herat], then the next night at another ziyarat a day's walk from the town. He just moved around amongst the ziyarats. He was frightened of only one thing, of being assaulted and "raped" at someone's party. A lot of this is going on these days. If someone's getting too full of himself, becoming a big kakeh or badmash,7 then he's in danger of being attacked in this way in order to bring him down, by making him a laughing stock. Even if they don't actually do it people may start a rumour to say that somebody has been disgraced like this. It's not good to reveal these things but Amin was present and playing the dutar when Aziz Kakeh [another kakeh character] was raped like this. Amin said, "Since I am a chars addict, some time when I'm playing I might say something bad to somebody and he might be angry with me and to take his revenge invite me to a party with forty or fifty others to rape me. Then what could I do? I'd have to kill myself. No, I'm not sazandeh [a hereditary professional musician], I'm not a jat ['gypsy musician'], I'm not going to just anybody's house." That's why he was usually living out at the ziyarats. 'In Kandahar one time he got into a fight with five or six Kandaharis. They had knives, he was fighting with his head, one blow from which was enough to lay you out. He was stabbed from behind by one of them and the point of the knife came out from his chest. His friends told him to go to the police but he said, "I'll never go to the police or to the government but I shall take my revenge." When he recovered from his wounds he went back to Herat, living out in the ziyarats with the malangs, planning his revenge. He returned to Kandahar to look for the men who had wounded him. When he found them he kept pestering them, saying, "Come on, let's go, let's go out to the desert and settle it," and they would reply, "Go away, you are just like a tourist in this town, go away and leave us alone." But he wouldn't be put off, saying, "I don't care if you kill me, I want to be killed by you." So finally one 144 John Baily clearly by the contrast between dotar players (always amateur by recruitment) and members of hereditary musician (sazandeli) families, who had dominated the music profession in Herat since the 1930s. The sazandeh played both art music and popular music, and were proud of their knowledge of music theory and training as musicians. They aspired to a respectable status as 'artists', equivalent to writers, poets, calligraphers and miniature painters, and regarded the performance of music for payment as their rightful domain (see Baily, in press, for further details of sazandeh social organisation). The distinction between amateur (shauqi) and professional (kesbi) status was respected by both the sñzandeli and dotar players. The sdzalideh for their part stressed that they acquired their profession and professional skill az pedari, 'from their fathers'. They were brought up to be musicians, were exposed to music from an early age, and trained in performance by their relatives. To learn music correctly one needed to be taught by a teacher, a master musician, who understood the 'science of music', could play a variety of instruments, and who had been the student of a teacher in his turn. Those who learned music without a teacher did not understand music 'scientifically', and what they did learn by ear they usually learned wrongly. According to the sazandeh, they (as kesbis) were pokhteh, 'cooked', while the shaugis were kham, 'raw'. Amateur musicians on their part saw great value in their shauqi status. They played because of their enthusiasm ( shauq) for music (see Slobin 1976, pp. 24-5), not to make a living. The 'true' shauqi dotari never deigned to accept payment for his music. He could even find a virtue in his own shortcomings as a musician, as though these proved his shauqi status. Shaugis were proud to be self- taught, perhaps precisely because training in music was associated with being a low status hereditary professional musician. Within their own amateur musician network shauqis dis- avowed having teachers, which meant that they did not feel beholden to others. In fact, they usually learned by copying one other performer, normally a relative or friend, without revealing what they were doing, listening and watching and then practising in private. They lacked the exposure to music as children that the sazandeh enjoyed, and were often actually discouraged from learning to play by their families. They had overcome many obstacles to learn to play the doh-tr. Amin -e Diwaneh was the champion of the amateurs: he articulated in an extreme way the values inherent in shauqi ideology, even though he became, in a sense, a professional musician, for he seems to have lived from his music in later years. He represented the intuitive as opposed to the formal approach to music, the realm of feeling in contrast to intellect. He stood for individuality and freedom, for an ecstatic approach to life which had connections with Sufism. Indeed, he bore the same relationship to the 'orthodoxy' of the sazandeh that the Sufi had to orthodox Islam. This link with Sufism found a clear expression in his living in ziyarats, the burial places of Sufi saints, where he smoked chars (here a spiritual practice) and played the dutar for the malangs. He was Herat's answer to Karim Dutarí s 'pro- fessionalism', acquired from mixing with hereditary musicians in Kabul; Amin showed an alternative to the 'scientific' and 'educated' style of Karim. His own frenetic do tar- playing, so appropriate for Afghan popular music, set the standard for those who followed. Somehow I never got to ask Karim Dutari what he thought about Amin -e Diwaneh; perhaps I was worried about a sensitive reaction to such a question, for I doubt that he had an admiration for the man who stole his thunder. But Karim did Anzin-e Diwaneh: the musicianas madman 145 tell me once that he was thinking of experimentingwith a dutñr without frets, the finger board covered with a fine sheet of steel (like theIndian sarod), so that he could play the tneend, sut and gainak ornaments of Indian music. It would be difficultto play, he said, and he would have to practisefour or five hours a dayover a long period of time to master it. Was he, I wonderedto myself, also rememberinga long walk home, a dutñr newly stripped of its fretsunder his arm?

Endnotes

1It appears that the initial response in Herat to Amin's death. Herati informants told me that hearing the new dotar over the radio was the these pieces sounded very much like Amin-e devising of a five -stringed dotar, which lacked Diwaneh's playing. the sympathetic strings but had one short high 4 The frets on the fourteen -stringed dotar are made drone string with a tuning peg at the base of the of nylon line wrapped tightly several times neck ( Baily 1976, pp. 50-1). This allowed theuse round the neck and tied with a knot. One advan- of right -hand stroke patterns involving the high tage of this method is that the frets are moveable drone string,a technique derived from the and can be adjusted for tuning purposes. Afghan rubi b (Baily 1987). 5 This was a well known piece of musical folk -lore 2 11e was properly called Aminullah, Son of in Herat; the musician, usually a dotar player, sat Ghulam Haidar the Silk Spinner, but was usually in a garden or some beauty spot and playedso referred to as Amin Bacheh Matari, or Bacheh wellthatthe nightingales approached and Matari for short. The dialect word matari means eventually came to perch on the tuning pegs of someone who is pugnacious, always ready for a the instrument. I also heard this story told about fight, and though Amin's nickname meant 'Son a chahi rtar player and about a soma player (when of the Pugnacious One' it seems that he himself the birds perched on the bell of his shawm). had provoked the epithet. Karim Dutariwas When such tales were related others present often called Bacheh Bini, 'Son of (the) Nose', would assert that they had seen the same thing, because his grandfather, who suffered from a though I never witnessed it myself. See Baily disease which caused his nose to be eaten away, 1988, chapter 9, for further discussion of bird- used to wear a cosmetic nose made ofwax. song in the Herati musical aesthetic. Karim pointed out once, in jest, that he should6 The practise alluded to here is really a form of more properly be called Nawaseh Bini, 'Grand- torture in which a length of wood is pushed into son of Nose'. Nicknames were common in the rectum of the unfortunate victim. In the Herat, and as people sometimes complained, region of Ziyaratja, Amin's birthplace, I heard 'once you have got a name in this town you can't that a few years before a man accused of sedu- get rid of it'. cing a boy had been murdered by being impaled 3 Two pieces played by Qasem Asiawan on the in this way on a long stake and paraded around fourteen -stringed dotar have been published by the villages until dead. Mark Slobin (Anthology AST -4004, side 2, cuts 1 7 These terms mean approximately the same as and 4) recorded in the town of Girishk, near pailuch. Kandahar, in 1968, round about the time of

References

Baily, John. 1976. 'Recent changes in the dotar of Herat', Asian Music, 8(1),pp. 29 -64 1977. 'Movement patterns in playing the Herati dotar, in The Anthropology of the Body, ed. John Blacking, pp. 275-330 (London: Academic Press) 1979. 'Professional and amateur musicians in Afghanistan', World of Music, 21(2),pp. 46-64 1981. 'Cross -cultural perspectives in popular music: the case of Afghanistan', PopularMusic 1, pp. 105 -22 1987. 'Principes d'improvisation rhythmique dans le jeu du rubab d'Afghanistan', inL'Improvisation dans les musiques de tradition orale, ouvrage collectif, editeur general, Bernard Lortat-Jacob (Paris: SELAF) In press. Music of Afghanistan: Professional musicians inthe city of Herat, in Cambridge Studies in Ethnomusicology, series ed. John Blacking (Cambridge University Press). With accompanyingaudio cassette 146 John Baily

Becker, Howard S. 1951. 'The professional dance musician and his audience', The American Journal of Sociology, LVII, pp. 136-44 Merriam, Alan P. 1964. The Anthropology of Music (Evanston: Northwestern University Press) Merriam, Alan P. and Mack, Raymond. 1960. 'The jazz community', Social Forces, 38: pp. 211 -22 Sakata, Hiromi Lorraine. 1983. Music in the Mimi: The Concept of Music and Musician in Afghanistan (Kent: Kent State University Press). With two accompanying audio cassettes Slobin, Mark. 1976. Music in the Culture of Northern Afghanistan (Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology No. 54) (Tucson: University of Arizona Press) Begegnungen der Kulturen in der "Lux Oriente" Learning to Perform as a Research Technique in Ethnomusicology- John Baily, London - Musikforschung Festschrift firstinspiration came across to many his contemplating paper in 1968,Mantle ethnomusicological as aHood's post -graduate article researchstudent in in experimental the 1960s. I The challenge of bi- musicality" was a source of zum 65. GeburtstagRobert Günther excitingthepsychologymore form orthodox toof find Brunoat Sussex that modes Nettl's ethnomusicology University. of "Theory scholarship.Hood Havingand did Method"had not just this advocate discovered practicalin the learninguniversity dimension ethnomusicology to library,perform as well it as was asain technique to be employed in Musikwissenschaftlichen InstitutsIm Namen allerder Kollegen Universität zu Köln des musicianshipethnomusicological is fundamental fieldwork. to any His kind argument of musical was"The simplyscholarship. training that training of ears, in eyes, basic hands and voice and fluency gained in herausgegeben von (Hoodperformer,inthese turn skills 1960:55) prepares theassure composer, thea real way comprehension the for musicologist the professional of theoreticaland the activitiesmusic studies, educator." of which the Klaus Wolfgang Niemöller Uwe Pätzold und musicianshipacquiring the in capacity the music to hear cultureHe intervals argued in question, thatcorrectly, the andstudent and specifically developing of non -Western mentioned memory music span should not by -pass basic CHUNG Kyo -chuff unter Mitarbeit von thedrumming)Asianin learning importance art music piecesfrom ofgenres the aurally.learning practical (Javanese His to point movepaper and of properlydescribed view,Balinese and in thegamelan, relationprovided intricacies to gagaku,ample the of instrument evidencea andnumber Indian for toof Oliver Seibt 1995 musicalityavailableproduce the for (with correct practical a hyphen)sounds. study Allin modelledIn the retrospect,these Institute examples as it forcertain obviously Ethnomusicology were questions drawn is on from the might at wordkinds UCLA. well bilingualof bemusic raised about Hood's term bi: 330 GUSTAV BOSSE VERLAG KASSEL two(without languages a hyphen). 1862. Bilingual 2. spec. Of simply inscriptions, means: etc.:"1. Having, Inscribed or simultaneouslycharacterized by in 331 parallelJohn Baily versions in two languages" (The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary "syncopated beyond belief ". Jones argued that to understand the apparent com- Learning to Perform as a Research Technique in Ethnomusicology beforefluencysuggests1968). thein Buttwo agean appliedindividuallanguages, of about to verbal five.whoespecially asBy behaviour a analogy,child when the term has become fluent as a performer in twoacquired together in early childhood,Hood's implied term bi- musical bilingual suggests an equal plexityplexity"part". of Once African of African that rhythm step rhythms is takenone mustis one false. "joindiscovers The an individual African that "the band parts"It apparent andis are the learn perfectly inextricablecombination to take simple. one's com- of these simple rhythms which makes the distinctwriting musics. about Hoodgagaku certainly court musicians accepts this of Japan:notion, the"[They] Gagaku have dances undergone and instrumentalrigid training sincetechniques, child for he quotes Robert Garfias -hood, not only in but also in the John Blacking wasanalysis.glorious another AfricanA of phonograph a long harmony, list inof thisstudents which field to isof the useless." African listener (Jonesmusic often 1934) whosounds beyond capacityperformanceibid.).Gagaku as and official ofWestern Western court classical musicians, music music." of they the are(GarfiasClassical required to 1959, quoted in Hood period. In their perform both examplesextendedsing children's the come idea to songs. of mind learning from to his perform Venda as fieldwork. a technique First, of field Blacking research. learned Three to whoof ability faced in the a second"challenge music of culturebi-Nevertheless, musicality" later than Hood certainly extended the term bi- musicality to cover students in music, as young adults, not as childhood. The students at UCLA did so during their careers the acquisition mythemselves,plandetailed pronunciation '...to studylearn and of Venda thatthe children'sandby music singing vocabulary songs.by children's the I sameofthoughtI thesongs decided processVenda that I might it to would language. asbegin also the be improve Vendamy a good Mygeneral study of Venda music with a children.as theproblemsundergraduate word tosoon be applicable.arise and graduateconcerning WhatFurther aboutthe "distance"interesting the person between questions who two are raised by the term combines competencebi- musicality. in Familiar kinds of music for pronunciationknown."assetsubsequent in establishing(Blacking abilitywas never 1967:to sing friendly very 28) the good, children's relations however, songs in areas but correctly I wherefound was thatI was a my great not Europeanproblemsand South art that musicIndian appear and art rockwithmusics? music?people Hood Baroquewho clearly are competentmusic recognised in it is all basically a question of and Minimalism? North three, four,the terminologicalor even tolerancesthat"My Iteachers began were wereto allowed. learn patient what I andlearnt was insisted the expected songs on correcting both of from a singer myadults mistakes, and and what from so moreHoodthe"musicality term"musics introduced bi- musicality". ", To and theavoid ended notion but these willup of terminological suggestingbi-speakThe musicality, art of oflearning ethnomusicological