Caught Between Spaces: Socio-Environmental Vulnerability in Formal and Informal Peri-Urban Bogotá and Soacha, Colombia

Caught Between Spaces: Socio-Environmental Vulnerability in Formal and Informal Peri-Urban Bogotá and Soacha, Colombia Sandra C. Valencia DOCTORAL DISSERTATION by due permission of the Faculty of Social Science, Lund University, Sweden. To be defended in room Ostrom, Josephson, Biskopsgatan 5, Lund June 1 2016 at 13:15 Faculty opponent Professor David Simon Mistra Urban Futures, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden 1 Organization: Document name: LUND UNIVERSITY Doctoral dissertation Date of issue: May 2016 Author: Sandra C. Valencia Sponsoring organization: Lund University Title and subtitle: Caught Between Spaces: Socio-Environmental Vulnerability in Formal and Informal Peri-Urban Bogotá and Soacha, Colombia Abstract The world is rapidly urbanizing. To contribute to the understanding of the socio-environmental changes brought about by urban sprawl and densification, this thesis examines wellbeing and vulnerability in low-income peri-urban areas in and around Bogotá, Colombia. For that purpose, I develop a typology of peri-urban settlements that includes four main settlement classifications: agriculture-based, informal, formalized, and state-subsidized housing. Inhabitants of agriculture-based settlements, which includes a community of Muisca indigenous people, have become legally and physically marginalized and are the most negatively impacted by peri-urbanization, as their key resources, land and water, are increasingly degraded. Inhabitants of informal settlements are often exposed to a variety of social and environmental stressors and face significant difficulties in accessing basic services, such as water and sanitation, while, at the same time, have grasped the opportunity to build new homes in the peri-urban landscape. Both in the development of these settlements, and as a method to pressure the state, I show how collective action has been a central strategy for claiming access to basic services and formalization programs. In response, the state has increasingly recognized the rights of informal dwellers. This recognition has been realized through formalization policies, improved access to basic social and physical services, and the introduction of subsidized housing to counteract informality and housing deficits. However, some projects have been developed in areas exposed to environmental hazards, and are characterized by their deficient and low quality physical and social services. Further, I show that the speed and quality of formalization is contingent on institutional capacity, geography and social mobilization, yet another indication that peri-urban areas are complex areas full of contradictions and challenges, but also opportunities. Key words: peri-urban area; urban-rural interface; peri-urbanization; vulnerability; wellbeing; socio-environmental change; informality; formalization; political ecology; Bogotá; Soacha; Colombia Classification system and/or index terms (if any) Supplementary bibliographical information Language: English ISSN and key title: -- ISBN: 978-91-982201-0-0 Recipient’s notes Number of pages 31 Price Security classification I, the undersigned, being the copyright owner of the abstract of the above-mentioned dissertation, hereby grant to all reference sources permission to publish and disseminate the abstract of the above-mentioned dissertation. Signature Date: April 28, 2016 2 Caught Between Spaces: Socio-Environmental Vulnerability in Formal and Informal Peri-Urban Bogotá and Soacha, Colombia Sandra C. Valencia 3 © Sandra C. Valencia Front cover artwork: Mario Valencia Cuesta Faculty of Social Science, Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies (LUCSUS) ISBN 978-91-982201-0-0 Printed in Sweden by Media-Tryck, Lund University Lund 2016 4 To my parents, Mario and Claudia 5 Contents Abstract 1 Abstract in Spanish (Resumen)2 Acknowledgements 3 List of Abbreviations and Words in Spanish 6 Abbreviations 6 Words in Spanish 7 1 Introduction 9 Aim and Scope of Research 9 Thesis Structure 10 2 Unpacking Peri-Urban Areas 13 An Urban World 13 Peri-Urbanization 14 Relevance and Research Gaps 15 Understanding Peri-Urban Areas 15 Temporal and Spatial Considerations 19 Consistency ‘Disclaimer’ 19 Peri-Urban Areas as Socio-Environmental Transition Zones 20 3 Theory 23 Political Ecology 25 From Urban Political Ecology to Peri-Urban Political Ecology 27 Urban Metabolism 27 Scale, Agency and Structure 28 Vulnerability 29 The Vulnerability ‘Hype’ 30 Key Concepts 32 Different Conceptualizations of Vulnerability: Biophysical vs. Social 34 Wellbeing 38 Livelihoods Frameworks 41 How Vulnerability, Wellbeing and Livelihoods Come Together 44 6 Justice 46 Environmental Justice 48 Accumulation by Dispossession 50 4 Research Design 53 Philosophy of