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And Type the TITLE of YOUR WORK in All Caps TONGUES AFLAME AND SWORDS OF FIRE: THE FOUNDING OF THE JESUIT REDUCTIONS IN THE RIVER PLATE BASIN AND THE SECURITY OF THE MISSION FRONTIER UNDER SPANISH HEGEMONIC DECLINE (1607-1639) by JUSTIN MICHAEL HEATH (Under the Direction of BENJAMIN EHLERS) ABSTRACT The Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay have long been portrayed as remote intentional communities directed under the exclusive pastoral guidance of the Jesuit missionaries. The early accounts of these missions, however, show that this alleged segregation between these indigenous communities and the surrounding colonial environment belies the actual degree of cooperation between the missionaries and colonial authorities on either side of the Atlantic. Such distinctions – often embellished decades after the fact - reflect a shift in prevailing attitudes during the founding years of the Jesuit Reductions. This paper examines the dynamics of interdependency and opposition between the Society of Jesus and the nearby Spanish garrison towns, which carried out the joint pacification of the borderlands. The author argues that the armed use of force as a privilege reserved for the King’s faithful vassals - that transcended racial categories in this instance - proved indispensable to the viability of the Jesuit enterprise when local prospects deteriorated precipitously along the borderlands of Brazil and Spanish America. INDEX WORDS: Jesuits, Society of Jesus, Jesuit Reductions, Guarani, Paraguay, Río de la Plata, Spanish Imperialism, Empire, Encomienda, Laws of the Indies, Evangelization, Spanish Missions, Frontier, Borderlands, Spanish Colonialism, Spanish Habsburgs, Antonio Ruiz de Montoya, Spiritual Conquest, Roque Gonzalez de Santa Cruz, Spiritual Conquest, Religious Conversion, Christianization, Church and State, Bandeirantes, Indigenous Armament. TONGUES AFLAME AND SWORDS OF FIRE: THE FOUNDING OF THE JESUIT REDUCTIONS IN THE RIVER PLATE BASIN AND THE SECURITY OF THE MISSION FRONTIER UNDER SPANISH HEGEMONIC DECLINE (1607-1639) by JUSTIN MICHAEL HEATH B.A., University of Georgia, 2008 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS ATHENS, GEORGIA 2013 © 2013 Justin Michael Heath All Rights Reserved TONGUES AFLAME AND SWORDS OF FIRE: THE FOUNDING OF THE JESUIT REDUCTIONS IN THE RIVER PLATE BASIN AND THE SECURITY OF THE MISSION FRONTIER DURING SPANISH HEGEMONIC DECLINE (1607-1639) by JUSTIN MICHAEL HEATH Major Professor: Benjamin Ehlers Committee: Jennifer L. Palmer Thomas L. Whigham Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia May 2013 DEDICATION This is dedicated to my family. Without the love and support of my parents, Lin and Patricia, and that of my siblings, Sarah and John, I would truly be lost. Thank you for being there for me when I needed you most. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Dr. Ehlers, Dr. Palmer, and Dr. Whigham for their feedback and assistance during this project. I hope that someday I will be able to build upon my work and to learn from these first steps as a scholar. To each of them, I am indebted. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................v CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND ...........................................................................................................1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 Literature Review...................................................................................................15 2 THE POSTURES OF EMPIRE ...................................................................................30 Spain’s Apostolic Commission and the Problem of Administration .....................30 The King and His Council .....................................................................................32 The Presence of an Absent Ruler: The Presentation of Justice and Authority in Spanish America ....................................................................................................40 A Watershed Moment: The New Laws (1542) and the Limited Reach of Royal Authority ................................................................................................................50 Counterpoint in the Colonies: An Administrator’s Apologia ................................54 Interests in Equilibrium: The Modus Operandi of the Mission Borderlands ........63 3 THE POLITICS OF RELIGIOUS CONVERSION IN THE PLATE BORDERLANDS ........................................................................................................76 Creative (Dis)agreement in the Plate Frontier .......................................................76 Only God Can Make Something from Nothing: Colonial Interdependencies and Limitations for Success in the Mission Frontier ....................................................83 vi Sheepfolds of a “Lost Arcadia”: the Construction of the Reductions in Colonial Paraguay .................................................................................................................91 The Sanctioned Use of Force in the Borderlands ..................................................97 A Conquest without Arms? ..................................................................................104 4 WAGING THE SPIRITUAL CONQUEST ..............................................................111 A Supplicant’s Tale..............................................................................................111 A Worldly Yet Blessed Endeavor ........................................................................115 The Question of Labor and Tribute Extraction in Spanish Colonial Society ......127 Sanctification and Sacred Space in the Jesuit Reductions of Paraguay ...............140 Narratives of Antipathy and Confrontation .........................................................148 5 CONCLUSION ..........................................................................................................155 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................164 vii CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND Introduction The power struggles that left the New World in disarray for the greater part of the sixteenth century motivated Philip II (r. 1556-1598) to secure his royal patrimony and consolidate his authority over Spain’s possessions in the Western Hemisphere. As heirs to the largest dominion that Latin Christendom had ever witnessed up to its final days, Philip and his Habsburg descendants sought to redeem the existing imperial order in the wake of the Catholic World’s renewed sense of spiritual purpose and authority that gradually coalesced toward the final session of the Council of Trent (1545-1563). The Spanish Habsburgs shared the Tridentine Church's vision of world redemption, and the spiritual charge that they inherited from the Catholic Kings became central to legitimizing their claims in the New World at a moment when the Iberian title to the Americas was being contested by the Protestant North. At the limits of the Spanish Empire, where the royal authority of the Habsburgs was nominally recognized but routinely ignored, Philip sought to legitimize his power and curtail the rampant abuses and perceived unruliness of his colonial subjects. Mindful of the problems that plagued colonial society during his father's reign, Philip sought to instill discipline in his vassals by installing greater measures of accountability and transparency in an effort to better organize imperial administration, indigenous pacification, and Christianization along the borderlands of 1 his empire.1 Unsurprisingly, Philip relied upon the resourcefulness of an invigorated Post- Tridentine Catholic Church and its attendant religious orders to accomplish these ends. By the same token, the missionaries who ventured the frontier of the Spanish Empire relied upon the continued support of the Habsburg Monarchs who served as the patrons of the “Spiritual Conquest” in the Americas. At the same time, the conquistador, the encomendero, or the poblero as he was variously called in the borderlands, was to guarantee the safety of these missionaries and defend the territorial integrity of the Sovereign’s domains. As the temporal counterpart of the “Spirit of the Catholic Reformation”, the Spanish Crown sought to fulfill the providential mission imparted to the Catholic Kings by the Papacy that legitimized the Spanish presence in the New World.2 At a time when Spain’s claim to the Americas was contested by the ascendant Protestant powers of the Atlantic, the projection of this prevailing image of a divinely-appointed apostolic undertaking that would bring light to the benighted reaches of the Empire became a dominant feature in the performance of “just rule” that underlay monarchical power.3 The introduction of the Society of Jesus into the New World during the first decade of Philip II's reign was part and parcel to the King’s drive to reorganize his patrimony and to sanctify his reach across the Atlantic World. The formation of the reductions, the most famous of which abutted the winding rivers of the Río de la Plata basin, sought to incorporate the semi- 1 Lyman, Tyler S., editor. Spanish Laws Concerning Discoveries, Pacifications, and Settlements among the Indians: with an Introduction and the First English translation of the New Ordinances
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