problems and to from perform. I presentpropose fieldwork not was less developed at perspectives one the time when to over -use thereforechildren.teacherthat I had especiallyOn knew, sung some anwas occasionsinterestedalternative perfectly ifI melody madeIacceptable was notdeliberate which, corrected: according though mistakes, this not to would thatthe and canonswhich mean was my of musicalofmight acquireresearch argue structure. a certainmethodologymore specifically essentialThe argument because kind that of learninghere ofknowledge the is potentialthat to perform onlyabout insightsas music. a should be a crucial part performerLearning does to perform one it provides into drummer. Secondly, BlackingVenda participated music." (ibid.: in Venda 33) possession trance sessions as a problemhas332 quite aof long African history rhythm, in ethnomusicology. which Hornbostel In 1934 (1928) A. M. Jones tackled the had described as 333 Johntheir Baily betters. saying "Well, if I'm no better than X, then I am no worse than him The fact that I used a tape recorder to record these demonstrations Learning to Perform as a Research Technique in Ethnomusicology was not betweeneithercreatehearing ". All anus them aural wasof this asscorethat partaffirmed whereas from of their which their they shauqi (amateur) urban soundscape, I neededI could the tape learn recorder to play. to knew the tunes they learned to play by status. One big difference once.bytheunprecedented teachingearly Abdul 1970s. new Ghani, in For pieces.Herat, example, an where Iamateur had Gada the radiomusicianopportunity had /cassette with to machine observe a job as wasa a clerk quite in the civil a friend, Abdul Ghani, whom he helped "teaching session" common in Mohammad,thesee 14 thatstringed my originally fieldwork dutâr with an was amateuroneWhen of whoI began my fieldwork proper, in focused from the start on performance; my first step the leading exponents of the instrument, Gada later turned professional.the autumn In retrospect of 1973, II started learning (potterylearnorservice, volunteered he gotswitchedgoblet Gada bydrum). ontoGada. playthe What tapeWhen a number herecorder, Gadawas of doing played pieces,and was something either recording he a likedset of and tunes wanted that he accompanied Gada on the zirbaghali suggested by Abdul Ghani to wasmusiciansagenerally greatto find deal selfa (sâzandeh) teacher: later-taught, in that thoughtheirwith was whomplaying players they regularly the way in. As I have said, dutâr players werelike Gadacareers Mohammad from the undoubtedlyhereditary professional learned Gada had picked up a lot from his worked in urban bands (singer alsofieldwork,wanted able to to learn and re- createrecordedby ear anfrom earliermany theI tape,Herativersion continued just musicians of as the Ipractising did. dutâr, playing which the the had3- instrument.stringed dutâr I throughout my first year of 2 gut (or nylon) was bandwithexample, sectionharmonium,leader, Amir inAmir free tabla,Mohammad Mohammad,rhythm rubâb (cf. andtagsim, a singerdutâr). dlâp), had taught him to play shakl, the introductory in a number ofdown ragsfrom using (melodic Kabul Indian modes), resident sargam innotation. Herat. For berathertechnique,2ndstrings replaced intervals than and particularlyaan by plectrum. (Bailyidiosyncratic the 3 stringed1976: forThis the 32). systeminstrument instrument,right I had ofhand, tofretting had reconstruct whichwith givingmetal uses itsathe scale distinctive bare with fingers certain and neutral thumb gone out of favour in about 1950, to performance Unlikeandlearningon, Gada when most had process weprofessional written became was these goodunder musicians, combinations myGada used to come regularly to my house. friends, this was no longer appropriate. Certainly control. In our first two sessions heI recorded was fully a literate. In the early days I paid him. Later the thetechniquesthreemetal instrument thimble-kinds had of (Baily plectrumchangeddutâr 1977). provided withof the the Afghan importantsuccessive tanbur morphologicalinsights (ibid.:60). into how transformations of strings and played with the Familiarity with the performance ownlearn.numberwe instrument wereI thenof itemsable worked constructed,to from play alone his together, large with trying repertory,Gadá s dutâr, he leading, I following, phrase by phrase. to work them out. Once we had two in order to choose pieces I wanted towhich he lent me while I had my Sometimes I He haddutârs Omar,Ina double- 1973 one I chestedhad of an the opportunity short- outstanding necked to Apluckedmusiciansstart second learning lute instrument of with themid dronerubâb -20th I learned andfrom sympathetic Ustad to play Mohammad in strings.Afghanistan was the Afghancentury rubâb, Afghanistan. recordednolabelledtrying trouble tothese "Teachingin learn, repeating lessons. played Material" Heparticular slowly would in my also fieldnotes and simply. Both kinds of recordingsphrases, were a significant fact. make recordings of the pieces I was and tape catalogues. I found mydutâr is a large and rather musicians'was(GhurbanbecomeOriginally held principal Ali)duringquarter a vocalist, retired. the(Kucheh rubâb late Itrained attended player afternoonsKharabat) in athis Hindustani Radio regular of in Kabul. the Kabul class guest music, whenfor room amateur he the had of former hisbeenmusicians house depute3incumbent inwhich the to tiring.cumbersometaskchahârbeiti,would difficult In retrospect, be instrument, the andthe mostmelodies frustrating. I also difficult difficult see for theThe topart singing hold 14 of stringed that I was trying to start with what to the dutârof repertory,quatrainsin the proper in the free genre playingrhythm, position a rhythmic without outsiders called families.thatside experiencedof Ustad's Typically, musical by themale activities. class childrenThis consisted providedHis brought training of 8what -12 of Istudents, later realised to have been an excellent up in sâzandeh hereditary musician amateurs was very different to at varying stages of insight into this problem336 like that posed by Iranian âvâz. whatprogress. the pupilUstad wasMohammad working Omar took each pupil in turn. He would listen to on, comment, and if appropriate give another 337 Johnthecomposition. Baily notes. The He pupil taught wrote by sargamthem down notation, and thenspeaking tried orto singingplay them the fromnames the of Thepermit circumstances issued in Kabul, of the mightbreakthrough Learning to Perform as a Research Technique arouse the unwelcome attentions of the police. merit some description. in Ethnomusicology writtentheveryallowedtechnical teaching respectful.notation. in problems Ustad of He Pupilsthe Mohammad also others.like would demonstrated right In arrive Omar's handthis way, andstroke class! pieces depart,and patterns. The over on atmosphere the a six Norubâb -weektape andwas recorders period, explainedinformal Ustadwere but staying for a while to observe gatheringonentertainment.friends the rubâb, and that patrons, LateAmir I was on, Jan the andwhen askedstudent after Ihe wasmeplaying andof to invitedUstad take to a musical soirée at Amir Jan's house, a hisguest familya evening solo naghmeh played for -yefor klâsik their inguests' Râg Bihâg the instrument, remarking to the regardedkashâlMohammad (extended as the Omar two instrumental taughtbasic melodic me twoOnce piece) modes complete I hadtype, by started Afghan compositionsin Râg my musicians.Bairami fieldwork of andthe in naghmehRâg Herat Yemen, in -yethe autumn I hardly saw Ustad learnedanddelightedprotocol persisted from Iwith declined, a withthis recording evidencehis saying request4. of of histhat understanding I Ifinally could son Rahim, a naghmeh-ye klâsik in Râg Punta capitulatednot play "in and front played of him a piece ". MohammadHe andI had sensitivity Omar. to theKnowing local culture, the was players,thatandmyMohammad studying thefirst domain including year Omarthe of of Heratifieldwork, "opiumtheagain outstanding dutâr, and smokers receivedbut which I made".virtuoso Ihe notook considered "testmore noRahim lessonsrecordingsteaching. Khushnawaz.too for He rubâb "2 did of innotseveral SomeHerat approve ofduringrubâb his of close to Iranian music performances.Omar,theKalyân. results andIt went of then myRahim down efforts,on well.wasrecordings notbased The there and success of this performanceon the initial in training a sense endorsedby orUstad he might Mohammad have pointed out the source of transcriptions of recorded rubâb rubâb.andrnahalirecordings naghmeh-ye Back(local have in"folk" Belfastnowklâsik music), been (classical in released1974 naghmeh instrumentalfor on a -ye longCD kashâl (Baily period piece)3. (extended 1993), of Idata continued including analysisinstrumental practising examples and piece),report the of melodiccombinations,taughtdifference.the composition, passages me Followingabout fixed called whatcompositions not this paltas. thathe called it Hewould (naghmeh also Râg success, I visited Amir Jan a number of times and he necessarily Todihave 5.made Herevealed showeda significant certain me some specialities shakl of right ) and some quasi -improvised writing,triesdegreetrying to Iout transferofput proficiency,the in resultsa rubâblot of on piecestime and the transcribingalsoinstrument. to the to lookdutâr As atand thea result,viceanalysing problems versa. I was these encountered able recordings to attain when a certainand one theHerat.hand Ministry technique, Amir Janfor suchInformationwas officiallyas playing and Theserecognised chapeh Culture. lessons (Baily: continued in 1976 -77, during myI had second asto mytake year's teacher him therefieldwork by thefor Heratiofficials in office of 1987). to beenfathertime, working of a the singer above on. andAmir -mentioned harmonium Jan wasIn the Rahim 1975 player outstanding I Khushnawaz, paid with a asixmaster good -week knowledgemusicianwhose visit recordingsto in Herat Heratof Kabuli and at I hadthatI startedand lessons with Amir Jan, interest."extendedputreassure in jeopardy. Theyhim instrumental that are I nowIplayed had set piecesthe out necessary to ", learnwhich thepermits repertoire from Kabul as solo items on rttbâb and other instruments, and constitute a corpus of material of of naghmehâ -ye kashâl, the and he would not be great as previouslyIndiangrounded) art music, refused fear that as to welltoo take much as me rnahali contacton as anda with student, kiliwali a foreigner, probably (popular even due onemusic). to with the Hea(well research had - theothersgroup(Baily year instrumentalwere I 1988:learned very 66 rare,examples -74). pieces and Although asonly of overtures this at the eversome collected of these from pieces Amir were genreJan. quite In from the well himcourse known,in theof following rags: Bihdg, start of an evening's performance collecting2the "in- a context performance recording of a ",specific madeThe of item a term performance for "testtranscription recording" which and occurs signifies analysis. without a This recording consideration contrasts made with asout to of context for the purposes of 4playingKurnâj, could Kausieh, lead to Pilu,long -term Kesturi, disputesI later Bairami, andobserved that failure to ask permission disagreements. PrJri, Asâ, Asâwari, Des, Bâgheshri,of the senior musician present before 3383whether it will be recorded or not by Furtherthe fieldworker. information about these genres can be found in Baily 1988: 66 -80. in5 the 5th (Pa). In fact, I later learned that this was much more like Rag Mitltani, with its strong emphasis 339 JohnYemen Baily Kalyän, with shakl combinations for each. Notations for these unique for publication elsewhere, while the shakl Kausieh and Pari it is Ma,In the case of three of these modes the tonic is Learning to Perform as a Research Technique in up a 4th. and in Kesturi it is Pa, up a 5th. I fully a note other than Sa. In Ethnomusicology combinationscompositionsneighbours'month of Muharrarn have arenotions being been about(the communicatedprepared monthWe abstinence would of mourning), meet at his house a couple fromin Bailyworldly 1981. pleasuresof times like musicper month, and except during the when he preferred to respect his verytheexpected1981: first much of 12).Amir these,in mindThis Jan Kausieh, toimpliesin transposehis representation he that tried thehe tohad do the of pitch. This sargam up a 4th or a 5th. When teaching me layoutthis, but of found note itpositions very confusing on the (Bailyrubâb may be because these are elevencomeespeciallylunch, to in my andthe house. timemorningof North to Such explore toIndian fouran other or avenues encounterclassical would music, be whicha day -long he admired affair, greatly.five in the afternoon, with soup and bread of inquiry and listen critically to tapes, from ten or This for musicologistsperformanceinstrumental rather oftenbecome thanfind buried vocalthemselvesThrough pieces, beneath trying buthis a thedictationswelter to resultabstract of Amir such Janmodels revealed from the underlyingis still rather models unexpected.rhythmic which in patterns. Ethno- Likerevealedofand Ustadthem was his henotMohammad knowledge had usually not played prepared ofOmar, Indian for Amir to manymusic, be years, recorded playingJan these taught compositions. me by the medium Some of notation,of musicians, music history, and onlyrags. remembered (and perhaps suchunderlyingasperformances, part models of the models aremusical but there here from communication.and the otherrecognised underlying recorded Thismodel performances also on as such in the folk view. was volunteered by the encouragesinformant me to try to abstract tape, knowing that specific partiallythrowsworthfor him recreated)examining on to hispractice underlying them his them teaching cognitiveup in methodturn to with some difficulty. It would have been a skills. makein definitive some detail archive because recordings. of the light It is thismusicians Amir Jan had control of lot of work performConclusions music in Afghanistan?What According general to conclusions a recent handbook can be drawn of from this experience of learning to ethnomusi- sargamhimhadacquired studiedto notation, analyse this in skillthe usingrdg 1930s. from -s as his heardThisMore own gave in or terms lesshim uniquelya precise amongst Herati the note names Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Da teacher, an ustâd from Kabul, with whom of their scales. It also allowed him to labelling of pitch, and enabled Nib. He had he cology: expressedsociologists"Ethnomusicologists in musicalbecause performance. arethe moreprivate fortunate feelingsCultural than barrierswe anthropologistsstudy are and publicly dictatewritecompositionthe note compositions it down, names he then atwould their withplay firstappropriate spokenit from give theorme sungpitchessargam note names; its shakl. He would dictate a phrase, I rathernotation. than speak Then them. on toIn the teaching next phrase; a normally he would sing would method."Learninglogicalmusicologist (Myers fieldworkto sing, meets 1992: dance, for musician. 