Science/ Research Approach 53 Methods 55 Study Areas 56 Community Level as Unit of Analysis 59 Colombia 61 Bosa, Bogotá 62 Soacha 63 Data Collection and Analysis 64 Data Collection 64 Data Analysis 72 Reflections on Research Process 74 5 Development of Peri-Urban Areas: Peri-Urbanization in the Study Area 77 Pre-colonial and Colonial History 78 Geology and Landscape Modification 80 Dispossession of Indigenous Territory 83 Dismantling of Indigenous Reservations 84 Constitutional Recognition of Indigeneity 85 Ethnogenesis of the Muisca Community 86 Muiscas of Bosa Today 88 The Cabildo as a Sociopolitical Organization 90 Urbanization in Contemporary Colombia and Bogotá 90 Drivers of Urbanization 91 Concluding Remarks 100 6 Farmers and Indigenous Populations in Peri-Urban Areas 101 Setting the Scene of the Agriculture-based Study Areas 102 San José II, Bosa From Vereda to Urban Informality 103 San Bernardino, Bosa From Vereda to a Mosaic of Neighborhoods 106 Bosatama, Soacha A Shrinking Vereda 108 Wellbeing in Agriculture-based Study Areas 108 Material Wellbeing 110 Land: A Key Asset Gradually Becoming Unavailable 110 Water as a Friend and a Foe 121 Accessing Basic Utilities 124 Human Wellbeing 127 7 Education 127 Health 128 Labor 128 Social Wellbeing 129 Collective Action 129 Impacts of Urbanization on Security 130 Representation and Recognition 130 Cultural Identity 131 Vulnerability of Farmers and Indigenous Populations 133 Loss of Agricultural Livelihood 134 Risk of Eviction or Displacement 136 Flooding 139 Limited Access to Education and High School Dropout 144 Health Stressors 146 Concluding Remarks 148 7 Wellbeing and Vulnerability of Informal Dwellers in Peri-Urban Areas 149 Conceptualizing Informality 149 The Production of Informal Spaces 151 Bosa: From Town to Borough Via Informality 152 The Informal Hills of Soacha 153 Material Wellbeing 156 Regulation of Spaces: Land Titling and Housing 157 Production of Alternative Spaces: Water, Sanitation and Stormwater Drainage 159 Electricity, Trash Collection, Phone, Gas 170 Marginal Environments: Water and Air Issues 172 Human Wellbeing 177 Education 177 Health 177 Labor 178 Social Wellbeing 180 Collective Action, Representation and Voice 180 Violence and Insecurity 183 Playtime in the Peri-Urban Landscape 186 Vulnerability of Informal Dwellers 187 Informality as a Stressor 187 Deficient Utilities 199 Concluding Remarks 202 8 Formal Dwellers in Peri-Urban Areas 203 8 Setting the Scene in the Study Areas 205 Formalized and Self-Constructed 206 Subsidized Housing Projects (VIS) 208 Material Wellbeing 210 Housing: Decent Housing Right Put into Question 212 Public Utilities 212 Waterbodies, Air Pollution, and Trash 216 Access and Mobility 221 Human Wellbeing 223 Education 223 Health 224 Labor 224 Social Wellbeing 225 Social Cohesion and Collective Action 225 Violence and Drugs 226 Representation, Segregation and Conflict 227 Formal Dwellers Vulnerability 230 Pollution 232 Deficient Utilities 233 Violence 235 Concluding Remarks 235 9 A New Peri-Urbanization Typology 239 From Settlements to Territorial Configurations 240 Understanding Peri-Urbanization through Temporal-Agency Phases 243 Early Peri-Urbanization 244 Dweller-Dominated Peri-Urbanization 248 State-Dominated Peri-Urbanization 250 Reflections on Analytical Choices 252 10 Concluding Discussion: A Bird’s Eye View 255 Peri-Urbanization through Multi-level Land Accumulation Dynamics 257 Struggles over Land Cascading from the National to the Peri-Urban 258 Informality, Governance, Water Resource Management and Urban Metabolism Entangled 262 Water Metabolisms 262 Calling for the Consideration of the Full Cycle of Water 264 Physical, Political and Environmental Marginality 267 Time of Change or Same Old, Same Old? 268 Environmental Concerns on the Rise 268 9 Socio-Spatial Segregation outside and within Peri-Urban Areas 269 Final Remarks 270 References 273 10 Figures and Tables Figures Figure 1. Theoretical Framework 25 Figure 2. Maps of Colombia, Bogotá and Soacha 57 Figure 3. Satellite image of borough of Bosa and Municipality of Soacha 58 Figure 4. Settlement types and selected field sites 69 Figure 5. Sabana de Bogotá in Eastern Cordillera, Colombia 79 Figure 6. Geological map of study area 81 Figure 7. Members of the Cabildo Muisca of Bosa 89 Figure 8. Map of San José II in Bosa 105 Figure 9. Agricultural San José II, Bosa 106 Figure 10. Agricultural practices in Bosa 107 Figure 11. Map of vereda Bosatama, Soacha 109 Figure 12. Land use changes around Bosatama, Soacha (2006-2015) 112 Figure 13. Water quality of Bogotá and Tunjuelito Rivers 123 Figure 14. Buildings versus cows (Soacha) 135 Figure 15. Flood hazard of San José II and San Bernardino, Bosa 140 Figure 16. Flood hazard of Bosatama, Soacha 142 Figure 17. Villa Celina, Bosa 154 Figure 18. Altos de

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