31) intimacy play inThere born the is fieldof no shared substitute is good musical fun in ethnomusico- and evaporate when experience. good he part,movedictated, the on âstâi, toI notated the and composition, I and then played would write it down, then he would have me play he worked out the next section, singingeach in severalquietly parts. He would dictate it. Once the shakl was done we would through it the first to arerather offered more for detail consideration. how and whyLearning it is also to perform may indeed be "good fun ", but we need to show in "good method ". The following points downhimself.a number the Once next of times hesection, was while ready the first he wouldantara, have me stop then the second antara, and so on. playing and get me to write solution1. The acquisitionto "Seeger's dilemma" of performanceLearning (Herndon: to skillsperform in order to study performance is arguably the most direct 1974), it is the best way of "music -ing by the researcher names:6340 Sa Ra Re Ga Ge Ma MeThe Kabuli usage of this notation differs in Pe Da De Na Ni. small details from the Indian, using the note logicalmusic" research.as part of Thethe importance of this process of data collection and analysis in ethnomusico- as a research technique, for direct 341 Johninvestigation Baily of the music itself, must be emphasised. One understands the that his musical cognitive Learning to Perform as a Research Technique in Ethnomusicology musicalcation,comesmusic from towhat knowledge be theapprehendedyou "inside have of to ",the know. sooperationally, performer to speak.It is this Thisfrom operationalin termsmeans that of of that the whataspect thelistener you structurethat do, distinguisheswithout and of bythe specific impli- music the ear"likelydiscussedperformance and to "by reflect in notation greaterhe theinvoked waydetail". thatthe theory at the processesby wereBaily built 1988. up The aroundperson it, so that learned in musical in the first place, in this cognitive level. This distinction isway that a musician teaches is case "by learnthealsoperformance human be the very dutâr sensori revealingskills. and -motor rubâbThe about technical indicatedsystem the "ergonomics" andproblems how the certaininstrument's that of arisecharacteristics the inmusic,morphology. learning showing of to the Myperform traditionalhow efforts it may fits to hereditarymusician status professional. within Herati Both displayedGada Mohammad and Amir Jan society, the amateur (turned professional) also exemplified two some contradictions between the ideal contrasting kinds of and the repertoirething(Baily: of 1977). fora composer, each instrument too, generatingThe were researcher adapted new compositions whoto the uses morphology this or research variations in technique question of known will probably become some- to successfulreadilymethodreproduce understoodof teaching methodwhat had than andthat been listening theplaying done.method twoto It and dutâr's actually employed. Dutâr players waslike Gadajustwatching that there another were player certain and sociallater trying together was a more efficient and (1967:33)compositionsstudymusicology", of tablasuggested. that playingmost can successfully This inthen Lucknow approach be tried employed (Kippen eventuallyout on 1992: inone's the leads 72 fieldinformants, -98). to by "dialectical James as Kippen Blacking ethno- in his aalsodutârshouldimpediments singer professional players, say, and theharmonium to was learning musicians, quite byplayer. that method.Amir Jan So way I got him to teach me, though not the usual acceptable. Amir Jan had fourone played rubâb, two played tabla, the fourth the way he taught musically gifted sons, me, or perhaps I method for was institutions2. The study for of musical musicality, training Learninglearning, such toas and perform apprenticeship musical provides cognition potentiallyin the society crucial in insights about methods and athis debtwouldgood was to hand" because him.have theyIliked had they had variousto were teach"no science them, ". "proud ",opportunities implying they to did observe not want his superiorto systematically, throughThey hadnotation. not learned He explained from him in the complained that though each had "a knowledgeacknowledge of way he question.areproduceselfacquisition. teacher, -taught. My inwho Gada twoHethe learnedtaught privacymain Mohammad, teachers7 himby of imitation,his by home theoral represent amateur and whatwatching written had turned two been others notation.rather professional,observed. closely different Amir andAmir was Janlater modes Jan originallyhad trying had thusof had to can3.music provide Role, theory. statusone with and an understandableidentity.Learning torole perform has a number of social advantages for the researcher. It developedacquiredthemusical "analytical proficiency forms,rather ".differentand This strategiesin issargain, alsokinds shownfor ofa melodicconsiderable musicality, by their improvisation. use the knowledge of "intuitive" music Arguably, theory. of as compositions, distinct Gadá the two sfrom know- men localsecondyoucan beare ustâd, veryyear doing. likeusefulin Herat, The Ustad in question earlywhen Mohammad orientation. I of identity It was known as the student of Amir Jan. He Ali the calligrapher, explains whywas you perhaps are there more and apparent whatand instatus in the or Ustad Mash'al the community, and was a my operationalacquiredcallledge a representationalof music without model. theory, the He theory. model,hadacquired learned For systematising later Amir the in music Jan,his career, ina via body contrast, the seems oftheory, knowledge music to andhave theory it beenthatis probable washewhat had an I lessonswasminiature validated I was painter, there by forthe and mostlocal like ofoffice them, theBeing ofhe thehis student gave me a window into his daily life. When I day in his guestcould room, reasonably and so wouldhave "students Ministry". for Information and Culture8. My statuswentmeet for his 342were' the principal ones. Gada Mohammad and Amir Jan were not my only two music teachers in Herat, but they tied8 round the wrist. I never became his official student in a gorbandi- ceremony , with a string of seven colours 343 visitorsJohn Bailv and hear the latest news and gossip. Sometimes he would show me off relationshipsall heirs to a forming common the musical basis for tradition. social relationships. Again, it was a matter of musical Learning to Perform as a Research Technique in Ethnomusicology to socialwasnotation.others, the world tobasis This demonstrate ofof of professionalour course reflected male friendship. Through being his student how quickly one could learn well on musicianshim as a teacher. in Herat, A loveand wasof invited to many through usingI gainedwritten access to the this musicand other to5. discontinueThe post -fieldwork once fieldwork period isThe over. person On thewho contrary, uses learning you tend to perform to take ason athe research technique is unlikely gatheringsof raiseassociatedtheir difficultiesown of rites musicians.with de one(see, passage, person, forOf example,course, and usually describesuch as my wedding rubâb playingparties, circumcisions,issues of rivalry betweenBaily 1988: problemsinformants 115 -116). can can arise Perhaps if you become too self to Afghans unfairly, out- much also communitieshaveandmusic public become as your performances with "Afghanown. whom After musicians we 20in haveEuropeyears been of", and acceptedplaying in thecontact. USA, Afghan as Thissuch Veronica music, also by thehas withDoubleday variousthrown many up Afghan private andsome I toasside everyone.hereditaryarethe the familiarstudent Herati This professionalof withcommunity Ustad confers the name I musicians Mohammad Omar, whoseinstant name prestige. andof Amir Amongst Jan, though non he was well of Kabul, from where his -musicians only Heratis known amongstmusic the are familiar knowledge Afghantoyoucurious workignore continue contradictions. musicout processes in to ", theperform at postleast of Theremusical -fieldwork theas performedrepertoire is a change. tendency period you in WhenHerat, learnedto will become thedependthey at Afghans the send timeon for a wantofnumber fieldwork, "traditional of factors, and a "living fossil ", because us. How things 4.ultimately participationParticipant derived. -Observationwhich is generallyThere can be no doubt that music denied to anthropologists usingmaking the provides opportunities for a methodo- kind of afterincludingtomy Europethe return researcher the to andspecifics Afghanistan the has USA of left the as theafter musicalrefugees, field. 1977 Byculturé wasincluding chance, responsible in question thea number civil for and war many of what whichmusicians, Afghans happens prevented somecoming to it of logyparticipation ofperform participant- to aleads atreasonable observation. the to expense improved standard of It is not so muchprovides thatopportunities "bimusicalityprivilegedobservation" foraccess observation. to (after the actualité, Myers, Being asibid.) but emphasises able to that I playerfieldwhom in recordings London,I knew fromor invaluable Aziz before Herawi, remnants theIn this thewar, dutârchanged ofsuch a andcultural as situation rubâbUstad heritage, player Asef the researcher Mahmood,inthe San fieldwork Francisco. becomes the part tabla of a resource, the archive of centralhave(Doubleday:Veronica just issue discussed. Doubleday'sfor study1988). It in alsoGoing experiences out for as a ethnomusicology. This advantage is wellgives direct entry into the performance 24 hours at a time to play at member of a women's band in Herat illustrated by women'sevent, a researched.(Günthermusicbecomesthe informants' and part 1987: music of own the 74). theory widermusic At thefrom acculturativehistory. end one ofLearning socio- the process day, cultural to performthe of "transferresearcher environment someone and becomes retransfer"else's to another music the of Iperformancewedding personallythere were parties did many and notprovided social occasionsbecome extraordinarycontext, a when member of a Herati band on a regularI was required or volunteeredand into tothe lives of working women.insights into the relationship between play beforefilm aboutbasis but * * * smallperformer,anAfghan enormousgatherings refugee but advantage. of beingmusicians cognoscente. able in to Pakistan, play it gave me It was not so much that I understood Some years later, when making a this ability to perform Afghan music was an immediate and large area stranger. We were the music as a of common344 experience with people to whom I was a complete 345 John Bailv Learning to Perform as a Research Technique in Ethnomusicology Bally,References John: Recent cited: changes in the dutâr of Herat. In: Asian Music, VIII, 1 (pp. 29 -64), Günther,TheatreGarfias, Arts Robert: Robert: Books Gagaku, Reciprocal 1959. the EffectsMusic andof Dances Music -Culture Contacts: Theoretical Aspects of the Japanese Household. New York: and Baily,1976. John: Movement patterns in playing the Herati dutâr. In: Blacking, 1977. John (ed.): The Herndon,PracticalAdelaide References.Marcia: Studies Analysis: in Musicology.In: Mood, Herding Geoffrey Miscellanea of Sacred Musicologies, (ed): Transplanted European Music Cultures.Cows. In: Ethnomusicology, XVIII, 2 (pp. 12 (pp. 74 -79), 1987. Baily,AnthropologyEthnomusicology, John: of A the system Body XXV, (pp. 1of (pp. 275modes 1 -330).-39), used1981. London: in theAcademic urban Press music of Afghanistan. In: Hood,2191960. -262), Mantle: 1974. The challenge of 'bi- musicality'. In: Ethnomusicology, IV, 2 (pp. 55 -59), Lortat-Baily,sationSELAF John: Jacob, for 1987. Principesthe Bernard AfghanEnglish d'improvisation(ed.): Rubab.version L'Improvisation In: of thisInternational rythmique paper danspublished Council dans les musiques le as: forjeu Principles Traditionaldu of de traditionrubab d'Afghanistan.orale. Paris: In: RhythmicMusic UKImprovi- Chapter Jones,Hornbostel, A.M.: African Erich drumming.M. von: African In: Bantu Negro Studies, Music. In: Africa, 1 8(pp. (pp. 30 1 -16),-62), 1934.1928. Baily,Bulletinand John:Musical 1989 Anthropological (pp. Cognition. 3 -16). In: Yearbookand Psychological for Traditional Approaches Music, XXto the (pp. Study 114 of -124), 1988. Music Theory Myers,34,Kippen, 3 Helen: (pp. James: 72 Ethnomusicology. -98), Tabla 1992. drumming An and Introduction. the Human -Computer London: Macmillan 1992. Interaction. In: World of Music, Baily,Baily,Psychologica John: John: Some Afghanistan.Belgica, cognitive XXXI, The aspects2 (pp.rubâb 147 of -162), Herat.motor 1991. Playedplanning by Mohammadin musical Rahim performance. In: Khushnawaz. Nettl,1964. Bruno: Theory and Method in Ethnomusicology. New York: Free Press of Glencoe Baily,musiqueCD of John:field populaire recordingsJohn Blacking: 1993. made Dialogue in 1974 with by John the Ancestors. Baily. Geneva: The First Archives John Blacking internationalesMemorial de Possession.Rouget, Gilbert: Chicago: Music University and Trance. of Chicago A TheoryPress 1985. of the Relations between Music and Lecture.Johannesburg:Blacking, Geneva: John: EuropeanWitwatersrand Venda Seminar Children's University in Ethnomusicology Songs. Press A1967. Study 1991. in Ethnomusicological Analysis. Blacking,56),Blacking, 1977. John: John: How An Musical Introduction is Man? to VendaSeattle: Traditional University Dances.of Washington In: Dance Press Studies, 1973. 2 (pp. 34- Doubleday,346 Veronica: Three Women of Herat. London: Jonathan Cape 1988. 347 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF MUSIC THEORYANTHROPOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL AND MUSICAL COGNITION' approachesfuturetotechniques, be perhaps study andtor ofunbridgeable'" specific musicalgoals" of problems. cognition anthropology (Koskoff One does 1988), possibleand require psychology I venture wayan integration into to are propose the "so problem vast"of that these "asthe of 1b.041(?5,s, . 114- -12 M by John Baily uses.aplayedthe part cognitive And of by music asoral an role notation theory,example of verbalised andin to learning showconstitute music what and one lies theoryperformance. ofahead its is more bywe examining may Oral obvious take notations a practical theperhaps part are aboutnaturecology music. "cognitiveofhas musical resulted Some ethnomusicology cognition.studies from anthropologically Inhave the We beenlast have ": decadedirected based witnessed some orientated onspecifically the of the exploration the developmentinquiries most significant of emit of notions research to explore thesein ethnomusi- into the a Oralnotation.extreme Notation case, Northin Indian (or Hindustani) music theory, and its oral I- liruirrshrai Music ethnosemanticsamongsttackledensemblescognitive thethese representations,of Kaluli the issuesamongst 'Are'are; of as New Persianpart Feld for Guinea,of (1981)example: widerspeakers andonranging descriptionsZemp inSakata Afghanistan. studies, (1979) (1983) of such melodic Others on the panpipe as onBlacking musical contour have withinmuchmusicindividual written the college. traditional musiciansabout The in ,iJrarirrathetheoryHindustani represent West, defines system,although this music knowledge,a astonal haswe opposed lacka system,particularly information especially to usingthose rich whonamed thoseabout music attend trained how pitch theory, well known and articulatedforof 0967:20the the Venda, keys analytical-11 on and on the Berlinerthe Shonamusic namingFrom (1978:2 theoriesmbira. ofsuch pipes -7, researchwhich 54in the-9) describe endwe have-blown tonal discovered reed that on the system of note names many societies have well or tuning systems-pipe ensembles elements;metricnamedofconnotations, day forcyclesdrum their sounds,(tals).the performance. deities Hindustani ways with of which Theorganising music theory they culture arealsorhythm associated, isdefines rich and both thea vocabularyand repertoryin structuralthe times of specifies the characteristics of the ragas, their emotional musicweincognitively intervalsanddiscrete deal theoryascribe with elementsbetweenin single hasterms names already pitches. them. of(Harwood tomelodic themadeMost A varioussociety musicians,pattern1976),some thatkindpitches butgestalten, can ininof globalarticulate they in employ such an analytical music theory terms, probably operatecontours, rather than and /or to the an analytical notation.system,Iconcepts want to and Bothanddiscuss thein provide terminology. ho/two system aspectstheAll musician of thisof of tabla thisrepresents with theory, mnemonics, the apossibility considerablethe sargam a type of pitch usingbody of rhythmic notationaof written theoretical knowledge. Here andanalyticalwhichof not the others? structurefits music it. What theory. of its is owntheirWhyMany music,relationship do questions arise when we examine the significancesome ofsocieties verbalised orhave borrowed such music a theory theories from elsewhere an ethno- scientific analysis Usewhatassumenotationnotation, of goes the that is and on notationpart what with both of goes respectthe articulatescan theory, on serve towith the andforthe respecttheory thetheory,we purposesmay, asto a oralbringing whole, for notation theof as oralitsake a "into cognitive is notation. of indicative mindargument, entity. ". The of roledescribesmusicareunless there in theory?oneperformance? somewhat acquires kindstheIs such musician this of Or knowledgemusic formal is already which knowledge? knows cannot but beWhat whichreadily learned /performed it an operational model that has a static representational model that to differing types of music, and is the cognitive role of has little or no direct a dynamic Sargama name, notation which in abbreviatedIndian versionsmusic theory constitute divides the the system octave of intonotational seven steps and gives each psychology.butmodelrole arein andthe used The controlrepresentational here anthropological of in ongoing thisSuch particular model musicalquestions approach have performance? takebeen borrowed us beyond anthropology and into the domain of sense. to musical cognition is limited The terms operational from Caws (1974) exercises.inmentaliststhesymbols Hindustani sargarn for Inin systemthetheserelative vocal field exercises is ofpitches:music used Hindustani theininvolves Sa, the student Re, training(North Ga,learning usually IndianMa, of both singsPa,to art) sing Dha, vocalists withmusic. scales and the Early Ni. noteand and In trainingnames.instru- scalar India thatbeyondtoframed explorewhat inthe can verbal thosereach he verbally subconsciousterms),of anthropological whilearticulated cognitiveand quasi-methodology. (including psychology conscious musicalthe differences between the "orientations, methods, analytical While it may be argued processesis, in principle, which able lie demonstrations toarePrastakapagesinvolveThe sing practised student of a various particularthemMalika, proceeds over in permutations thethe rag to first'sacredcourse onelearn of learns sets ofthe text'of several patternsofsix sets of scalar volumesthe of years, melodicmusicinexercises, a varietyorof colleges. longer.Bhatkhande's phrases called of scales.When alankars,embodyingSuch one ThereKrarnikaexercises whichlearns theare becausenotecharacteristics names. all vocal offorms the rig,ofIn Hindustani which the case are of demonstratedmusic, vocalists including this throughtraining dhrupad, theis of use thumri,direct of sungrelevance to performance, Kippennamesabstractedthey ofare has sargarn fromnot pointed simply aare continuum outcategories icons that oftabla of abstracteddrum possible bols sounds, are fromdrum syllables but the sounds, names, pitch whose continuum.just like articulationas note the names. noteAnd asargam.khyol, particular dádra, But type the ghazal, trainingof improvisation, tarána clearly and does gawwali, as is much illustrated maymore include bythan the enable factsections that one learning sung to sing in is uncomplicated, and can be articulated Tongue-at high speed. twisters are avoided. In fact, all syllables . . . may be arti- Someforshouldamongstto sing the instrumental fullnotealso at developmentleast learnnames some to teachersis sing not teachers of inonly musicality(traditional sargam, used of Hindustani by this (as ustadsvocalists. beingdefined ormusic seengurus) Thereby thatHindustanias may anis instrumentalists an essential teach idea criteria). singingcurrent skill makearticulationanother.whichculated phrasesis without Butfar of moreeven easiersyllables the withinversatile, movement to say.at a highsystem is required ofspeeds, theso evidentlylips changesto orflick jaws. designedfrom do Only occur one thefor positionin thetongue,order easy to ratherAisinfor thesitarsargam months mediumthan player's is playbefore expected of teacherthem instruction, allowing on at will the an the instrument. oftenearlythe student form singstage. in note to Thewhich This handle namestudent isinformation crucialthe patterns may instrument. becausesometimes tois transmitted.be learned,Fluencysargam learn exerciseor composition or composition on theThe fluently drums. tabla playerbefore isattemptingWhenever supposed totoAfaq playlearn Husain that to recite exercise gave the new bols compositions for a particular during a lesson, we Kippen 1988:157 namesyouwillto aresometimessing and"learning new pitch.' material play to singto inthe ", sargamThe guru'sand constant are beforesinging. faced pairingpractising with Even the ifof constant you itpitch on are the with notpairing instrument, "note "singing" of names note and establishes a type of werewhenatbolsand thegenerally secondlyof weend the were of composition encouraged theto told translate lesson. firstly eitherfirstlyThere this to write into beforetowere practise actual down also moving strokes. aspeakinga piecefew on occasions, fromWeto the another wrote bolsdictation, fluentlyhowever,down piece, then the or cognitivetoaccurateThetheimmediately analyse sequence person representation"mapping" the who established ofscale pitches has ofof pitchundergonean in can fromunfamiliar whichwhich be its identified name hasthisthe rag practicalrelativekind (or by by vice namingof name uses.trainingpitch versa), intheIt of allowsa notes andmelodichasa note theacquired thethat namescan musicianphrase. it uses,be anof playingThe basic is: tabla exerciseThis (or process qacida) can used beto seen inspeak atthe an it,Delhi elementary and stylelastly levelof to tabla play in the it. following example. Kippen 1988:122 whichteacher,exerciseslongeridentifies facilitates melodic an anda ragustad compositions assequences.learning orheard, guru. whichit. inFluency This spoken would is inprobably form, seemsargam very to notallowsbe helpful recognisedhow for forone the the normally dictationin traditional terms ofof This kind of structure can be expanded systematically in a variety of ways. TaDha DhaTaDha DhinTeTu NaTe Dha,Tabla Dhin, bol notation Na, Ta, Ge,Tabla Kat, whichbols are are onomatopoeic produced from representations the drum pair of by drum sounds, such as istoexercisetheWhen asthe bols, though learningspoken is slowly mastered learning bols.to atplay first, Atverballyto these recitethis then basicstage the gradually compositiontime exercisesone has should increasingcome the creates speakstudent to start athethe verbal firstputting speed.bols learns "framework" out the Once to loud.strokes recite the It ofJamesandremarksthe the variouson headKippen, those are strokesofbased of thewho my onLucknow hasusedformer myDetailed carried inown colleaguethe tabla experience out performanceexamination gharária,several from in years Queen'slearningUstad showstechnique. of Afaqresearch that Universitytabla thereTheHusain. (Baily as followingis a Belfast,notdisciple 1974), a simple 1:1 relationship becomeframeworkprogressivelyto which well the when established attached.individual the motorIn The (Baily commenting movements player representation, 1974:37). is able on for toan the droporearly motorvarious rehearsing draft programme, of bols this the become paper verbal has Kippen says: gharanabetweenandbol a singleis astylestrokethem single stroke of varies and theunit, may bol;performer. with with becertain the representedthe context type Thebols ofdrumrepresent of compositionby the soundsseveral longer several thebols. phrasebeing bolsdifferent The played,representof relationship which strokes, and arethe the theninsame.I cannot mymy play Oncemindhead gain it (voice).Iwithoutas havefluency I play. learned Fromthinking inThe playing myto better say (i.e.experiences ita I verbalisingfluently, newget atpiece playingwith it goes unlessit). musicians, However, it,on it thesimultaneously is morealso they're I wouldfluent I can the somewhereventureit through to say inside habit. that one'sit never Like not counting the tal head even though one really disappears, but (personal communication). but being awarebecomes of it. less aware ofalways speaks away empiricalmaypossiblealso here be evidence hypotheses.stored that cognitive on Thewhich data we can in verbal memory,accessed via verbal processes psychology can provide new currently available suggest that baserather any firmthan conclusions in auditory or motor of thought. We have to insights and suggest compositions and it is onKippen,for systematic example, a distinction NeumanIt is is well known that practice (riyaz), many 1980:31Hindustani -43; Kippen musicmade training between practice at hours a day, over many years 1988:127 -31). According to places great emphasisthe instrument and (see, playingconsidermemory,itsame is this timeone whatand pre thing, -planningare goes a on particular in thinking ahead, deciding what which relies in part of verbal the act of performance, at composition or set pattern, shall come next. It may be wherethinking. the musician Such mental is and is at thethe act that of mental practice. The studybeEssentially performed the structure composed vocally and of or It is a crucial and latter is: divisions of individualverbalising compositionsmute) one's in musical order to help indispensable part of riyaz. memorisematerial it and to (this may in relation gymnasticscodeimprovisation,Music is of Theory arespecial presumably and in importance onethe might Afghan City of Herat in thissuggest respect. that oral notation as atheir most complex in cognitive Thisoften underpractice be theirobserved is donebreath when while away to the tal. with the tabla bols. counting on their fingers to andfrom improvisations their drums in reciting their Hindustani tabla players can keep the tal, forever Kippen 1985:302 stringsminds. of Kippenbols sideinstrumental,simplifiedversion of Afghanistan, of formsHindustani (2) Afghanof Urbannear North maleart music hereditary music theory.musicians Thesethe border in the withIndian city Iran,of (or were Hindustani) art (mainly ghazal singing, with musicians performed (1) Herat, on the western acquaintedmusic, with vocala and Persian workingthein(1988:126 playing minds out new-7)ofgames hisgives compositions disciples. and other solving puzzles designed fascinating details of the use by the teacher to activate of verbal practice playingderivedtexts),ethnographymerchants and from at (3)the Radioand modern oftenis businessmengiven Afghanistan. lavish in Baily Afghan popular vocal and weddingamongst parties the ofcity's the(1988). They made their living population. A detaileddance music, largely relatively wealthy principally from Oralthisan operationalnotation more clearly as an forIt is clear(1) There enough can that be little model, though the limited tablaoperational playing model than for doubtwithin that Hindustani oral notation music is data currentlyplaying available melodic instruments. oral notation servesof crucial as importance show sciencewhichwithterminology the ofthe music'.melodic music was they"incomplete" modes Heratiplayed (rag, musicianswas called It was simpler than their music theory the `ílmand -e somemaqam) terms wereand the"constructed metric ". The Heratis had the Hindustani version: "misapplied ". It dealt cycles (tal) from musiqi, 'the borrowed the isfor ato acquiring"difficult" become competence amusic competent in (a) Giving names to tones (in the sense that many years practitioner). the performance of what most and drum sounds helpscontinuum (see Harwood of training are required identify them, toobservers agree 1976). conceptsthea notwas music entirely a mismatch. which they performed.usefully appropriate music theoryFor example, there was some use explained their music, but in someIn this sense they adopted with Hindustani theory, from outside and applied it to of Persian tonal concepts terminology and degree theresuch as the categorisein(b) serve(c)which Oral Verbal asnotationthem, information cognitive representations to ischunk the is a frameworks around which sequencesmedium of instruction,conveyed.of drum the sounds (bols) or of pitches (sargam)form of language of hand usewhichhereditary ofIt neutralwaswere part not musicians of entirely their "common for congruentThe terminology of the second intervals (Baily 1988:44 talking about musiclistening in several and inscience widerlanguage of music ", wasof their distinct musicians' -50). discussions about music. used by urban male kinds of context. culture. movementsspecific(d)positions.verbal, Practice musical areaural in organised. the skills and use motorwhich of oral notationrepresentations would seeminvolve simply ofto the the structureimportant capacity for to learning translate between develop very to perform, of com- It wasperformance,earmedium ",usedemployed through ofin instruction.the and in exposurecourse critical individual It seems trial of training youngto the musicians, sounds of music,given by family members. that young musiciansand error in a social environment imitation ofbut musical not aslearned a primary mostlyThere "by was in fact where notation,butwetolooks has harness enter asa bols directthough the verbal and role practitionerssargam, processes(2) in This operational role is not realm of acute uncertainty, performances by competentthenin becomesthe performanceof thisa mode music of system for there is at present of music. It is havehere discovered a way musical thought. It musicians. Oral littlethat noeveryoccasion"practicein formal Hindustani encouragement musical sessionto learn music, ". concepts In was the process training. There were no and there was little notion and terms that were part of of learning, the musician may exercises of the type practised of sitting down for a the science, and have had constitutemotorthis120 / may1988 learning, YEARBOOKcertainly a medium but have theFOR for helpedterms TRADITIONALinstruction. ofin the sciencecognitive MUSIC of organisation music did not of aural and normally askedmetres.BAILY"nagoftand this Nobody on kasia number ever ", told of me occasions that Mogholi and was consisted met only of sevenby confusion, matras. I as one musician put it, 'nobody has said'. The best MUSICAL COGNITION / 121 hereditaryofor anotation. representational professional Written model notationThe musicians question is faced had in of Herat; beenmost whether importantAmir the Jan, Heratis' theto onlysenior science one hereditary of of music the was an operational directly in relation to the use his performancethatmusicianseveralestimate Mogholi Mogholi wasmight of usually had Moglioliwell patterns seven agree. six, patterns.given this matras,Although beingto Mogholime. the musiciansIf I actual suggested was associated numberwere it ignorantwas of with seven strokes oftraditional thenthe in fact thethe this did not impede the correct ustadsuperioritymusicianprobablyto have who in usedwrote asthenot a these city,consultedmusicianall his whonotations lessons could tothem the inwhen both forfacta notebook manyhe readthat was andhe years. learningfor was write, him. Hea student oftenHehad certainly the attributed of unique a Kabuli seems skill the material, but had acquired from onunitsTheandHerati their thesame could music, ustáds performance. can be ofandbecorrectly Kabul argued more Gedeh, had stated,rarely for perhaps Gedeh Dadreh appearedthat notformaland and given Dádreh;in Mogholi knowledgethe a judgementpopular although were was music playedon the of its norepertory,number structure. by bearing other of inhadmusic)hisamongst terms ustads a precise to ofHeratis atraining, theirlimited labelling scales. of anddegree.being thisofHe pitch,able couldenabledI had to and alsoamplesing him was dictate sargam, toopportunity able sing compositions to akhyal analyseskill to (Hindustanihe observe rags with as spokenthat heard, vocal he helped him to as"sciencelengthkinds a representational ofin musiciansofequal music" time servedandunits, model.Taking performers such in Itthisthe asdescribed mainkindmale who ofnotamateurs had evidencesome as noan of verbalisedandoperational theinto women principles account idea musicians.model, I of forconclude their thebut that in Herat the establishnotenotthey names. write) were and Thisfamiliar maintainit, they highly with didhis Ineducated dominantnotoral the actually casenotation, "musicality" ofrole other learn amongstand Herati in from some no the musicians doubtnotation. musicianscases could the A of evidenceread Herat. (but indicates that though particular butofdevelopedwhichstructuring a simply "rich the knowledge principlesinto anof attemptmusic, a mode could andbaseto of represent musicalformulated ",be but verbally the thatthought. theory terminological musical articulated, It was was knowledge not indicative but the distinctions was knowledge in not andverbal generallyrevealing through form,itself repetitivelysoKarimcompositionsyoungerexample he could Khushnawaz brother,of this inteach from private. occurred the thema asked ustadmanuscript This toin ofhis Karim1974 raised tabla friend inwhen in severalmy KarimHerat, Karimpossession. problems. Dutari Khushnawaz, toBeing writeAlthough non- them Amir literate, Karim down Jan's Khushnawaz by reading them out wanted to learn some tabla changedveryother,a post possibility social,hoc the rationalisation status uses. of speech ofIt renderedmusicKnowledge discourse of in performance respectablean Islamic about of the the societyboth practice.science structural music which of andmusicelements regarded musicians: in Heratof it music with thewould seem to have had wayDutarihadrhythmic to tocouldrepresent learn complexities write the the compositionsthe time tabla ofrelationships some bols in ofas spoken thedictated on material paper, bol by form. meimpossible. he The had second no Karim adequate problem Dutari which made writing the the bol sequences, `filmsscience,ofsome toldthe misgivings. recognizedMuslimme and there the world, sciencewere Respectedby the threewere ofmullahs, music. ilms:referredareas onetheofAnother knowledge to scienceof as them `i/m,spoke ofbeing in'science'.the of Herat, music.thereHoly as beingKoran,One Whenin other musician fourteen technicalI asked parts usuallytoclearforms.Karimwas learning that that HeKhushnawaz learned even Karim neededtabla when "by piecesKhushnawaz, to Karim earhearstill from ", had therememberingDutari oral patternsgreat the notation,had ustadtrouble learnedas patternsplayedof let intabla alonetoremembering onrecite inof the writtenHerat,drum drums. sounds. wasnotation, their It not became verbal used and sciencepointhimandof howclassification of terminology, ofview, that Satan'. could he repliedThe and be,and characteristiccodification given wasthat the theythe domain bad perhaps that of name an demanded of`ilm called ofspecialist wasmusic it a precisely anspecial from practitioners.ilm -e theset thatShelton, ofmullahs' degreeconcepts 'a forms.thoseMogholi.three tálsbol A tabla patternsHowever,commonly player actually I Ifcould doused asked, not remembered discoverfor think tabla popular that players a verbal the music:those tabla were bol patterns Gedeh,players patternable to in whofromDadreh,verbalise their gave what verbal and theme he bol patterns for the colleges.wasfor'the known Koranicscience However, to aofrecitation, few the so specialistscorrect far The asespecially couldenunciation ' ilrn in Herat be-e itsdeterminedmusigi temporal andof the wasin Koran',Herat fromtaughtorganisation. coulda which inbrief the be investigation specifiedtheological comparedThis science rules with the ilm -e tajwid, knowledgeorDadrehAplayed, furthereight butand matras point didthatMogholi. not wasarises and seem not Thethat from how to musicians Dadrehbe the of patternsstatedany consisted "knew" direct lengths were consequence that representedof in Gedeh sixtime matras, unitsconsisted in operationally. playing of Gedeh, of these four but that model.becomeitofin appears1977,their mullahs, teachers, the to studentsbe learned a andrepresentational innot Koranic such through colleges, recitation the rather terms only thanby aof imitatingfew thean operationalofilm whom -e the tajwid. recitations intended cognitive Again, to 122 ! 1988 YEARBOOK FOR I RADII ZONAL MULL BAILY MUSICAL COGNITION / 123 of theoryConclusionsNorth India but use and itAfghanistan cognitivelyThe comparison show in rather they of havedifferentthe two recourse closely ways. to therelated same but music distinct music cultures theclosely fromat1987,School these related hisand ofearly vork, Africanat problems variousstages. and and for (seminars AsianKippen suggested Studies 1987),and improvementscolloquia. and for thegenerously Laboratory I am tograteful allowing the of Experimental I am particularly indebted to James Kippen, who is working manuscript. Thanks alsoto to many who commented me to quote at length Psychology, on ofimportantly,operationalalreadya post verbal hoc part labels theory, role.perhaps,of performance that It which representtheIn Afghanistanevidence organises, practice. pitches suggests systematises music Inand India thatdrum theory themusic sounds, theoryand is theory,mainly explains isserves of in adirect therepresentational whata moreform use is model. It is is certainly involved in the learning process. More 2. acquireofinstrumentalists,UniversityI learning. their of Further skills. Sussex, only researchdo forthat not facilities some meanis required teachers, andto imply feedback. to includingestablish that vocal how sargaminstrumentalists teaching my own, advocate this method is necessarily the rule for in general developmentthinking.thought;orin performance.motor, planning The memory; ofdifference Compositionsthese ahead oral particular duringbetween notation may performance verbal Herat be may stored -musicaland serve Hindustan mayin verbal, as skillsdepend an idiomwithrathermust in partrespect be thanof related onmusical in verbalto aural the to REFERENCES CITED formalthroughindifferences hereditary training observation, in musician their (Baily respective imitation1988:163;families modes in andBaily Herat performanceof and musicalacquired Doubleday, enculturation. their rather musical in thanpress). Childrenabilitiesthrough Baily, John 198519771974 "Musicof"MovementKrishna the Body, Govinda"sStructure editedPatterns byandRudiments Johnin Human Playing Blacking. of Movement."Tablathe London:Herati Playing. dutár." Academic In Brighton: Musical In The Press, Unicorn StructureAnthropology Books. and pp. 275 -330. psychologyapplicationperformance of to theoriesthatphenomena further andIt ismethodsthatresearch particularly have ultimately beenis required, in identified the derived realm and and of fromthis dynamic studied involvesexperimental throughoperational the models in musical 1987 LortatIn"PrincipesAcademicCognition, L'Improvisation -Jacob. Press, d'improvisationedited Paris: pp. by dans SELAF, 237Peter les -58. rythmique Howell,musiques pp. 177 Ian -88. dedans Cross tradition le jeu and du orale, Robert rubáb edited West.d'Afghanistan." by London: Bernard approachcognitionofthe anthropological methodology already this impliesemployed of and anthropologically waspsychological in anticipatedBaily 1977, approaches long1985orientated agoand by1987. to ethnomusicology, Blacking:the The study integration of musical an Baily, John and Veronica Doubleday in press 1988 "ModèlesUniversity(CambridgeMusic of d'imprégnationAfghanistan: Press. Studies With accompanying Professional musicale en Afghanistan."musicians audio cassette. in Cahiers de in Ethnomusicology). Cambridge: Cambridge the city of Herat. musiques allmusicalinAt relationsomeprocesses processes; level to biological, thatof analysis, andare relevantit psychological, is allthe musical task to anof theexplanationbehaviour sociological, ethnomusicologist is ofstructured, cultural, musical to or identifywhethersound. purely Blacking,Berliner, Paul John 19671978 VendaThetraditionelles, Soul Children's of Mbira. Georg Songs.Berkeley Editions Johannesburg: and SA, Los Genève. Angeles: Witwatersrand University of University California Press. Press. importanceprocesses"To which one ofbut ethnomusicology might to investigate add that it howas a field they of interact human andknowledge integrate. depends The is necessary not only to identify "all Blacking 1973:17 Feld,Caws, Steven Peter 19741973 Anthropologist"Operational,How Musical Representational,76:1 is Man?-10. Seattle: and University Explanatory of Washington Models." Press.American boundpreciselyoftraditional human to cope on Westernbehaviourthe with inter understanding epistomological -disciplinary known. one synthesescategories of the most itas demands, toohighly arbitrary complex challenging and formsculture - Kippen,Harwood, James Dane 19761981 Ethnomusicology"UniversalsYearbook-Flow Like for a Traditional22:521Waterfall': -33. Music The Metaphors 13:22 -47. of Kaluli Musical Theory." in Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology." 1. The fieldwork on which the second part of this paper is based was carried out in Herat, NOTES 198819871985 TheMusic"AnContext.The EthnomusicologicalTabla Perception Traditional Ph.D. of Lucknow: thesis, 5:173 Tabla The -95. Approach DrummingA Queen's Cultural to University oftheAnalysis Lucknow Analysis of inofBelfast. itsMusical Social Cognition." and Cultural severalofandCouncilAfghanistan, Musicology, the Language times,(UK). between Anfor University Mode'earlypresentation 1973 version held of and Warsaw,at atofKolobrzeg,1977, thethis Europeanand paperand was thePoland, was ICTM.funded Seminarpresented in 1981,Sinceby thein at sponsoredEthnomusicology,then Socialthe colloquiumit has Science bybeen the Researchrewrittenon Institute Paris,'Music Koskoff, Ellen 1988 (AcademicReviewUniversity(Cambridge Pressof MusicPress. 1986), WithCognition in Ethnomusicologyaccompanying by W. Jay audio Dowling 32:155 cassette. -59. and Dane L. Harwood Studies in Ethnomusicology). Cambridge: Cambridge a Musical Tradition. 124 / 1988 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC Neuman,Sakata, Daniel Hiromi Lorraine 1980 Detroit:The Life Wayne of Music State in University North India: Press. the Organization of an Artistic Tradition. EXAMINING MOVEMENT IN THE CONTEXT MUSIC EVENT: A WORKING MODEL' by Judy Van Zile OF THE Zemp, Hugo 19831979 Kent:Music"Aspects Kent in the State ofMind. 'Are'are University The ConceptsMusical Press. Theory." Withof Music two Ethnomusicology 23:6 -48. accompanyingand Musician inaudio Afghanistan. cassettes. sound.viewcontext. Ethnomusicological of musicBut even may when result.Conventional both definitions sound and definitions generally context are ofadd music notions usually deal with notions considered, a restricted relatedrelated to to prescribedcomponenttimes movement thatof both the ismusicianthe such resultantMovement an mightintegral sound is even necessarypart be of considered to produce a sound and in many cases studies includeand its sociocultural comments context. theAt music event and so highly dancer. is an integralrelating to movementmovementcategoriesmorethis component complete. and thatin some researching becan What routinelyin guide a Some ratherfollows observation,music examined ethnomusicologicalextensive is -a a model to manner.2 make studies series of interrelated questions anddocumentation, and analysis ofthat is not tied to movement I urge, however,of thatmusical traditions specialistconceptspeoplemusic. andof to anyinclude objects particular movementratherThroughout culture,than toelements the and the sense discussion systematically of movement I am referringin to the physical movement that can enable a non -movement created by musical the study of of onesound,inlive musical music: ratheror to thewhensound than sense doestothrough theof movement movementTherenext. any are type threeoccur, used of recordedmajorto describe questions to answer when looking at movement I am also focussing on music as performed why does movement occur, and medium. the progression from 1.what toWhen causemovement Does vibration Movement occurs. in eitherThe Let Occur? mostus an examine instrumentobvious each answer or of to this question is that movement is the human body or vocal these. required atmanyinitiate,totract theproduce (which otherperformingone the to times.sound.willvibrations be beplayed area,For includedHence, example, carefullythat without movementproducehere weaves steppingin the musical term occursaround over sound. instrumentsany in the performer in a Javanese gamelan enters "instrument ") that is necessary prior to, and in order to instrument, Butand itthen also occurs at order to arrive withtheunderneathsits bowdown. the acrosssound. the chin, the strings drawsSimilarly, theagain, bow and across the repeats violinist the strings, the inprocess aadjusts symphony pegs, orchestra tucks the until satisfied drawsviolin 1996 YEARBOOK USING TESTS OF SOUND PERCEPTION IN FIELDWORK' by ,john Bally TRADITIONAL MUSIC FOR theis1 NTROD therepresentation, emit importance UCT1OA view, the of folkthere trying view, areOne to lots actor'sunderstandof theof terms c_view, ucial things forevaluation, lessons it. fromThe that point theexplanation, anthropology inside, was made to exploremodel, clearlyhas taught ethnomusicology DIETER CHRISTENSEN (Merriamfromforbetweenmany the nonyears researcher1961-:31 what-music: agcy he by -32).to termedAlan find Like Merriam out the other how folk in people authors,Theevaluation Anthropology define Merriam and music the ofemphasised andMusic,analytical distinguish theevaluation need music in the contrast Editor inmusicorimpliedOne thenon of treesin -music, theor a iy real,asmost society music onmade important the and... betweenother; If anotherone ofthis group musicsuch doesis basicaccepts concepts onnot, the to or theone if isonesound hand, the group distinction,of and the accepts noise, wind understanding of STEVENGAGE J. FELD AVERILL the point is well made.One Merriam might continuesquibblethe withmustthat withcroaki.ig equatingthe distinctivelya detailedconcepts of "non-frogs examination of shapeandmusic" what the music withother of sound"noiseis denies or is (ibid. ",not it but as must 63).music,overall differ it is widely evident and ADRIENNE L. KAEPPLER Associate Editors bythe "Therehuman Congo isbeings, Basongye an intermediate it must concept be organized,area of music,between and principally the must two have [music that continuity it andis produced non in -music]time only .. in . STEPHEN BLUM Book Reviews thewhichmentalsocieties sound some music'determines and disunity cultures and as ofits suchconcept showsAnalysisacceptance distinguished that is ofexpressed, "music" orwhat rejection frommight is and often "song."as be in music" meantwhichunderstood This (ibid.bythe distinction the context as66). term "instru- of"music" has in a number of LINDA K. FUJIEFilm /Video ReviewsJOHN BAILYRecord Reviews inalso('au),Andbeen the madewhile discussed: drummingOxford in the French, English 'Are'are in (öo) detail and and Dictionary language by in song ZempEnglish. (nuuha), distinguishes (1978)shows Indeed, Zemp witha wide perusal reference notesbetween range of similar theof to instrumental meanings'Are'areentry distinctions for concepts. "Music" for music this are INTERNATIONAL. COUNCIL FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC Published by the word, of whica the following may be noted:executiveemotionof(1) soundsThat one ... branch, with theof the worda andviewfine is toarts to ofteninstrumental beautywhich used is of concernedwith formexecution special and with therather reference the expression combinationthan vocal;to the of UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL under the auspices of the ORGANISATION (UNESCO) euphony(2)tothus, mean Applied the onedesignation of tospoken who the teachessong words.of aof `teacher birds,the The art the cryof music'murmur playingof the ishounds onofusually runningsome on apprehended instrument. seeing water, thethe 148 / 1796 YEARBOOK FOR 'fRAI)lTIONAI, MUSIC BA11.1' tiOliNU l't:R(:t:I''19ON IN FII'I,I)W<)KK / 149 (5)andnoisychase Aother companyuproar:... Snnethingdomestic usually, of rnusicians;utensils which a din for is produced thedelightful purposecompany by toknockingof of hearannoying musicians ... Roughtogether a pots, neighbour. attached music: clearly ids ntilicd as music, viz. instrumental sungvocalnaturalmusic. ---brims The inanimate accompanied sequence intermediate - animal went son, between from: -- humaninstrumental speech non and-speech music song-unaccompanied - speech -human (6)to (10)to...a Musical military fence,"The Lively instrumentsdance, force: speech playa `bandor obs. onaction; musiq of"Here music.' liveliness; (etc.)."also obs.young excitedexcept gentlemen wranging, are drummers and music arc in the rear." in military use excite-taught PartThe items1. 1 animate3.2. on Wine!Fire1. the Thunder crackling testS)unds tape: andimportance places in and the relevance, IslamicThese world, as questions with recent the aboutbanning hismentexamples vein the ... offolkApparentlyof being musicfun, definition music in confused ofthey music call with areit down sometimesamuse here." ... "Jake is not without Iran during the certain times of great Part II. Animal6.5.4. DogStrea:n7. Cat Sounds .cowling,.larking I flowing liauwing dothatconductedmatterKhomeni with recitation of music, intenseeraresearch and evenof debateThepost- in though Muslim Holy Marxist in in such Book, asocieties country Afghanistan.situations. The havelike Quran, Egypt,often What has remarked constitutes on Ethnomusicologists who have perhaps the internationalabsolutely nothing to the folk view music is a 12.11.10. CockSheepChickens crowing 9.8.booing CowCat clucking purring mooing centrebesounds,matterance" held for areof the soand magdms, reported securely?science especially musical toof sometimesQuranic musical modes recitation, sounds consult(Nelson is with1982). it which professional allows this specialists in Quranic "perform- What kind of thinking about musicians on the distinction to (a)Part 15.14.13.Non- Ill. AAnotherCoun;ry sor:gÇpeechHuman -bird songsounds, Sounds -bird a (lesswood melodic) with running water and variety of bird calls DEVISINGIin decided western THE to Afghanistan, TESTuse a test ofWhen tosound investigate in perception 1976 1 the returned anthropologyto explore for a secondHeratis' of music year concepts of fieldwork in the city in that city, of Herat, about 19.18.17.16. ScrewAManiacal batbaby asy cryingbabbling laughter rain,intoBBCboththeir theallworld"musical" for kindsfield. amateur of ofsound,My and animals theatricaltape "non- through contained and musical." usebirds,examining I aprepared steam largeUsing their trains,set a a seriesofways tape sounds:door of slamming,talkingsoundLPs of thunder, published by the effectsabout sounds, to take heartbeats, wind, 22.(e)20.(b)21. 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StoryChickAReligiousAn beggar amulet telling -pea callingpoetry hawker'sseller, in the forrecited speech, dusiineh cry,alms bywith poetry mannera darvishsung and elements sung notes variousmonthsmade items. specially into the for fieldwork. the Afterpurpose, What preparing I isstarted reported the worktest heretape on inwas9th the Januaryonly field, ever using meant a number to of field 1977,recordings three found (e)29.28.(d) AccompaniedUnaccompaniedReligiousRural secular song songsong, sung song unaccompanied unaccompanied outbe asequencingwitha what continuum,pilot this Istudy, needed line of butfromofitems to enquiry lack discover inanimate was ofThe that time,at test thein (from naturalandthe tapetime. pilot, themy consisted feeling ctic point that of of34 I view)had items. probably they The rationale for the sounds to what I knew the Heratis prevented nie from continuing selection and constituted 31.30.necked SingingLove : lure)ong in free accompaniedand rhythm zirbaghali and by in(goblet ddireh fixed drum)rhythm,(frame drum) accompanied by dutdr (long - 33.32.(f) 150Music SornâSinger / 1996 and with YEARBOOK dohol small (oboe ensemble FOR and TRADITIONAL drum) (harmonium, MUSIC tabla, rubâb, etc.) thedistinctionasBAIIY Music term âwâzin between the refersMind two (Sakatato words musical 1983).for sounds"sound Sakata's ":produced sedd work and drew byâwâz. humans my In attentionliterary and certainPersian to the SOUND PERCEPTION IN FIELDWORK / 151 ADMINISTERINGrecordings.34. Instrumental THE dance TESTItems piece 1 played by small ensemble to 19 were taken from the BBC records, 20 -34 from my field animals, especially song- birds. Sedâ is a moreSadätomore:used general meanis ato restricted general refer song term to astermfor tothe wella sound. singingsoundfor as voice voice of or oran musical ...noiseinstrument Sadâ ...voice Theis never ... term AwâzThe usedcan term is even oftenin âwâz such be used isa exceptbestinformantsIn itemsfour for of Informantwerein the my sevenconducted house, G,testsThe overwhere carriedintest innumerable the we was Herati outused administered two a dialect glassesmixtureinformants of of Afghan tea.with were individual present, informants or of Persian and English. Discussions of the Persian (Dari) but I have pairs of whilemusicalsounds,context1976 âwâz 59-60).while...sounds, Awâz is mostlysadâ vocal is isa usedmorespecialised or otherwise by general educated term and... Sadâor reservedcan urbanised referis used forto speakersbymusical musical, all speakers, or(Sakata vocal non- A:cases.not TheAmir distinguished Informants Jan, famous between hereditary them professional in reporting Herati musician, my their responses save in a few did not do teacher, followingto see if I questionscould substantiate in Imind: speci:ïcallyIn the her discussions findings. focusedWhat with on these eachwas two itinformant you terms heard? in (or my pair test of of informants) sound perception I had the ageddutârB:the aboutA last dutârteacher, eight 60, player, and items. aged his Gada aboutdaughter Mohammad, 35, Nasimeh,and his sonan aged amateur Sultan, about agedturned 13. Theyabout worked professional,for many my 15. hadInweCan certain call certainwe this call cases properties.âwâz? this it X, was Y, DidappropriateZ? Init haveparticular, sor to ask(a canpitch, whether we a callscale)? what this Did wassedâ? it heard have Can stringedyearsC: andD:Karim Ghulamat a dutiir. Radiokeen Herawi, amateurSalwar Afghanistan. an Baiskilsaz,amateur singer Aged and turned a harmoniumaboutbicycle professional repairman player, who with aged his about own 45, he was the inventor of the 14 20.business, orIforForâhang asked a onomatopeic thebad (melody)? for animal sound some soundstokind terms.Did hear? of it Ievaluationhave Wasasked till it for enjoyable(metre)? of imitations the sound, or not ofwas these to it listena goodsounds, to? sound or F:aboutE: anInformationGhaniTwo art20. theological teacherNiksear, and in aCulture, students, Kabul,member originallya destinedjournalistof staff of tofrom and thebecome mylocal "minder," careeroffice mullahs,of and the Behzad Herat. Ministry of both aged Saljuki, ofquestionsissuesto talkunexpected in',òrmallyin mindI had information, intended.to with be covered. them SometimesI tried aboutalmost Innot thecertain like toa sounds testconfront a sonicitemcases they served Rohrschachinformants I heard,neglected to withtrigger with Test. theseto offask a battery specificall all sorts the of questions, but rather my30.College,G: AbdulHeprincipal was member Wahed also research aof carpet Saljuki,a famous assistant dealerIt maya family teacher andinbe this ofnoticed proprietor religiousof English that scholarsof potentially ata smallthe in Herat Herat,tourist the informants represented two second year of research. Theologicalaged abouthotel and main entered.Heratitranscribed speech). These in Persianare A tableshown The(using was below. informants' prepared a simple and commentstransliteration key words made andsystem in thecomments recordedsuitable were conversationsfor were later viewpoints:phenomenawereThe from Questions musicians the from city my of (A, firstHerat. B,I yearalreadyC & ofD), knewfieldwork, and nona good -musicians which deal concerningfocused (E, F on& the the way recent Heratis talked about G). All sonic changesspeakingofreadwas music madeLorraine to theandAfghanistan, between Herati musiciansSakata's song dutâr PhD including heldand (Baily dissertation, music,by people Herat.1976). khândan whichinHer I threeknew dissertation has contrasting an a lotimportant to was say areas laterabout of concepts and musigi (or säz). distinctionI had publishedalso Persian - 152 / 1976 l'P,AKliOOK FOIL 't'IL,1I)I'hIONAI. :tl'SI(: BAI I.I SOUND l'I-Iü :EVER ON IN t'tICI,DWOKK / 153 "IAIiI.1S OI k1-;5UI;IS 'l'I....., 1.... I Abel- ' Descriptive Terms Comments A denteLabels not ,teen.- Descriptive Terms goodComments sound, ce/4 nnnrini, would :AB identiiedhail. as hail da lerekno inlirrntotiun lerci,,- mikone nohad information B sedei prüpdi Arne ,'hor :hori ,ghori afrighteningfrighten man split somebody sound. in two asleepstory about (:I) rirn(iz.rain. Nail, sedd ;pitting Get noMine special word notcircumstanceneutral, a bad depencls sound, on lire is OI) drub:,sedd saki radiipdi ghor ghor ,ghori ghori frightening,bad bad ehi :i sound, frightening, od rdhat h:I' sedd.no in;cirutation n.) son: no (Mang no information iuforutation dangerousBnot said a bad good, sound N said bad Gl' dwd:sedd, iacdz not dwd: pdisadd ,ghorghor o.nuin ,ghorighori hadnot soundsound, gives no enjoyment, a had sound. no gondh G died: thisno special word for neutral 2 11 weit want to hide when we hear 4. ltiatcr A sedd,Labels nteds shams"Descriptive mikone terms Comments A sedd,Labels dwd:, sor noneDescriptive Terms Commentssoundneutral, from the electricitywind stakes wires this CB scd(1, d:ed: ,edit charbdgh spar mikrme mikone, !nigh goodvery goodsound, to kltushdyende hear, pleasurable CB saidwithinsedd, it has sor; no hu hunomikone mikone,information gor gor cold,electricitywind frightening,stakes wires this soundnot dhang from, D died:, .edit, sor no noinformation information forgooddb aillife sound, sound, zendegi water erasdnis necessary sae -c 1) dwdz(hang no special word goodbarnbecausething (up sound, theand sor down)wind does is not a good go zit o GFE dwdzsaidsedd, it.od: nospar sitar mikone information waterfallgoodgood sound, sound, the clean view of the is nice, so is its sirAed(2,sedd but not (2115i5, dining naderasl has no noinformation information pdinhadbadthought sound,sound o boland it wassor (down a motor, and not a because it wentup, ur 5. D Ig barf.ing sound, water is clean G dwdz laity Ulu, mikone badquiet sound, and loud) offers no enjoyment BA seddsedd,Labels ho'ei: bowladeDescriptive kiwilaw mikonemikone Terms notbadComments a ,good .sound DC decd:,sedd, b. h :, _-rid, notkhfindan kalehaw b-awfaun mikonemikone notdepends a on the circumstances good sound hE seddkhdnda:cedd, it; d :, has .ar limebarn beerbao, mikone oli oh mikone very bad sound sound, dogs bite G seddbut no (hang bale law ',Apia- dogvisithadnot for good sound, asport house is that has a clog, the angels never gondh (sinful) 154 / 1996 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC BAI I Y SOUND PERCEPTION IN FIELDWORK / 155 6. Dog howlingA âwázLabels ghuleDescriptive mikone Terms veryComments bad, presages misfortune 8. Cat ;wiringA ne Lr_belsinformation khorDescriptive khor mi/cone Terms doesComments not like it CB sedâkhândansedá, áwâz, not duledolezulast mikeshemikone mikeshe, dogbadpreviouslyGivesmisfortune soundmakes various thatthis people presagessound, reasons thought why thisa CB seesec'á, î áwáz khorkhar khor mikone happythisgoodcat snoring, sound sound, makes goodthe cat soundman is asleep, very DE noáwâz, information not khândan ghaichârezemzelzulast mikeshe mizane, mizane badnot goodsoundsound, sound presaged it's hungry misfortune ED sedaáw ZZ zikrkhorkhorast mage mikone mikone, khor butmanawakenot it does aat good night not sound,like to hearkeeps this people is good because it is zikr GF áwâz,no informationno sor toledale mikone pleasurebadnot goodsound, sound, presages gives misfortune no G F áw,'z khorkhor khor khor mikone ghorbe peoplenotdoingheardB likes, a goodpeoplezikr like N does butsound,it, say thethey not, thecat but don't they catis some happy, isagreehave 7. Cat miauwingA áwâz,Labels sor dákhel miawDescriptive mikashemiaw mikone, Terms snarlingsomeComments people over likefood it, some don't, 9. Cow i:iooing Lal els Descriptive Terms but we cannot use it CB sedâ,sedâ khândan miaw mikashemiaw mikone frightensassociatesnot a good children, with sound, mating, hungryfighting, bad BA âwáz baras dádan theHindustanigoodComments cow sound, music mind conies of from DE sedâáwâz, not khândan miaw mikashe soundbad sound,sound labial en.sân khush C sedásedâ khândan bághasbâghas mikeshe khândanwithgoodno this, sound,information can cow be termedcalls her calf GF áwâzkhândan,sedâ, áwâz, no notsor miawmiaw miaw miaw mikone mikone notneutralnadâre a good sound, it took our DE sedâ,áwá_ khártdan bághasghor ghor mikeshe mikeshe neitherádamnot good sáwáb sound, nor gonáh, ná árâm all misáze time and confused our minds GF nosedä i!:formation âwáz, no sor bághastbâh báh -e mikone gas badneutralandanimals sound can havesay the their name language of God 15,6Ili. / .//heel) N)7(i l't;AltßOOK I`OR 1/.10n9,, )1'110N Al, Mt ,SI( 12.RAW,' Chit kens clucking tiOt!NI) I't:IZCI:I''l'ION IN l'll.;t.l)bVURK / 157 A áleâz,Lah(IS seda bahDescriptive bâlt mikone, Terins barns animalveryComments good sound, very good AB no tedrLa=)elsinformation got gotDescriptivegot gotmikone miknnr 'lt'rms Commentsfinds it arousing CB sedeikluiwelt, ndan nwaz, not bähmikc.chebah rinimikcshe, {c bagh bash verygood goodsound sound, good animal C cedt.. kluindan ntikonegot got miknnr, jirg togoodchickens share sound, Mod cat, madecock light calling andwhen lac a eggshen Heavensaythat sheepgars pleat have andcome milk, from some EI) sellrice .: didn'tgot got know got got chickengoodgood sound layssound an made egg when a D dwâzäwäz bähbarasi bâh -e nnikeshegusfand animalgood sound,animal, reihat, a miraculous magbnl, a G F notno informationgiven got notgot givenmikone not givena good sound, a cock -light F âwaz, seda, n0 stir bah häh mikone goodwoolcleanvery good sound,animal, sound, good gives aanimal, verymilk goodand 13. A Lai ens WI ,d Descriptive Terms Comments G no information bah báh mikone doessacrificial not like animal le dos yosound ilt/ though u BA .tedédue chow chowchoir' mikonemizane recreation,goodecstatic sound, images views, good water for 1.-1,,w sacrificedHeaven On a sheep you have C äwa., khändan bolbnlmizane,chow chow, khandan-e charms sunrise,a verytrees, good gout/ place for rneles, with grass for & lull' hunting 1 l. lO(K I .abc'Is DeSeriptive Il'l'il1S Comments D liccsi 7 no information good sound, a zoo? AB seda,daylz cwäz, not /Lainázán -e morgh nude verygoodpeople good sound forsound prayer that wakes E klim..sedó. /an áwdz, saut, kuku mikone doinggoodthe zikr, bird sound that becausewent kuku it was was a rest were neutral C khaidmi,awáz,/ /ldndan stir, âhang sedci, ázán -e khorus oakum,likevery to good hear, sound ähang that people cain;guari of 3 soi, ka.sh G E sedâ.00 dzedz information ',ozonechow/a/gr chow, bolbol, cháche chow chow soundthegood wind sound of wasthe birds not good was goodbut the I)E äwázäwäz, not khändan ázándado mide relayedHeavengood soundsound, bygives the athe earthlybig azein cock cocks which in is GF (hangsedei,(laid:: orduirL, khändan not sor äzä71eizal nude -e khoru.s peopleabecausegood little sound, good for of eizooprayer khushrirebecause ndi. it calls not 14.158 Song / 1996 -bird YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL. MUSIC 16.ßAIIY Baby crying SOUND l'l'.RCEI'TtC)N IN FIELDWORK / 159 A áwáz,Labels not musiqi chowDescriptive chow mikone Terms Commentseachvery good,animal bird has is its doing own zikr,, A khan:sedóLabels tan áwáz, not geriehDescriptive mikone Terms don'tsomeComments people like it, others CB áwáz,âhangscdâ, khândan, khândan,not musiqi âwâz, áhang, chow chow,chow mizanechawas verydepressionlanguage good,good hazel?'sound, daslán, abolishes âwâz -e CB khánclan,scdá musigi geriehgerieh mikone mikone temperedbadnot goodsound, sound makes people bad D áhang,âwâz,musiqi khândan, tarz sor, bolbolmizane,no information khândan -e geremikone,goodsounds zadan, sound, thatbolbolgelun ruhplease is on -esâz, rubáb ensân are musiqistory, tarze all I)E sedóâwäz, not khândan gerieh gonâhfromgoodbad sound Heaven,sound because does baby is not have FE asedâ, little âwâzâwâz, sor, khândan, khândan,no âhang lahjekuku bolbol,mikone chow chow goodshirin sound G áwázF kháncan,sedó, áwáz, no notsor gerieh nomikone information bad sound,sound delkharásh G khândan,no till áwáz mizanechow chow, chache good sound 17. Baby L.abblingA sedeiLabes noDescriptive information Terms goodComments sound, happy baby, trying 15. Bird -songA Labels chowDescriptive chow Terms Comments CB musiqi,no in gap ormation zadan gapmusiqi, mizane gap zadan playing,goodto talk sound, trying happy to talk baby, CB âwâzno noinformation information no information mizad,Ex 14 this waswas is better,like betterbetter, whistling rad more bâ rad delicate chow DE noâwâz information bâziâwâz-e mikone khushi mikeshe goodgoodtalking sound, sound, happy happy sound baby,baby EDF khándanâwâznot tested chownotno information tested chow notEx tested 14 was better G F nosedá information ghagap ghamizane mikone talkinggood sound, earlytrying stage to talk of G no information no information Ex 14 was better 18. ScreamA áwáz,Labels sor Descriptive Terms Comments CB musiqisedó jirqjirq mikeshemikonegeru mikeshe mikeshe, hu notbad a good sound, sound del khorosh DE sedâ,not khândan, no sor ác.:áz jirgjirq mikeshe badwomanbad becausesound sound possessed involuntary, by jinn, if not it G F áwáz jirgquietermikone,giru mizane mikeshe, which not is jirq verybadwere sound, badvoluntary sound a fearful it would sound be bad IGII / l')OG YI'.ARROOK FOR TR:Af)ITIONAI, Nil 'SR : ß:A1I.1' ti01'NI1 l'IU.('.ta''l'ION IN FIN .I)\V'Olil< / IGI 9 Maniacal laughterLabels Descriptive 'h rms Comments 22. Delivering a sermun Labels I) CSC rii ive " le rnls Conu Well IS AB no information 7)ltralalkhande,khande Mikan('nlaskhetn,gl dlleanegltastelessgood sound but one laugh, had 5110 like AB Guar,not sor hluinran !Hiloaa.: mikone, izi mikon c'ap , zadml gap (")m(iziur Il,edenew/(i volt ()alum' slu°lunari d(khel nlishe, C no infornlatioll laiLind( sound,sllnleon1 frighteni 0/ possessed by jian, bad (: (iu(/Z gap1/Nra,le la LIM e very happygood sound, makes people I)l'I: sedd,(iuazno artinformation iz khandenlaskharegi mikone goodbadpossessed sound, sound, byhappy gave jinn, soundno pleasure involuntary I) wear,no in Iilrinatinn not sher iearwrier MIA,T, mige Ma Itoveryno information, fast sound, because like poetry it's information G no iulornlation not Viand(' soundnot a good sound, a mocking { no info(i lotion gap))l1/I radon, i (AO/IS,ba re khatah gap zadan not like poetry, no saj Labels t Ill l:llLltl(r Descriptive 'IèrIns Comments G ledii wanaaucri sz kardml, nuktme, not war/ gap nothis way of speaking gives it slier ¡orb, A13 ,tedrino sor gap mirarleminare gapriiimitates )71(1/10/1 rural dialect 23. Religious !-oetry zadan CI)E äitz_11(1(1, (Wdr gapgap mizane mizane notit from Herat is 11a /1.1ie11 A notLabels khdnazn gapDescriptivesher neige, ghazalTerns Huge, mizane notaComments good poem w ith meaning, ketábi CF sedósedó,no information du'dz gap mizaneradon noneutral, information gap bud dige. nlahali CB no inforr.:ationintorr,ation .shersher mikhune mikhune madabawari,good sound nlesle Shahnrîmekháni I.abels lvs broaocas Descriptive Tern's Continents DFE áwdr,àu'dzno inforr.lation A-/Id 1(/(1/i ,gapsherslier zadan, khándanmikhune not sher verygoodno information sound good sound AB notno salt khánda,i gapgapmage mizane, zadan khabarba gopdinothe radiomay be reading but this is khandml 24. Ausilneh storyG telling sedd, not ,iwâz mikhunesher mikhune, na't ashas some past much as Quran o boland but not CI) dwiz,khándan, not sedd, slier nluIiyi gap mizaneIt zone noeducation,compares information with 21. in terms of az rui karghaz mikhrine A notLabels kheind In, nu sor Theron('(lestDescriptive nuage, Terms dluanelr, gap heComments likes ausmaeh I'1; nonot informationkhándan gapkhdrtdangap mizane zadan, akhbar gapbetter adald, than elmi, 21., resmi lofs -e third! bud C;B no inlorlratinn (wattle,yese migc, aasanela, gap not poetry belt,good sound, sonic some do not dusdnehs have (; sedd akhbar mik /lmle rlo/asal, manrirann ,gap laLaa( DE noáwáz inforniationintimr,ation gapnuaklutregino zadan, information llausáne nlifante, gap notnolike information,Sgood /tahndnukhdni but faster GF not áwázlike khándan goftan,yeseáluánch,)n inane mikhune, gap nuzmle(lase not gap zadan goodno soundinformation 162 / 1996 YEARBOOK FOR TRADITIONAL MUSIC BAILY SOUND PERCEPTION IN FIELDWORK / 163 25. Chickpea vendors Labels Descriptive Terms 27. A tâv, iz seller Labels Descriptive Terms Comments BA notsedó,áwáz, sor khándan, sor, not khándan áhang, jirqjirq mikone,mide, mikone, sedóseda áwáz mikonernikeshe neutral1stComments was better,soundbetter, sedó more dhangdár, bei sor AB khândan,- sedó -zadanbeil mikháne, gap -becausea madá from táwiz Mazar, is Quranic good DCE sedó,áwáz,sedó sor,áwáz, saut not khándan jirq mikeshesedó rnikone 1stgood wasman sound, better, was bothbetter saut were az u khushtargood DC áwáß.khámimusical an,khándan gap zadan not beitShdhnámewdrino special mikháne word, religious,goodno information sound láwiz because good it's because of GF sedókhândan,áwâz, not sor khândan, no but âhang not jirq mikone,sedó mikone sedá mikone 1stbettergoodbud was sound, better, 2nd názuktar man was FE sedó,sedá, khándankhándan, gap z. gap mizanezadan, mikhune no goodQuranpositive sound response 26. Beggar likeLabels preaching, hang Descriptive Terms Comments(delicate), 2nd was lok thick 28. Na't singingG khán !an gapMazan; zadan dâ d mikhâne, no information BA butnotâwâz, khândan,unintentional sor, not haskhândan sor sedâ mikone notsomeno information like this sound, others do AB khândan,Lab(.1s sor, âhang, na'tDescriptive mikhune Terms itComments was like a ghazal, sor Beira, DC âwáz,musiqisedi, yak sor dâre, sor, khândan jirqsedâ mikeshemikone mikone, khândan bothmakelikes ato him good hear happy anda beggar, a bad likes sound to C dhans.-not tasnaf,r¿usigi khândan na't- mikhune tdl,song,2-good parts, bi khándantâl, 1st 2nd like a tasnif an old with Herati sor Chahârgâh E sedánot khándan sedá mikone face(profession),bad sound, at Doomsday bad he'll wazife have a black ED khándan,no ser or áwâznotlai musiqi, na'tSher mikhune mikhdne, mikhâne veryno information good GF sedá,not khândan, not khándan yak sor jirqsedá mikone mikone nogoodnot information good, áwâz he did not have a GF kháncáhanç.na't sn khándan,tâl sor, manana't mikhune jat mikháne fogwórimusicaltwo lahjes, metre has no word for 15,1 / I0115ì VI ?ARIiOt)K FOR 'IItADI"l'IONA1, MUSIC li.-All' SOUND PERCEPTION IN FIELDWORK / I65 l I lalisi sings ".1'ab eh'; uuarrnnsp:niied 32. ,G,rmi (oboes and (Owl ( Irons) instrumental dan,. music AIi k/vindan-I tbcls mikluu,e-Descriptive "terms k/uïndan-Comments eshgi, like ehárbeiti, good BA 'mishit*,Labels ah mg, .sor Idi noDescriptive inlorrnation 'I'errns sázdoholComments has mure gamati because ( khändan Abdulkhä,ulan eshgi, merle ,1Y,a'er song u information I)C nmsige,musiqi (11.n sor no noinformation information noit information is loud I)E khi,ndan.,mülgiâivdz, khándau, not staid slierkhândan mikhäne na'twári goodno information sound, eshq is a good GFE musiqisáz no information no information laziz, delchasp G l' kháudankheindan slierkhändan mikhâne eshgi notgoodthing good, cher -e (plat, .slier eshgi, 33. Haji Hamahang sings with his band no information good sound, 30 Vocal with dutc'ar accon paniment boit eshgi BA khändan-Labels Irani bell-Descriptive mikhâne, khändan Terms no -Continentsinformation AB khändan,-Labels musigi chârbeiti-Descriptive mikhune Terms good-Comments singing DC khändan,k/tmrdan, ,rusigi, áhang n. usigi mikhunekháudanIrani Irani nonot informationwell sung 1)C E khândan,musiqi musigr, áwáz befitno information -e gadimi mikhune nogood information I'E nokhändan information no information noinstrumentsthe informationsong is okay are bad but the GP khändan,kháudan, sedei,nucsigimusigr, siwäz sedä no noinformation information goodnothe informationduhirsinging singing, is badis delchasp, very good áshegán but 34. InstrumentalG dance music played by urban bandLabelskháudan, ,.:usigi Descriptiveno information Terms Commentsgood sound 'il A ' inti;cr with transe dnousLabels accompanitucrst and goat (boz) jingle Descriptive Terms Comments CAB chant,+Adz- khá::dan not áhangnq {h,neh- -e mod miuu,e nogaud- information ,ul {lune/, lirr rags (dance) CB ähang,khändan,- musiqi musiqi (. ?) nornikhäne- information hoz-playingnot well sung, not good drum is shukh, well sung ED nomusigr,naghmeh, information nadimeh rácheb no information badno information DE khändan,no information musiqi däirehheil mikhune zadan Prophet,fordrumno informationweddings is not women bad in timebecausesinging of The isused not GF nuesigikháudan, n.gs no information good GF khändankhändan, musiqi däirehkhändanmikhäne minawáze mikhäne, (mischievousness)thedoeshad unless not have men good hear äwáz it boz is for shukh 166 / PO( i YEARBOOK FOR TRAUrTIONAI, MUSIC responsesItAlll' lit.; "that was someone talking,' "that was someone singing" Sedâ SOUND PERCEPTION IN I.It.l.l)W'ORK / 5,7 ofmusiciansthough music. I chew inThey the extensively citycomplement of Herat,The on thetaresults especially and in in my,of some the book,Chapter test cases Music of 4, sound supplementwhich of Afghanis-lam perception deals the have not hitherto been published, with the science findingsProfessional of Never- useusefulnessagreeablestatements,was words now hardly vccal(na; which wellrecording sounds.used how agrees at theyverbatim all,This with explain while shows the texts, âwâz literarytheir -so if aswasfurthermeanings. todefinition sometimeshave proof a record that were used âwâz of needed how in refers making people - the to Sakata's(1)aftertheless, Consensus the(198 there collection 3) detailedare some of study theinsightsAll data. of themusical which sound terminologymerit stimuli further were in mention, Afghanistan. readily evenrecognised except the sound 20 gars of fire, oncategory) mean"hethe hastelephone." "call" ora good"a orsong," voice,""shout," as aBothand specificas inis äwâ. one"to example andcallof several sedâsomeone" ofhave words"song." other or for even Sedâ meanings. "song" "to is alsocall (as Awaz usedsomeonea general alsoto means "voice," as in expressedbetweenviewwhichpeople and was the onathe mistaken ratherview the urban other. ofidiosyncratic musicians foruse One hail. of man,terminology. All onviewpoint, informantsonethe musicianhand, for There and representedhe Karim educated,labelled was Herawia a potentialthe literate,number urban (Informant contrast of scholarly,human point of C), usedtalk"(3) The in(gap compound Boundary =` talk," verbs, zadanbetweenWith =such "to Speechresp.xt ashit shergoftan "); toandgoffan,and speaking, Song or heir "to two goftan,speak." verbs "toCoftanwere recite commonly was poetry," often used: gap zadan, "to towardsworkingfrommusigisounds his (music). -music interestasbaby a musician oncrying, He in the was Chishti part babyinvokingin ofKabul. Sufism, babbling,mullahs a Butvery which on apart abroad onescream, he fromside definition developed andadifferences news non of broadcasterduring -mullahsnnnsigi in attitudes on - as his years derived the or istheusedzikr combined written goflaz.both aU ((r "towith verbprinted) recite various and the word, Withas nouns Namesnoun. resp/cteither toIn of form outits toGod." verb singing,loud compound formor silently an khândan importantverbs, to oneself.like means wordsher Khilndan"to khândan was read" khândan, which can be littleother,(2) difference The there .sedâ was /âwâz between a high Dicotomy degree musiciansAs described of agreement and above, non -musicians. Sakataamongst had the found informants that the terns âwâz refers to musical and tosongmans"to be recite "2 intermediate"to poetry"s rag," and between namâz canLet be khândanspeech usused nose in and "toexamineits song.recitenoun one'ssomeform prayers." toof meanthe types Khdndan"song" of vocal or also "a production I considered differencebetweengenerallybirds,sounds while produced formal substantiatedbetween sedâ explanationsby is sedâ ahumans more andher findings. (11(3(12 generaland in lresponse term?"But or, I for "Which didto sound. questionsfind word an The interesting should like, results "What one ofdifference use the is hen', test certain animals, more specifically song- the oftospeech thosespeech, with found a: much gap in poetic zadan,use of metre.alliterationbutItem in 22, Theaddition, the sermonand sermon recurrent there was by was clearly a patterns Shiah a special labelled mullah. of stressterm as This forsimilara form thiswas a kind of heightened se/4tostatements. or direct (UC'a questioning (Can weFor call example, this sedâ? B, C,Can 1), we call '' and the way these words were used in firrmulating spontaneous atn(1 1: all said, early on ill die test, in response this âwâz ?) that there identifiedgenerallyorkind "to of speak heightened asIakelled a sermon." asspeech, sherItem 6hândan, 23, religious "to recite poetry poetry;' from and an the itinerant poem was clarvish at s ghazal. One informant compared this with a style of recitation / ardan(, or am:: goftan, "to make it sermon" ''enl. This was aofis definite nosoundssound. difference Informantpitchwhich (sor)in come the A within meaningsexplained from then).the ofthatthroats thesel' explainedâwâz oftwo ishumans usedternis for asor those appliedanimals, sounds to which the that concept ishave close that âwâz refers only to the definition on its Shalnzâmehspeciall'erdosysi,used to ").peru-m which the contains Persian many epic ancient Shahnânzeh, Persian "Thelegends. Book This of has Kings" its own by style of recitation in Iran, called Shahnâmekhiini ( "reading the cansedâheadto the therefore isand literary used explained only hedefinition. writtenfor that those du'âzdown. However,In human contrast, is the utterances )Whenmore G stood general oat' that the looks contain literaryterm at for the words sound use andof and these which that words in spontaneously wasusedof usesscale. alsowere it Five likened highâz:,(../neh informants v -(earlto ("storyS/ahnâmckhâni. tessitura, labelled ")Item goffan, 24,with this a.(jest'The prolonged asform usespeech,( "story ofof.goftan heightened stable ")gap goflan, zadan, pitches,here and speechindicates while gese hut other khândan.noused the clear termsforclear sense story -telling in Herat. It It informantsthebetweenformulated test these then), statements(night ternis then say were we "thatrather oftentendwater.- was than usedto the findInanswering interchangeablyse./(2Part the Ill, literaryof humanquestionsthunder,' use. insounds, labellingorabout In "that Parts thesethe was sounds. differences terms the au'az thus were used much less, with I and II of voice."translatevocalcategorisatio:c pitches_ Sì) as aLain, "u) This ofshout." itthis was as Awâzlabelled speech.Item darlan 25,as jirq two was /surlan chick also -pea or/irqoffered, sellers kes/zidan, translatable calling which their as we wares,"to aright give showing prolonged stable special terra exists when position on die speech /song musicalacontinuum sound168 / ofscale, definiteis ambiguous. and pitch is used and "Their as a certainsor calls kardan degreewere "to also of tune prolongation.judged (anl941i instrument),"to YEARBOOK have Sor sor, also meaning FOR andmeans toTRADE] ION AI. Nll'SI(: dealingtheBAH perfor w thnance khándan, has stable .'song.' tones (or) and a melody ((Mang), then we are Sc)t"NI) l'I(R(:t;l'llc)N IN 1-11'.I.1)A\0Rít / ItiJ khubdescribepeaitthe might khándan chickseller being be -peahe des-hi).khändanwäri knew"in seller's tune" Ofwho callthe and "had "songlike"two was "out chickvery judged of good -pea tune"One not sellers, musicalinformant to(bd be sor thekhändan, singing" andfirst described biwas notsor). (besiar judged "song," another In generalbdto havethoughmusiqi chick- (4)insomusic The suchthat B (nu an >undaryat answerdigi, such or between sot:).ato place theI Theahead.-question, ?Sting might latter andknew "Whatbeterms Music answeredthat cankinds Hcratis refer ofwith drew musicto amusical lista distinction of instruments, between song (khändan) and (musiqi) are found onlabelledvocal thethe tonebetterspeech as ofsedá dwdz, -songstable kardan, meaning axis.pitch, "to ItItem evenwas call," "better 26, generally more whicha beggar voice" than does not callingin or considerednotItem perhaps tell for 25. usalms. This "betterwhereto be Thiswas khándan, itsound." examplegenerallyis located not showed a long sustained theratherprobably oboemusic than known itof in makesgenres. many as sornd. is Theother alsoNltuigi, Theword languages.found extension sdztike inis khändan, alsoEnglish of athe name has word(see twofor above),for a essential particularinstrument in components:'Are'are, instrument, to include and sor (scale), and dhang butthewithof "song."determinate beggar'sthe a band beggar Several callmight does pitch,khândan. informantsmake not, a note." heaA similar singersays identified Two (goflan) hassound informants a sorthis inwhatever ( singingas"scale having insisted ")he áldp, in onelikes. mind that thatsor, The whenwhile didone question not "stablehe a singersings,make toneof share(melody).thatinfrom my the was the test same It humant.)c may was essentialever- orready voice may individualistic to characteristics,notor include from also ahave khándanmelodic Karim idi the (metre). instrument. withindifferenceHerawi Thusthe (Informant categoryisYet khändan whether only of C).oneand theymusiqi, He informantmusiqi arise was and of wouldaroundprinted"musical certainly quotationsthe intention" neck be or fromlabelled pinnednow the becomesItem astoQuran singing27,one's a crucial.sealed street clothes. in English, sellerin cheap The of followed religiousfirst metal part cases, bytalismans of passages this to heexcerpt (tdwiz). worn that These consist of short combinationdistinction:ofthe musical opinion instrument.betweenthat of the the two human songWhen can Hcratis and vocalbe we musictermed haveseen) apparatus than singingmusiqi. to snakewe should doaccompaniedEven ain much English. bethen, regarded largerthe by two musical semanticas seem a kind toinstruments, then the itandThreesectionfall was somewheresong, informantslike as onekhândan, the said talking between recognised it "song," was of speechlikethe and themaddrecitation the andpresence mendicantssecond song. of the hereAll section Shahndmeh, informantsof from something as Mazargap zadan,identifiedthe -ebetween other Sharif "to two thespeak." speechto firstthat the bysingingbe withwomen,easily melodicin dissociated.Item to accompany 30instruments, but condemn Thus theirDrums but the singing, thethe likemullahs ddirehdutär the with tabla, accompaniment (frame(Informants no zirbaghali other drum) instruments. isE) and commonlyas could sinfuldohol Ipraise (gondh).areexpected employed usually the played in conjunction sectionpanied.thatnorth city. is or in SuchHerat. free poetryrhythm, I discovered is the used Itemsecond laterin 28,connection partthat na'l, metredmany aghazal with of in these thepoemSufi musical tdwizrituals, about sellerssense. Prophetzikr. TheLabelsare Mohammad, from first sung unaccom- player,musiqi.ofthat my singing informants hadHowever, withproblems the onereadily frame withinformant, drumlabelled this concept:would Gada the not Mohammadcombination beAmuB: classified It was [än' (Informant khándan,of as voice musiqi, andthereB), but thedrum wasseveral dutdr theas frame drum and he sang "Dokhlar and( "tothatagreedfor beilrecite this to khándan this theitemor read Hcratiswas were poetrycan khändan, na't besinging "),khândanused meimijeit "song" for is just(poetry "toNote khândan one sing eitherthat way na't the( "torecited"),of compound read"delivering"slier or orkhándan sung.sing verbs nuinr This poetry.or slier beitjä1 suggests ").khándankhändan All Jß:JB: S)I:IsB: hedon'tthe Yes,That's sings frame youyou notwith calldrum musiqi, the thatsinging adutár, musiqi.musical he's with don't singing instrument?the you frame with call thethatdrum frame musiqi? musiqi? drum. "withoutbrassmusicalmovementmeans cymbals). "pitch" metre metre" through oris Singing said"scale;" a set to Khdndanof have indiscretedhang free lál inrhythm, means(thispitches. the senseis "melody" alsowithoutSinging of the "song" namewhichmetre,or "tune,"has foris istwo in atermed an withpaircharacteristics: identifiable ofmelodic bi small 1äi, nor and (Mang. Sor JB:B:instrument,doesn't Sn Actually,No, would youknow you can'tyouso how he callcannot call sings toit thatmusiqiplay call with musiqi. itthe musiqi.theor dutär, not? frame Well, [Pause.] he drum. that'sdoesn't Well, his know instrument,the frame any otherdrum he pitches,peaspeakingspeech vendors andbut society. theysong and are Theisthe closestill beggar.interface not Reviewingto khândan,what Their between one utterances thebecause might speech above expectnot andfindings, have intended song to son, define carteit seemsprolongedas khándart.with in thatan the English the stablechick- Once Herat is' boundary between JB:B:asotne:imesis `nmusical aIt what musicalcan be weinstrument. playscalled heardinstrument. the niu.cigi. was frame not Gol drummusiqi? Zaman when [famoushe sings on Pashtun the radio. singer] It is 170 / l996 FRARBC)Oh FUR TRAI)ITIONAI. MUSIC: R:VIS SOUND l'ISRC:BI''l'IC)N IN / 171 haditlthard.GadafromI hasten TheMohammad ("Iì-adition a religiousframe to add drum that pointofwas Thethisis not oneof conversationProphet). view,typical musical being and Thereinstrument withspecificallyI was is myno pressing thatcensuregood mentionedis friendnot the of considered pointwomen and in dutdrunusuallyan singing important sinful teacher sound_threeofthe tins criteri others Only in described ofone religious informant this merit as evaluated tasteless rather than the laughter laughterenjoyment. that in gave a Thepositive no same pleasure, sense, explanation possessionsaying a bad was offered by three informants for stage laughter, while outsideitthatsingingwith was it the isplayed with aframeimmediate musical frame by drum a maleinstrument drum family. as singer!long to Thebe as was nrusigi. themullahs perhaps sound Gada (informants ofinfluences] theMohammad's voice E) byis did notremembering final not heard considerjudgement by men that itthiswas happy.was soon(judge1at afault. happy because a However, bad sound sound, then made Informantyou though forcan entertainment.pickhere A described itup was the notbaby howThethe and babybabyone comfort arightbut crying the itlike soundand(Item to make hear that16) "intelligentato(5) long perceive Evaluation time process." soundsperceptual of Sounds in What isolation psychologistsIt as wewas Good experience perhapsand or to Bad evaluatehave naive in perception argued to themexpect that as is that goodbasedperception Heratis oronly bad. couldpartly is For an be meaningfully asked was&Examples.veulred 21), disagreement, anssn:nds werethe cries the such ofmooing chickSono as the peasoundsof cat the sellers purring cow were (Item (Item evaluated(Item 25). 9), 8). humanAbout Someas neither other speechliked goodsounds it, (Items some nor there bad. did20 They were neutral. determinants.andimportanceon the a knowledge immediate is the We knowledgeof sensory"go the beyondprobable, input that the the intoas information wellperceiver the as perceptual gestalt already given;' processes, system.posseses. as Harwood areAlso Expectation important of (1976) great Goodtoofnot. snoriut,the On%Monti nn tic halts or positive even (lnü-rnants a side,torsi ofa purring zikrE). (repetition cat was ofa happy the Narnes cat. Purring of God) was according a kind ortoagenciesandputs them.on evaluatedit. the Evaluationsthat agencies produce in terms that nightthem. ofhave their thereforeSounds produced acoustical are be them.symbols based properties, on of the the but soundsthings in relation thatthemselves, give to risethe I should have realised inure clearly that sounds arc not perceived andAfghanistan.expressingIt this was was "(can" a clearclearly.'Elie andunderstandingbaa because ofas the Aruonu,tone sheep of man the of (Item the thevirtuesput naturalvalue 10) of wasof the soun(Is, water evaluatedagent, in that notan veryarid ofjust running regionpositively,the sound. likewater was adjudged good. it "human life depends on water," dogs.mostBadinfòrntants sounds casesMany thishouses described statement in Herat theSome was (including barking justified sounds of my ainwere dog own)terms (Itemconsistently kept of a 5)a well- watchdog, as a badfoundeddescribed sound, often fear aslarge and ofbad in sounds to hear. All thesheepsacrificialbeautifulThe poor.sheep, arc FromThesacrificed animal.was sheep described the At testall occupies the overI as learnedculmination a the very a Muslim special ofgood various of animal, world placethe beliefsannual andinquiet, Islam, the aboutpilgrimage peaceful, meat being sheep: distributed clean, the to that Meccaprime soft, the to ofapproachedand isits ferocious,kept. excrement, such and animals.and I I frequently was TheThe told howlingdog that observedis angelsregarded of a dog never the as(Item ancare visit unclean6) withwasa house regarded whichanimal where Heratis becauseas a even dog worse_ Four infòrm;usts yousacrificed.goodaresheep killed should Mu>iiuts is a :hey miraculous It run is will will goodyour always ride luck handanimal, to beto Heavenover meetreplaced, that its athere onhead sheep thelike is and back anona spring thenendlessthe of road oneover of supply,water. ofin your the After sheepmorning,face,however, Doomsday anthey action whenmany have orespeciallyexplained even killed. thatillness when or adeath. dog makes Then thethis dog sound will at be night put itoutside presages the misfortune, compound producinghandsimilar in to He actionthat dust made was of the labelledwhenSrrnewì,at tomb visiting as and dzcin similar then the dddan tombs over was ( "totheyour of givepositivesaints, face. the when callevaluation to you prayer rub of ") theyour by cockcrow. This sound - thatcasefrighten wasHeratis displeasing. away did not such have Informants miauwing anythingThe soundsmiau describedcats, against of of ora catscreaming throwthe how (Item animal, shoeschildren 7) and itwas at was ofthem. would also stage the evaluatedsound be laughter sent itself to aswere a bad evaluated sound. Inas thisbad OneThisallHeaventhe informants, infòr:nantsound five chillythereis heard said waking isrounds abythe cuckrcl the sound goodof earthly prayer. that itselfMuslims cockrels,gives Accordingwas theklaushdyandehearly who morning into then thethe callmorningmullahscall "bringing the to peopleprayer (Informants for happiness"the toin prayer.firstHeaven. E) of in sounds.beofmakessomeone aconsidered woman In when the being possessed casehe to is beaten,be of being a screaming bad by andkilled. sound;a jinn, in oneTheit ain wasspirit. many instance,mullahs suggested Asof their itsuggested as was the evaluationsthat involuntary last this this sound was was they itmadesomebody the could adopted sound by not hereasseasquite khmulem generallyit apart is t`u from insound identified the its sense itself role asof whichas Perhaps a"song." holbola call is evaluated, Thismost(to "nightingale prayer. sound positive for was ")thewas highly and nightingale, the its praised, responsesound was aand drabto labelled clearlyBirdsong tittle (Iten) 14). This bird inbird, 172Herati is / 1996of musicalno YEARBOOK interest aesthetics, apart FOR from TRADI7'IONAI. and its song.the sound Birdsong MUSiC of music has an plus important birdsong place is theirreligiousRAM' associations, singing andthe spheresmusic is of not activity the nature of which of theirthey soundsare a part, as religioussuch but SOUND l'l'.RCI'a'TiON iN FIELDWORK / 173 orevaluatedof asaccountedsingingbirdsong bonbon birdsongthe are the isNames common aacme term as of ofa of God verymusicalin high Herati (zikr good praise. enjoyment khdndan).musical sound, The explainedperformance. mullahs(Baily The second 1988:153). (Informants that example"Iò the address birdHuman ofE) is birdsongrecitingavvho imitations singer also songwhatorsoundobservance music oris of dons,music assinking riartan but as the ofwhy,oran onea musicisolated larger where hand, that system acousticaland entertainmenthas when meaningof beliefs thanphenomenon isto andon important.the the practices. native other.but as\1'clistener, partIt dois ofnot but the soperceivethe singing socialmuch pure thebdwith(Item tioninglyrad). seller the 15), first, ofwhich evaluated talismans, which was selectedwas as religious very judgedAny asgood, sound being topoetry abe thatpleasure less more and had florid, delicatereligious ato religious hear.was compared(nâzuk) This song. connotation covered Curiously,and unfavourably varied the was sermon, theradautomatically and unques- areReligion"music,"and quitecultura: it (Islam)inappropriate is notinstitutions perceived is so exclusive and withReligious as morehaving which a ordomain anythingsinging, itless completely that toespecially donormal with suspended. this modesQuranic profane of recitation,discourse activity. is simply not heard as is associated (after Baily 1981:389). thissoundinformants, as aof bad the sound beggarbecause and was they pronounced regarded could then that as give a the good alms,beggar sound but would the to mullahs hear have by his regarded some face 1. (,Dcp7 -his rni research was funded bynecrse the Social n Fellowship Kience Research S:heme, Council1975 -78. of An the early UK under version their of this paper ntalwas Seminarread in the of the Department of Social Anthropology, Queen's University of NOtES performersofblackened aesthetic at were criteriaDoomsday. identified, that 'I'hcwere as sounds was applied often of tomusic the the case, soundswere then generally themselves.the evaluation judged If good,wasthe but now on the basis 2. OtherTheTechniqulionBelfast 3rd 3eilpubli. I :erson of" person1 aui present grateful singular of khánrlanto formsI)ictcr is forChristensen mikhán,, verbs commonly or forniikhune, encouraging used both intransformations merelation to re -writeto the ofmikhánad. activitiesthe paper ation4 March in this 1980. issue under of I'IÀI. the title "Classification of Sntn(ls: A Problem in Research CONCLUSIONShereinbased question. meaning more Theon "sinful" the sounds individual's of music general were described attitude asto badthe singerby the mullahs,or musician had 3. incstablisheOnekadaiexamined the can no'.!on°t. only hereI practice of speculateare: orchestration, goftan of using why pure this and soundis at so, its ifinmost it the extrenwcomposition in mueàque of European concrete art music, and many embodied kinds make" or "do -, to speak ". mige;niikone, keshidaa dadan "to stretch""to give" or mide,"putt", zadanmiknshe "to or Itit mikeshe; is indeed the case. It might relate to the lung - niizarur. toconceptualisetool within for discovering it. Comparing their sonic howA theworld; testthe Afghan membersof howsound conceptthey perception of labela particular of it "rnusigi" andlike what thatsociety described withthey perceive theattach English above value and is a powerful research Baily, John radios,ofelectrot.ic tape music.recorders, It may etc. also result from more làmiliarity with sound inertia: phonograms, REFERENCES CITED on(a)concept instruments."The term "music" musigi Theshows is conceptualassociated the following: withdistance "instrumental between musicmusic," and or song"music in playedHerati 19811976 "MuskResourcesShcleur:y." Recen' and eChanges andd.,Religion The lèchnologies. Garland inin theHerat;' Library Dutâr New BM ofof York:1981. Readings Herat." Garland.In Report in Asian Ethnomusicology. 1990, of A the -finir pp. 7irielft 223-258. 8(1):29 Volume /i Congress -64. Fi. Masical Reprinted Berkeley Processes, 1977.in K. scale,differentPersian melody, is entities, much and greaterthough optionally, thanthey mayinmetre. English. share the The same two underlying are perceived principles as very of 19138 UnivcrsayMusicpp.Daniel 387 o' 389. Afghanistan- Press With I'm_fessional accompanying Musicians audio incassette. the City of lierai. Cambridge: Cambridge: feanz and Bonnie Wade (eds.). American Musicological Sscicty. Wireureiter. obsolete.used(b) The to termbe found musiqi in can English also be ( applied"playing to onmusical musiq" instruments. - OED) but This is usage now Merriam.1976Harwood, Ala Dare :: 20:521"Universals -_.34. in P. Music: A Perspective from Cognitive Psychology;' Lthnomasirn/og (d)torelated(c) the The sounds termtermterns rnuzik musigineusigi they make.refers is does not tonormallynot the apply brass used to band, a groupfor the"pleasant ofpeople musicians. sound." who play However, Expressions in it, and the 1982Nelson,1964 Kristi..a E_lhnom;.,imlogy"Recite:The Ant-.ropoloi; and Listener: 26:41 of Music-47. Sine FactorsEvanston: Shaping Northwestern the Mujawwad University Style Press. of Qur'anic Reciting.' like "music to my ears" Theare notresults used also in showHerati that Persian. very often a sound is not perceived in isolation Sakata,1976 Hirom. Lorraine UniversityThean iraa' ds Illof MUSIC \\'ashingtun. and mie sicianin three /inian- speakis arras ofA / {l+ánisfein_ l'h.D. I)i SM. rIaIi in, waydobeing,but thenot the that old generallyandlistener Europeansconundrum determines supplies perceive may about how a soundscontextdo.3 musicit This aswhich and abstractfinding Quranic explains entities,in turnrecitation. how suggests as the pure soundWhat sounds, an distinguishescarneanswer in into the to is evaluated. My suspicion is that Afghans Lenip,19781983 Hugo .huait"Universty ',\react ira Classification Press. of Musical 'lÿpcs and Instruments ". Ethnomusicology 22:37 -68. the Mind The Concepts of A -Iivir and Musician in Afghanistan. Kent: Kent Slate